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A\^ADY F AS iViL. 
POSSIBLY THE BROOK ri^l^RlTH^ 



THE 



TREASURY OF BIBLE KNOWLEDGE 

BEING 
OF 

THE BOOKS, PERSONS, PLACES, EVENTS, AND 
OTHER MATTERS OF WHICH MENTION 
IS MADE IN HOLY SCRIPTURE 

TO ESTABLISH ITS AUTHORITY AXD ILLUSTRATE ITS CONTENTS 
BY 

THE REV. JOHN AYRE, M.A. 

W 

Of Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge 

WITH ENaBAVINGS AND MAES 
NEW EDITION. ' ' ' 



LONDON : 

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
1872. 



April :.^^€v: 



PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMFAKY 
EDINBURGH AND LONDON 



PKEPACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



I AVAIL MYSELF of the Opportunity of making a few corrections in this volume. 
They are not, indeed, of much importance. Some mistakes in the references 
have been detected, and these have been rectified. Five or six names which 
were inadvertently omitted have been supplied in their respective places ; and 
the additions which appeared before in" a page of Corrigenda are now trans- 
ferred to the articles to which they properly belong. 

The Plan of Jerusalem also has been corrected according to the late Ordnance 
Survey. 

During the progress of the work I endeavoured to gather information from 
every available source. Books treating on Scripture history, criticism, and 
doctrine; books, too, illustrating the geography and antiquities of Scripture 
lands, are continually issuing from the press. Several of these add materially to 
our stores of knowledge ; others have but little value. Of all the fresh matter 
serviceable for my purpose which appeared while the printing of my book went 
j on I was anxious to make use ; and but little was published which I did not 
t more or less minutely examine. Doubtless some works escaped my notice ; and 
i some were not before the world till all I had to say on the topics they treated 
of was actually printed. 

1 It is but a short time since this book first came out, yet in the interval 
advance has been made in investigating the geography and archgeology of 
Palestine. An association has been formed, called ' The Palestine Exploration 
Fund ; ' and the results already obtained are of most hopeful augury for the 
future. Present discoveries, it is true, even had I previously known them, would 
have scarce at all modified any of the articles in this volume. But readers will 
feel it an advantage to receive now a succinct account of the expeditions which 
have been undertaken, and of the grounds on which much is expected from the 
^continuance of these. And here I must again, as in my for'lner preface, acknow- 
' ledge my great obligations to Mr. George Grove, of Sydenham, the honorary 
secretary of the Fimd, who has kindly supplied me with all the information I 
could desire. 



The plan .vas alto-etlier in embiyo ^hen this Tolnme ^vas originally published, 
so that it wonld h;ve been nseless-ridic-alous indeed-to ma3.e tl^- a.y re- 
ference to it. The fii'st expedition, nnder Captain 0. TVilson, E. E., left England 
early in Xovember 1S65, and reached Beyi'ont on the 23rd of that month. Some 
time wa. nece^sarilr spent in immediate preparation before the actnal vror^ of 
exploring cotild be^ entered on. This was commenced at Damascus; andtnen 
the partT traTclled southwards, examining eyeiT point of interest so far as was . 
practicable in their way down to Jerusalem. The approach of f P^^^ a 
s^p to their- proceecdngs ; they, therefore, left Jaffa, ^ay 14, 1866, and arxiTed 
in England, Jime 9. 

Much had been done in this time. Xot fewer than f orty-nine sepai'ate points 
between Bevi'out and Hebron were examined, and theii- positions carefully 
settled fm-nishing valuable data for con'ecting the maps of the countiw. 
Alaterials also were collected for constructing plans of Tarious cities ; drawmgs 
were made of the ruins of chm'ches, tombs, and as many as seven Jewish syna- 
o-o-ue. -Manv inscriptions, moreover-two of them in the Hebrew charaoter- 
we^-e co-,--ed ''The most interesting remains,' says Captain Wilsons Beport, 
'aie those of the synagogues at Tel Hum, Irbid, Eefr Bii'im, &c., which are 
=omewhat similar' to each other in arrangement and constr-uction ; tl^ey a^^e 
north and south, have thi'ee gateways in the southern end, the interior diviaed 
into five aisles bv four rows of columns, and the two northern corners formed by 
double enga^ed'columns. The style of decoration does not always appear to 
have been the same : £.t Tel Hum and Kerazeh, Corintman capitals were fomid; 
elsewhere, some of mixed styles. . . . ' Tne faces of the lintels oyer the gate- 
wavs are u^uallv ornamented with some device. On one at Xebartem there is an 
insiription and representation of the seven-branched candlestick : at ^^efr 
the ornament has been purposely defaced, but appears to have been intended for 
the Pa-=chal Lamb ; and at Tel Hum there are the Pot of Manna and Lamb. A 
scroll of vine-leaves with btmches of grapes is one of the most fi-equent oma- 
mente. Althouo-h no inscriptions were f oimd, the presence of extensive remains, 
including those ^f a synagogue, at a place beai'ingthe name of Kerazeh, seems to 
fix the position of the ancient Chorazin with some certamt^-.' 

It i- -i-atiivin- to find that the opinions I was led to adopt, after weighing 
differ^ii^ authorities in regai'd to certain disputed locahties, are in more than 
onein^tanceconfii-medbyCaptainAVilson-sresearches.Thusthesiteof Capernaum 

has been doubtful. Bobinson beheves it to be at Khan Mlnyeh, mainly because 
there is a fotmtain there, 'Ain et-Tin, which he imagmes identical with the 
fountain at Capernaum of which Josephus speaks. I ventured o foUow Di 
Thom^on and others, who are convinced that the formtam near Tel Hum, caded 
now 'Ain Tabighah, is the one in duestion (see p. 139). Captain Wilson speaks 
verv decidedlv, ' Neither -Ain et-Tin or the Bound Foimtain answer to the account 
giv;n bv Josephus of the fotmtain of Cepharnome : they are too small, and hardly 
come ii^o the scheme of ii-rigation, the former not at ah ; but, supposing it to be 
'Ain Tabi-hah, his allusion is at once explained by the copiousness of the supply , 
and the remarkable piece of engineermg by which the water was earned mto the 
pHin • the fertilizing powers of the lorntain are still attested by the rank vegeta 



IBxttKtt to l^t ^tmxts .etsitimu vii 

tion around the mffls, more noticeable here than at any other point on the lake.' 
Confirmation, moreover, is given to the view (see p. 309) that by Kerza was the 
spot where the herd of swine plunged into the lake of Gennesaret. 

Another expedition has been despatched to Palestine, under the conduct of 
Lieut Warren, K.E. ; and several reports of the operations during 1867 have 
been received. Besides a survey of the plain of Philistia and the vaHey of the 
Jordan, researches have been prosecuted to the east of that river. _ A few sen- 
tences shaU be quoted in regard to certain places and points which Lieut. Warren 
beheves he has identified. It must be premised that an area of about 400 square 
miles in the district beyond the Jordan has been examined. ' We left Jerusalem 
the 17th ult (July) . . . and, crossing the Jordan opposite Nimrin, came up to 
Nebbeh by Heshbon. I think there is little doubt about Nebbeh being the 
height of Nebo, as I came upon the ruins of an extensive fort and town about a 
mile west of Nebbeh, of the same name ; and north of both, running west, is a 
deep wady with a spring named 'Ain Musa (spring of Moses). ... I have also 
fixed the position of Mam, which is generally described as being near Heshbon. 
X found it about ten miles to the south on Wady Zerka.' Again : ' On leaving 

Jerashwe went westwards towards Eeimun Passing Mount Haggart (?) I 

climbed up to the top Moimt Haggart is 5000 feet above the level of the 

Dead Sea • it is a few feet higher than Jebel Osha, and 1000 feet higher than 
N'^'bbeh (Nebo) : I believe it to be Mount Gilead ; and there are two villages 
dose together in a gully to the north-ReimHn, on the top of a precipice, which 
I take to be Eamoth-gilead, and Sarchab, which is probably Mizpeh. Their 

close proximity may account for the name Eamoth-mizpeh I think Aram 

is without doubt, Haram or Beth-Haran (or Libias). Nimrah (Nimrin) is four 
and a half miles to the north ; and Suwaimeh (Beth-Jesimoth?) is four miles 
S.S.E., immediately under Nebbeh. Keferein may be Abel Shittim.' 

These details are full of interest, as showing the actual work of the expedition 
on the east of the Jordan. Some places, it will be seen, are identified; and 
reasonable ground is furnished for believing that future researches wiU lay open 
yet more important facts connected with this district. 

But it is to Jerusalem that the attention of the Christian and the antiquary is 
naturally most directed. Problems of the highest interest lie yet unsolved in 
Jerusalem and its vicinity. TraveUers and biblical scholars cannot as yet agTee 
upon the site of Calvary, and the exact location of the Temple. Various theories 
have been propounded; and yet all that can be said is, that this or that has 
great probability in its favour. The investigations now going on may settle for 
ever these and a multitude of other similar questions. The tomb of David and 
the kings of Judah, also the pool of Bethesda, the walls of the city, the towers 
of Hippicus, Mariamne, and Psephinus, the limits of Ophel and Bezetha, may aU 
be discovered and identified, if sought for. 

Many important results have been obtained within the last few months. 
Thus the courses of the three ancient city walls described by Josephus are being 
gradually traced. The foundations of the Temple, constructed of stones of 



viii 



Preface tQ tf^t ^ttmiis eWimx* 



enormous size, are being laid bare to the depth of 90 feet below the modern 
Burface of the ground. The original form of the Tyropoeon Yalley, which 
separated the Temple from Mount Zion, is found to be entirely unlike the present 
surface, being for the greater part of its width flat and level, but descending 
immediately beneath the Temple wall into a narrow gully of great depth, crossed 
at a height of more than 100 feet by the bridge, of which some remains are still 
visible. The south-east corner of the Temple wall, possibly the base of one of ' 
its pinnacles, has still an elevation of 133 feet ; so that the assertion of J osephus 
that the head grew dizzy in looking down from the vast height is no exaggeration. 
Sections of the ancient wall of Ophel have been exhumed, showing how it was 
joined to the south-east angle of the Temple. Aqueducts, moreover, cisterns, 
tanks, channels, and passages hewn in the rock, have been discovered within 
and round about the Haram, the thorough exploring of which mil assuredly 
throw fresh light on the arrangements of the Holy House. 

Such is, in brief, the work which has already been accomplished. Some short 
extracts from the detailed reports of Lieut. "Warren will Hlustrate the account 
just given :— ' I have made what I consider to be a very important discovery, viz. 
an ancient aqueduct, south-east of the south-east corner of the Coenaculum, and 
about 50 feet above the present aqueduct— I have no doubt the original aqueduct 
from Solomon's Pools to the Haram area. . . . This channel cannot be so 
late as the Eomans : it is evidently of most ancient construction. It is built in 
little spaces, as if the work had been commenced at two or three points, and had 
not been directed properly. ... I presume it goes into the Haram, at a 
slightly higher level than the present aqueduct ; if so, by f ollo%ving it we may 
arrive at some very interesting conclusions as to the original method of supplying 
the Temple with water. This channel must have been of great consequence in 
olden times, both from the distance it is driven underground, and from the well- 
cut shafts which lead to it. I think the question is to be hazarded whether the 
supply of Jerusalem was not obtained by this aqueduct, which is quite concealed 
from an enemy.' Again : ' The wall of Ophel at the top projects 1 ft. 6 in. beyond 
the visible east Haram wall ; and it will be interesting to know how the junction 
Is effected. This Ophel wah is now foand to be at top 13 ft. thick, and at least 
15 ft. thick at a depth of 60 feet.' Again : ' End of wall of Ophel about 5 ft. 
from [south-east] angle ; shaft sunk 40 ft. without finding any signs of gateway 
in Ophel wall. At 28 ft. from surface a gallery was driven to angle ; and it was 
found that the Ophel wall simply abutted on the south wall of Haram area ; 
the H&ram wall projecting 6 in. each course on the eastern face.' Again : ' We 
found ourselves in a passage running south from the Haram area. ... It 
seems to start suddenly ; and I can only suppose it to have been the examining- 
passage over an aqueduct coming from the temple. . . . This passage is on 
a level with the foundations of the Haram waU, which are rough hewn stones— 
perhaps rock— I cannot tell yet. The bottom is the enormous distance of 85 ft. 
below the surface of the ground ; and, as far as I can see as yet, the wall at the 
south-west angle must be buried for 95 ft. underground ; so that it must have at 
one time risen to the height of 180 feet above the Tyropoeon guUy.' Once more, 
at a later date : ' With reference to the south wall of Haram area ... the 
south-west angle carries off the palm ^vith regard to height. I was much 



astonished at the result of our labour, not expecting to find the Tyropoeon gully 
more than 50 ft. deep, and it must be, I think, upwards of 100. The east 
side of this vaUey must break down in a very abrupt manner, if the lowest part 
is west of the Haram area. ... No wonder the poor Queen of Sheba's spirit 
failed her when she saw the stupendous ascent which must have led over the 
Tyropoeon gully.' 

These extracts are necessarily disjointed, because but fragments of the work 
proposed have been yet accomplished. And a considerable time must elapse 
before aU that is concealed beneath modern Jerusalem shall be uncovered. But 
fresh discoveries are being continuaUy made. Thus the despatch from Lieut. 
Warren, dated Nov. 12, 1867, tells of a valley hitherto unknown, because filled 
up to the surface, running west to east, somewhat north of the Dome of the 
Eock Possibly it may be what Josephus calls the Kidron ravine. And a later 
accoT^t (Nov. 22) describes the vast depth that must be reached before the actual 
bed of the brook Kidron can be discovered. From the last-received intelligence 
(published in ' The Times ' of March 2, 1868) we learn, farther, that the first pier 
of Robinson's arch (see Yiew, p. 48) has been discovered : it is 42 feet below the 
present surface of the ground, 45 feet 6 inches from the Temple wall. Between 
this wall and the pier is a pavement, on which lie the great stones of the arch as 
they fell, probably at the siege by Titus. Wilson's arch (see p. 460), standmg 
500 feet farther north than Eobinson's, springs also from the Temple waU, and 
is of nearly the same span. The remains of the viaduct are here very plentiful. 
The great arch is stiU perfect ; and four more have been discovered in prolonga- 
tion to the west, decreasing in height as they go westward, and terminatmg m 
an arched passage. 

The explorations akeady made testify to the massive grandeur of the ancient 
structmres of Jerusalem. And the future is full of promise. Besides the identi- 
fication of sacred spots, we may obtain a clearer knowledge of the arts, the arms 
the utensils, the domestic habits of ancient Israel. Botanical and geological 
information, too, will be sought. And, as Nineveh, long-buried and forgotten 
Nineveh, awoke so lately to give forth her voice, so may Palestine m like 
manner arise to add her audible testimony to the truth of the oraxjles of God. 

J. A. 

May 7, 1868. 



INTEODUCTION. 



The general object of this work is to promote the intelligent use of the 
sacred volume by furnishing a mass of information respecting Palestine, 
and the manners, customs, religion, literature, arts, and attainments of 
the inhabitants ; an account of the countries and races with which the 
HebrcAvs had relations more or less intunate ; together with some notice of 
all the persons and places mentioned in the Bible and the Apocrypha. 
The history and authority of the books themselves are discussed con- 
jointly and severally: the principles of biblical criticism are sketched, 
and the mode of sound biblical interpretation is indicated: the grounds 
also are exhibited on which Christianity is accepted as a religion coming 
from God. 

It is obvious that, if such a range of topics is to be comprised in a 
moderate volume, many of them must be handled with brevity. I have 
endeavoured so to compose the work that, w^hile persons and places of 
small importance are but just noted, matters of greater moment are treated 
mth some degree of fulness. But even with these I have had very fre- 
quently to remind the reader that far more might be said, and to direct 
him to other sources for larger information. I hope that, in trying to 
condense abundant materials into limited articles, I have not made them 
disjointed or obscure. 

The scholar who desires the complete discussion of a biblical subject must 
not be surprised to find much that he deems important passed over here. 
It has been necessary to state results without giving the process by which 
they were arrived at, to produce facts while little is said of the mode in 
which they were ascertained. The book is intended mainly for the 
general reader. But I have been anxious to study the best authorities for 
what is asserted, and to bring up the information to the most modern 
standard. I have not written hastily therefore, but have spent some years 
in the compilation of this volume. 

I am of course greatly indebted to many well-known books. Among 
these I may particularly specify Winer's Bihlisches Realwdrterhuch, and 
Smith's Diciionary of the Bible. These are sources to which every one 



Xll 



$utr0Xfuctt0iT* 



engaged in such an elucidation of scripture must necessarily refer. For 
the topography of the Holy Land, and the mode of life of its present 
inhabitants, I have made use of Robinson's Biblical Researches, 2nd edit., 
Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, 4th edit.. Porter's Handhook for Syria and 
Palestine, Thomson's The Land and the Book, edit. London, 1860, Wilton's 
The Negeh, and various other works: I have also obtained some infor- 
mation from personal friends who have visited the East. The reader will 
find that I have most frequently been indebted to Dr. Thomson. His 
volume appeared to me written in a style which specially adapted it for 
citation in a work like this ; and I have been assured, by persons very com- 
petent from actual investigation to judge, that it is thoroughly trustworthy. 
On critical and exegetical topics I have often referred to the Introductions 
{Einleitungen) of Havemick, Keil, Bleek, and others; to the able Com- 
mentary on Genesis by Dr. Kalisch; to Dr. Alford's New Testament; and 
to that of Dr. Wordsworth ; with a considerable number of other books, 
the names of which I have mentioned in the places where use has been 
made of them. When I have actually cited or followed closely the state- 
ments of a writer, I have, I believe, ahrays acknowledged my obligation. 
But, when I have merely been directed to sources of information which I 
have investigated for myself, I have not deemed it needful always to 
indicate the channel through which I obtained my materials. I have 
scarcely ever taken references on trust. I have examined them all ; a very 
few excepted, where the book or edition wanted has not been accessible. 
And I have not followed implicitly any one's opinion. I have been mainly 
solicitous to arrive at truth. I have therefore m all the articles weighed 
as carefiilly as I could the arguments, statements, and authorities ^vithin 
my reach, and have endeavoured to express an honest and independent 
jadgment. Still, I have not deemed it rigbt, when the opinions of the 
learned differed^ to give my o^m view exclusively. Thus, while I am 
disposed to accept the usually-received site of the Holy Sepulchre as the 
true one, I have placed before the reader, as fairly as I could (pp. 459, 
460), some other theories, supported certainly by plausible arguments. 
But, though I have consulted many books, there are others which I 
have been miable to use. Several important works have been published 
while these sheets were in the press. As a single instance, the article 
on Daniel was printed before Dr. Pusey's Lectures on Daniel the Prophet 
appeared. It will not, I trust, be unputed as a fault to me that I have 
repeatedly cited a work of my own, the last edition of Home's Litro- 
duction, vol. ii., since I had expressed in it my opinions on some topics 
more fully than I can do here. 

The arrangement of this volume is alphabetical. Every name, I believe, 
in the Bible and the Apocr}i)ha finds a place in it. But a distinction is 
made between inspired and uninspired books by printing names from the 
former in Roman, from the latter in Italic capitals. Scripture names, too, 
precede those from the Apocr>i)ha; and the t^vo are never combined m a 
single article. Names of persons precede identical names of places. And 



xiii 



all the persons and places of the same name (with the same meaning) are 
severally enumerated under one head, being ranged in the order of the 
j5cripture books in which each appears for the first time. 

The interpretation of proper names is generally given. It is true that 
critics are not agreed as to many of these words ; but the meanings of a 
large proportion of them are undoubted ; and, as the Hebrews usually gave 
or adopted names for a special reason, it appeared undesirable to suppress 
this kind of information in regard to the many because it was questionable 
in cases comparatively few. I have for the most part followed Gesenius, but 
have sometimes preferred the suggestions of other pliilologists, and where 
there was reasonable doubt 1 have expressed it. 

The proper names are accentuated. But here I have had a difficulty ; 
and I must confess that I am unable to discover on what principle the 
accentuation is made in some works of deservedly-high estimation. I trad 
the accent often placed on a syllable in English which is no syllable 
in Hebrew (the sheva being used there), and letters which belong to one 
syllable attached to another. To accentuate Zeb'ulun exhibits both these 
faults. I dare not hope that I have succeeded in always avoiding the 
errors into which I think others fall. Indeed in some instances it would 
seem pedantic strictly to follow the Hebrew model. The rule I have tried 
to observe is to accentuate according to what appears common usage in the 
more familiar and naturalized words, as Am'alek, Deb'orah ; in others to 
follow as well as I could Hebrew vocalization and Greek quantity. I 
wish also the reader to remember that the vowel on which the accent falls 
is not thereby necessarily long. 

I hope that the book as arranged by a single hand will be fomid con- 
sistent. Certainly in the course of compiling it, while endeavouring to 
impart knowledge, I have gained some ; and it may be that in a few cases, 
on doubtful pouits, where my opinion inclined one way in an earlier 
article, it has by further thought or from larger mformation afterwards 
inclined another. But, if examples of this kind be detected, they are, it 
may be said, on matters of minor importance — a date, or the identification 
of a place. On the great facts of the Bible, and the doctrines revealed 
therein, additional reading only strengthens my convictions. 

I have endeavoured, too, to preserve uniformity m the spelling of modern 
names of eastern places and countries. Unfortunately there is no recog- 
nized standard m this respect. Difierent writers spell at their pleasure; 
and I may, drawing from many sources, have unconsciously admitted 
variations. There is a similar perplexity in regard to natural history 
wherein diverse systems of nomenclature are m use. 

It may be well, for the convenience of the reader, to remark here, that 
the evidences of Christianity are compendiously presented under such 
headings as Christianity, Miracles, PRorHKCY, Revelation, &c., 



XIV 



iEittraauttt'ou. 



that accounts of both the stmcture and claims ''^y^^'^^'l^'^f^A^^t 
RiBiE Cason of Scripture, Isspieation, Scripture, &c., and that 
fhe ust mode of interi,reting it is discussed in 

t.' ^formation upon other theologicaUopics «-iIl be readdy found under 



from making this a eontr. 
vers af w»k. My views are entix-ely diverse from those commonly temied 
ad nalTstic hut'l hope I have mamtained ^em^th tamper, wrth no 
Ts-ish to inflict pain on those who conscientious y differ from me Indeed 
on many mferior points which divide the Christian world-such for ex- 
am^e Jsmodes of church government-I have desh-ed to state facts rather 
than to advocate opiuions. 

The alphabetical form of the book-into which it seemed^ on the whol^ 
best to throw it-has necessarily introduced some repetitions. I ha^e 
avoided aem wherever I could do so by references from one article to 
another. 

Maps ai-e added, and numerous illustrations introduced. Of the larger 
uSti'is a notice is given in subsequent pages, f ^J^^ 
choice of these I am deeply indebted to George Grove, Esq. of Sydenham 
My thanks are also due to the artists who have taken pams to make the 
representations effective. 

I have-only to add that, if my labom: shoiild be ^-^f ^^^^^^^ 
anv degTee to the fuller understandmg and appreciation of the sac ed 
volum:! T shaU be most grateful to God. The Vl^^^^o^-^^^^^^'^^, 
^h\nh T have endeavoured to convey may be acceptable to many general 
Teade" and pe^s tl^eological sLdents may find tl.is book serviceable 
as an introduction to more compreliensive works. 

J. ATRE. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



WABY FASAIL Frontispiece 

This Is a valley tlirough wliich runs a stream, 'Ain Fasail, falling from the 
mountains of Ephraira into the Ghor, south of Kurn Surtaheh, about fifteen 
miles north of Jericho. The spring is hidden under high cliffs, and over- 
shadowed by a dense jungle. Tradition somewhat favours the belief that this 
was the brooii Cherith ; and certain modern travellers are inclined to accept it. 
Others, however, prefer other localities : see Cherith, and any identification 
of Cherith is hitherto but conjectural. 

THE CEDARS OF LEBANON Page 144 

This is the ancient well-known grove on the western slope of the mountain ; 
repeatedly visited and described by travellers. Other clusters of these trees 
have recently been found on the same chain : see pp. 525, 526. 

DAMASCUS- FROM THE WEST ... . . = . . 194 

EGYPT : THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH ; FROM THE EAST .... 240 
The pyramids are among the most prominent of the wonders of Egypt, and are 
closely associated in every mind with the very idea of that remarkable land. In 
the fore-ground of the illustration is a stagnant sheet of water left by the receding 
Nile : this may be dried up by the summer's heat ; but the point from which the 
■view is taken can easily be identified by the traveller from the palm-grove 
visible. Rising out of the sand, in front of the left angle of the middle pyramid, 
is the Sphinx ; and, crowning the low hill on which they stand are, on the left, 
the pyramid of Mycerinus, 218 feet high, in the centre that of Chephrenes or 
Chepherin, 454 feet high, and on the right that of Cheops, 480 feet in height. 
The lengths of the bases of these pyramids are 354, 707, and 764 feet, and their 
areas 125,316 ; 499,849 ; and 543,696 square feet respectively. The area of the 
great pyramid (upwards of thirteen acres) is more than twice that of St. Peter's 
at Rome. Even the third and least covers more ground than any of our Gothic 
cathedrals— York minster being estimated at but 63,800— and the mass of materials 
it contains surpasses that of any building in Europe. 



GAZA ; FROM THE SOUTH-EAST ... 322 

The noted Philistine city. The alediterranean is seen in the distance. 

GIBEON AND NEBI SAMUEL ; FROM THE NORTH-WEST 332 

Gibeon, the modern el-Jtb, is conspicuous on its hill in front ; while at some 
distance to the right appear the ruins of Nebi Samuel or Neby SamwiL This 
place was very possibly the ancient Mizpeh of Benjamin, the city where Saul 
was elected king : see p. 601. Or it may have been Ramah, the birth-place and 
residence of Samuel : see Ramah 2, p. 761. 



XYl 



JERUS-\LEiI . . . . 4 

Tliis is a general view of the holy city from the north-east. In the f ore-gronnd 
on the left is the mount of Olives, and in the distance the hill-country of J udah : 
the peak risible heyond Olivet is the Frank mountain. Between Olivet and the 
city the valley of the Kidron descends. Within the walls, on the left, are the 
Mohammedan Mosques ; viz. the Kubbet-es-3akhrah, or Dome of the Rock, and 
el-Aksa, in the enclosure of the Harara, where anciently the Temple stood. The 
first-named is commonly termed the Mosque of Omar ; but that name more pro- 
perly belongs to a small Mosque, regarded as of peculiar sanctity, abutting on 
el-Aksa to the east. In the wall opposite the Dome of the Rock is the Golden 
Gate. The road from the north-east is seen to divide, running on the left to 
the gate of St. Stephen, on the right to the gate of Damascus ; nearly over which 
Is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 

JERUSALEM : THE MOSQUES IX THE HOLY PLACE (THE TEMPLE AREA) 
FROM THE NORTH- WEST 

The Dome of the Rock is the one which is most prominent : el-Aksa is that in 
the distance. 

JERUSALEM: OLD OLIYE TREES IN GETHSEMANE; FROM THE SOUTH- 
EAST .... 

The east brow of the hill to the north of the Temple rises in the back-ground ; 
and the north -cast corner of the present wall of the city is seen ahove it. 



JERUSALEM : EAST CORNER OP THE SOUTH WALL ; FROM THE SOUTH- 
WEST 

Olivet appears on the right, crowned by the Church of the Ascension. 

THE JORDAN ; ON THE ROAD FROM NABLUS OR NABLOUS TO ES-SALT 490 

This view of the river is at a point somewhat nearer to the Dead sea than to 
the lake of Gennesaret ; Nablous being the ancient Shechem, and es-Salt 
probably Ramoth-Gilead. 

NAZARETH ; FROM THE NORTH-NORTH-WEST 620 

The distant range of hills is to the south of the plain of Esdraelon. 

A^BRAHAM'S OAK IN THE PLAINS OF MAMRE ....... 640 

The tre« so called is described by Bonar ^Land of Promise, pp. 63, 84) as ' a 
magnificent Baimt or prickly oak, somewhat isolated, yet with other trees not 
far off. The protruding knots of root at its base looked almost like pieces of 
dark brown rock. The stem is enormous, and as rough and shapeless as can be 
fancied. The branches, spreading widely in several detachments, and with 
their extremities drooping to the sward, throw their shade over a vast circle. It 
stands near the foot of an easy rising ground, in as pleasant a valley as one could 
wish to see, with terraced hills close at hand, before and behind. ... As this is 

the month of February, and as the tree is in full leaf, we were satisfied that it 
was an evergreen. ... We should say that it was considerably within a mile of 

the town' (Hebron). Dr. Hooker is of opinion that tliis tree is a Qiurcu^ 
pscudo-ccccifera. 



THE POOLS OF SOLOMDN. AND THE HILL-COUNTRY OF JUDAH ; FROM THE 

SOUTH-WEST Fagea 

The lar^e stones in the near fore-ground, form the south-east angle of the most 
westerly pool. Nearly In the centre of the view is seen the middle pool empty, 
and showing on the left the shelving rocks which form the bottom of the upper 
part of that pool, and the smooth plastered or cemented embankment on the 
east. In the distance is the east pool. 

SAMARIA ; FROM THE SOUTH-EAST 

crown of pride,* the fruitful hill, now desolate, rises prominently in the 



The* 

centre of the view. On its s . ^ x 

which, on the right, is the beautiful ruined church of St. John. 



3 is the modern village Sebustieh ; adjacent to 



MAPS. 

THE LAND OF CANAAN, DIVIDED INTO TRIBES . ... 

JERUSALEM, AND THE IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD 

PALESTINE, IN OUR LORD'S TIME 

ASIA MINOR, AND ADJOINING COUNTRIES, to illustrate St. Paul's travels . 
SINAI, to illustrate the wanderings of the Israelites c 



132 
454 
651 



I 

j 




THE 



TEEASUEY OF BIBLE KNOWLEDGE. 



ABANA 



A'ALAB (1 Esdr, v. 36). , 
A'ARON (exalted, perhaps mountaineer). 
The son of Amram and Jochehed, of the 
tribe of Levi. He was the elder brother (hy 
three years) of Moses (Exod. vi. 20, vii. 7). 

Of his early life we know nothing ; but, 
when Moses was called out of Midian to 
require the deliverance of Israel from 
Pharaoh, Aaron was appointed his as- 
sistant and spokesman, as being naturally 
eloquent (iv. 14-16). Accordingly Aaron 
received a command from God to go 
into the wilderness to meet his brother 
(27) ; and after that time we find the two 
acting in conjunction ; Aaron in subordina- 
tion to but not entirely dependent upon 
Mo&es (Lev. x. 8; Numb. xii. 2). Thus it 
was by Aaron's hands that many of the 
miracles in Egypt were wrought (Exod. 
vii. 9, 10, 19, viii, 5, 6, 16, 17). After the 
passage of the Red sea we have several 
notices of Aaron while the people were on 
their way to Sinai (xvi. 6, 9, 10, 33, 34, xvii. 
10-12, xviii. 12, xxiv.). And then, when he 
R'as left in charge of Israel while Moses 
nras in the mount, he weakly and smtully 
yielded to the people's demand to have some 
image of a deity for them to worship. The 
image he made was a calf after the form 
of the Egyptian Apis or Mnevis (xxxn.; 
i Psal. cvi. 19, 20). It is remarkable that 
Aaron's own tribe either did not share this 
sin, or at least were the first to declare 
their abhorrence of it, and were used as the 
instruments of punishing the guilty (Exod. 
xxxii. 26-29). Moses prayed for Aaron 
(Deut. ix. 20) ; and, in spite of his transgres- 
sion, the previous determination was car- 
ried out of appointing him and his children 
to the priesthood (Exod. xxviii., xxix., xl. ; 
Lev. viii., ix.). An awful judgment was in- 
flicted on Aaron's two elder sons, Nadab and 
Abihu, at the time of consecration : they 
offered strange fire before the Lord and 
were consumed ; and the agonized fathers 
meek submission has always been justly 
:aken to mark peculiarly the power of 
divine grace in his heart (x.). 

Aaron's history thenceforward is almost 
•xclusively that of the priesthood. It was 
ecause this was restricted to his family that 
. lorah rebelled ; and a special sign of God's 
choice of Aaron was given (Numb, xvi., 



xvii.). Of his personal acts there are but 
two to be noticed ; his jealousy (with Mi- 
riam) of Moses (xii.), and his joining in 
Moses' distrust at Meribah ; for which 
both were excluded from Canaan. He died 
soon after on mount Hor (xx.), where his 
grave (as it is called) is still pointed out ; the 
mount bearing Aaron's name. He was 123 
years old at his death (xxxiii. 38, 39). The 
Mosera, where (Deut. x. 6) he is said to have 
died, was the station close by Hor. See Hob. 

We may gather from the history that 
Aaron was of an impulsive character, lean- 
ing for the most part on his brother, but 
occasionaUy showing, as is not unfrequent 
with such minds, a desire to appear indepen- 
dent. His wife was Elisheba, of the tribe 
of Judah : of his four sons, Eleazar suc- 
ceeded him in the high-priesthood (Exod. 
vi. 23 ; Numb. xx. 26, 28). 

A'ARONITES. The family of Aaron, to 
whom the priesthood belonged (1 Chron. 
xxvii. 17). 

AB (fruif). See Months. 

AB'ACUa (2 Esdr. i. 40). The prophet 

ABADFAS (1 Esdr, viii. 35). Obadiah 
(Ezra viii. 9). , „ ^ 

ABAD'DON ^destruction). The Hebrew 
name of ' the angel of the bottomless pit,' 
called in Greek Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). 

AB AG'THA (given by foHune). One of the 
seven eunuchs in the court of Ahasuerus 
(Esth. i. 10). 

ABA'NA (stony). A river of Damascus 
(marg. Amana), one of those which Naaman 
in his pride preferred to the waters of 
Israel (2 Kings v. 12). It has been iden- 
tified with the modern Barada. It rises in 
the beautiful plain of Zebedany, issuing 
from a little lake, and receiving in its 
course the waters of two or three foun- 
tains. Quitting this plain the Barada 
dashes over a cliff, thirty feet high, and 
runs through a magnificent ravine, past 
the ancient Abila, and is afterwards joined 
by the stream from 'Ain-Fijeh, one of the 
largest springs in Syria. Having emerged 
from the mountains into the plains of 
Damascus, the Barada flows through or- 
chards and meadows tiU it enters the city, 
and, passing through it, falls ultimately 
into the Bahret-el-Kibliyeb, or South lake. 



1': 



At its rise the river is 3,343 feet a^ore the 
KP'A and 1 149 ahove Damascus, whicti is 
distant from the source ahout twenty-one 
or twenty-two miles. THe extent oi cul- 
tivated land it waters is estimated at 311 
square miles, with a P0P?^t'Tx^? nn 2^- 
(Journal of Sac. Uit, July lbo3, pp. 

^^ABA/RIM [regions ^,^y'^'^\^f^'^I^^^\ 
on the east of the Jordan in the teir^o^ 
of Moab,facing Jfichq.(Numk otl lA^ 
TTxiii 47 48 • Deut. xxxn. 49). ri^gan wab | 
DTObibly a ridge of these mountains, of 
Sh Nebo -as a proininent poi^^^^^^^^ spur 
The word occurs and is tranaiatea pas 
Ba-es ' in Jer. xxii. 20. Perhaps it would 
nave been better to regard Abarim as a 

^'X7a^eT^ r^-^^^f^i^tiTt^fe 
retained with the Greek .eamjalent m ti e 
New Testament (Mark xiv. 36; Rom.MU. 

^UB'DAlserm?!*).-!. The father of Ado- 
nitam,one of Solomoi^'s ofiicers a Ki^^^^ 
iv 6) —2 One of the Levites (Neh. xi. I7j , 
called also Obadiah (1 Chron. ix. 16) 

AB'DEEL {servant of God). Fathei oi 
Shelemiah (Jer. xxx^. 26). xPT^itP 
AB'DI (servant of Jehovah).— I. A Levite 
n Phron vi 44).— 2. Another Levite {2 
ghrom xxix 125^^3. One who had taken a 
foreiscn wife (Ezra X. 26). 
AbSi'AS (2 Esdr. i. 39). The prophet 

^ AB^DIEL (servant of Go<D. A chief of 

^"^S^e^vM:-^- AnEphraimite,one 
nf theiudges of Israel (Judges xii.l3-lo). 
It is irobably he that is called Bedan 
n Sam^i ll).-2. A Benjamite (1 Chron 
?ii! S).-3. AJiother Benjamite llTing at 
Pii^pmi r30 ix 36).— 4. One of Josiah's ofia- 
?e?s.S^Chron^^^^^ 5 called also Achbor 

A city of Asher assigned 
to the Levites (Josh, xxi 3?; 1 Chron 
vi. 74). It may be identical with that 
railed Hebron (Josh. xix. 28). 

ABED'NEGO (seri;a)ii o/xYe^-o, perhaps the 
same with Nebo, the plapet Mercury, or, 
lcS)rding to some, servant of splendour, i e. 
of theTim) The Chaldean name given to 
Llrli^ne of the Hebrew, captives at the 
ponrt of Babylon (Dan. i., m.). 

A'BEL (a breatft vanity). The second son 
of Adam and Eve. He was a keeper oi 
feeder of sheep, and offered a sacrifice of the 
flrstUngs, the best, of his flock when Cam 
Sis brother brought an oblation of the 
fruit of the ground (Gen. iv. 1-5). Cam s 
Sieringwas rejected; -J^^ ^ ^^el's was ac- 
cepted, because (we are told, Heb. j^. 4 it 
was offered in faith, recognizing, we niay 
fairly suppose, the need of atonement for 
sin Cain, displeased at the difference made 
murdered his brother. In Gen. iv. 6 tlie 
literal translation of the Hebrew text l^, 
' And Cain said to Abel his brother ; and it 
came to pass,' &c. It appears as if a clause 
were wanting. Such a clause is supplied 
to the Samaritan text, the Targums, the 
KpntuaKint, Syriac, Vulgate, and other ver- 
sfon^ and there can be little doubt that it 
fs genuine, and that the verse ought to run. 



^And Cain said to Abel his brother X^^^, 
go out into the field. And it came to pa.s 
&c Om- Lord refers to Abel as tbe fir^t 
martyr (Matt, xxiii. 35). Whenitis said(Heb 
S 4) ' by it,' his faith, Abel ' yet speaketh, 
1 Sere 7nay be a reference to the crying ol 
Abel's blood (Alford, note on the place) ; 
1 but certainly his faith gave testmiony m 
the infancy of the world to the fact that 
without blood-shedding there could be no 
remission of sin. Other voices subs^ 
miently joined with it ; and their united 
1 evidence has continued of precious value to 
1 strengthen the trust of those that came 
after them. In Heb. xii. 24 the blood ol 
if^rlnklTng is said to ^Pea^ ' ^ett^r tb.BgB 
than Abel.' Some have supposed a contract 
here between the vengeance tl^at Ahei . 
blood demanded and the mercy obtamed 
hy Christ's blood : it is P^'^f erab e to su^ 
pose a comparison. Abel spoke m a typical 
and obscm-e way; Jesus better and more 
d?sti2ctly by the reality. The acceptauce 
of Abel's sacrifice was a ^^^essed proof of 
the divine mercy ; how much greater the 
perfecSd atonement of the new coYenant 
^ A'BEL (a grassy place, pasture, '"^^^^^^f' 
or with different vowels, mourning). .The 
mn^of several Places, ahnost exc usively 
with some adjunct, to be supphed if not 
expressed, as in 2 Sam. xx. 14, 18- . 

A'BEL, THE Great Stone oe. There i=, 
nerhaps. an error of transcription m the 
passale Cl Sam. yI. 18) where tbis expres- 
sion occm-s in our version As it *tand:^, 
^he Uteral translation is ' the great Abe^ 
i e meadow, or mourning (on acc<)unt of 
'th™slaughter' made). But the alteration 
of a lettef would make it ' thegreat stone ;' 
and this is in accordance with the context 

*^A'BEL-BETH-MA'ACHAH {meadow of 
Betl^Maaehah). A city in the extreme north 
of Palestine, sometimes called simply Abel, 
?o which the rebel Sheba fied (3^Sam. xx 
14 15 18) It was taken by Ben-hadad 
flKlngs XV. 20), and by Tiglath-Pileser (.2 
Kings XV. 29). ' It was probably m the 
marshy district which drains mto the lake 
of Merom, and maybe at the modern Ahd 
It is caUed Abel-Maim in 2 Chron. xvi. 4. 

A'BEL-KERA'MIM {meadow of vine- 
vm-ds). A place to the east of the Jordan, 
translated in the text of the English ver- 
sion (Judges xi, 33). A 
A'BEL-MA'IM {meadow of the waters). A 
citv identical ^ith Abel-Beth-Maachah {1 
Kings XV. 20 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 4). 

A'BEL-MEHO'LAH {meadow of dancing). 
A place in or near the valley of the Jordan 
no?thwai'd (Judges vii. 22 ; 1 Kmgs iv 12) 
Here was the original residence of Eh^ha 

'■^A'BEL-MIZ'RAIM {meadow, or probably 
i mourning, of Egypt). The name given to 
'the floor of Atad,' generally supposed to 
he to the east of the Jordan, where the 
mourning was made seven days for Jacob 
(Gen 1 10, 11). But it is very unhkelj that 
the funeral procession would take a circuit 
round the Dead sea and then cross the 
1 J ordan into Canaan. J erome identifi es the 
place with Beth-Hogla, on the west bank ol 
i the river : it is nioi-e likey to have been to 



'6 



the south of HelDron. See Kalisch, Comm. 
on the Old Test. Gen., pp. 776, 777 ; Dr. Thom- 
son TJie Land and the Book, p. 580. It is 
corroborative of this view that the nihahi- 
tants of the iieighhourhood are called 
' Canaanites,' indicating those to the west 
of the Jordan. . ^ n m ^ 

A'BEL-SHIT'TIM (acacia meadow). The 
last station of the Israelites before enter- 
ing Canaan (Numh. xxxiii. 49), m the low 
level of Moab by the Jordan. It is more 
generally caUed simply Shittim (xxv. 1; 
Josh. ii. 1). Acacia groves still remain m 
the vicinity. . . . ^ ^ 

A'BEZ {whiteness, or tm). A town of 
Issachar (Josh. xix. 20). 

ABr (yvhosefatlier is Jehovah). The mo- 
ther of Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 2), called 
more fully Abijah (2 Chron xxix 1). 

ABI'A (id.).—r. Abijah, king of Judah a 
Chron. iii. 10 ; Matt. i. 7).— 2. The Greek form 
of Abiiah, head of one of the courses of 
the priests (Luke i. .5). See Abijah 

ABI'AH (id.).— I. The second son of Samuel 
(1 Sam. viii. 2 ; 1 Chron. vi. 28) .-2. The wife 
of Hezron (ii. 24).-3. The son of Becher, 
Benjamin's son (vii. 8). . 

AB'I-AL'BON (father of strength, i.e. 
strong). One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 31). He is also called Abiel (1 Chron. 
xi 32) 

ABI'ASAPH (father of gathering, i.e 
gatherer). A Levite, one of the sons o± 
Korah (Exod. vi. 24). The same person is 
elsewhere called Ebiasaph (1 Chron. vi. 23, 
37 ix 19); in the flrsb of which places he 
seems to be Korah's great-grandson. But 
it is questionable whether a great-grandson 
of Korah could have been the head of a 
family in the time of Moses. Perhaps, 
therefore, in 1 Chron. vi. 22, 23, Assir, El- 
kanah, and Ebiasaph are to be reckoned as 
sons of Korah ; the line of Ebiasaph being 
first given (23, 24), and then that of Elkanah 
(25-28) ; or there may be some error of 
transcription. , m ^ 

ABI'ATHAR (father of abundance). The 
son of Ahimelech, the high priest whom 
Saul put to death on the charge of en- 
quiring of the Lord for David (1 Sam. 
xxii 11-19). Abiathar escaped to David 
• with an ephod in his hand,' and accompa- 
nied him in his wanderings (20-23, xxiii., 
6, 9, XXX. 7). Through David's reign 
Abiathar was high priest, and the king's 
faithful coimsellor (1 Chron. xxvii. 34). He 
linked himself, however, with the party of 
Adonijah (1 Kings i. 7) ; it may be through 
some jealousy of Zadok, who, perhaps 
placed in the high-priesthood by Saul, haa 
not joined David till that monarch's death 
(1 Chron. xii. 28), and who is generally after- 
wards mentioned with Abiathar (2 Sam. 
viii 17, XX. 25). Zadok was of the house of 
Eleazar, the elder and more powerful ; Abi- 
athar of that of Ithamar, the younger 
Ijranch, from which the high-priesthood 
was to pass on account of Eli's sin. And, 
therefore, though Abiathar seems to have 
continued chief, yet Zadok is generally 
named before himi. Abiathar's offence was 
forgiven ; and we still, when Solomon was 
on the throne, find him named as in his 
office (1 Kings iv 4). But, shortly after. 



Adonijah made his second attempt ; and 
Solomon, knowing or inferring Abiathar's 
connection with it, deposed and banished 
him to Anathoth (ii. 26). In 2 Sam. 
viii. 17 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 16, xxiv. 3, 6, 31, 
there are errors of transcription, 'Ahime- 
lech' or ' Abimelech, son of Abiathar,' for 
' Abiathar, son of Ahimelech.' Also, in Mark 
ii. 26, Abiathar is called ' high priest ' during 
the life of his father. But most likely Abi- 
athar was ministering with his father at 
the time ; and, further, the word rendered 
here ' high priest ' is frequently applied to 
other men of rank in the priesthood besides 
the single chief (see Matt. ii. 4). 
A'BIB (a green ear). See Months. 
ABI'DA or ABI'DAH (father of knoio- 
ledge). A son of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4; 1 
Chron. i. 33). 

ABI'DAN (father of the judge). Prince of 
Benjamin (Numb. i. 11, ii. 22, vii. 60, 65, 
X. 24). 

AB'IEL (father of strength, i.e. strong).— 
1. The father of Kish and Ner, and conse- 
quently grandfather of Saul and Abner 
(1 Sam. ix. 1, xiv. 51). But, in 1 Chron. viii. 
33, ix. 39, Ner is said to have been father of 
Kish, Probably there is here some tran- 
scriber's error. See Saul, 2.-2. One oi 
David's warriors. See Abi-albon. 

ABIE'ZER (father of help).— I. The son or 
nephew of Gilead (1 Chron. vii. 18) called by 
contraction Jeezer (Numb. xxvi. 30), of the 
tribe of Manasseh. The family of Abiezer 
would seem to have had tlieir inheritance on 
the west of the Jordan (Josh. xvii. 2 ; Judges 
vi. 24, 34, viii. 2). Gideon was one of their 
descendants.— 2. One of David's warriors 
(2 Sam. xxiii. 27; 1 Chron. xi. 28, xxvii. 
12). 

ABIEZ'BITES. A family so called from 
Abiezer of Gilead (Judges vi. 11, 24, viii. 32). 

AB'IGAIL (whose father is exultation, fa- 
ther's joy).— I. The prudent wife of Nabal, 
who appeased David's anger excited by her 
husband's churlishness. David married her 
after Nabal's death (1 Sam. xxv.). She bore 
him a son called Chileab (2 Sam. iii. 3), and 
Daniel (1 Chron. ^ii. 1).— 2. One of David's 
sisters, married to Ithra or Jether, and 
mother by him of Amasa, Absalom's com- 
mander-in-chief (2 Sam. xvii. 25 ; 1 Chron. 
ii. 17). There are variations in the spelling 
of this name in Hebrew. 

AB'IGAL (2 Sam. xvii. 25, marg.). See 
Abigail, 2. . -, . x 

ABIHA'IL (fatlier of might, i.e. mighty). 
—1 The father of Zuriel,chief of the families 
of Merari (Numb. iii. 35).— 2. The wife of 
Abishur (1 Chron. ii. 29).— 3. The son of 
Huri, who appears to have been a descend- 
ant of Gad (V. 14).— 4. The wife of 
Rehoboam, daughter or descendant of 
Eliab, David's elder brother (2 Chron. xi. 
18).— 5. The father of Esther (Esth. ii. 15, 
ix. 29). The spelling of this name occasion- 
ally varies in the original. 

ABI'HU (to whom he, i.e. God, is father). 
The second son of Aaron (^Exod. vi. 23 ; 
Numb. iii. 2) ; who, with Moses, Aaron, his 
elder brother Nadab, and seventy of the 
elders, was privileged to ascend Sinai and 
behold some manifestation of God (Exod. 
xxiv 1, 9, 10). He, with his father and 



brothers, was consecrated to the priesthood 
(Lev. viiL, ix.) ; hut just after, presumptu- 
ously using strange fire, that is not that 
which came from before the Lord (vi. 9, 12, 
ix 24) he and Nadah were consumed (x.1-6). 
It' has been thought from the following 
verses (8-11) that they were then mtoxi- 

^^SbI'HTJD (whose famr is Jtidah, i.e. 
splendour or praise). One of . the descend- 
ants of Benjamin (1 Chron. ^ 
ABI'JAH (whose father is JehovahX-l. 
The son of Jeroboam L, king of Israel. In 
him alone of that wicked house was good 
toward the Lord God' Q Kmgs xiv.1-18). 
He was therefore mercifuUy taken from 
the evil to come ; and the people mourned 
his early death.-2. A king of Judah, son of 
Rlhobolm and Maachah or Michaiah, grand- 
daughter of Absalom ; the term daughter 
Sfying descendant (xv. 2 ; 2 Chron. xi. 
20 X ii 2) Abijah, called also Abijam.made 
on Jeroboam. The armies raised on 
each side were, according to the present 
text of Chronicles, enormous (3, 17) , out 
there is reason to believe that the num- 
bers are inaccurate. In various editions 
of the Vulgate version, they are P^t ai 
80 000, 40,000, and 50,000. Abijah^ made a 
vain-glorious speech to Jeroboams forces 
before the battle, and was completely 
torious. He was an ungodly prince. He 
did not, indeed, throw ofE the profession 
of religion, hut was worldly, time-serving, 
and careless, like his ^faM^ father Re- 
hoboam a Kings xv._3; 2 Jhron xiii. 21). 
He died after a reign of three years 
0^7-955 B c —3. The head of one of the 
courses of priests (1 C^^on- ^^te 
xii. 17) ; termed Abia m Luke i. 5.-4. The 
mother of Hezekiah (2 C3hron.xxix. 11). She 
is also called Abi (2 Kings ^™^^}:~'^\^ 
priest who sealed the covenant (N^. x 7). 
-6 A priest who returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel, or possibly the representa- 
tive of the course of AbiDah (xii. 4, 17). So 
the name attached to the covenant (x. 7) 
may have represented the course. 

ABI'JAM {father of the sea, i.e. a mart 
time person). The king elsewhere called 
Abijah (1 Kings xv. 1, 7, 8). See Abijab, 2^ 
AB'ILA (probably the same as Abel, a 
grassy place). A city called Abila of Lysa- 
nias, to distinguish it from other Syrian 
cities of the same name. It was in the 
centre of the Anti-libanus, eighteen Roman 
miles from Damascus on the road to Helio- 
polis or Baalbec, and was the capital of 
Abilene. Its site has been identified with 
Sm-Wady-Barada, a smaU village on the 
right bank of the river Barada, the ancient 
Abana, which breaks just by through a pic- 
turesque mountain gorge Inscriptions 
have been found here; and there are the 
remains of a tomb called Xo^r Sabil ^the 
tomb of Abil.' Abila was in/^ristian tmies 
a bishop's see, and was sacked by the Mos- 
lems 634 a. n. , 11 ^-^ 
ABILE'NE. A tetrarchy or small dis^ 
trict among the eastern declivities of 
Xnti-libanus! described by St. Luke (m l) 
as ander the government of Lysamas when 
John the Baptist commenced his ministry. 
It is hardly possible to determine its exact 



limits. Abila, noticed above, was its capi- 
tal. See Abila, Lysaxias. ^ ^ 
ABIM'AEL {father ofvngM, or i7iy father 
from God). A descendant of Joktan (Gen. 
X 28 : 1 Chron. i. 23). He has been supposed 
to be the progenitor of a tribe settled at 
Mali in Arabia, perhaps the same as those 
called Manitae, or Minsi. ^ ^ ^ . , 
ABIM'ELECH {father of the kmg, or royal 
father). This name was probably a common 
title of the Philistine kings, as Pharaoh 
among the Egyptians. + „v 
1. A PhHistine king of Gerar, who took 
Sarah into his harem. Admonished by God 
in a dream, he restored her to Abraham, to 
whom he gave a thousand pieces of silver, 
saying ♦ behold, he (or it, the mouey) isto 
thee a covering of the eyes' (Gen.xx.). The 
meaning of Abimelech's expression is ob- 
scure. Many believe that it was a charge 
to purchase veils for Sarah and her attend- 
ants, who in tent-life had not worn them, 
that she might be known to be a married 
woman, exclusively belonging to her hus- 
band (Bush, Notes on Genesis, xx. 16). Ka- 
lisch (Comm. on Old Test, to., p. 431) 
translates, ' he is to thee a protection, 
&c.: and thou wilt be recognized, im- 
plying that Abraham was sufficient to pro- 
tect Sarali from voluptuous eyes, and it 
she pretended to be his sister she would be 
known to he his wife by God's direct inter- 
ference. Subsequently a treaty was made 
between Abraham and Abimelech (xxi. 
22-32) —2. Another king of Gerar, of whoui 
a somewhat-similar account is given m 
regard to Isaac and Rebekah (xxvi.).— 3. 
The son of Gideon by a concubine. He 
murdered aU his brothers but one, and 
reigned in Shechem. There is no ground 
for supposing, as some have done, that 
thus Shechem separated from the general 
government of Israel. There was no ge- 
neral government (Judges xvii. 6) ; and the 
federal bond between the tribes was very 
loose, as is clear by the fact that most of 
the various judges had authority over only 
a part of the land. Dissensions soon arose 
between Abimelech and the people ; and 
he was ultimately killed at Thebez (ix.). 
—4 The name civen, probably by error oi 
transcription, as that of a son of Abiathar 
the high priest (l C^^on xviii. 16) See 
ABiATHAB, AmMELECH.-5. The name at- 
tributed (Psal. xxxiv., title) to a Philis- 
tine king, elsewhere caUed Achish, which 

^^ABIN'ADAB {father of nobleness, or nolle 
father-).-!. A man in whose dwelling, at 
the hill of Kirjath-jearim, the ark of Goa 
was placed for many years (1 Sam. vii. l , 
2 Sam.vi.3, 4; 1 Chron. xni._7).-2. The 
second son of Jesse (1 Sam. xvi. 8, xyV;l^; 
1 Chron. ii. 13).-3. A son of Saul slam at 
the battle on momit Gilboa (1 Sara. xxxi. - , 
1 Chron. viii. 33, ix. 39, x. 2). See Isnui. 
-4 The father of one of Solomon s officers 
a Kings iv. 11). This n>ay possibly be the 
same with Ifo. 2. ^ ,. co-nr. -rixr 

AB'IJfER {father of ligM). (1 Sam. xiv. 
50, marg.). Elsewhere Abner, which see 

ABIN'OAM {fattier cf pleasantness). "I^Q 
father of Barak (Judges iv. 6, 12, v. 1, 12). 
ABI'RAM ( father of loftiness or renownX 



5 



—1. A Reubenite who with Korah, Dathan, 
and others, resisted Moses and Aaron, and 
perished miserahly(Numh.xvi.). See Korah. 
—2. The eldest son of Hiel theBethelite ; he 
died when his father laid the foundation of 
Jericho (1 Kings xvi. 34 : comp. Josh. vi. 26). 

ABI'BON (Ecclus. xlv. 18). See Abiram, 
No. 1. 

ABrSEI(2 Esdr. i. 2). A Greek form of 
Ahishua. 

ABI'SHAG (father of error). A heautif ul 
Shunammite taken into David's harem in 
his old age. She was after his death asked 
in marriage by Adonijah (1 Kings i. 3, 15, 
ii. 17, 21, 22). ^ , 

ABI'SHAI (father of a gift). One of the 
three sons of Zeruiah, David's sister (2 Sam. 
ii. 18). He was of a hold impetuous cha- 
racter, and served David faithfully. He 
volunteered to go with him to Saul's camp, 
and would willingly have slain the king 
(1 Sam. xxvi. 6-12). He abetted his brother 
Joab in the murder of Abner (2 Sam. iii.30). 
Placed in command of a brigade of the 
Israelitish army he defeated the Am- 
monites ; while at the same time Joab 
gained a victory over the Syrians (x. 9-14). 
He was eager to punish Shimei (xvi. 9, 
xix. 21). He commanded a division in the 
battle with Absalom (xviii. 2). He rescued 
David from Ishbi-benob (xxi. 16, 17). He 
had a high place among David's warriors 
(xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chron. xi. 20) ; and he seems to 
have materially contributed to the victory 
in the valley of Salt (2 Sam. viii. 13; 1 
Chron. xviii. 12), probably commanding 
under David. We have no account of his 
death. 

ABI'SHALOM {father of peace). The father 
of Maachah (1 Kings xv. 2, 10). He is called 
Absalom (2 Chron. xi. 20, 21), and was most 
likely David's son of that name. 

ABI'SHUA {father of happiness).—!. The 
son of Phinehas the high priest, perhaps 
high priest himself (1 Chron. vi. 4, 5, 50 ; 
Ezra vii. 5).— 2. A descendant of Benjamin 
(1 Chron. viii. 4). 

ABI'SHTJR {fatJier of the wall, i.e. strong- 
hold or defence). A descendant of Judah 
, 1 Chron. ii. 28, 29). 

■ ABFSUM {I Esdr. viii. 2). A form of 
Abishua, 

ABI'TAL (whose father is the deiv) One 
of David's wives (2 Sam. iii. 4 ; 1 Chron. 

" ABI'TUB {father of goodness). A descend- 
ant of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 11). 

ABI'UD (whose father is Judah, or praise). 
A person in the line of our Lord's an- 
cestry (Matt. i. 13). 

ABLUTION. See Purification. 

AB'NER {father of light). The son of 
Ner, who was brother to Kish the father of 
Saul. Abner was therefore Saul's cousin, 
and was made by him commander-in-chief 
of the Israelitish army (1 Sam. xiv. 50, 51, 
xvii. 55, 57, xxvi. 5, 7, 14, 15). After Saul's 
death we find him espousing the cause of 
Ish-bosheth,whom he carried over the Jor- 
dan, and established as king at Mahanaim, 
consolidating by degrees his authority, till 
at last the tribes generally, with the ex- 
ception of Judah, acknowledged him their 
sovereign. Abner maintained also a war 



withDavid, and in one engagement killed, in 
self-defence, Asahel, the brother of Joab 
and Abishai (2 Sam. ii.). Perhaps he now had 
some idea of seizing the Israelitish throne 
for himself ; for he appropriated a woman of 
Saul's harem,which Ish-bosheth interpreted 
as an overt act of rebellion. Abner, in high 
displeasure at having his proceedings 
questioned, resolved to seek a reconcilia- 
tion with David. But he was treacherously 
murdered by Joab and Abishai, ostensibly 
because he had killed Asahel, really, we 
may suppose, through jealousy, as he 
would have at least rivalled Joab in position. 
David, though unable to punish the power- 
ful brothers, solemnized Abner's funeral 
with great respect and general mourning, 
and uttered an elegiac lament over him 
(iii.). There are one or two further inci- 
dental notices of Abner : see 1 Chron. xxvi, 
28, xxvii. 21. He is also called Abiner 
(1 Sam. xiv. 50, marg.). 

ABOMINATION. This term is generally 
applied to anything impure or unclean 
according to the Mosaic law, especially to 
idol-worship. Two Hebrew words are for 
the most part used where our version has 
'abomination.' They are nearly synonym- 
ous, save that one, shiklcoots, is, with perhaps 
few exceptions (see, however, Isai.lxvi. 17 ; 
Nah.iii. 6), spoken of some impurity caused 
or adopted by the Israelites themselves. 
It is found in such passages as 2 Kings 
xxi. 2, xxiil. 13 ; Ezek. vii. 20 ; Hos. ix. 10. 

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION. 
This is spoken of by Daniel (ix. 27, xi. 31, 
xii. 11). His prediction would seem to 
have had a fulfilment when, under the per- 
secution of Antiochus Epiphanes, an idol 
was set up on the altar of God, apostate 
Israelites concurring in the sin (1 Mace, 
i. 52-59). But the prophecy had, to say the 
least, a further reference. For our Lord 
appeals to it (Matt. xxiv. 15-18 ; Mark xiii. 
14-16), and declares that its fulfilment was 
to be the warning for his disciples to flee 
from the doomed city. This would be simul- 
taneous with the investment of Jerusalem 
(Luke xxi. 20, 21). Some have believed 
the investment (when Cestius Gallus first 
encamped around Jerusalem 66 a.b., and 
then withdrew) the abomination of desola- 
tion itself; the Ptoman standards (ob- 
jects of worship to the soldiers) being 
then planted on holy ground. But these 
standards had been there before; and so 
it is more likely (see Abomination ; the 
word, shikkoots, there noted being used in 
Daniel) that the abominable thing was 
something done by the Jews themselves. 
Now Josephus {Bell. Jud. lib.iv. 3, §§ 7, 8, &c.) 
mentions a profanation by the Zelots who 
had got possession of the temple ; and to 
this or some similar deed our Lord, we 
may suppose, referred. See Alford, The 
Greek Test, note on Matt. xxiv. 15. The 
Christians, it may be added, took the warn- 
ing, the opportunity being afforded by the 
retirement of Gallus, and fled to Bella. 

A'BRAHAM (father of a multitude). TTie 
patriarch selected to be the progenitor of 
a race of men w^ho might be the depository 
of divine truth and the heirs of divine 
promise, in whom, too, God's great purpose 



Crta^ttrg of 



6 



of mercy to the world migM he typified 1 
Sid Artiered ; the earthly hlessings of the 1 
covenant with them prognosticating, and , 
piTins earnest of, and m a sense shap- 1 
ing, tlie spiritual and eternal hlessmgs j 
of 1i better future corenant. ^.^a m-i 

Ahram, for such was the patriarch s on- 1 
ginal name, was of the race of Shem He | 
was the son, prohahly the youngest, of 
Terah (Gen. xi. 261, who lived m a^ city of 
the Chaldees. There is a legend that, liaA - 
iu- set himself to oppose the idolatry that 
prevailed around, he was cast hy ]Simrod 
into a furnace, whence he was miraculously 
delivered unhurt, the fm-nace changing 
into a meadow. Of such stories the scrip- 
ture knows nothing. Terah .seventy 
rears of age when the first of his thiee 
sons was horn. Several years probahly 
llai^sed fi'om the hirth of the eldest to that 
of the youngest. For, if Terah was dead 
when Ahram was seventy-five as scrip- 
ture implies (xii. 4 ; Acts vii- 4), tHen as 
Terah lived 205 years (Gen. xi. 32), Ahiam 
was born wdien his father was 130. This 
is in a degi'ee confirmed by the fact that 
Hai-an, Abram's brother, died in TJr, and that 
Haran's son Lot would seem to have been 
not so very much younger than bis uncle 
Abram : while Haran's daughter Milcah 
was maiTied to Nahor, her father's brother 
cr-^g) Abram's Immediate ancestors, and 
very probably his father Terah, were idola- 
ters (Josh. xxiv. 2). Terah, however, obeyed 
the divine call given to his son to leave 
Ur and with several members of his family 
proceeded to Haran on the road to Canaan, 
and there after some sojourn he died (Gen. 

^\b\'am'k proper history now begins. He 
was commanded to go into Canaan re- 
ceiving at the time a two-fold promise, that 
his seed should become a vast multitude, 
and that, a blessing himself, in his seed all 
the families oi the earth should be blessed. 
Abram was become a wealthy chief, and, 
with the servants and the substance that 
belonged to hi m, accompanied by his wue 
Sarai and his nephew Lot, he entered 
Canaan (xii. 1-5). The country was ah-eady 
occupied by descendants of Ham -But 
whe]i Abram had traversed a considerable 
extent of it (for the expression ' passed 
through the land ' seems to show that hi* 
march southward was west of the Jordan 
through the districts afterwards called 
Galilee and Samaria), and had pitched in the 
plain, or at the oak, of Moreh by Shechem, a 
fertile spot, there he had the assurance first 
given him that that land should be the pos- 
session of his seed, therein should be accom- 
plished all the large promise bef ore uttered 
of a multitudinous offspring, the blessing 
to the world. Henceforth the covenant 
had a definite location ; and Abram had a 
home assigned him, if not in possession, yet 
to be held by faith, a goodly land on earth 
precious, too, as the type to the church of 
God, through all the generations of her 
pilgrimage, of a yet goodlier home, a better 
country, that is, an heavenly' (Heb.xi. 13-16). 
In the spot where he was camping Abram 
erected an altar (Gen. xii. 6, 7) ; and we must 
henceforth view him as the patriarch ot the 



covenant, the one that pecuUarly 'had the 
promises,' the patriarch of faith so strong 
as to be held forth an example and a pat- 
tern to other ages, with the encouragement 
that thev who were ' of faith ' should be 
'blessed with faithful Abraham' (Gal. iii. 9). 
And little is related of Abram's stoiT save 
what tends to elucidate the provisions and 
promises of the covenant made with him. 

We must briefly sketch his wanderings. 
Removing from Moreh he pitched on a 
mount to the east of Bethel, and journey- 
in^ south he went down into Egypt (famine 
then afflicting Canaan), establishing there 
the first link of that mysterious chain 
which so long, through almost all their 
historv, bound the chosen people for dis- 
cipline and for warning to the Egyptians. 
But here, alas! Abram's faith wavered 
Knowing that Pharaoh would not dare to 
take his wife from him, but m abhorrence 
of adulterv would rather commit murder, 
fearing therefore that for Sarafs sake 
he should lose his own life, Abram, with 
some of that eastern cunning which more 
or less displaved itself in many of his de- 
scendants, disavowed his marriage. He 
was rescued by God's providence fi'om the 
fal'je position in which he had placed him- 
self and enriched by Pharaoh (who, as is 
not improbably supposed, might be of the 
Hvksos or dynasty of the shepherd-kings) he 
reWned to Canaan (Gen. xii. 10-20). Abram 
was wealthy ; and Lot was wealthy too. 
Had the land been empty, they might very 
well have extended their encampments m 
it But the Canaanites and Perizzites 
were there too ; and therefore uncle and 
nephew must sepaa-ate. From a hill near 
Bethel,which it is said may stillbe identified, 
Abram and Lot surveyed the cormtry ; and 
Lot having his choice aUowedhim selected 
the rich valley of the Jordan for his abode, 
careless what kind of associates he would 
tlius meet with ; while Abram, with the 
renewed assurance tliat Canaan should 
he given to his seed, Avent southward to 
Mamre and dwelt there (xiii.). Lot was 
^oon involved in the disasters of the neigh- 
bourhood he had chosen. He was made 
pri=;oner in the irruption of an eastern 
monarch, of whom something, it is said, is 
yet to be dimly traced in the deciphered As- 
syrian inscriptions (see Chedor-laomer) ; 
and Abram resolved to attempt his ne- 
phew's rescue. On his victorious return he 
received the blessing of Melchizedek (xiv.). 

But Abram's faith began to be sorely 
tried. The promise was to him in 
his seed; and as yet he had no child. 
Years rolled on ; and the likelihood of his 
having offspring grew less and less. The 
promise was therefore reiterated : Abram 
believed it. And now, because his faith 
held on, not only when accomplishment 
seemed easv, but when it was delayed and 
seemed most difficult,well-nigh impossible, 
now, when there was the word alone, the 
bare promise, with no outward confirma- 
tion, and Abram still believed, God 
« counted it to him for righteousness.' 
The trial of his faith was very very pre- 
cious, ' much more precious than of gold 
that perisheth' (1 Pet. i. 7). And then therp 



7 



[ABRAHAM 



was a symbol vouchsafed him, and larger 
promise that his posterity should possess 
the whole extent of country between the 
river of Egypt and the Euphrates— a promise 
which was abundantly fulfilled ; for, even 
if Israel appropriated not all that region 
(though David and Solomon governed it), 
yet certainly Abraham's seed, Midian, and 
Jokshan, and Edom, and Ishmael, over- 
spread the wide territories enumerated (Gen. 
XV.). Sarai's faith, however, faltered, though 
Abram's did not ; and, as the promise was 
not yet announced that the holy seed 
should come from Sarai's womb, sbe gave 
her husband her Egyptian maid, intending 
to adopt her child. Abram then had a son, 
Ishmael; but he was not the heir of pro- 
mise (xvi.). Thirteen years passed on, pex'- 
haps spent at Mamre ; and the purposes of 
God were ripening. The covenant was now 
made more definite : Sarai was included in 
the promise: the names of the pair were 
changed to Abraham and Sarah ; and the 
sign of circumcision was added, to be a 
token throughout all generations that God 
had been with and was blessing Abraham 
his friend (xvii.). But there must be delay 
and trial still. The Lord held again myste- 
rious conference with Abraham, just ere 
Sodom was destroy ed (xvii.) ; and Abraham, 
perhaps in consequence of that catastrophe, 
journeyed south-west into the land of the 
Philistines at Gerar; and there the evil 
step in Egypt was repeated (xx.). O how 
hard it is for man, even at his best estate, 
to walk in the path of uprightness ! Abra- 
ham showed again that he was ' of like pas- 
sions and infirmities' with all his race. 

At length God's time was come ; and 
Sarah bare Abraham a son (probably at 
Gerar) in his old age. And then indeed 
there was joy ; the promise long waited for 
being now fulfilled. The name given to the 
child, Isaac {laughter or sporting), indicated 
this. Once Sarah had laughed increduleusly 
at the idea of her having a son, and Abra- 
ham had laughed too, his faith, strong as it 
was, being then inclined to fix on Ishmael 
as the heir of his name and blessing 
(xvii. 17, 18, xviii.l2) ; but noAv the happy 
parents laughed with thankful joy ; and all 
their friends thatheard the tidings laughed 
and rejoiced with them (xxi. 1-7). There was 
a feast made when Isaac was weaned ; yet 
the mirth of that feast was dashed with 
heaviness. The son of the bondwoman, 
jealous perhaps of Isaac's happier lot, was 
discovered mocking ; and Sarah insisted 
that he and his mother Hagar should be 
banished from the encampment. It was very 
grievous to Abraham ; but God commanded 
him to yield ; and Hagar and Ishmael went 
forth, their ejection symbolizing a gospel 
truth, and proving the best means of ful- 
filling the promise that Ishmael should be- 
come a great nation (8-21 ; Gal, iv. 22-31). 

There were some petty troubles from 
Abimelech in the patriarch's life, but with 
this exception nothing is recorded of the 
space of perhaps twenty-five years. His 
residence was n ow'at Beer-sheba. And then 
came a strange and crushing trial. To 
comprehend it, we must bear in mind that 
Abrahara lived among idolaters, who ruth- 



lessly made their children pass through the 
fire (Lev. xvili. 21, 24, 25 ; Deut. xviii. 9, 10). 
Many a time must Abraham have seen from 
afar the smoke of sacrifices, and known that 
human victims were offered there. And 
his heart must have glowed when ne re- 
membered that his God required no such 
homage ; and perhaps he had to stand the 
scoff of those around, that he had chosen a 
very easy religion, demanding not the self- 
denying obedience which theirs did. For, 
surely, though they practised these cruel 
abominations, many hearts among them 
must have bled as fheir dearest were taken 
as victims ; and though they yielded to the 
stern law it must have been with grief and 
bitter tears. Their obedience, then, they 
would say, was far deeper and more meri- 
torious than Abraham's easy service. But 
then came the command, 'Take now thy 
son, thine only son Isaac whom thou 
lovest . . . and offer him for a burnt-offer- 
ing.' It was not merely the laceration of 
domestic ties, not only the apparent blight 
of the promise so long waited for and then 
fulfilled — the whole basis of his trust 
seemed overturned, the character of the 
God he worshipped changed, his religion 
no better than that of the surrounding 
tribes. Imagination cannot conceive a 
harder trial. And faith most strong in- 
deed it must have been, to hold on still, to 
be convinced that all this fearful mystery 
would be cleared up, and that the child 
of promise, even if he did slay him, 
would be the child of promise still, raised 
from the very dead, rather than that the 
word spoken concerning him should fail. 
So Abraham went steadily on, acting liter- 
ally as God had told him ; going to the 
mountain named (Moriah,where the temple 
was afterwards built, it is generally sup- 
posed ; though some believe it was Gerizim, 
thinking Jerusalem not far enough for the 
three days' journey, and the hill there not 
conspicuous at a distance ; but this sup- 
position Dr. Thomson, a competent au- 
thority, strongly opposes) ; and then, just 
at the last moment, when hope must have 
well-nigh died, faith was marvellously 
crowned ; and Abraham received back his 
son from the dead * in a figure ' (Heb. 
xi. 17-19). The promises were again con- 
firmed to him, now rendered surer than 
ever, the spirituial blessing in them being 
prominently exhibited ; and,with gratitude 
which even the sacred historian does not 
attempt to describe, Abraham returned to 
Beer-sheba (Gen. xxii.). This great event 
was the most wonderful in the patriarch'8 
life. Then it was, no doubt, that his eye 
was opened to perceive in the dim future 
another sacrifice, of a dearer Son yielded by 
a higher Father (and probably, as just said, 
on or near that very spot), a sacrifice 
actually consummated, by the virtue of 
which a propitiation of world-wide virtue 
was effected. Abraham rejoiced as he 
saw the glimmer of that coming day, when 
in his seed, in One of his line, all the 
families of the earth should have a bless- 
ing (Johnviii. .56). The lessons to be de 
rived from Abraham's faith, how it was 
counted to him for righteousness, and 



ABBAHAM'S bosom] Ct)g EtmUrg Ot 



how the reality of it was shown m the 
deeds it prompted, are freauently dwelt 
on in scripture (Rom. ir. 1-5; James ii. 

^^he rest of Ahraham's history is com- 
rarativelv scanty. He seems to have re- 
moved from Beer-sheba to Kirjath-Arba or 
Hebron ; and there Sarah died when lie Avas 
137 He purchased for her sepulchre the 
field and cave of Machpelah from the princes 
of the land, to hold seisin, as it were, of 
the country his descendants should Possess, 
by the bones of his family resting there. 
The bargain with Ephron is very charac- 
teristic of eastern manners to the present 
day Some, misled by Ephron's courteous 
speech, have fancied that he really in- 
tended to offer bis field to Abraham for a 
^ft. But this is from sheer ignorance of 
oriental babits. Ephron was a shrewd 
man, who well knew how to drive a bar- 
gain'; and a good one he made for himself 
(Gen xxiii.). Abraham then took care that 
his son Isaac should not match with the 
idolatrous families around (^xi^-). And 
next there is the strange record that he 
had another wife, and children by her ; and 
even' concubines' are mentioned. Keturab 
was a secondary or inferior wife^^not given 
to the patriarch by Sarah, as Hagar was 
It mav be, therefore, that, though the fact 
is noted so late, the children had been born 
much earlier. But we can hardly arrive 
at certainty on this matter.. Be ^t as it 
may, Abraham sent away bis other son* 
witi gifts into the East, that they might 
not interfere with Isaac, to whom his great 
inheritance belonged. And then he died 
having seen Isaac's sons, 'm a gooa oux 
aSe an old man, and full of years,' 17o 
ylara old, and was buried by Isaac and 
I«hmael, brothers no doubt now m aflec- 
tfon, in the cave of Machpelah, where per- 
chance bis bones may still t>e lying. 

Such briefly is the story of this father of 
the faithful, from whom the precious seed 
descended, and into whose bosom the faith- 
ful dead are said to have been conveyed 
rLuke xvi 22). His faith we are to fol- 
low: bis example we should diligently imi 

*^ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. A figurative ex- 
nress^on, not implying preeminent favour 
to one individual (as in John xiii. 23), but 
denoting the happy condition m the inter- 
mediate state of all Abraham's real child- 
ren CLuke xvi. 23), 'the happy side of 
Hades,' says Dr. Alford (note on the place), 
•where aU the fathers were conceived as 

^^A^Bn^^'^lfainer of elevation). The ori- 
ginal name of Abraham ; which see. 

AB'RECH (governor ?) (Gen. xli. 43, marg.). 
This word is in the text of our version ren- 
dered • Bow the knee.' It is very xm certain 
what its real meaning is. Possibly ;t ex- 
presses the dignity of Joseph, and is ex- 
T^lained by the succeeding words of the 
verse See Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. 

^Tb'sIl'o'm- fS/f- 0/ peaces The third 
Bo'n of David, by Maachah, the daughter of 
Talmai, king of Geshur, bom at Hebron 
^2 S iii. 3; 1 Chron. iii. 2). Absalom 



revenged the dishonour done to Tamar. 
his sister, by Amnon, his half-brother, by 
kiUing him at a feast, and then fled to his 
father-in-law, Talmai (2 Sam. xiii.). Alter 
three years, by means of Joab, he was en 
abled to return to Jerusalem, and in two 
years more fully restored to Davids fa- 
vour (xiv.). Absalom was now nourishing 
the ambitious scheme of supplanting his 
father. He was very beautiful and had ex- 
traordinary hair, which when cut every 
year weighed 200 shekels, the exact equiva- 
lent to whicli in our weights it is not easy 
to ascertain ; or, possibly, the hair was of 
200 shekels value. He took great pams to 
acquire popularity, and after four years (so 
probably we should read xv. 7) he raised 
the standard of revolt at Hebron. The his- 
tory of this rebellion, its first success- 
there being evidently some ill-feeling in his 
own tribe of Judah towards David— with 
the iniquitous conduct of Absalom, and his 
final defeat, may be read in xv.-xviii. See 
David. David wished to spare his unhappy 
son's life ; but in the rout, his mule cariT- 
ing him under the thick boughs of an oak, 
his head was caught ; and J oab, being made 
aware of this, despatched him. Absalom 
had three sons and a daughter (xiv. 27) ; but 
it would seem that his sons died before him, 
as lie erected a pillar to keep his name 




Absalom's Tomb, from a photograph. 

in remembrance (xviii. 18). A monnmcnt 
outside the walls of Jerusalem now bears 



Wb Eatne. hnt It is a structure compara- 
tively modern date. See Abishalom. 

AB'SALOM (1 Mace. xi. 70, xiii. 11). 

AB'SALON. A Jewish envoy to Lyslas 

'^rB'SHAi achron. xi^. 11. marg.). See 

'^"ABSTlkENCE. At)stinence and fasting 
are ecclesiastically distinguished : the 
last respects the quantity, the first the 
cmality of food. But the word ahsti- 
Sence'is only once found in our version 
i the hihle (Acts xxvii. 21), and there it 
must mean the not taking of food at all. 
The idea, however, of refraining from 
some particular kind of food is familiar to 
the scripture. Thus the prohibition laid 
upon Adam and Eve was of this character 
(Gen ii. 16, 17). Possibly, before the flood, 
animal food was not allowed (i. 29). To 
Noah and his posterity blood was forbidden 
fix 4) Other customs and enactments con- 
ceded the Israelites (xxxii. 32 ; Lev. xi., 
xTii 10-16). The priests, moreover, were to 
abstain from wine and strong drink m their 
ministrations (x. 8-11). .See also the law of 
the Nazarite (Numb. vi. 1-8, 20). Many of 
these prohibitions were but temporary; 
and in the early Christian church the only 
injunction giA-en was, to abstain trom 
blood, things strangled, and meats offered 
to idols (Acts XV. 20, 29). 
ABU'BUS (1 Mace. xvi. 11, lo). ^ , ^ ^ 
ACA'TAN (1 Esdr. viii. 38). Hakkatan 
(Ezra viii. 12). „ , ...^ 

AC'CAD (fortress). One of the four cities 
which are said to have been the beginning 
of Nirarod's kingdom (Ggn. x. 10). It is not 
easy to identify Accad. One supposition is 
that Nisibis on the Khabour occupies its 
site, 150 miles east of Orfa. Rawlmson 
(Herod, vol. i. p. 319) considers Aikad the 
name of the primitive Hamite race, whose 
original seat was Babylonia, and fi'om 
whose language was derived the trunk 
Shemitic stream of tongues. 
AC"CJ.i?OiV (1 Mace. X. 89). Ekron. 
AC'CHO (heated sand). A sea-port town 
on the coast of Palestine, situated on the 
northern headland of a bay to which it gives 
name; mount Carmel being at the other 
extremity. Accho was about thirty miles 
goutb of Tyre. It was in the allotment cf 
Asher, but does not seem to have ever 
been occupied by the Israelites.. The fer- 
tile plain in the neighbourhood is waterea 
by the Belus, now Nahr Naamdn, which 
falls into the sea close by the town.. Accho 
was subsequently called Ptolemais (Acts 
xxi. 7), and is mentioned in the wars of 
the Maccabees. By the Romans it was 
made a colony: in modern times it is 
known by the name of St. Jean d'Acre, and 
is still a place of importance. 
AC'COS (1 Mace. viii. 17). 
AG'COZ (1 Esdr. v. 38). Koz (Ezra ii. 61). 
ACCURSED. This word is sometimes 
used of those formally condemned by God's 
law, as in Deut. xxi. 23. It is also applied 
to persons cut off from the church, or Irre- 
vocably devoted to extermination. See 

AlffATHEMA, EXCOMMUNICATION. 

ACCUSER OF THE BRETHREN. Satan 
Is so denominated (Rev. xii. 10). The ap- 



plicability of the title is obvious from Job 
1. 9-11, ii. 4, 5; Zech. iii. 1. It is by the 
mighty power of Christ alone, 'by the 
blood of the Lamb ' (Rev. xii. 11), that this 
enemy's accusations can be met and over- 

ACEL'DAMA (field of blood). A piece of 
land called originally 'the potter's field,' 
which was purchased with the money given 
to Judas for betraying Christ. It would 
seem that there the traitor hanged himself, 
and that hence the place was known as the 
field of blood. It was afterwards appropri- 
ated to the burial of strangers (Matt, xxvii. 
6-8 : Acts i. 16, 19). It has been asserted 
that the two accounts are contradictory , 
but Dr. Alexander (Acts of the Apostles, note 
on i. 18) well says, ' Peter is here speaking, 
not as a historian, but as an orator, to those 
already well acquainted with the facts, ana, 
therefore, in no danger of misapprehension. 
He contrasts the loss and gain of the be- 
trayer: he had lost his office and his soul, 
and he had gained— a field, a piece of ground, 
which only served to perpetuate his in- 
famy 1 ' Yarious spots have been supposed 
to be the field of blood: that now bear- 
ing the name is on the southern face 
of the valley of the son of Hinnom, at 
the eastern end : a ruined edifice stanas 

°"aCHA'IA. This was the original name 
of a district in the north-west of the Pelo- 
ponnesus : in New Testament times it 
had a wider signification ; for the Roman 
provinces of Achaia and Macedonia com- 
prehended the whole of Greece. It is m 
this larger sense that Achaia must be un- 
derstood (Acts xviii. 12, 27, XIX. 21; Rom. 
XV. 26, xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 15 ; 2 Cor. 1. 1, ix. 2, 
xi 10 ; 1 Thess. i. 7, 8). Achaia was first a 
senatorial province, and had proconsuls. 
Tiberius changed it into a province im- 
perial under procurators; and Claudius 
restored it to the senate. Hence GaUio, 
before whom Paul appeared,was proconsul. 
Corinth was the capital city. 

ACHA'ICUS (belonging to Achaia^. A 
Christian, perhaps one of the family or 
household of Stephanas of Corinth (1 Cor. 

^ A'CHAN (troubler). A man of the tribe of 
Judah, who at the sacking of Jericho ap- 
propriated, contrary to God's express com- 
mand, a portion of the spoil. Hence the 
repulse before Ai. Achan's guilt being dis- 
covered, he was carried with his family and 
all his property into the valley of Achor, 
and there stoned and afterwards burned. 
Joshua, alluding, as he sentenced him, to 
his name, said, ' Why hast thou troubled us ? 
The Lord shall trouble thee this day. It 
would seem that Achan's family shared his 
punishment— how far they were involved m 
his crime we know not — and that his pos- 
sessions were destroyed (Josh. vii.). He is 
also called 
A'CK AH (id.). aChron. ii.lO\ 
A'CHAZ (Matt. i. 9). The Greek form of 
Ahaz ; which see. , ^ .p t, i 

ACH'BOR (mouse).— I. The father of Baal- 
hanan, an Edomite king (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 
39; 1 Chron. i. 49).— 2. One of Josiahs 
officers (2 Kings xxii. 12. 14). In 2 Chron. 



A-CHIAOHABrs] 



10 



xxxiT. 20 he is called Abdon. The same | measure of laud, i.e. as much as a yoke of 
persou is most prohahly meaut in Jer. xxvi. ; oxen cau plough in a day. 



xxxvi. 12, 
ACRIACH'AEUS.—l. (Toh. i, 
(xir. 10). 
ACRI'AS (2 Esdr. i. 2). 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. The hook so 
^ ^c.).— 2. ' called is the fifth and last of the historical 
I hooks of the ^STew Testament ; it connects 
1 the Gospels vrith the Epistles, heing a 
A'CHm. (This mav he the same name ; fitting supplement to the former and a 
%vith Jachin, vrhom God ma'kes firm). One in ! raluahle introduction to the latter, 
the line of our Lord's ancestors (Matt. i. 14). i There can he no reasouahle question that 
A'CHIOB (Judith T. 5, &c.). i St. Luke ^as the ^viiter of This hook. It must 

A'CHISH {angry ?). A Philistine king at : have heen composed hy one man, hecause 
Gath. David fled twice to him. The first there is an unity of purpose traceahle in it, 
time he was in some danger, from heing and the style (which is very perspicuous) 
recognized as one who had distinguished and manner are reraarkahly homogeneous, 
himself against the Philistines: he therefore The Greek is comparatively classical, with 
feigned madness (1 Sam. xxi. 10-15). The : peculiarities of diction resemh ling the third 
second time Achish treated David kindly, Gospel ; while the turn of thought, also, 
gave him Ziklaar, and took him to the is similar in the two treatises. "When it is 
campais-n against Saul (xxvii., xxviii. 1, 2, ' added that the second hegins where the 
xxix.\ "At a later period Shimei went to first ends, so that put together they 
Achish in pursuit of his seiwants ; it :s form a continuous history, and that the 
douhtful whether this was the same king author of the last expressly refers to a hook 
a Kings ii. 39, 40). In the title of Psal. he hadpreviously written— a hook just such 
xxxiv. he is caUed Ahimelech. . as the Gospel— the two heing, further, dedi- 

ACHI'TOB (1 Esdr. viii. 2). A form of cat ed to the same individual, there is surely 
Ahituh (Ezra vii. 2). the strongest evidence that hoth were 

ACH'METHA (sfatio72 for 7;o?v'e5, or perhaps from the same pen. And these internal 
fortress) (Ezra vi. 2). See Ecbataxa. \ proofs are corrohorated hy the tradition oi 

A'CROR (trovhle). Avallev near Jericho, ! the early church, which unanimously 
now TTaf?]/ e?-^eZf. where Achan was stoned ; ascribes the Acts of the Apostles to the 
and from the troulile Achan brought upon ; evangelist St. Luke. _ ^ , 

Israel it had its name (Josh. vii. 24, 26). Tet \ Its date is pretty well determined hy the 
from that trouble sanctified a new career of time at which its narrative closes— two 
victorv heixan. TVith this idea we find the , years after St. Paul's being brought a 
place and the circumstance afterwards ad- prisoner to Pome. AVe may, therefore, 
verted to (Eos. ii. 15). The vallev of trouble , with much probability assign it to 63 a.d. 
was the door throuffh which Israel entered | The title 'Acts of the Apostles,' by which 
Canaan first ; and aeain through the valley ; this hook is commonly known, would seem 
of trouble would the Lord lead his ransom- \ to be a later addition. It does not describe 
ed people to peace and rest. The boundary- : accurately the contents. For the object of 
line of Judah ran bv Achor (Josh. xv. 7) ; it , the OA-angelist was neither to give a corn- 
is also mentioned in Isai. Ixv. 10. plete history of the church during the 
ACH'SA, ACH'SAH (anklet). — !. The' period comprised, nor to record generally 
daughter of Caleb. Caleb promised her in the labours of the apostles : it was rather 
niarriase to anv one who should take Kir-' to exhibit the fulfilment of promise m the 
iath-^epher Othniel, son of Keiiaz, Caleb's descent of the Holy Spirit, and the conse- 
younger brother, took the city and gained ciuent planting and growth of the Christian 
the hand' of Achsab. to whom her father! church among Jews and Gentiles hy the 
gave an inheritance (josh. XV. 16-19; Judges' establishment of centres of influence m 
" 12-15).— 2 Daughter of Caleb, son of various provinces of the empire, beginning 
■■ at Jerusalem and ending at Rome. Keeping 



Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 49: . 

ACH'SHAPH ifascination). A city of 
Canaan (Josh. xi. 1, xii. 20), in the division 
of the laud allotted to Asher (xix. 25). It is 
perhaps the modern Kcsaf. 

ACH'ZIB (deceit).—!. A city in the plain 
eountrv of Judah (Josh. xv. 44 ; Micah i. 14) : 
in the last-named place the prophet makes 
a pilav upon words, q.d., ' the houses of the 
lyins town shall be a lie.' This is probably 
identical with Chezib (Gen. xxxviii. 5).— 2. 
A town aUotted to Asher (Josh. xix. 29) ; 
from which, however, that tribe did not 
expel the Canaanites (Judges i. 31) : it is 
now Es-Zlh. 

ACrPHA (1 Esdr. v. 31). 

ACI'TEO (Judith viii. 1). 

ACRABAT'TIXE (1 Mace. v. 3). See Aea- 

BATTIXE. ^ „ 

ACRAB'Bm (Josh. xv. 3, marg.). See 
Akrabbim. 

ACRE. The word occurs in 1 Sam. xiv. 
14; Isai. T. 10. The original Hebrew term 
denotes ' a yoke,' used in tliese places as a 



this idea steadily in view, we shall see that 
all the events recorded fall naturally into 
their places, and that any seeming abrupt- 
ness is sufficiently accounted for. 

This hook divides itself into two main 
parts ; each being groii^)ed around a central 
fisure.— 1. The planting and extension of 
the chtu-ch among the Jews hy the ministry 
of Peter (i.-xii.). Subdivisions area) the orga- 
nization of the church in Jerusalem (i.-vii.^; 
(2) the branching forth of the gospel in 
various directions from the mother chtirch 
(viii.-xii.).— 2. The planting and extension of 
the church among the Gentiles by the minis- 
trv of Paul (xiii.-xxviii.). Subdivisions are 
Paul's ministry at large (xiii.-xxii. 26); 
(2) his ministrj' in bonds (xxii. 27-xxviii.). 
It must he carefully observed that these 
two parts are closely connected as belonging 
to one great system. For it is Peter who 
first introduces a Gentile convert into the 
church ; and Paul during the whole of his 
ministrations is careful to proclaim the 



ii 



[ADAMANT 



gospel, in every place where he has oppor- 
tunity, first to the Jews and afterwards to 

Tlfere^s the face of it a truthfulness 
in tbis hook which strongly commends 
itself to the reader. Thus the speeches 
attributed to different individuals are m 
full accordance with their respective cha- 
racters and the circumstances m which 
they stood. The author w^as himself pre- 
sent at several of the events which he 
uarrates-and this he carefully notes hy 
chan??e of person and in the verhs and 
nronouns he uses ; he had, moreover, as a 
companion of the apostles, the hest opportu- 
nities of knowing accurately the things he 
did not personally witness. From informa- 
tion so acquired he was guided hy the 
Holy Spirit to place on record those facts 
which testified to the divine origin of 
Christianity, and showed that the gospel 
was indebted for its success not to fraud or 
human favour, hut to the wonder-workmg 
power of God, and the efficacy of the 
saving truths it promulgated. These 
were the same truths which were revealed 
in the Gospels, and illustrated m the 
apostolic letters, truths thoroughly adap- 
ted to the w^ants of those, hoth Jews 
and Gentiles, to whom they were i^rought. 
And the unity of God's purpose is exhibited 
in the frequent appeals made to the ancient 
scriptures; and the supernatural power 
possessed by the gospel is attested by the 
miracles which we find the apostles, m 
accordance with Christ's promise, were 
enabled to wwk. ^ i „ 

It may be added that the researches of 
antiquaries, and the investigations of tra- 
vellers, remarkably confirm in a variety of 
details the accurate truthfulness of the 
Acts of the Apostles. See Dr. J. A Alexan- 
der's Acts of the Apostles Explained (Intro- 
duction). 
AC'UA (1 Esdr. v. 30). 
AC TIB (1 Esdr. v. 31). 
ADA'DAH {festival, according to some 
houndanj). A town in the extreme south of 
the portion of Judah (Josh. xv. 22). Wilton 
considers the word an error for Ararah, 
and identifies it with the modern Ar (Lr ah 
{The Negebor South Country of Script., VV- 

^\^'DAH (ornament, deauttj).— I. One of the 
wives of Lamech, of the Hue of Cam (Gen. 

19) —2. A name of one of Esau's wives 
(xxxvi. 2) : she is elsewhere called Bashe- 
math (xxvi. 34). 

ADAI'AH vwhora Jehovah adorns).—!. 
Maternal grandfather of king Josiah (2 
Kings xxii. 1).— 2. A Lcvite (1 Cliron. yi. 41). 
—3. A Benjamite (viii.21).-4. A priest ax.l2 ; 
Neh xi 12).— 5. One mentioned in 2 Chron. 
xxiii 1—6, 7. Two persons who had taken 
foreign wives (Ezra x. 29, 39).— 8. A de- 
scendant of Judah (Neh. xi. 5), perhaps 
identical with No. 5. 

ADAL'IA {uprightD. One of the sons of 
Hainan (Esth. ix. 8). 

AD' AM (red, red earth). The name appro- 
priated to the first man, the father of the 
inhabitants of the world ; used, however, 
sometimes more generally, as m Gen. v. 1,2, 
where the woman is included in the same 



appellation. This name was probably 
chosen to remind the man of his earth ly 
nature, seeing that out of the ground his 
body was taken, though his soul, the 
breath of life, was breathed into his 
nostrils by God's immediate act. The his- 
tory of his creation is narrated in i. 26-30, 
ii 7, 15-25, a single pair being formed, to 
whom the earth was given for a possession, 
to replenish it with their children, to enjoy 
the fruits of it, and to have dominion oyer 
the inferior animals. We are told that 
' God created man in his own image and 
after his 'likeness ;' not with respect to 
bodily shape, or according to the form 
which as an archetype the second person of 
the Trinity would subsequently assume, 
but certainly with a likeness to God m 
moral attributes. This is implied by the ex- 
pressions of St. Paul, who plainly considers 
righteousness and holiness the likeness of 
God (Eph. iv. 24; Col. iii. 10). The phrase 
must also denote the possession of domi- 
nion and authority ; for immediately it is 
subjoined ' let them have dominion ' (Gen. i. 
26), explanatory, it would seem, of the term 
image.' And so St. Paul calls the man 
• the image and glory of God,' on the ground 
of his being ' the head of the woman (1 
Cor xi. 3, 7). In this view Gen. ix. 6 and 
James iii. 9 are easily explicable (see Bush, 
Notes on Genesis, i. 26). The high intellec- 
tual power with which man was endowea 
is illustrated by his giving appropriate 
names to the loAver animals (Gen. ii. 19, 
20). He was indeed a glorious creature, 
and would have been uninterruptedly, per- 
haps increasingly, happy, had he continued 
in his first estate of innocence. Adam's la- 
mentable fall is next related (iii.). How 
long it w-as after his creation, ingenious 
men have puzzled themselves to discover, 
but in vain. By sin Adam lost his best 
prerogative. He had suffered spiritual 
death, and he was to suflier bodily death : 
dust as he was, to dust he should return. 
To his posterity he transmitted, therefore, 
a corrupted nature, which could be restored 
and recovered only by the power of the 
second Adam, ahead of life and blessedness 
to all that believe in him (Rom. v. 15, 16 ; 1 
Cor. XV. 21, 22, 45, 47, 48). Of Adam's sub- 
sequent history we know little. We are 
expressly told that he had ' sons and daugh- 
ters,' though the names of l)ut three of his 
sons are recorded. He lived 930 years (Gen. 
iv. 1, 2, 25, 26, V. 3-5 ; 1 Chron. i. 1; Luke iii. 
38) See Man. 

AD'AM^^YZ.).' A city near the Jordan, by 
which the waters were cut off when Israel 
passed over (Josh. iii. 16). 

ADA'MAH (earth, so called from its 
reddish colour). A fenced city of Kaphtali 
(Josh. xix. 36). ^ ^ . . • 

ADAMANT. This word is found twice m 
our version (Ezek. iii. 9 ; Zech. vii. 12), in 
both cases used metaphorically to signify 
firmness of character and purpose. The ori- 
ginal word occurs again in Jer. xvii. 1, where 
it is translated 'diamond,' with which the 
writer's pen is said to be pointed. The 
term must signify some exceedingly hard 
stone ; and diamond is the hardest we know. 
Tlie Greek word for emery nowdcr used m 



AD ami] 



12 



polishing is not improbably connected with 
this Hebrew one ; the two are smiris or 
svmris, and shamir. 

ADA'MI (human). A border-town of 
Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). 

A'DAR (greatness, splendour). A border- 
town of Judah (Josh. xy. 3). It would seem 
to be the same with Hazar-Addar (Numb, 
xxxiv. 4), possibly 'Ain el-Ktideirdt. 

A'DAR (perhaps flre). See Months. 

ABA'SA (1 Mace. vii. 40, 45). A place not 
far from Beth-horon. 

AD'BEEL (perhaps miracle of God). A 
son of Ishraael (Gen. xxv. 13 ; 1 Chron. i. 29). 

AD'DAN (humble 1). A place from which 
some who could not show their genealogy 
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 59). 
It is called Addon in Neh. vii. 61. 

AD'DAR (greatness 2). A descendant of 
Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 3) ; called also Ard 
(Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Numb. xxvi. 40). 

ADDER. Several different Hebrew words 
are so rendered in our version. That 
occurring Gen. xlix. 17 (arrowsnake, marg.) 
implies a gliding motion : it is supposed to 
be the Cerastes Hasselquistii, a small and 
very venomous snake, with two antennue 
like horns, well-kno"wai In Egypt, accus- 
tomed to lie in wait in the sand and near 
paths. 'Adder' occurs also (Psal. Iviii. 4, 
xci. 13) as the translation of another word, 
perhaps embodying the idea of twisting 
or twining. It is described as deaf to the 
charmer, and, as the same word is gene- 
rally rendered ' asp ' (e.g. Deut. xxxii. 33), it 
must have been venomous. It is probably 
the Egyptian cobra (naia haje). We find an- 
other Hebrew word (Psal. cxl. 3), which is 
compound, including the tAvo ideas of coil- 
ing and lying in wait. It also was poisonous. 
There is one more word which implies 
hissing. It occurs several times (Prov. 
xxiii. 32 ; Isai. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5 ; Jer. viii. 
17), but is rendered 'adder' in the text 
only in the first-named place, elsewhere 
' cockatrice.' It seems to have lived in 
holes, to have been oviparous, and veno- 
mous. It may have been that called basilis- 
cus and regulus, a small venomous African 
serpent. But the two last-named have not 
been certainly identified. 

AD'DI (ornament). One of the ancestors 
of our Lord (Luke iii. 28). 

AD'DI (1 Esdr. ix. 31). 

AD'DO (1 Esdr. vi. 1). A form of Iddo, 
grandfather of Zechariah the prophet 
(Zech. i. 1). 

AD'DON (humble D (Neh. vii. 61.) See Ad- 
dan. 

AD'DUS—l. (Esdr. V. 34).— 2, (38). 

A'DER (flock). A man of Benjamin (1 
Chron. viii. 15). 

AD'IDA (1 Mace. xii. 38, xiii. 13). A for- 
tified town, perhaps identical with Adi- 
thaim. 

XDl'^Jj (ornament of Ood).—\. One of the 
tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 36).— 2. A priest 
(ix. 12).— 3. The father of David's treasurer 
(xxvii. 25). 

A'DTN (delicate). One whose descendants 
returned from captivity (Ezra i. 15, viii. 6 ; 
Neh. vii. 20, x. 16). 

ADI'NA (slender, pliant). A Reubenite, 
>ne of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 42). 



ADI'NO (2 Sam. xxiii. 8). Beo JASHO- 

BBAM. 

AD'INUS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). 

ADITHA'IM (double prey ? ). A city in 
the plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 36). 

ADJURE. This word as used in our 
version implies— 1. Binding under the 
penalty of a curse (Josh, vi, 26 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 
24).— 2. An earnest charge or entreaty, 
sometimes equivalent to putting a person 
upon his oath (1 Kings xxii. 16 ; 2 Chron. 
xviii. 15 ; Matt. xxvi. 63 : comp. 1 Thess. v. 
27, Gr.). It is once used, but not by Christ 
or his apostles, for the casting out of a 
devil (Acts xix. 13). See Exorcist, Oath. 

AD'LAI (justice of God). The father of 
one of David's chief herdmen (1 Chron. 
xxvii. 29). 

AD'MAH (red earth). One of the cities 
destroyed with Sodom (Gen. x. 19, xiv. 2, 8 ; 
Deut. xxix. 23 ; Hos. xi. 8). 

ADMA'THA (perhaps earthy, dark-co- 
loured: other interpretations have been 
proposed). One of the seven princes of 
Persia (Esth. i. 14). 

AD'NA (pleasure).—!. A person who had 
married a strange wife (Ezra x. 30).— 2. A 
priest (Neh. xii. 15) ; Adnah in some copies 

AD'NAH (id.). One of Jehoshaphat'g 
captains (2 Chron. xvii. 14). 

AD'NAH (favourite brother ? ). A chief of 
Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 
Chron. xii. 20). 

ADO'NI-BE'ZEK (lord of Bezek). The 
king of Bezek, conquered by the tribe of 
Judah. He had his thumbs and great toes 
cut off, having himself inflicted the same 
punishment on seventy chiefs (Judges I. 
4-7). 

ADONI'JAH (my lord is Jehovah).—! 
The fourth son of David, by Haggith, born 
at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Chron. iii. 2). 
Wlien his father was old, he, being a man 
of fine person and probably popular, as- 
pired to the crown, in order to exclude 
Solomon. He was joined by Joab and 
Abiathar, and seems to have had the coun- 
tenance of his brothers. But David, being 
apprised by Bath-sheba and Nathan, im- 
mediately ordered Solomon to be anointed 
king ; and the intelligence of this broke up 
the conspiracy. Solomon promised, if Ado- 
nijah remained quiet, that this offence 
should be overlooked (1 Kings i.). He did 
not remain quiet, but, after David's death, 
persuaded Bath-sheba to ask for him Abi- 
shag, a woman of his father's harem. Solo- 
mon, convinced that this was a renewal of 
his attempt upon the crown, commanded 
him to be executed (ii. 13-25). — 2. A Levite 
in Jehoshaphat's time (2 Chron. xvii. 8).— 
3. One who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 16). 

ADONI'EIAM (lord of the enemy). One 
whose descendants returned with Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 13, viii. 13 ; Neh. vii. 18). 

ADONI'RAM (lord of a Ititude). An officer 
of Solomon (1 Kings iv. 6, v. 14). He is 
probably identical "vWth Adoram (2 Sam, xx. 
24 ; 1 Kings xii, 18^, and Hadoram (2 Chron, 
X. 18), stoned at the secession of the ten 
tribes from Rehoboam , 

ADO'NI-ZE'DEK (lord of justice). The 
Amorite king of Jerusalem, conquered and 
put to death by Joshua (Josh, x, 1-27). 



13 



[adultehy 



ADOPTION. Adoption is when a person 
not naturally a son is taken into another's 
family, and acknowledged, treated, and 
endowed as his own child. Scarcely any 
examples of such a practice are to be found 
in the Old Testament. The reckoning of 
the sons of the concubine as those of the 
actual wife (Gen. xvi. 2, xxx. 3), and the 
operation of the levirate law (xxxviii. 8 ; 
Deut. XXV. 5, 6), are not instances in point. 
But Moses was adopted by Pharaoh's 
daughter (Exod. iii. 10) ; and, though in the 
line of Hebrew home history no parallel to 
this occurs, yet we have an instance when 
the Jews were removed into captivity in 
the case of Mordecai and Esther (Esth. ii. 
7, 20). Adoption was common under the 
Roman law; according to which, by a 
formal act, a relationship was established 
exactly like that between a father and his 
own son. This custom has furnished St. 
Paul with a beautiful Illustration of the 
Great Father's kindness to the estranged 
children of men (Rom. viii, 15, 23, ix. 4 ; 
Gal. iv. 5 ; Eph. i. 5). The family of Israel 
was originally selected, to whom God be- 
came a father ; and in Christ Jesus every 
individual believer is permitted by the 
Lord's infinite mercy to regard him as his 
parent, and with the Spirit of adoption to 
call him * Abba, Father.' 

ABO' It A (1 Mace. xiii. 20). Perhaps the 
same with 

ADORA'IM (double mound). A city of 
Judah which Rehoboam fortified (2 Chron. 
xi. 9). It appears to be the modern DUra, a 
village a few miles west of Hebron. 

ADO 'RAM (A contracted form of Adon- 
iram, lord of altitude). See Adoniram. 

ADORATION. This word does not oc- 
cur in the scriptures. It is found in the 
Apocrypha, applied to the worship of an 
idol (Bel and Dr. 4). See Bowing, Wok- 
ship. 

ADRAM'MELEOH (splendour of the king, 
or possibly king of fire, i.e. the sun-god). 
—1. An idol god whose worship with 
that of Anammelech was introduced into 
Samaria by the Sepharvites (2 Kings xvii. 
31). Some have imagined Adranimelech to 
be the sun ; Anammelech the moon. Raw- 
linson, however, would regard the former 
as signifying the male, the latter the fe- 
male, power of the sun (Herod. Append. 
Essay x. vol. i. p. 611). 2.— A son of Sen- 
nacherib, who with his brother Sharezer 
assassinated their father in the temple of 
Nisroch and fied into Armenia (2 Kings 
xix. 37; 2 Chron. xxxii. 21; Isai. xxxvii. 
S8). 

ADRAMYT'TITJM. A sea-port town of 
Mysia : it was an Athenian colony, and is 
now but a village, retaining the name Ad- 
ramyt, with some trade. It was in a ship 
of Adramyttium that St. Paul on his voy- 
age to Italy sailed from Caesarea to Myra 
(Acts xxvii. 2-5). 

A'DRI A. A part of the Mediterranean sea 
over which St. Paul was voyaging when he 
was shipwrecked on the island of Malta 
(Acts xxvii. 27). It was not just the modern 
Adriatic or gulf of Venice, but included, in 
that age, the whole of the waters between 
Greece, Italy, Sicily, and Africa; though. 



sometimes, the southern part was distin- 
guished as the Ionian sea, the northern as 
the sea of Adria. 

AD'RIEL (flock of God:). The son of 
Barzillai the Meholathite, to whom Saul's 
elder daughter Merab was given in mar- 
riage, though she had been promised to 
David (1 Sam. xviii. 17, 19). His five sons, 
delivered up to the Gibeonites, are said to 
have been borne to him by Michal (2 Sam. 
xxi, 8). Either Michal took charge of them, 
or (see marg.) there is an error of tran- 
scription for Michal's sister. 

AD'UEL (Tob. i. 1). 

ADUL'LAM (justice of the people). An 
ancient city in the plain country of Judah 
once the seat of a Canaanitish king (J osh 
xii. 15, XV. 35). It was fortified by Reho 
boam (2 Chron. xi. 7). We find it afterwards 
mentioned (Neh. xi. 30; Micah i. 15. See 
also 2 Mace. xii. 38). There are caverns in 
the neighbourhood, one of which ma^/have 
been the cave which David frequented 
(1 Sam. xxii. l; 2 Sam. xxiii.13; l Chron. 
xi. 15). But, as it is evident from the last- 
named references that the cave was near 
Bethlehem, it is more likely that, according 
to tradition, it was at KhureitiXn, between 
Bethlehem and the Dead sea. Dr. Thomson 
(The Land and the Book, pp. 606, 607) de- 
scribes a cavern there, and produces some 
reasons to corroborate the tradition : 
'Leaving our horses in charge of wild 
Arabs, and taking one for a guide, we 
started for the cave, having a fearful 
gorge below, gigantic cliffs above, and the 
path winding along a shelf of the rock, 
narrow enough to make the nervous among 
us shudder. At length, from a great rock 
hanging on the edge of this shelf, we 
sprang by a long leap into a low window 
which opened into the perpendicular face 
of the cliff. We were then within the 
hold of David, and, creeping hali-doubled 
through a narrow crevice for a few rods, 
we stood beneath the dark vault of the 
first grand chamber of this mysterious 
and oppressive cavern. Our whole collec- 
tion of lights did little more than make 
the damp darkness visible. After groping 
about as long as we had time to spare, 
we returned to the light of day, fully con- 
vinced that, with David and his lion-heart- 
ed followers inside, all the strength of 
Israel under Saul could not have forced 
an entrance, would not have even attempt- 
ed it.' 

ADTJL'LAMITE. A resident of the city 
Adullam (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). 

ADULTERY. A crime prohibited by the 
seventh commandment (Exod. xx. 14). It 
was illicit connection between a married 
woman and a man not her husband. If 
tlie woman were not married, it was consi- 
dered, whether the man had a wife already 
or no, the inferior crime of fornication. 
This distinction necessarily arose from the 
allowance of polygamy; and, besides, it 
I was only in the first-named case that 
' there could be the aggravation of intro- 
ducing spurious children into a family. 
I That adultery as above defined was gene- 
' rally esteemed a heinous sin we may see 
' from the fact that Abraham and Isaac did 



not a-ppreliend tliat tlieir viives Tvotild Idc 
forced from them, l^ut tliat they sliould "be 
put to death tliat their vrldows might he 
marriageahle, and n-om the horror that 
Pharaoh and Ahimelech expressed of any- 
one tonchins a maiTied "woman fGen. xii. 
ir>20, XX., xxYi. 1-11). The punishment of 
this crime appears to have heen burning in 
the earliest ages (xxxviii. 24), hut hy the 
"Mosaic la^ it Ts-as stoning, and that 
TThether the woman was actuaDy married ; 
or onlv hetrothed Lev. xx. 10 ; Deut. xxii. ' 
22-27), proTlded she was free. If she was a 
=lave, she was to he whipped, and possibly 
the man also, and he was to offer a trespass 
offering (Lev. xix. 2'>22;'. In cases where a 
man had reasonable ground of suspicion 
against his vrile, but no sufficient proof, a 
remarkable trial was permitted, in which 
the Lord would, by the effect of ' the buter 
water' that the woman was to drink, 
6how whether she was guilty (Xumb. v. 
11-31). It would seem that in later times 
this ordeal had passed almost out of use, and 
also that the crime of adultery ceased to be 
capital, at least that capital punishment j 
was rarelv inflicted (Matt. i. 18, 19) ; divorce . 
beins resorted to. Adultery is used meta- 
phoricallv to describe the sin of Israel, ■ 
God's peculiar people, honoiu'ed as a che- : 
fished spouse, in forsaking the Lord to ; 
worship and serve other gods (Jer. iii. ; 
Eze£ xvl. 30-32 : Hos. ii.) ; whence we see I 
the wonderful forbearance of God in pro- , 
vidins: a means of pardon after such a sm 



AFFTPAr attTT:. 'Thou hast said' 
Olart. xxvl. (>4:)i was a form of affirmation 
anions the Jews, meaning 'Thou hast 
riehtly said.' It is, h(->wever, probably 
somewhat stronger than a simple admis- 
sion. See Alf ord, Tlie Greek Test, note on 
Matt. xxvl. 64. 

aG'aBA (1 Esdr. T. 30). The Hagab of 
Ezra ii. 46. 

AG'AErS rpossibly locusf). - A prophet 
who predicted a famine ''Acts xi. 23). This 
prediction most probably pointed to the 
dearth in Judtea which Josephus mentions 
(A/itiq. lib. XX. 2, § 6, 5, § 2), which began 
about 44 A.D. The expression ' all the world ' 
mav ve^'^ w^:: e taken in a more restricted 
sense, A- ; foretold the imprison- 

men: I -V- Acts xxi. 10, 11). 

A'GAi- .. ".:- iing). This was probahly 
the gciieral title of the kings of the Amalek- 
ites. as Pharaoh of the Egyptians. We find 
it used at two different periods of history 
r^Tumb. xxiv. 7 ; and 1 Sam. xv.\ For Saul's 
disobedience in not destroying Amalek, 
and in savins Asra?, he was finally rejected. 

AG'AGITE. Haman is called the Agagite 
(Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 3, 5, ix. 24). He was 
perhaps of the Amalekitish royal family. 

VGlR GpT, iv. 24, 25). The Greek form 
of Ha-:^ at: ;ee. . ^ ^ ^ ^ 

AGj.' " ■ Bar. 111. 23). Descendants 
ofA^a: 

AGATE. Oi-r ei the precious stones m 
the hieh priest's breast-plate (Exod. xx^lii. 
19, xxxix. 12). It is a variety of quartz, 
occun-insr in nodules, semi-transparent and 



^"^ADr^rMni (the red. or bloody, or, accord- \ micrfstaUized, comp6sed of parallel or con 
d-hAred men> 'The soing ; centric layers differently tinted. Agate is 



mg to some, re 

up' or pass 'of Adummim' was a rismg 
ground on the road from Jericho to Jeru- ; 
salem. It was. and still is, the resort of i 
robber= ; hence rerhar^s the name. It was ; 
just upon i-^ I rler between Benjamin, 
and Judah J: ?'n xv, xviii. 17: comp. ! 
Luke X. 3'''-3'' . 1' s >'-:-lS to have been on i 
the south face of tl.e gorge of the Wady 
elrKe'r. . ,^ ^ I 

ADTEFlSAFuY. The devil is so caJed : 
n Pet. V. S : comp. Zech. iii. 1). See Sat as*. ; 

ADVOCATE. One who appears in behalf ; 
of another, to conduct or plead his cause. ; 
In judicial' proceedings in the Old Testa-; 
ment we find no trace of any such aid. 
But in later times the use of advocates 
might have passed from the Romans to 
the" Jews. Christ is called cur 'Advocate 
with the Father' a John ii. 1), the original 
-term ha^'in^ that distinct signification. 
It is a: so the word used of the Holy Spn-it 

^AEI^I'A ^ 1 F . 00 , : - , 2 :, . _ 

^^EAS or EVE'AS. A rara.ytic ^at 
Lvdda whom Peter healed 'Acts ix, 32-34\ 

'^'SO'S (springs). The place where John 
baptized' near to Salim (John iii. 23). It 
appears to have been west of the Jordan; 
and a Sdlirn has been found with copious 
cprines near ^^ablous. Wady Faroh, also, a 
little to the north-east of Jerusalem, is said 
to abound in streams ; and a Wo.dy .bcle^/n 
is close by. It must be, at present at least, 
a question which of these places is identical 
with .En on. 
AFFINITY. See aiahptage. 



al=o the renderine of another Hebrew term 
(Isai. I'v, 12 : Ezek. xxvii. 16, where marg. 
' cirrvs : - r a^ e' . But a transparent or spark- 
lins'sto-iie seems meant by the word a= 
here used ; P'^ssioly it may be the ruby. 

AGE. In the patriarchal times, and under 
the Mosaic dispensation, a long life was 
con=;idered a peculiar blessing to the indi- 
vidual (Exod. XX. 12 : Job v. 26), and a= be- 
tokening prosperity in the state (Zech. viii. 
4^ Great respect was therefore paid to the 
ased in private life (Lev. xix. 32 ; Job xv. 
10, xxxii. 6, 7 ; Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29\ In 
the redemption-payment for a vow, indeed, 
the old man was rated at a less sum than 
the voune man (Lev. xxvii. 7); but this 
was natural, and, besides, was connected 
vrith the lighter burdens imposed on elder 
per=ons ; the Levites, for example, being 
excu=^ed from the more laborious work of 
their office after the age of fifty (Xumb. viii. 
'■'S'a In reeard to public affairs the counsel 
of the aged was specially to be regarded 
(1 Kings xii. 6-S). , ^ ^ * 

A'GEE (fugitive). The father of one of 
David'- miihtv men (2 8am. xxiii. IP. 

AGGE'US (1 Esdr. vi. 1, vii. 3 ; 2 Esdr. i. 
40 . The prophet Haggai. 

\GON"Y (Luke xxii. 44). The narrative 
of our Lord's asrony in the garden evidently 
imnlies that the sweat as it dropped from 
h^-'bodvto the sTound was tinged or co- 
loured with blood. Instances are not want- 
^'r 2- of extreme terror or emotion producing 
such a bloody sweat. See Alford, Th^ 
I (t/'.Jc:: Te^t., note on Luke xx\i. 44. 



15 



AGRICULTURE. The cultivation of the ( 
ground was the first employment of man. i 
When placed in the happy garden, he was ' 
to dress it and to keep it' (Gen. ii. 15). The ] 
fruit of the trees and the green herhs were : 
to he his food (i. 29) : these, therefore, he - 
must tend. At first, it is obvious, the : 
trees would demand little care ; to the herbs ' 
Adam would naturally direct his chief at- 
tention. And, doubtless, those which were < 
best suited for his sustenance, being indi- 
genous, yielded their produce easily and 
plentifully, so as to make the necessary cul- 
ture of them no hard or laborious toil. : 
There was a change when man had lost his 
Innocence, and was driven from Eden, con- ; 
demned in the sweat of his face to eat 
bread (iii. 17-19). The labour must have : 
been heavy enough when ' Cain was a tiller 
of the ground ' (iv. 2). Everything had to be 
done by hand ; for, though Abel was ' a 
keeper of sheep,' we read nothing of the 
breeding of larger cattle till a later period 
(20) ; a considerable time, therefore, may 
nave elapsed before beasts were trained 
to labour. Metallic tools were not yet in- 
vented (22) ; so that to break aip the soil, to 
clear away the thorns and thistles, and to 
perform the other necessary duties of agri- 
culture, was grinding toil. "Whether the 
ground was specially made sterile at the 
fall, and whether, if so, that curse was re- 
laxed after the flood, may admit of ques- 
tion : it is at least evident that, as time 
passed on, and animals were subjected to 
the yoke, and proper implements were 
obtained by the working in metals, the 
labour of the early fathers of mankind 
must have been rendered progressively 
more easy, and the earth have yielded more 
largely her increase (v. 29, viii. 21, 22). 

With the difficulties attending it, hus- 
bandry was perhaps little practised before 
the flood ; but, when he left the ark, Noah, 
we find it recorded, 'began to be an hus- 
bandman, and he planted a vineyard ' (ix. 20) ; 
and there are frequent notices afterwards 
of the cultivation of the ground, and of the 
large increase which it sometimes yielded 
(xxvi. 12, xxxvii. 7). 

The regulations of the Mosaic law tended 
to encourage agriculture. The division of 
lands, the obligations on landed property, 
the very cycle of the religious festivals were 
closely connected with it. And Palestine, 
the promised inheritance, was in the highest 
degree fruitful, ' a good land ; a land of 
brooks of water, of fountains and depths 
that spring out of valleys and hills ; a laud 
of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig- 
trees, and pomegranates ; aland of oil, olive 
and honey ; a land wherein thou shalt eat 
bread without scarceness' (Deut. viii. 7-9) ; 
and in the facility of its cultivation it con- 
trasted advantageously with Egypt, where 
fruitfulness was dependent upon the over- 
flow of the Nile (xi. 10-12). 

That among the ancient Hebrews agricul- 
ture reached considerable perfection, we 
may not unfairly conclude from the notices 
which the prophets have left us. Thus, 
after the ground was ploughed and the 
clods broken and levelled, we are told that 
the various seeds were differently sown ac- 



cording to their nature: the 'fitches' and 
the 'cummin' were scattered ; while the 
' wheat ' and the 'barley' and the 'spelt' were 
planted in rows. In threshing, too, proper 
rules were observed : the fitches and the 
cummin were beaten out with a staff or 
rod; but the heavy threshing-instrument 
or cart was used upon the wheat, care being 
taken that it was not injured by the wheels, 
or the hoofs of the horses (Isai. xxviii. 24-28). 
There was the same orderiy proceeding in 
the cultivation of the vine (v. 1, 2). . Every 
seventh year the fields of Israel were to lie 
fallow. Besides the religious meaning of 
the regulation, no doubt the practice was, 
in more than one way, advantageous to the 
land. During this sabbatical year every 
part of the country was free: the poor 
might collect, anywhere they chose, the 
spontaneous product of the ground (Exod. 
xxiii. 10, 11) ; in the spirit of which enact- 
ment was the licence for a man who passed 
through his neighbour's vineyard, or his 
neighbour's corn-field, to eat his fill but 
not to carry grapes away, to pluck the ears 
but not to apply a sickle to the corn (Deut. 
xxiii. 24, 25). It is not expressly said that it 
was customary to burn the stubble ; but we 
may infer the practice from the regulation 
in case of fire spreading from one field to 
another (Exod. xxli. 6). That manures were 
known we cannot doubt. The bodies of the 
wicked are spoken of as ' dung upon the face 
of the field' (2 Kings ix. 37 ; Jer. viii. 2). We 
may fairly suppose that the use of manure 
is here alluded to. The advantage of so 
applying the dung of the stock upon a 
farm must soon have become evident; 
and, besides, we have a special reference 
to straw mixed up therewith (Isai. xxv. 10). 
The irrigation of their fields, where need- 
ful, the Israelites must have learned from 
the Egyptians. 

The chief kinds of grain cultivated by the 
Hebrews were wheat and barley. Sometimes 
it would seem that beans, and lentiles, and 
millet, and spelt, were used for bread (Ezek. 
iv. 9 : comp. 2 Sam. xvii. 28) ; lentiles, how- 
ever, were more generally the material for 
pottage (Gen. xxv. 29-34). Fitches and 
cummin were, as we have before seen, culti- 
vated, and cucumbers or gourds; and, from 
the mention of the garden of cucumbers and 
the lodge in it, we may suppose that they 
were extensively grown (Isai. i. 8). Of the 
melons, and leeks, and onions, and garlic, 
which the Israelites remembered with re- 
gret they had eaten in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5), 
we have no further mention. They might, 
however, have been grown in the ' gardens 
of herbs,' in which wealthy persons de- 
lighted, and which required careful water- 
ing (Deut, xi. 10 ; 1 Kings xxi. 2). Rye and 
oats are not spoken of in scripture ; and to 
the present day the former is hardly at all 
known in Syria. Flax was cultivated, for 
the garments of fine linen of which we frc- 
quently read. It is mentioned in Josh. ii. 6 ; 
' and it was one of the materials, most likely 
1 of hoane production, which the notable 
, housewife spun into clothing for her house- 
! hold (Prov, xxxi. 13). Whether'cotton was 
; in use may admit of doubt. See Cotton. 
Both in Egypt and in Palestine the barley 





was first ripe (Exod. ix. 31, 32 ; Ruth ii. 23), ' 
iu the first month of the Israelitish sacred 
year, Ahih, the month of green ears, at 
ctie beginning or middle of April. The 
tilling of the fields had commenced about 
five months before, in the early part of 
November. For it was promised that so 
fruitful should the land of Israel be that 
hardly would the produce of one year 
(including the vintage) be gathered in 
before it was time to prepare the land 
for the seed of the next (Lev. xxvi. 5 ; Amos 
ix 13) Now the feast of tabernacles was 
held, when all was gathered, on the 15th of 
the seventh month, lasting eight days (Lev. 
xiiii. 34, 39) ; and therefore this feast alone 
would intervene between the close of the 
abmidant harvest and the labour for the 
fresh crop. , , x-, -u 

That the implements used by the hus- 
bandman were of iron is clear from the 
statement that in the beginning of Saul s 
reign the Israelites had to go down to the 
Philistine smiths to sharpen them a Sam. 
xiii 19-21). 

The first operation was the ploughing 
of the land. Oxen were yoked to the 
plough, it being forbidden to plough with 
an ox and an ass together (Deut. xxn. 
10) Several ploughs were frequently at 
work at once under the general superin- 
tendence of the master (1 Kings xix. 19) 
See PLOtJGH. The oxen were guided and 
stimulated by a goad, which was a formid- 
able weapon ; and, though some critics have 
imagined that it was furnished with a thong 
like a whip, and that the humanity of the 
Mosaic law would not aUow the pricking of 
an ox with a sharp point, yet we can hardly 
help supposing that the ancient goads were 
similar to, and similarly used with, those at 
present in the hands of Syrian ploughmen. 
T)r Thomson (The Land and the Book, pp. 
322.323) describes them, and the use made of 
them. See Goad. The furrows made by 
the plough were long iPsal. cxxix. 3). And 
next f oUowed a kind of harrowing, more to 
break up the clods and level the surface 
before the seed was sown (Job xxxix. 10 ; 
I«ai xxviii. 24) than to answer the purpose 
of what we call harrowing, which now cer- 
tainly is neglected in Palestine. Then came 
the sowing of the seed; which, as before 
observed, varied according to the nature of 
the grain. It was forbidden to sow with 
mingled seed (Lev. xix. 19). Apd this, 
while having its symbolical meaning, had 
also its present advantage. For, if the stalk 
of one kind was longer than that of another, 
this last would be overshadowed and weak- 
ened We may suppose that the corn-fields 
were kept clear of weeds ; but there is no 
special direction for weeding in scripture 

(see, however, Prov. xxiv. 30, 31). Seed 
seems to have been steeped in water ; and 

perhaps the reason why if a dead carcase feU 

upon steeped seed it made it unclean (Lev. 
xi. 38) might be that such seed_ was more 

it had been dry- Travellers have observed 
a modern analogous practice of watering 
the furrows at the time of sowing the seed. 

The special dangers to be apprehended 
for the growing crop were the ravages ot 


locusts, blasting, and mildew Q. Kmgs 
viii. 37). The justice of God sometimes 
inflicted these as a punishment for the evil- 
doings of the people. But ordinarily, under 
the divine blessing, the produce was abun- 
dant. Isaac's rich crops have already been 
alluded to ; and our Lord speaks of a return, 
thirty, sixty, and even a hundred fold (Matt, 
xiii. 8). When the crops were ripe, the 
barley harvest being first, immediately suc- 
ceeded by that of wheat, the ears were cut 
with a sickle, and thus gathered into the 
reaper's bosom (Psal. cxxix. 7). It has, 
however, sometimes been imagined that a 
scythe was the Implement employed m 
reaping; perhaps both scythe and sickle 
were in use. When reaped, the corn was 
bound in sheaves (Gen. xxxrii. 7). But it 
is to be observed that the comers of the 
field were to be left, and the gleanings 
were not to be gathered in ; and, even if a 
sheaf were passed over, it was not to be 
fetched : all these remnants were the pro- 
perty of the poor (Lev. xix. 9 ; Deut. xxiv. 
19 ; Ruth ii.). A sheaf might easily be over- 
looked ; for the stubble was left high, be- 
cause there would then be more to burn for 
the benefit of the land, much straw not 
being wanted. ^ , 

From the field the sheaves were taken in 
carts, at least in later days (Amos ii. 13), to 
the threshing-floor. This was in an open 
and exposed situation ; as we may gather 
from the history of Gideon, who, when ho 
had to thresh secretly for fear of the 
Midianites, had his corn In the wme-press 
(Judges vi. 11). The various "modes of 
threshing have been ah-eady alluded to, by 
the flail or staff, by the heavy toothed 
dredge (Isai. xli. 15), and by the feet of 
animals. See THIlESHI^-G. One more ope- 
ration closed the labours of the haiwest. 
The corn must be separated from the chaff. 
This was done by the shovel and the fan 
(XXX. 24). Thus the weighty grains fell 
down into a heap, while the wind drove 
the chaff away (Psal. i. 4). See Wixnott. 
Finallv, the sieve freed the com from any 
admixture of dirt (Amos ix. 9). , ^ 

After the corn harvest succeeded the 
vintage ; of which some account will be 
given"hereafter. See Vixe, Vintage. There 
was also the gathering of the ohves. See 
Olive Tree. ^ . , 
Such was the general course of agricul- 
tural labour ; which was had in high esti- 
mation among the Hebrews ; some of their 
kings and prophets being taken from tne 
farm, as Saul and David, Elisha and Ainos ; 
while the encouragement given to it by 
others when on the throne is specially noted 
(2 Chron. xxvi. 10). Allusions are continu- 
ally made to agriculture, particularly m 
our Saviour's parables (e.g. Matt. xiii. 
3-40 • 1 Cor. iii. 6), both to the opera- 
tions of husbandmen and to the satisfying 
iov when the Lord had crowned the year 
with fatness (Isai. ix. 3). For, when the 
corn was safelv housed, there was mirth 
and feasting (Ruth iii. 2, 3, 7). But it was 
not to be mere carnal mirth : God s hand 
was acknowledged in blessing the husband- 
men's labour. To him the first-fruits wera 
to be presented when the harvest began 



17 



Lahasxjerus 



and when it concluded the people were to | 
rejoice before liim (Exod. xxii. 29, xxiii. 19, 
xxxiv. 26 ; Lev. xxiii. 10-17 ; Deut. xvi. 13-15). i 

AGRIP'PA. See Herod, 7. | 

AGUE (Lev. xxvi. 16). The word here 
translated ' ague ' is rendered ' fever ' | 
in Deut. xxviii. 22, It is derived from a root | 
signifying to kindle lire, to bitrn. It may 
intend, therefore, burning fever. In the 
common ague, hot and cold fits alternate. 

A'GUR (an assembler, one of the assemUy, 
i.e. of wise men). A sage of whom nothing 
is known (Prov. xxx. 1). Some have be- 
lieved this (but with no probability) a sym- 
bolical name of Solomon. 

A'HAB (fathefs brother).— I. The son and 
successor of Omri king of Israel. His reign 
lasted twenty-two years (1 Kings xvi. 29), 
918 — 897 B.C. He has the miserable cha- 
racter given him of doing ' evil in the sight 
of the Lord above all that were before 
him' (30). He not only maintained the 
worship of the calves set up by Jero- 
boam, but, having married Jezebel, daugh- 
ter of Eth-baal king of the Zidonians, he 
yielded himself to her evil influence, and 
introduced the worship of Baal into Sa- 
maria, A persecution of the prophets of 
the Lord followed ; many of them being de- 
stroyed by Jezebel, As a judgment, a 
drought was sent upon the land; and then 
came the solemn vindication of Jehovah's ^ 
authority by the prophet Elijah before 
Ahab and the assembled people, and the 
punishment, according to the law of Moses, 
of the idolatrous prophets (xvii., xviii,). I 
Jezebel was irritated to madness at tfee 
news of this catastrophe, and resolved to 
sacrifice Elijah ; while Ahab was either un- 
able or unwilling to interfere. Afterwards 
his wicked queen led him into one of his 
worst crimes. He seems to have been a man 
of cultivated taste. He built cities, and 
erected an ivory palace (xxii, 39), the walls 
being probably inlaid with ivory, and had 
pleasure-grounds by iiis house in Jezreel, 
which he wished to enlarge by the addition 
of a vineyard belonging to Naboth. Naboth, 
however, refused either to sell or to ex- 
change his hereditary property ; and Ahab, 
disappointed, manifested the temper of a 
spoiled child. The unscrupulous Jezebel 
then put him in possession of the coveted 
plot of ground by the judicial murder of Na- 
both ; and Ahab went to view it, but \Yas met 
by Elijah, who denounced on him a fearful 
judgment. On his repentance, superficial 
though it was, this sentence was partially 
revoked, and delayed till the days of Ahab's 
son (xxi.). In two wars with Syria this prince 
was successful, but he improperly spared 
Ben-hadad, the Syrian king (xx.). In a 
third campaign, having attempted, in al- 
liance with Jehoshaphat, to re-take Pv.amoth- 
gilead, still occupied by the Syrians, Ahab, 
specially singled out by Ben-hadad (perhaps 
from the Syrian king's mortification at hav- 
ing been his prisoner), though he disguised 
himself, was mortally wounded ; and the 
dogs licked up the blood washed from his 
chariot in the pool of Samaria, (xxii,). Weak 
and unstable, Ahab let himself be made the 
tool of his wife; and his history is an in- 
structive warning against such subservi- 



ency to a dangerous influence.— 2. A false 
prophet in Babylon (Jer. xxix, 20-23). 

A'HARAH (after the brother). A son of 
Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 1) ; possibly the 
same with Ehi (Gen. xlvi. 21), Ahiram 
(Numb, xxvl. 38), and Aher (1 Chron, vii, 12). 

AHAR'HEL (behind the breastwork, sc. 
born). A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 
iv. 8). 

A'HASAI (probably a contracted form of 
Ahaziah, whom Jehovah holds). A priest 
(Neh. xi. 13). He may be the same witii 
Jahzerah (1 Chron, ix,12). 

AHAS'BAI (J taJce refuge in Jehovah). The 
father of one of David's warriors (2 Sam. 
xxiii, 34: comp. 1 Chron, xi, 35). 

AHASHVE'ROSH (Ezra iv. 6, marg.). 
The Hebrew form of 

AHASUE'RUS (lion-king). Aname which, 
in one of its Greek forms, is Xerxes. The 
identity is illustrated by the inscriptions 
of Xerxes on Persian and Egyptian monu- 
ments. 

1, A king of Persia, to whom a complaint 
was made by the enem ies of the Jews against 
the building of the walls of Jerusalem (Ezra 
iv, 6), If we are to take Ezra iv. in a strictly- 
chronological order, we must necessarily 
suppose that by this Ahasuerus Cambyses 
is intended. For the building of the temple 
was delayed from the time of Cyrus to that 
of Darius Hystaspis. Now the intervening 
kings were Cambyses and the Pseudo- 
Smerdis ; and two kings are mentioned 
here in whose reigns the labours of the 
Jews were impeded — Ahasuerus and Ar- 
taxerxes. Ahasuerus, then, must be Cam- 
byses, and Artaxerxes the Pseudo-Smerdis. 
But it is fair to say that Lord A, 0. 
Hervey (Smith's Diet, of the Bible^ art, ' Ezra, 
Book of) supposes Ezra iv, 6-23 wrongly 
placed., and that it refers to the building of 
the walls of Jerusalem (not of the temple), 
prohibited in the reign of Xerxes and in the 
earlier years of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
but at length allowed by the last-named 
monarch on the solicitation of his cup- 
bearer Nehemiah, If the supposition be 
well-grounded, this Ahasuerus must be 
identical with the monarch so called No. 2, 
i. e. Xerxes. 

2. A sovereign of this name is the king 
of Persia mentioned in the book of Esther. 
Various conjectures have been made re- 
specting him. Darius, Xerxes, Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, have all had their advocates. 
But the question may be narrowed. It 
must be one of the last-mentioned two 
kings; for the name and character of 
Darius are far difi'erent. Now it is not 
easy to believe that Artaxerxes who gave 
In the seventh year of his reign a commis- 
sion to Ezra, as we read (Ezra vii,), could 
be so ignorant in regard to the Jews as 
Ahasuerus was in his twelfth year (Esth. 
iii, 8-10). Besides., there are several notices 
in profane history which lead us to a safer 
identification. Ahasuerus made a great 
feast in the third year of his reign (i. 
3), So, we know, did Xerxes hold a great 
assembly of nobles in his third year, prior 
to his Grecian expedition. Again, Ahasue- 
rus was at Shushan in his seventh year 
(iii. 16). And Xerxes, after his ignominious 



A.HAVA] 



Wf)t Crta^titD of 



18 



return from Greece, was at Susa (Shushan) 
in bis seventh year, giving himself up to 
sensual pleasures (Herodotus, lib. vu. 7, &c., 
lib. viii. 126, lib. ix. 107, 108). The character, 
too, of Xerxes, cruel, vain, unstable, and 
licentious, well agrees with that of the 
Ahasuerus of Esther. Most critics, there- 
fore, now identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes. 

3 Ahasuerus, father of Darius the Mede 
(Dan. ix. 1), was, in all probability, the 
Median king known in profane history as 
Astvages, father of Cyaxares and grand- 
father of Cyrus. , 

A'HAVA (water). A place, or a river or 
perhaps a district where the Jewish exiles 
assembled who accompanied Ezra to Jeru- 
salem (Ezra viii. 15, 21, 31). Various lo- 
calities have been suggested ; possibly it 
may be the modern Hit on the Euphrates, 
east of Damascus (Rawlinson, Herodotus, 
vol. 1. pp. 316, 317). 

A'HAZ (possessor).-!. The son and succes- 
sor of Jotham king of Judah. He ascended 
the throne at twenty years of age (2 Kings 
xvi 2 : 2 Chron. xxviii. 1). Some versions, 
however, have twenty-five in Chronicles 
(see Keil, Comm. on Kings, Murphy s 
Transl, vol. ii. pp. 78, 79). Ahaz reigned 
sixteen years (741-725 B.C.). His reign was 
ungodly and unfortunate. Rezm king of 
BySa, and Pekah king of Israel, formed 
n league against Judah : they ravaged the 
country (2 Chron. xxviii. 5-15); and Rezm 
geized the sea-port Elath; but they could 
not take Jerusalem (2 Kings xvi. 5, 6 , 
Isai. vii. 1-9). Ahaz sought for help from 
Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, who at- 
tacked Rezin and killed him, and also oc- 
cupied large districts of Israel, tyanspo^- 
ing the inhabitants to Assyria (2 Kings 
XV 29 xvi 7-9). But this help was dearl> 
purchased. Rich gifts and tribute were 
sent by Ahaz to Tiglath-pileser, whose vas- 
sal he became, and whom he attended at 
Damascus. Besides, the Philistines and 
Edomites plundered Judah (xyi. lo, J 
Chron. xxviii. 16-21). Some critics have 
thought fit to believe the accounts of 
Tiglath-pileser's interference contradictory , 
but there is really not the shadow of a con- 
Sdiction. The Assyrian king conquered 
some of the enemies of Ahaz, but was no 
more his friend and protector than the 
Saxons were of the Britons who called them 
in for defence against the Scots and Picts, 
but who were afterwards subjugated by 
them The evil conduct and idolatry ot 
Ahaz,' Increasing till he sacrificed to other 
gods, burnt his children m the Are (see 
Keil, uU supr. pp. 35, &c.), and shut up 
the temple of the Lord, may^ ^%J^f^ 
2 Kings xvi.; 2 Chron. xxviu. When he 
died, his body was not brought iiito the 
Bepulchres of the kings of Israel. He was 
succeeded by Hezekiah.-2. One of Sauls 
descendants (1 Chron. viii. 35, ix. 42). 

AHAZI'AH (whom Jehovah s^istains).— 
1 The son of Ahab and Jezebel, who suc- 
ceeded his father as king of Israel and 
Jefgned two years (897-896 B.C.). He fol- 
lowed the evil courses of his parents ; and 
his short reign was an unhappy one (1 
Kfnis xxii. 40, 51-53). At first he was m 
fiance with Jehoshaphat; and they pre- 



pared a fleet together to go to Ophir foi 
gold ; but, the vessels being wrecked, and 
Jehoshaphat reproved for uniting with 
one so ungodly (xxii. 48; 2 Chron. xx 
35-37), the king of Judah refused to renew 
the alliance (1 Kings xxii. 49). Then the 
Moabites, taking advantage of Ahab s de- 
feat and death at the battle of Ramoth- 
gilead, rebelled against Israel ; and before 
Ahaziah was able to march against them 
he received a fatal injury by a fall through 
a lattice. In his mangled condition he 
sent to inquire of Baal-zebub, the god of 
Ekron ; but his messengers were turned 
back by Elijah, who, after some vam and 
wicked attempts to apprehend him, came to 
the wretched king and pronounced his 
doom. So he died (2 Kings i.).-2. The son 
of Jehoram and Athaliah, Ahab's daughter. 
He succeeded his father as king of Judah 
at the age of twenty-two, and reigned 
wickedly one year (884 B.C.), following 
the way of the house of Ahab (vui. 24- 
27- 2 Chron. xxii. 1-4) ; the age forty-two 
in the last-named passage being a tran- 
scriber's error. Ahaziah joined his uncle 
Jehoram king of Israel in the Syrian war ; 
and, when Jehoram was lying wounded at 
Jezreel, Ahaziah went to visit him. _ It was 
a fatal visit ; for just at that crisis Jehu 
raised the standard of revolt, and, advanc- 
ing hastily to Jezreel, was met by the two 
kings Jehoram he at once killed; but 
Ahaziah fled 'by the way of the garden- 
house,' more properly Beth-Haggan, the 
modern Jenin, and endeavoured to hide 
himself in Samaria (not the capital city, but 
s"jme place in the country). He was, how- 
ever hunted out, and met or was brought to 
Jehu, who ordered him on the mstant to 
be smitten in the chariot. This was at the 
going up to Gur,' some steep place on the 
road from the plain of Esdraelon to Jenin. 
Mortally wounded, he was carried m a 
dying state to Megiddo, where he expired. 
He was buried at Jerusalem. The two ac- 
counts (2 Kings viii. 29. ix. 16-29; 2 Chron 
xxii. 5-9) may thus be harmonized. Ahaziah 
is also called Jehoahaz (xxi. 17), and Azariah 

''^AH'BAN (brother of the u-zse). A de- 
scendant of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 29). . 

A'HER (a/teo; following). A Ben]amite 
(1 Chron. vii. 12). He is probably identical 
with Ahiram, which see. 

AHI' (brother, or possibly a contraction 
of Ahiah or Ahijah).-!. A Gadite _(l Chron. 
y 15) ._2. A chieftain of Asher (vu. 34). 
AHI'AH (brother, i.Q. tviena, of Jehovah) 

\ ^ AH?iM'''(perhaps for Ahiab, ffhei^s 
' brother). One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 33 ; 1 Chron. xi. 35). In some copies 
the name is given in the place last referred 

^''lkr^^'^(brotherly\ A son of Shemidah 

^^AHIE^'ZER (brother of help).— I. A prince 
of the tribe of Dan (Numb. i. 12, ii. 25, vii. 
66, X. 25).— 2. A Benjamite chief who joined 
David (1 Chron. xii. 3). . - -r ^ t. » 

AHI'HUD (brother, i.e. friend, of Judah, or 
praise). A chief of the tribe of Asher 
(Numb, xxxiv. 27). 



AH ['HUD (brother, i.e. friend, of union). 
A descendant of Benjamin (iChron. viii. 7). 

AHI'JAH or AHl'AH (brother, or friend, 
of Jehovah). — 1. A high priest (1 Sam. xiv. 
3, 18). See Ahimelech, 1.— 2. A scribe in 
Solomon's time (1 Kings iv. 3).— 3. An emi- 
nent prophet of Shiloh, hence called the 
Shilonite, who announced, possibly to Solo- 
mon (xi. 11-13), and, as we are expressly told, 
both by symbol and in words to Jeroboam, 
the impending division of the kingdom (29- 
39, xii. 15 ; 2 Chron. x. 15). The symbol was 
the rending of his (Ahijah's) new garment, 
and the giving of ten pieces out of twelve 
to Jeroboam (comp. Keil, Comm. on Kings, 
transl., vol. ii. pp. 192-195). A second re- 
markable prophecy was delivered by Ahijah 
to Jeroboam's w^ife, reaching beyond the 
immediate circumstances, and foreshadow- 
ing a time when Israel for their sins would 
he scattered beyond the river (1 Kings xiv. 
1-18, XV. 29). He appears also to have left 
annals of Solomon's reign (2 Chron. ix. 29). 
—4. One of the tribe of Issachar, father of 
king Baasha (1 Kings xr. 27, 33, xxi. 22 ; 
2 Kings ix. 9). — 5. A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 25).— 6. A Benjamite (viii. 7) ; 
probably the same with Ahoah (4).— 7. One 
of David's warriors (xi. 36).— 8. A Levite 
who had charge of the consecrated trea- 
sures (xxvi. 20).— 9. One who sealed the 
covenant (Neh. x. 26). 

AHI'K AM (brother of the enemy). The son 
of Shaphan the scribe, an offlcer at the court 
of Josiah and Jehoiakim. He protected 
Jeremiah the prophet, and was father of 
Gedaliah, who was made governor of the 
land after the taking of Jerusalem (2 Kings 
xxii. 12, 14, XXV. 22 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 20 ; 
Jer. xxvi. 24, xxxix. 14, xl. 5, and else- 
where). 

AHI'LUD (brother of one born, sc. before 
him). The father of Jehoshaphat and Baana, 
officers of David and Solomon (2 Sam.viii. 16, 
XX. 24; 1 Kings iv. 3, 12; 1 Chron. xviii. 15\ 

AHIM'AAZ (brother of anger).— I. The fa- 
ther of Ahinoam, Saul's wife (1 Sam. xiv. 50). 
—2. The son of Zadok the priest. He, with 
Jonathan, Abiathar's son, contrived to bring 
David intelligence, during Absalom's rebel- 
lion, of Ahithophel's counsel, and Hushai's 
endeavour to counteract it (2 Sam. xv. 27, 
36, xvii. 15-22). When the royal forces had 
gained the victory, he offered to convey 
the news to David ; but his request was re- 
fused by Joab becauise of Absalom's death. 
After Cushi had been despatched, Ahimaaz 
again solicited permission to run, and, hav- 
ing overcome Joab's reluctance, he started, 
outran Cushi, and apprised the king of 
the success achieved. In answer, however, 
to the inquiry respecting Absalom, he, not 
quite truthfully, replied that he had seen a 
tumult, but 'knew not what it was' (xviii. 
19-30). After this we hear nothing more of 
Ahimaaz, and (comparing 1 Kings iv. 2 ; 
I Chron. vi. 8, 9, 53) it seems probable that 
he died before his father, and was never 
high priest.— 3. One of Solomon's commis- 
Eariat officers (1 Kings iv. 15). We cannot 
suppose this person identical with No. 2. 

AHI'MAN {brother of a gift).— I. One of the 
Anakim inhabiting Hebron (Numb. xiii. 22), 
expelled and slain by Caleb and the trilje of 



[aiiithophel 



Judah (Josh. xv. 14 ; Judges i. 10).— 2. A Le- 
vite porter (1 Chron. ix. 17). 

AHIM'ELECH (brother of the king).— 1. The 
son of Ahitub, who was Eli's grandson. He 
was high priest in the reign of Saul ; and, 
for giving David the shew-bread, he was, 
with many other priests at Nob, murdered 
by Saul's command ; Abiathar, his son, alone 
escaping (l Sam. xxi. 1-9, xxii. 9-23, xxiii. 6, 
XXX. 7 ; Psal. lii., title). Ahimelech is gene- 
rally identified with Ahiah (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18) ; 
and there are innumerable instances in 
scripture in which one person hore two 
names, or in which a transcriber's error may 
have introduced a change. But it is by no 
means an improbable conjecture that Ahiah 
and Ahimelech were brothers, and that 
the latter succeeded the former in the 
high-priesthood. It has been objected that 
1 Sam. xiv. 18 is at variance with 1 Chron. 
xiii. 3. But we must understand the last- 
named passage as speaking only of the 
general custom, or of the latter part of 
Saul's reign. The ark was near Saul's head- 
quarters at the time when he is said to 
have called for it ; or by a copyist's error 
' ark' may be put for 'ephod :' the Hebrew 
words are not unlike.— 2. One of David's 
band when persecuted by Saul (1 Sam. 
xxvi. 6).— 3. Ahimelech is named in 2 Sam. 

viii. 17 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 16, marg., xxiv. 3, 6, 
31, where we should have expected Abiathar. 
Some have supposed that Abiathar had a 
son called Ahimelech ; others, with greater 
probability, believe that the names have 
been accidentally transposed. See Abia- 
thar, 

AHI'MOTH (brother of death). A Koha- 
thite (1 Chron. vi. 25). A little after (35) he 
is called Mahath. 

AHIN'ADAB (liberal or noble brother). 
One of Solomon's commissaries, who was 
stationed at Mahanaim (1 Kings iv. 14). 

AHIN'OAM (brother of 'pleasantness).—!. 
The wife of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50).— 2. One of 
David's wives (xxv. 43, xxvii. 3, xxx. 5 ; 2 
Sam. ii. 2, iii. 2). 

AHI'O (brotherly).—!. One of the sons of 
Abinadab, who helped to remove the ark 
(2 Sam. vi. 3 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 7). — 2. A Benja- 
mite (viii. 14).— 3. Another Benjamite (31, 

ix. 37). 

AHI'RA (brother of evil). The prince of 
the tribe of Naphtali (Numb. i. 15, ii. 29, 
vii. 78, 83, X. 27). 

AHI'RAM (brother of the high). A son of 
Benjamin (Numb. xxvi. 38). He is called 
Ehi in Gen. xlvi. 21, and is possibly the same 
with Aher (1 Chron. vii. 12). 

AHI'BAMITES. A family of Benjamin, 
descendants of Ahiram (Numb. xxvi. 38). 

AHIS'AMACH (brother of support or help). 
A Danite, father of Alioliab (Exod. xxxi. 6, 
XXXV, 34, xxxviii. 23j. 

AHISH'AHAR (brother of the dawn). A 
Benjamite (1 Chron. vii. 10). 

AHI'SHAR (brother of the singer or of the. 
upright). The steward of Solomon's liouse- 
iiold (1 Kings iv, 6). 

AHITH'OPHEL (brother of folly). A na- 
tive of Giloh, a city of Judah, David's trusted 
councillor (1 Chron, xxvii. 33, 34), who was 
induced to join the party of Absalom (2 Sam. 
XV. 12, 31, 34). His advice was intended to 



^\)t ^vtKSunj of 



20 



make tlie treacli irreparalDle betwixt the 
father and the son ; and, had his counsel 
hnmediately to pursue David heen followed 
it is possible that the king would have heen 
cut ofE before he reached the Jordan. But 
by God's providence Hushai's count^er-p an 
was preferred by Absalom ; and Ahithophel, 
foreseeing the defeat of the rebellion, re- 
tired to his o.vn city and hanged himself 
(xvi. 15-xvii. 23). Some have endeavoured 
to account for Ahithophel's treason by 
the supposition that, as it seems likelj 
lie was Bath-sheba's grandfather (xi. o 
xxiii 34), he wished to revenge on David ^ 
the evil done to her. But this is not reason- • 
able. The success of Absalom won d pio-, 
bablv have been fatal to Bath-sheba , it 
would certainly have barred Solomon Ahi- 
thophel's great grandson, from the thione. 
I'erhaps there may be a reference in Psal. 
ili 9 iv I'^-U.to Ahithophel, and possibly 
through him to a yet worse traitor, Judas 

A-Ri'TVB>(brotlier, i.e. friend, of goodness). 
_] The erandson of Eli, and father oi 
Ahiah or Ahimelech (1 Sam. xiv 3, xxii. 9, 
11 10 ''0) ^ye do not know whether he 
ever exercised the f nnctions of high priest. 
—2 The father, or, possibly, grandfather of 
Zadok (2 Sam.viii. 17 ; 1 Chron vi. 7, 8 52 
ix.ll,xviii. 16 ; Ezra vii. 2 ; 2seh.xi.ll); It i^ 
probable from the expression used m the 
last-named place that he was actually high 
priest.- 3. Another Ahitub is introduced in , 
] Chron vi 11, 12, also called the son of j 
Amariah, and father of Zadok. But it has 
been imasined that the names are intro- 
duced a second time by a transcrAber s error. 
See Lord A. C. Hervey, Genealogies of oio 
Lord Jesus Clirist, pp. 287 288 

AH'LAB {fatness, fertiim- ^^lace in 
the territory of Asher, from which the 
Canaanites were not driven out (Judge:=i. 

^^AH'L AT {Otnat ! icould God -O-l- A female 
descendant of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 31, 34 3o) 
_2 The father of one of Davids chief ^ 
(xi.* 41). But perhaps this second Ahlai 
was the same with Ko. l; a fenmle being 
occa-ionallv at the head of a genealog>. 

AnO'\.-R\hrotlierliood ?). A descendant of 
Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 4). This name is 
poS/ljn- another form of Ahiah, which see. 

AHO'HITE. Some of Davids warrioi^ 
are thus designated (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 28; 

i 1 Chron. xi. 12, 29, xxvii. 4) ; perhaps thej 
were descendants of Ahoah. 
A'HOL \H (she has her ou.-n tent). A s> m 

I bolical name for Samaria cEzck. xxiii. 4, o, 

1 ^\hOL'TAB (tent of Ms father) An arti- 
ficer of the tribe of Dan, employed jsuh 
Bezaleel in the construction of the taber- 
nacle (Exod. xxxi. 6, XXXV. 34, xxxvi. i, -, 

^HOL'IBAH (mij talernade is in hcr\_ A 
symbolical name for Jud^ili (Ezek. xxiu. 4, 

^Hvh'oLIBA'MAH {tent of the_ ^er'oM).-!. 
One of the wives of Esau : she is called the 
dau'-^hter of Anah (Gen. xxxvi. 2 o, 14, ib, 
There can be little doubt that she is 
the same with Judith the daughter of 
Been xxvi. 34). See Axah, Beert. She 
had perhaps Judith as her original name. 



and afterwards received that of Aholiba- 
mail— " The same name occurs as that 
of a man (xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chron. i. 52) ; but 
it is probable that, as the dukes of Edom 
are enumerated ' after their places accord- 
ing to their habitations,' the name maybe 
that of a district, so called from Esau's wife, 
or from which she was called. _ 

AHU'MAI {brother of icater, i.e. dwelling 
near it). A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 



'\Hr'ZA:M (their possession^. The son of 
Ashur, in the genealogies of Judali (1 Chron. 

'^AHEZ'ZATH (possession). The friend 
(bridesman according to the LXX) of Abi- 
melech, king of Gerar (Gen. xxvi. 26). 

A'l {heap of ruins).— I. A royal city of 
Pale-tine, but of no great size. It is men- 
tioned (as Hai) in Abraham's time (Gen. xii 
8 xiii. 3\ and was, after a repulse befoie 
it, destroved by the Israelites under Joshua 
(Josh. vii. 2-5, viii. 1-29, ix.3, X 1,2, xii. 9). 
It must, however, have been afterwards re- 
built : Aiath (Isai. x. 28) is probably identi- 
cal with it ; and the men of Ai are said to 
have returned from Babylon Avith Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 28 ; Xeh. vii. 32) ; it is also 
likelv that it is the Aija repeopled by the 
Benjamites (Neh. xi. 31). It lay to the east 
of Beth-el ; but its site has iiot^^een exac^l- 
determined. It may perhaps be at the TdZ 
\el-Haiyeh.-2. A town of the Ammonites 
near Heshbon (Jer. xlix. 3) ; but possiblj 
' the word here is not a Proper name. 

AI'AH (haivk, falcon).-!. The father of 
Elzpah, Saul's concubine (2 Sam. in. /, 
xxi 8 10, 11).— 2. See AJAH. 
' AI'A.TH (ruins) (Isai. x. 28). Most pro- 
bablv identical with Ai, 1, which see. 
AI'JA (id.) (Neh. xi. 31). let another 

^^AI'jIlON (iMce of deer or gazelles).-!. 
(Jo^h. xxi. 24 ; Judges i. 35 : 2 Chron. xi 10). 
See AJAL0>\-^2. A city of Zebulun ^Judges 

^ AFJELETH-SHA'HAB (hind of the dmm, 
i e the morning sun scattering his first rays 
npon the earth). An expression found m 
i the title of Psal. xxii. Various explanations 
' have been given, as that it denoted a musi- 
1 cal instruinent, that it had some reference 
1 to the contents of the psalm, &c. But the^e 
! are unsatisfactory. It rather means the 
' melodv to which the psalm should be sung. 
There was some poem or lyrical composition 
then extant which bore the name of Aije- 
leth-Shahar-similar names have frequentl j 
been given to poems in the East-and ac- 
cording to the well-kno^^m measure of that 
the chief musician was to smg or chant the 

i ^'""a'Tx (eye or g2ishivg sprmgl.-l. A place 
or more probably a fountain, meiiticmed a^ 
lone of the boundary "^^rks of Cmiaa^^ 
i (Numb xxxiv. 11), to the east of which the 
' me was to run. The ^Ain-eJfAzy, tlio main 
source of the Orontes, is m t.be position 
indicated.-2. A Levitical city, in the terri- 
tory assigned first to Jud^ih, afterwards to 
Simeon (Josh, x v. 32, xix. 7, xxi. 16 .1 Chron. 
iv 32 : see, however, 1 Chron. vi. 59). Po^- 
siblv En-r minou (Neh. xi. 29) may be the 
=ame place. The word Ain is joined witi> 



[alexanuer 



many rames, as Ain-dor, and implies tliat I 
there was a f resli spring at the place. It is 
tlien spelt in our version, En, as in En-dor. | 

AIR. Some expressions in which this 
word occurs seem to require notice. The i 
phrase ' to beat the air' (1 Cor. xi. 26) alludes 
to a boxer who, instead of striking his ! 
antagonist, hits vainly into the air. ' Speak- 
ing into the air' (xiv.9)is speaking useless- , 
ly, the words making no impression. I 

J.ri2t7.S(lEsdr. V. 31). { 

A'JAH ihaivlc, falcon). A son of Zibeon 
(Gen. xxxvi. 24 ; 1 Chron. i . 40). In the last- 
named place the name is Aiah in our 
version. | 

AJ'ALON (place of deer or gazelles, q.d., ■ 
deer-field). A city of Dan allotted to the 
Kohathite Levites (Josh. xix. 42, xxi. 24; 
1 Chron. vi. 69). It appears to have been on 
the border of the three tribes, Dan, Ephralm, 
and IJenjamin ; and hence we find it some- ; 
times attributed to one, sometimes to an- : 
other. It was on the slope of hills abound- 
ing with animals, and was held by the Amo- j 
rites against the Danites (Judges i. 35). : 
Saul pursued the Philistines to this point i 
after a victory (1 Sam. xiv. 31) ; and we read | 
of other contests in connection with Ajalon i 
(1 Chron. viii. 13). llehoboam fortified it (2 : 
Chron. xi. 10) ; but the Philistines re-occu- j 
pied it in the reign of Ahaz (xxviii. 18). The I 
celebrated valley must have been just at ' 
hand (Josh. x. 12). And both the city and the , 
valley have been clearly identified. Ajalon 
is the modern Yalo, on a long hill, about 14 \ 
miles from Jerusalem, on the south side of 
a broad fertile valley called Ilerj Ihn Omeir. [ 
The Amorite kings, says Dr. Thomson (The i 
Land and the Book, p. 533), ' evidently fied 
from Gibeon doAvn by the upper Beth-horon 
to the lower, and then southward into this 
Mei-j Ibn Omeir. All these places are still 
found.' 

AKA'N {distortion'^.) A descendant of 
Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 27) : in 1 Chron. i. 42 he is 
called Jakan. 

AK'IvTJB (insidious) .— I. One of David's 
descendants (1 Chron. iii. 24).— 2. A porter 
(ix. 17; Ezra ii. 42 ; Neh. vii. 45, xi. 19, xii. 
25).— 3. One of the Nethinim (Ezra ii. 45). 
—4. A person joined with Ezra at the 
solemn reading of the law (Neh. viii. 7). 

AKRAB'BIM (scorpions). The name of a 
pass, * scorpion-pass,' forming the southern 
boundary of the land of Israel (Numb.xxxiv. 
4). The territory of Judah reached to it 
(Josh. XV. 3, where' Maaleh-acrabbim') ;and 
here was the Amori te frontier (Judges i. 36). 
This pass must have been near the southern 
extremity of the Dead sea. Various at- 
tempts have been made to identify it ; per- 
haps it is at the Wady es-Sdfieh. 

ALABASTER. A calcareous spar, soft 
enough to be readily worked into boxes or 
vases. Some such vases have been dis- 
covered in Assyria and Egypt ; and It is 
said that one at least was found to retain 
the odour of the perfume that originally 
filled it. The word occurs in Matt. xxvi. 7 ; 
Mark xiv. 3; Luke vii. 37. The expression 
'brake the box' (Mark xiv. 3) means simply 
the breaking of tlie seal which closed the 
box. The name alabaster is derived from 
the Greek, and is said to signify 'without 



handles,' the vases originally being so 
formed. 

ALA'METH (covering). A Benjamite (1 
Chron. vii. 8). 

ALAM'MELECH (king's oak). A town In 
the territory of Asher (Josh. xix. 26). 

ALA'MOTH (maidens). This word occurs 
twice (1 Chron. xv.20 ; Psal. xlvi., title). It 
has been supposed to denote an instrument ; 
but perhaps a preferable explanation is that 
it signifies 'after the manner of maidens,' 
i.e. with the female voice, treble, soprano, 
as distinguished from the deeper voice of 
men. 

AL'CIMUS (valiant). A Jewish high priest 
in the time of the Maccabees. He was con- 
firmed and protected by Demetrius Soter ; 
but his conduct was unprincipled and vio- 
lent. It was in resisting his re-instatement, 
after he had fied from Jerusalem, that 
Judas Maccabeus was killed. Alcimus died 
of palsy (1 Mace, vii., ix. ; 2 Mace. xiv.). 
AL'EMA (1 Mace. v. 26). 
A'LEMETH (covering). A descendant of 
Saul (1 Chron." viii. 36, ix. 42). 

AL'EMETH (id.). A town of Benjamin, 
allotted to the priests (1 Chron. vi. 60). In 
Josh. xxi. 18 it is called Almon It has been 
identified with 'Almit or 'Almuth, near to 
'Anata, the ancient Anathoth 

ALEXAN'DER.— 1. One of t^^e sons of 
Simon the Cyrenian who was compelled to 
bear our Lord's cross (Mai'k xv. 21). He 
was probably, at the time the evangelist 
wrote, a known disciple.— 2. A Jewish coun- 
cillor, one of the kindred of Annas the high 
; priest (Acts iv. 6).— 3. A Jew at Ephesus, 
i put forward during the riot excited against 
, the Christians (xix. 33, 34). It is quite im- 
I certain whether the intention was for hini 
1 to defend the Jews, or as a Christian to 
i be exposed to the fury of the mob. — 4. A 
nominal disciple, whom St. Paul censures 
as having with Hymeneus made shipwreck 
concerning faith (1 Tim. i. 20).— 5. A copper- 
smith Avho had done St. Paul much harm (2 
Tim. iv. 14). It is possible that he may be 
identical with No. 3 or 4. 

ALEXAN'DEB.—l. The celebrated king 
of Macedon, born 356 B.C., who, succeeding 
his father Philip, reigned twelve years and 
eight months, 336-323 B.C. He was a mighty 
conqueror, whose dominion, and overthrow 
of the Persian empire, were predicted by 
the prophet Daniel (Dan. vii. 6, viii. 5-8, 21, 
22, xi. 3, 4). He is mentioned in the Apo- 
crypha (1 Mace, i, 1-9, vi. 2). But the ac- 
count there given of the disposal of his 
dominions differs from that of most histo- 
rians ; since he is represented as parting 
his kingdom among his generals. Oriental 
writers, however, as Winer has observed, 
make the same statement. See D'Herbelot, 
Blhl. Orient., art. 'Eskander.' Josephus gives 
a remarkable narrative of Alexander's visit 
to Jerusalem (Antiq., lib. xi. 8, § 5). Tbe Jews 
had refused allegiance to him while besieg- 
ing Tyre. He therefore turned his march,not 
long after, towards the holy city. But Jad- 
dua, the high priest, warned by a dream, 
went out in his sacerdotal robes at the head 
of a long train of priests and citizens, to 
meet the king. Alexander, it is said, to the 
astonishment of his generals, did reverence 



ALEXANDRIA] 



22 



to the holy name inscribed on tlie higli 
priest's tiara, and aclcnowledgcd that he naa 
seen in a vision the Deity whom Jaddua re- 
presented, and had been promised by him 
victory in liis Asiatic invasion. He entered 
tlie city, offered sacrifice there, was shown 
the prophecy of Daniel respecting hnnself, 
and granted the Jews everywhere the most 
important privileges. Gentile writers do 
not repeat this story ; still, their silence is 
not conclusive against the truth of it, ana 
some faint traces of something like it may 
be found. We can hardly venture to pro- 
nounce it altogether a fiction ; though Jo- 
sephus may have decked out the reality 
with additional circumstances. 



natural advantage. The climate was consi- 
dered healthy. The island of Pharos lay off 
the coast at a little distance, and was con- 
nected with the main-land by a dyke called 
the Heptastadium, in which there was at 
each end a passage for vessels between 
the two harbours thus formed. The port, 
bounded by the two promontories, the Pha- 
ros and Lochias, by the north-east part of the 
city, and bv the Heptastadium, was called 
the Great Port. The other had the name ot 
Eimostus (safe return). The lake Mareotis, 
connected by a canal with port Eunostus, 
was a secure inland haven. The Ptolemies 
made Alexandria the scat of their govern- 
ment, enlarged and embellished it, till it 




Head of Alexander the Great. On a coin of Lysimachus, King of Thrace. 



2 Alexander, called Balas, was said to be 
a natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and 
claimed the crown of Syria in opposition 
to Demetrius Soter, 152 B.C. He succeeded 
ere long in defeating his rival, who was 
killed in battle; and then Alexander mar- 
ried Cleopatra, the daugliter of Ptolemy 
Philometor. But, after a while, Demetrius 
Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter, claimed 
his father's kingdom. Alexander had be- 
come odious through his luxury and mis- 
government. His father-in-law, Ptolemy, 
took the field against him ; and he was de- 
feated, and fled into Arabia, where (thoiigh 
accounts differ) he was put to death. His 
son by Cleonatra became eventually king 
of Syria, under the name of Alexander 
Theus ClMacc. x., xi.). , 

3 Alexander Jann^us was a prince of 
the Maccabean family. See M^cc^bees, 
The Family of Maccabeus. 

ALEXAN'DRIA. A very noted city of 
Egypt. It was founded 332 B.C. by Alex- 
ander the Great, who perceived the capabi- 
lities of the situation, and designed it as 
the mart in which the commerce of the east 
and the west might be most extensively 
developed. The result gave ample proof 
of the great king's sagacity. Alexandria 
(named after him) attained a degree of 
prosperity which placed it in the very first 
class of the cities of the ancient world. It 
was built on the tongue of land between the 
lake Mareotis and the Mediterranean sea, 
and was said to be shaped like a Macedonian 
chlamys, or military cloak, thirty stadia 
Cbetween three and four miles) in length, 
and seven or eight stadia wide m the 
narrowest part. This city enjoyed every 



became not only the emporium ot com- 
merce, but also a most renowned seat ol 
learning and the liberal sciences. Its popu- 
lation was so large that Diodorus Siculus 
(lib. xvii. 52), who visited Egypt about 60 
B c reports that there were 300,000 free 
citizens upon the registers (there bemg, 
perhaps, an equal number of slaves). The 
famous library is said to have been founded 
about 284 B.C. It was in a quarter of the 
city called Bruchion ; and connected with 
it was a kind of college, called the Museum, 
afterwards transferred to the Serapeion. 
This library (reported at one time to con- 
tain 700,000 volumes) suffered various ca- 
tastrophes and spoliations, and appears to 
have finallv perished in the Arab conquest. 
The magnificent light-house, on the island 
of Pharos, was another of the marvels ol 
Alexandria, and indeed was reckoned one 
of the seven wonders of the world. It was 
built by Sostratesof Cnidus, and completed 
283 B.C., in the reign of Ptolemy Philadel- 

Alexandria was the capital of the Ptole- 
mies till the Roman conquest, 30 B.C. It 
continued to flourish under the Roman em- 
perors, and afterwards as a chief city of 
the eastern empire. In 640 A.D. it was cap- 
tured by the Arabs under the caliph Omar. 
In 969,the Fatimite caliphs gained posses- 
sion of Egypt ; and Alexandria sank by de- 
grees into a place of secondary importance ; 
and the discovery of the route to India by 
the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, well-nigh 
extinguished its remaining commerce. 01 
late vears, however, it has somewhat reco- 
vered; and the modern city, the only sea- 
1 port of Egypt, lying on- the route of what 



23 



is called the overland passage to India, is 
an important station. It is about 125 miles 
north-west of Cairo, and occupies the neck 
of land which joins the continent to the 
ancient island of Pharos. The population 
is now estimated at 60,000. There are still 
some remains of antiquity :onc of the most 
noticeable is the column of Diocletian, com- 
monly called Pompey's Pillar, about 94 feet 
in height. 

We have an interesting reference to the 
Alexandrian corn-trade with Italy in the 
New Testament. Egypt was one of the 
granaries of Rome ; and the ships in which 
the wheat was conveyed from Alexandria 
were of large size. Their arrival at Puteoli 
was anxiously looked for ; and they alone 
were not required, on entering the bay, to 
strike their top-sails (See Smith's Voyage 
and Shipwreck of St. Paul, pp. 69-71, 151, 152). 
It was in one of these ships that St. Paul 
was wrecked, and in another that he was 
carried from Malta to Italy (Acts xxvii. 
Q-44, xxviii. 11-13). 

There had always been a great Jewish 
population in Alexandria. Alexander him- 
self allowed them large privileges ; and the 
Ptolemies encouraged them. Julius Cassar 
and Augustus both confirmed their fran- 
chises, and the last-named monarch ap- 
pointed a council of Jews to manage their 
affairs according to their own laws. They 
had too, for a long time, a magistrate of 
their own ; and their numbers always con- 
tinued great, so that at the Arabian con- 
quest they amounted to 40,000. 

One result of the Jewish element among 
the population of Egypt was the transla- 
tion at Alexandria of the sacred books 
into Greek; of which an account is else- 
where given. See Versions. But there 
were influences at work which tended to 
separate the Alexandrian Jews from their 
brethren in Palestine. Some of these were 
political ; the Jews of Palestine being 
under the supremacy of the Syrian kings. 
And the establishment of a temple at Leon- 
topolis, where the worship resembled that at 
Jerusalem, would of course religiously di- 
vide off the Jews in Egypt. They con- 
tinued, however, to pay the contribution 
for the temple-service at Jerusalem till the 
time of the Christian era, but they consi- 
dered themselves, and really were, indepen- 
dent. They became, too, imbued with the 
Greek literature and Greek philosophy. 
Speculative and ascetic notions grew; and 
allegoric modes of interpreting the scrip- 
tures prevailed. Mr. Westcott traces the 
progress of this philosophy, and its bearing 
upon Christianity, in an article in Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 45-49, 
and also in his Introduction to the Study 
of the Gospels. In the last-named work, he 
thus sums up the general character of what 
maybe called Alexandrianism : 'This last 
growth of Judaism, if the fairest, was still 
premature and fruitless. In its essence, it 
was the idea of heathen religion, and the 
negation of Christianity, becau&e it raised 
the soul in isolation from the earth, and 
excluded all regard to the outer work of 
life and redemption. It was equally partial 
In its application and in its scope. It ad- 



dressed only one part of man's nature and 
one class of meh. It suppressed the in- 
stincts of civil and domestic society, which 
Christianity ennobled: it perpetuated the 
barriers which Christianity removed : it 
abandoned the conflict which Christianity 
carries out to victory. Yet even thus the 
mystics of Egypt and Palestine maintained 
a practical belief in the necessity of a spi- 
ritual faith. Their own existence was a 
sign of " the last times ; " but they could not 
interpret it. They witnessed that Judaism, 
in its literal acceptation, was insufficient 
to fulfil the desires of men, but they could 
not, like John the Baptist, proclaim the 
near approach of a coming kingdom' (p. 76). 
Some of the apocryphal writings were of 
Alexandrian origin : the 2nd book of Esdras 
is an example. The celebrated Philo, too, 
was an Alexandrian Jew, bom probably 
some little time before our Lord's advent. 

The 'eloquent' Apollos was a Jew of 
Alexandria (Acts xviii. 24-28). But we 
have no account in scripture of the plant- 
ing of Christianity in that city. Ecclesias- 
tical story reports that St, Mark preached 
and founded a church there. Alexandria 
was, in after times, one of the great me- 
tropolitan sees; and there are eminent 
names among the bishops who presided. 
It must be sufficient here to mention one 
— Athanasius. 

ALEXANDRIANS. A synagogue of these 
is mentioned (Acts vi, 9). There are said 
to have been 460 or.480 synagogues in Jeru- 
salem, It w^as reasonable, therefore, to ex- 
pect that Alexandria, where so many Jews 
dwelt, would have a special synagogue for 
their worship in Jerusalem. 

ALGUM (2 Chron. ii. 8, ix. 10, 11). See 
Almug. 

ALI'AH (wickedness) (1 Chron. 1. 51), An- 
other form of Alvah, which see. 

ALI'AN {tall, thick) (1 Chron. i. 40). See 
Alvan, 

ALIEN. Aliens are properly foreigners 
belonging to and resident in another coun- 
try, and are to be distinguished from 
strangers or sojourners, those foreigners 
who come to reside in a land not their own ; 
but the distinction is not always observed 
in our translation (Exod. xviii, 3; Dent, 
xiv, 21; Isai, Ixi, 5; Lam, v. 2). Certain 
foreigners, as the Ammonites and Moabites, 
were specially prohibited from entering 
into the congregation of the Lord (Deut. 
xxiii, 3). But there was nothing to prevent 
aliens from visiting Palestine ; where some 
of the legal ordinances were binding on 
them, and provision was made for their wor- 
shipping God in the temple (1 Kings ix, 41- 
43) ; but all the prohibitions of the law 
did not extend to them (Deut. xiv. 21), St. 
Paul takes occasion to illustrate the mercy 
of God in bringing by Christ foreigners and 
aliens into his church and family (Eph, 11. 
11-13). See Proselyte. 

ALLEGORY. A figurative nfode of dis- 
course, which under the literal sense of the 
words used conveys a further meaning. 
Allegory is a Greek term (oiXX-^yo^^oc) derived 
from aXXo ccyo^ftrai, i. e, a different thing is 
said from what is meant. The narrative 
may be either supposititious, or, if descrip- 





tive ot facts, describing tliem only in order 
to represent liiglier truths tlian the literal 
acceptation of them would irapiy. The al- 
legory contains, therefore, an immediate 
and an nltimate signification , the first be- 
ing merely introductory to the last. The 
purpose or value of the allegory consists in 
its application or moral. Bishop Lowth 
{Led. on Hebr. Poetry, x., xi.) enumerates 
three forms of allegory: 1. That pro- 
perly so called ; which he inaccurately 
terms a continued metaphor. A metaphor, 
however, has hut one meaning ; an alle- 
gory two, the literal and the figurative ; 2. 
The parable or similitude (see Parable); 3. 
The mystical allegory, when a double mean- 
ing is couched under the same words, or 
when the same prediction, admitting of dif- 
ferent interpretations, relates to different 
events, distant in time and distinct in their 
nature. But this mystical or typical ex- 
plication of scripture will be more suita- 
bly noticed elsewhere (see Type). The 
allegory, properly so called, will be alone 
described here. 

Allegories have been divided into pure or 
perfect, in which no literal expressions are 
introduced to indicate the principal object, 
and impure or viixed, the application of 
which is more easily seen, because plain 
words are used or added, which lead to the 
ultimate meaning. Pure allegories are not 
often found in scripture. The story, hoAV- 
ever, of the prodigal son (Luke xv.) is an 
instance. Of the mixed allegory, there is a 
good example in Psal. Ixxx. Rules have been 
given bv various writers for the interpre- 
tation of allegories : they are, for the most 
part, plain observations, which commend 
themselves to the common sense of the 
- student. Thus, (1) Historical statements of 
facts are not to be taken as allegorical. 
Some expositors have greatly erred in this 
respect ; they have extracted allegorical 
meanings from the ordinary scripture nar- 
ratives. (2) The literal meaning of the 
words should be ascertained before we pro- 
ceed to the explanation of an allegorj\ (3) 
The main design of the whole must be ex- 
amined bv looking at the occasion which 
gave rise to it, the nature of the thing itself, 
with the scope and context of the pas- 
sage in which the allegory occurs. But the 
comparison must not be extended to all the 
circumstances, which are often introduced 
as a kind of drapery to the principal figure. 
(4) The explanation must be consistent, 
not partly literal and partly figurative. If 
literal expressions occur, as in the mixed 
allegorv, they are only to lead to the under- 
standing of the principal object. The 
church of Rome violates this rule m apply- 
ing 1 Cor. iii. 9-15 to the establishment of 
the doctrine of purgatorial fire. 

ALLELU'IA (Rev. xix. 1, 3, 4, 6). The 
Greek form of Hallelujah, which see. 

ALLIAIsCB. The Hebrews, a covenant 
people selected from the families of the 
earth to be the special depository of divme 
truth, were, by the position and nature of 
their country, and by the peculiarity of then 
institutions, less likely than other nations 
to form treaties of alliance with foreigners 
But, as time rolled on, and particularly as 


great monarchies arose on either side of 
them, they had to enter into relations with 
;heir neighbours, which often, from their 
undue dependence upon human help, and 
their adopting the idolatrous customs of 
their allies, led to severe censures and na- 
tional punishment. To give an account of 
their various alliances would be to trace 
out their whole history : it must suffice here 
to indicate a general principle, and glance 
at one or two particular e rents. 

The first account we have of an alliance 
is in Gen. xiv. 1, 2, 13. The patriarchs form- 
ed them (xxi. 27-32, xxvi. 28, 29, xxxi. 44-54). 
When Israel came into Canaan, they were 
forbidden to make alliance with the people 
of the land; nevertheless, the Gibeonites, 
by fraud, obtained a treaty from them (J osh, 
ix). The Hebrews were not to be an ag- 
gressive nation, and were to live in peace 
with suiTounding nations : hence they had 
offered terms to Sihon and Og, which were 
reiected (Numb. xxi. 21-35) ; and hence the 
alliance with Tyre (2 Sam. v. 11 ; 1 Kings v. 1- 
12). After the division of the kingdom, it 
was the policy of Israel and Judah to 
strengthen themselves, the one against the 
other, by alliances with foreign states (xv. 
16-21 ; 2 Kings xvi. 7-9). But, for a time, 
the two were in alliance against foreigners 
(1 Kings xxii. ; 2 Kings iii., viii. 28, 29). Tlie 
treaties, however, with more powerful king- 
doms brought the Israelites into a state 
of vassalage to Egypt or to Assyria ; and 
it was the overshadowing influence of one 
or other of these great empires that led 
to so many of the calaniities of Israelitisn 
later historv. Thus, Josiah appears to have 
opposed Pharaoh, in accordance with his 
treatv engagements with the Assyrian king 
(xxiii. 29). Further details must be sought 
in extended Jewish history. 

Alliances were made by an oath between 
the parties, and sometimes a present was 
offered, with a sacrifice and a feast, and me- 
morials were occasionally set up (see pas- 
sages already referred to ; also 1 Kings xv. 
18-20 ; Isai. XXX. 6, xxxvi. 16 ; Jer. xxxiv. 18 
-■^0) An alliance once made must not be un- 
iustlv broken (2 Sam. xxi. 1, 2; Ezek. xvii. 16). 
AL'LOM (1 Esdr. v. 34), , , ^ - , ^ 
AL'LON (an oak). The son of Jedaiah a 
Chron. iv. 37). ^ ^ , , 
AL'LON (id.). A place on the boundary of 
Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). But perhaps a 
better rendering of the passage would be 
' the oak at or in Zaanaimim.' See Zaa:^a^- 

^ AL'LON-BA'CHUTH (oak of weeping-). 
The oak tree under which Deborah, Re- 
bekah's nurse, was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8). 

ALMO'DAD (perhaps extension). The son 
of Joktan, a descendant of Eber (Gen. x. 26 ; 
1 Chron. i. 20). His posterity settled in 
Arabia Felix ; but opinions vary as to tne 
particular tribes they formed. i 

AL'MON (hidden). A sacerdotal city of j 
Benjamin (Josh. xxi. 181. It is the same 
with Alemeth (1 Chron. vi. 60). 

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM (concealment of 
the twin cakes). A station of the Israelites 
(Ts^umb. xxxiii. 46, 47). It is probably iden- 
tical with Beth-diblathaim (Jer. xlviii. 22). 

ALMOND-TREE. The Hebrew word for 



25 



[altab 



almond-tree signifies 'a waker,' "because 
this is the first of all trees to awake from 
the sleep of winter (Jer. i. 11, 12). This 
tree, Amygdalus communis, is repeatedly 
mentioned in scripture (Gen. xliii. 11 ; 

i Numb. xvii. 8; Eccles. xii. 5). The last- 
named passage is usually understood of the 
profuse flowering of the almond-tree, as il- 
lustrating the hoary hairs of age. Gese- 
nius objects to this, and would translate, 
'The -almond is spurned by an old man be- 
cause he is toothless.' The flower of the 
almond-treeisnot white, but rose-coloured ; 
so that it cannot represent (he says) grey 

! hairs. But perhaps his objection is some- 

! what exaggerated. In Exod. xxv. 33, 34, 
xxxvii. 19, 20, we find the ornaments of the 
sacred candlestick made like the ahnond- 
flower, or fruit (Balfour, The Plants of the 
Bible, pp. 49, 50). 

ALMS. In the earlier period of Hebrew 
history we do not find any licensed begging ; 

i but the duty of relieving the poor is re- 
peatedly and emphatically prescribed (Lev. 
xxv. 35 ; Deut. xv. 7, 8). Then, the harvest 
was not to be fully reaped, nor all the 
grapes of the vineyard gleaned, that the 
needy might be supplied (Lev. xix. 9, 10, 
xxiii. 22). And every third year the tithe 
of the produce was to be devoted to the 

j Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and 
the widow (Deut. xiv. 28, 29). There are 
many illustrations of the way in which 
concern for the poor was evinced (as Job 
xxix. 11-16); and, in the Apocrypha, alms- 
giving was inculcated as a special part of 
righteousness (Tob. xiv. 11). After the 
captiv-ity, a kind of I'ate seems to have been 
imposed, and voluntary offerings were en- 
couraged. There were receptacles in the 
women's court of the temple ; and the 
Pharisees were ostentatious in their charity, 
for which they were rebuked by our Lord 
(Matt. vi. 1-4). Mendicancy was common in 
New Testament times ; and almsgiving was 
enjoined and commended (Luke xi. 41, 
xii. 33 ; Acts iii. 2, x. 2, 4, 31 ; 1 John iii. 17). 
See Winer, Bibl. BWB.^ art. ' Almosen.' 

ALMUG. A highly-valued tree (1 Kings 
X. 11, 12), called also Algum (2 Chron. ii. 8, 
almuggim, marg., ix. 10, 11), from which 
columns, balustrades, harps, and psalteries 
were made by Solomon. It is most gene- 
rally supposed to be the red sandal-wood, 
Pterocarpus santalinus, of the east, or pos- 
sibly tbe white sandal-wood, Santahtm al- 
very fragrant, of which costly utensils 
are still made in India. The main objection 
to the supposition is that (2 Chron. ii. 8) 
it seems as if almug-trees grew on Lebanon ; 
but possibly the passage may mean that 
almug-trees, imported from the east to Tyre, 
were to be supplied by Hiram, along with 
. the trees felled on Lebanon. 

ALNA'THAN (1 Esdr. viii. 44). Elnathan 
(Ezra viii. 16). 

ALOE. An odoriferous tree, called also 
'lignaloe' (Numb, xxiv. 6; Bsal. xiv. 8; 
Prov. vii. 17 ; Sol. Song iv. 14). It is usually 
identified Avith the Aquilaria agalloclnau, 
which grows in India, Siam, China, and 
other parts of Central Asia. Another spe- 
cies, Aquilaria secundaria, is said to be very 
fragrsi't. The aroma of the tree proceeds 



from its resin, especially when decaying. 
Aloe-wood is useful for perfuming roonTs 
and clothing. We find it also, mixed with 
myrrh, used in burial (John xix. 39). See 
w'iner, Bibl EWB., art. 'Aloe, Aloeholz.' 
The expression, however, in Numb. xxiv. 6, 
would seem to imply that some tree in the 
vicinity was intended. 

A'LOTH (perhaps milk-giving). A place 
or district apparently joined with Asher as 
a commissariat department (1 Kings iv. 16), 

AL'PHA. The first letter of the Greek 
alphabet, corresponding to Aleph, the first 
Hebrew letter. These letters were used as 
numerals. Alpha, therefore, denotes one, 
the first. And, as Omega is the last Greek 
letter, our Lord calls himself Alpha and 
Omega, the First and the Last, implying 
his divine eternity (Rev. i. 8, 11, xxi. 6, 
xxii. 13 : comp. Isai. xliv. 6, See Trench, 
Comm. on Epistles to the Seven Churches, 
pp. 17, 18, 2nd edit.), 

ALPHiE'US or XLVILE'J]^ {exchangel). 
The father of James the Less, one- of the 
twelve apostles (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18 ; 
Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13), He was the hus- 
band of Mary, the Virgin's sister (INlatt. 
xxvii. 56 ; Mark xv. 40, 47, xvi. 1 ; Luke 
xxiv. 10 ; John xix. 25) ; the Clopas in the 
last-named place being merely a variation 
of the original Hebrew name. The apostle 
Jude was also a son of Alpheus (Luke vi 
16 ; Acts i. 13, compared with Jude 1). Levi 
(the apostle Matthew) is described as a son 
of Alpheus (Mark ii, 14) ; wdiether the same 
as the one just mentioned is a matter of 
doul)t. 

ALTANE'US (1 Esdr. ix. 33). 

ALTAR. A structure on which sacri 
fices were offered to the Deity. Many altars 
were erected in patriarchal times (Gen. 
viii. 20, xii. 7, xiii. 18, and elsewhere), gene- 
rally in places where some special event 
had occurred, or where there had been some 
divine manifestation, in order to consecrate, 
as it were, the spot by reverent worship. 
And in later times, even after the taber- 
nacle service was established, though sa- 
crifices properly were to be offered only in 
the place which God should choose, indivi- 
duals erected altars (Judges vi. 24-28 ; 2 
Sam. xxiv. 25 ; 1 Kings xviii. 30-32). And, 
as idolatry prevailed, numerous altars were 
placed according to the fancy of the wor- 
shippers, generally on high places. Some- 
times altars w^ere intended not for sacrifice, 
but as memorials (Josh. xxii. 10, 22-29). Of 
the materials of primitive altars we have 
no account. According to the Mosaic law, 
they were to be of earth or unhewn stone 
(Exod. XX. 24, 25). This, however, might 
be only a general direction, to guide those 
who under peculiar circumstances w^ere 
justified in erecting additional altars. For 
the altars of the tabernacle were of dif- 
ferent materials. 

One of these was the altar of burnt-offer- 
ing. It was a framework of shittim (acacia) 
boards, overlaid with brass (copper or 
bronze), five cubits in length and breadth, 
and three cubits high. As it was thus hol- 
low, it has been supposed that, in accord- 
ance with the command above noticed, it 
was filled within with earth when ine cump 



ax-taschith] 



2G 



was stationar3% There appears to have heen 
a ledge or projection on whicli the priests 
stood while officiating : below this there was 
a brass grating or network, which was let 
down into the altar, possibly to support the 
fire ; but on this opinions differ. Four rmgs 
were attached to this network, through 
which staves, likewise of wood overlaid 
with metal, might be passed when the altar 
was removed. There were also to be horns 
to the altar, which occasionally were sprin- 
kled with blood (xxvii. 1-8, xxix. 12) : to 
these bonis the victims were tied (Psal. 
cxviii. 27) ; and a person fleeing tor sanc- 
tuary laid hold of them a Kings i. 50, 51, 
ii 28) As steps were forbidden (Exod. xx. 
26), it has been thought that a slope of earch 
was made from the ground to the ledge. 
But it is not certain that the ledge was high 
enouffb from the ground to require it. 
Vario^us utensils belonged to this altar, as 
pans to receive the. ashes, shovels to clear 
anything awav, basons to receive the blood, 
flesh-hooks to remove the parts of the 
victims, and fire-pans, perhaps censers. 
This altar was placed at ' the door of the 
tabernacle of the tent of the congrega- 
tion ' (xl. 29). The fire on it was never to go 
out (Lev. vi. 9, 13). A larger altar of burnt- 
offering was constructed by Solomon for 
the temple : it was twenty cubits m length 
and breadth, and ten cubits high, and was 
entirely of brass (2 Chron. Iv. 1). No de- 
tailed description is given of it ; and it is 
uncertain whether the ascent to it was by 
steps or by a gradual slope. This was re- 
paired by Asa (XV. 8), removed by Ahaz_ to 
make room for anew altar of Syrian fashion 
(2 Kijigs xvi. 10-16), cleansed by Hezekiah 
(2 Chron. xxix. 18), and repaired again by 
Manasseh (xxxiii. 16). We hear nothing 
further of it. For the second temple the 
altar was erected before the temple itself 
was begun (Ezra iii. 2, 3), Josephus (Antig. 
lib. xi. 4, § 1) says, on the spot where Solo- 
mon's had stood. This was profaned by 
Antiochus Epiphanes ; and a new one was 
built by Judas Maccabeus, botb being of 
stone (1 Mace. iv. 44-47). The altar made by 
Herod is described by Josephus {Bell Jud. 
lib V 5, § 6) : ' Before the temple stood the 
altar, fifteen cubits high, and equal m both 
length and breadth ; each being fifty cubits. 
The figure it was built in was a square : 
it had corners like horns ; and the passage 
up to it was by a gentle acclivity from the 
south. It was formed without any iron 
tool ; nor did iron so mucb as touch it at 
any time.' The dimensions, liowever, are 
differently given in the Mishna. Various 
other details are recorded of it. From the 
south-west horn a pipe conducted the blood 
of the victims by a subterranean passage to 
the Kedron. Under the altar a cavity Avith 
a marble covering received the drink-offer- 
ings On the north side were several.iron 
rings for securing the victims ; and there 
was a red line round the middle to show 
where the blood was to be sprinkled, above 
or beljw it. , , , 

The altnr of incense was made of shittim 
wood overlaid with gold; whence it is 
called also 'the golden altar' (Numb. iv. 
11). It was a cubit in length and breadth. 



and two cubits high. It had horns, occa- 
sionally sprinkled as those of the brasen 
altar (Lev. iv. 7). It had a ' top' or ' roof, 
and a border of gold, and golden rings with 
wooden staves overlaid with gold to carry 
it. It was to stand in the holy place ' be- 
fore the veil that is by the ark of the testi- 
mony' (Exod. XXX. 1-6, xl. 5). On this 
incense was to be burned every day ; and 
once a year an atonement was to be made 
upon it (XXX. 7-10). This is the altar re- 
ferred to in Isai". vi. 6 ; Rev. viii. 3, 5. In 
Solomon's temple it was of cedar overlaid 
with gold (1 Kings vi. 20, vii. 48 ; 1 Chron. 
xxviii. 18). We have no notice of it at the 
building of the second temple ; but later 
we are told that Antiochus Epiphanes took 
it away, and that Judas Maccabeus restored 
it or made another (1 Mace. 1. 21, iv. 49, 50). 

Of the altars of heathen nations, erected 
to idol gods, little can be said here. It 
may however, be observed that the type 
of oriental altars was generally square or 
oblong, that of those of Greece ana ±toine 
more commonly cylindrical. Altars of 
brick are censured (Isai. Ixv. 3). 

The altar which St. Paul saw at Athens 
(Acts xvii. 23) has afforded matter of dis- 
cussion. It was inscribed ' To the unknown 
God.' It is not likely that Jehovah is meant, 
who was unknown at Athens. Profane 
writers tell us that, when misfortune hap- 
pened, and the Athenians attributed it to 
some deitv, they could not tell whom, they 
dedicated an altar by way of propitiation to 
the unknown one. The altar referred to 
must have been one of these, and it fur- 
nished fit opportunity for the apostle to 
declare Him whom indeed the heathen knew 
not, but whom properly to know was life 

^^AL-TASCHl'TH (destroy not). These 
words are prefixed to Psalms Ivii., Iviu., lix., 
Ixxv. ; which are also inscribed ' To the 
chief musician.' Some critics have sup- 
posed them to refer to the subject of the 
psalm : but this notion is certainly inap- 
plicable to Iviii., ixxv. The more probable 
opinion is, that the words are the com- 
mencement of some song, to the melody 
or tune of which these psalms were to be 
chanted. , . ^ ,j 

A'LUSH (a crowd of men, a strong fort, 
or vlace of wild beasts). A station m the 
journey of Israel from Egypt, next before 
Rephidim (Numb, xxxiii. 13, 14). _ 

AL'VAH ^wickedness). A duke or chief 
of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40). He is called also 
Allah (1 Chron. i. 51). . ^ ^ 

AL'VAN {tall, thick). A descendant of 
Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23), called also 
Allan (1 Chron. i. 40). . , , ^ 

AM'AD (^-people of duration). A to^\n oi 
Asher (Josh. xix. 26). _ 

AM AD A' TEA, AM ADA' THUS (Rest of 
Esth. xii. 6, xvi. 10, 17). 

A'MAL {labour, sorrow). A descendant 
of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 35). 

AM'ALEK(a people that hcks vpl). The 
son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau ^Geu. 
xxxvi. 12, 16 ; 1 Chron. i. 36). _ 

AMAL'EKITES. This tribe is first men- 
tioned in connection with the e^P^Qi^ion 
of Chedor-laomer (Gen. xiv. 7). We flud 



27 



[ambassador 



them occupying the country Ijetween 
Palestine* Iduniea, and mount Sinai, on 
the eloA^ated plateau (Numb. xiv. 25, 40-45) 
now called er-BaklimaJi ; their seats having 
at a very early period been probably farther 
I eastward. The grandson of Esau was per- 
I haps the progenitor of a clan, which was 
intermingled with an older race. The Ama- 
lekites were a nomad people, their towns 
but collections of tents : they were rich in 
flocks and herds, and seem to have acquired 
a vast power by their bold predatory habits. 
They attacked the Israelites in Rephidim, 
but were beaten oft with signal slaughter 
(Exod. xvii. 8-16 ; Deut. xxv. 17-19). They 
subsequently, in conjunction with the Ca- 
naanites, defeated Israel, when in the reac- 
tionary movement after the ill report of the 
spies the tribes tried against the divine com- 
mand to enter Palestine at once (Numb, 
xiv. 40-45). The destruction of this nation, 
threatened for their attacks upon the Is- 
raelites, was also predicted by Balaam 
(xxiv. 20). They joined in some of the 
expeditions into Palestine in the times 
of the Judges (Judges iii. 13, vi. 3-5), bring- 
ing, it would seem, their cattle and families, 
as if to settle there ; and from some such 
settlement places appear to have preserved 
their name (xli. 16). They were almost 
exterminated ])y Saul (1 Sam. xv.) ; and after- 
wards only small troops of them or indivi- 
duals are mentioned (xxvii. 8, xxx. 1, 13; 
2 Sam. i. 8). Agag was the general title of 
their cliief. 

AMA'M (weeting-place). A city in the ex- 
treme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 26). See 
Hazor, 4. 

A'MAN (Tob. xiv. 10 ; Rest of Esth x. 7, 
xii. 6, &c.). The Greek form of Haman. 
AMA'NA (fixed, perennial). A ridge or 
1 summit of Anti-libanus, in which it is 
' presumed the river Amana or Abanahas 
I its source (Sol. Song iv. 8 : comp, 2 Kings 
I V. 12, marg.). See Abana. 

AMARI'AH (whom JeJwvah spoJce of, 1. e. 
promised).— 1. The grandfather of Zadok the 
priest (1 Chron. vi. 7, 52).— 2. Another in the 
line of priests (11) ; but it is believed that 
some of the names here are an interpola- 
, tion : compare, however, Ezra vii. 3.-3. A 
' Kohathite Levite (1 Chron. xxiii. 19, xxiv. 
' i 23).— 4. The high priest in the reign of 
i Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xix. 11) ; he may be 
i the same with No. 2— 5. A priest or Levite 
! in the time of Hezekiah (xxxi. 15).— 6. One 
who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 42).— 
7. A priest who returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel, and who (or his repre- 
sentative) sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 3, 
xii. 2) : his representative in the days of 
Joiakirn was Jehohanan (13).— 8. A de- 
scendant of Judah (xi. 4).— 9. An ancestor 
of the prophet Zephaniah (Zeph. i. 1). It 
has been supposed by some that Immer 
(1 Chron. xxiv. 14) is identical with Amariah ; 
if so, the names under No. 7 designate his 
representatives. 

AMABI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 2). A Greek 
form of Amariah. 

AMA'SA. (burden).— 1. The son of Ithra, 
or Jether, by David's sister Abigail (2 Sam. 
xvii. 25 ; 1 Chron. ii. 16, 17). It was he, pro- 
bably, who joined David at Ziklag. See 



Amasai, 2. He was made commander- 
in-chief by Absalom, and was intended by 
David, after his restoration, to supersede 
Joab. But, as he failed to collect forces 
against Sheba (through a natural distrust 
felt towards one so lately in arms against 
his sovereign), Abishai was commissioned ; 
and Joab, joining the march, took occasion 
when Amasa came up to murder him (2 
Sam. xix. 13, xx. 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12 ; 1 Kings 
ii. 5, 32).— 2. An Ephraimite chief (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 12). 

AMA'SAI (burdensome).—!. A Levite, a 
descendant of Korah (1 Chron. vi. 25, 35).— 2. 
A chief who joined David at Ziklag (xii. 18). 
—3. A priest In David's time (xv. 24).— 4. A 
Levite of the family of Kohath in Hezekiah's 
time (2 Chron. xxix. 12). 
AMASH'AI. (id.). A priest (Neh. xi. 13). 
AMASI'AH (whom Jehovah bears). A 
military officer in the reign of Jehoshaphat 
(2 Chron. xvii. 16). 
AMATRE'18 (1 Esdr. ix. 29). 
AM'ATHIS (1 Mace. xii. 25). A district 
probably identical with Hamath. 

AMAZI'AH (whom Jehovah strengthens).— 
1. The son and successor of Jehoash, or 
Joash, king of Judah. He w^as twenty-tive 
years old at his accession, and he reigned 
twenty-nine years, 838-809 B.C. His conduct 
was, at first, unexceptionable; but he af- 
terwards declined from God's law, and 
brought misfortune and judgment upon 
himself and his kingdom. He punished the 
murderers of his father, but spared their 
children, in conformity wath the Mosaic 
regulation (Deut. xxiv. 16). He made war 
on Edom, wdiich had revolted from Judah 
in the reign of Joram, and, besides his own 
troops, hired 100,000 Israelites, but dismissed 
them at the command of a prophet. His 
expedition was perfectly successful. He 
defeated the Edomites, took their capital, 
and gave it the name of Joktheel, i. e. sub- 
dued of God. But this success proved his ruin. 
Infatuated with the Edomitish idolatry, he 
adopted it in his own kingdom, in spite of a 
divine warning. The Israelitish troops he 
had dismissed had, in revenge, ravaged 
some districts of Judah ; and Amaziah, very 
probably provoked by their conduct, defied 
Joash, king of Israel. His army was routed ; 
and he was himself made prisoner : Jeru- 
salem, too, was entered and plundered by 
Joash. Of the remainder of Amaziah's 
reign little is said. But it does not appear 
that he repented. For the consequences of 
his idolatry still pursued him. His own 
subjects conspired against him, and, when 
he fled to Lachish, slew him there. He was 
succeeded by his son Azariah, or Uzziah 
(2 Kings xiv. 1-21 ; 2 Chron. xxv.).— 2. A 
Simeonitc (1 Chron. iv. 34).— 3. A Levite 
(vi. 45).— 4. An idolatrous priest of the 
golden calf at Bethel, in the reign of Jero- 
boam II. (Amos vii. 10-17). 

AMBASSADOR. There are early exam- 
ples of ambassadors— persons empowered to 
convey a message on the part of a nation 
or a sovereign (Numb. xx. 14, xxi. 21, xxii. 
5, 15 ; Josh. ix. 4). They were often men of 
high rank, and were despatched sometimes 
with hostile purpose, sometimes with cour- 
teous congratulations, or inquiries; and 



A-mber] 



28 



injury done to them was considered a great 
affront (2 Sura, x. 1-7 ; 2 Kings xviii. 17, xx. 
12, 13; 2 Cbron. xxxil. 31). St. Paul desig- 
nates those who are entrusted with the 
message of tlie gospel as Cln'ist's ambassa- 
dors (2 Cor. Y. 20). 

AMBER (Ezek. 1. 4, 27, viii. 2). Most 
likely the substance called 'amber' in our 
version is not that wliicli is now known by 
that name. It is rather a metal. Some have 
believed it a mixture of brass (or copper) 
and gold, or brass with a gold-like brilliancjj. 
But, according to the derivation of the ori- 
ginal word preferred by Gesenius, who ob- 
serves that we find 'burnished brass' in 
the same connection (i. 7), smooth and 
polished brass may be intended (comp. 
Kev. i. 15). 

A'MEJS" {firm, faith fid, verily). The propel' 
signification of this word is when one 
person confirms the words of another, and 
expresses his wish for the success and ac- 
complishment of the other's voavs and de- 
clarations. Thus it is used in Numb. v. 22 ; 
Deut. xxvii. 15-26 ; 1 Kings i. 36 ; Jer. xxviii. 
6. Also, after ascriptions of praise (Psal. 
cvi. 48 ; Matt. vi. 13, and elsewhere). Again, 
we find it at the beginning of a sentence, to 
signify the firm certainty of what was 
about to be said, as very frequently in our 
Lord's addresses (Matt. xxv. 40 ; John ili. 
3, 5, 11, and in other places), where it is 
usually rendered ' verily.' The promises of 
the gospel, too, are said to be 'yea and 
amen' (2 Cor. i. 20), to indicate their sta- 
bility. And once the word is used as a 
proper name (Rev. iii. 14), applied to Him 
from whose lips every syllable is assured 
truth ; so that, though heaven ana earth 
should pass, nothing that he has spoken can 
remain unaccomplished (Matt. xxiv. 35). 

AMETHYST. One of the precious stones 
in the high priest's sacred breast-plate 
(Exod. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12). The oriental 
amethyst is a gem of great hardness and 
lustre, violet, and occasionally red : the 
occidental amethyst is a variety of quartz, 
of much beauty, but not difficult to cut. 
This stone had its Hebrew name, ahhidmah, 
from its supposed property of inducing 
dreams. Its Greek name (from which the 
English word comes) implied that it was a 
charm against drunkenness. The amethyst 
is mentioned as one of the foundations of 
the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). 

A'MI (perhaps a corrupted form of Am on, 
a builder). One whose descendants, called 
children of Solomon's servants, returned 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 57). He is termed 
Amon in Neh. vii. 59. 

AIHIN'ADAB (Matt. i. 4; Luke iii. 33). 
The Greek form of Amminadab, which 

AMI'lS'OlSr (faithfu T) (2 Sam. xiii. 20, marg.). 
See Amnox. 

AMIT'TAT {true, veracious). The father of 
Jonah the prophet (2 Kings xiv. 25 ; Jonah 
1. 1). 

AM'MAH (beginning, head).—!. A hill be- 
I fore or facing Giah (which see), the point 
I to which Joab pursued Abner after the 
i skirmish near Gibeon (2 Sam. ii. 24).— 2. 
j (viii. ], marg.) See METiiEG-AjrMAH. 

AM'MI (wjj/ people). The word is used in 



Hos. ii. 1, to express God's returning favour 
to Israel, who, once disavowed by him, 
should again be acknowledged as his people. 
See Lo-Ammi. 

AM'MIDOI q Esdr. v. 20). 
■ AM'MIEL {kindred, i. e. servant, of God). 
—1. The spy selected of the tribe of Dau 
(Ivumb. xiii. 12).— 2. The father of Machir, 
in whose house Mephibosheth was brought 
up, and who supplied David with pro- 
visions during Absalom's rebellion (2 Sam. 
ix. 4, 5, xvii. 27).— 3. The father of Bath- 
sheba (iChron. iii. 5), called Eliam in 2 Sam. 
xi. 3. — 4. A porter, son of Obed-edom (1 
Chron. xxvi. 5). 

AMMI'HUD {kindred, i. e. one of the tribe, 
of Judali).—!. The father of the chief of 
Ephraim in the wilderness, an ancestor of 
Joshua (Xumb. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48-53, x. 
1 22 ; 1 Chron. vii. 26).— 2. One of the tribe of 
I Simeon (Numb, xxxiv. 20).— 3. A descendant 
I of Naphtali (28).— 4. The father of Talraai 
j king of Geshur (2 Sam. xiii. 37).— 5. One of 
the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ix. 4). 

AMMl'HUR {kindred of nobles). A varied 
form of Amraihud (2 Sam. xiii. 37, marg.). 

AMMI'NADAB {kindred of the prince).— 1. 
The son of Ram or Aram, who was great- 
grandson of Judah. His daughter, Eli- 
sheba, was the wife of Aaron ; and his son 
Naashon, or Nahshon, prince of Judah in the 
wilderness (Exod. vi. 23 ; Numb. i. 7, ii. 3, 
vii. 12, 17, X. 14 ; Ruth iv. 19, 20 ; 1 Chron. ii. 
10).— 2. A son of Kohath (vi. 22). This is 
possiblj^ a transcriber's error, as elsewhere 
generally (Exod. vi. 18 ; ] Chron. vi. 2, 18) he 
is called Izhar ; but see Birks' Exodus, chap, 
xiii. p. 152. — 3. The chief in David's time of 
the sons of Uzziel, a Levite, son of Kohath 
(XV. 10, 11). 

AMMI'NADIB {companiions of the prince). 
This occurs Sol. Song vi. 12. But in the 
margin it is 7ny willing people ; and probably 
the word should not be taken as a proper 
name. Ginsburg {The Song of Songs, zcith a 
Comm., p. 175) renders ' to the chariots of 
the companions of the prince.' 

AMMISHAD'DAI {kindred, i. e. servant, of 
the Almighty). The father of Ahiezer, 
prince of Dan (Numb. i. 12, ii. 25, vii. 06, 71, 
X. 25). 

AMMI'ZABAD (kindred of the giver, i. e. 
Jehovah). An officer in David's army (l 
Chron. xxvii. 6). 

AM'MON, AM'MONITES {strong people, or 
perhaps the same as Ben-amrai, srm of my 
kindred). The nation descended from Ben- 
ammi, the son of Lot, born in incest (Gen. 
xix. 38). They are continually spoken of in 
conjunction with the kindred people of 
Moab, and they appear to have worsliipped 
the same god, Chemosh (Numb. xxi. 29 ; 
Judges xi. 24), though Moloch orMilcom is 
specially called their ' abomination ' (1 Kings 
xi. 5). They had expelled the Zamzummim 
from the region between the Arnon and the 
Jabbok, and had established themselves in 
the strong mountainous country about the 
sources of these streams (Numb. xxi. 24 ; 
Deut. ii. 20). .The Israelites were not to 
molest the Ammonites (19) ; the latter, 
hoAvever, joined with the Moabites in in- 
viting Balaam to cm-se Israel ; and, on ac- 
, count of this unfriendly conduct, neither 



29 



[AMOmi'E 



they nor the Moahites were ever to be ad- 
mitted into the congregation of the Lord 
rxxiii 3-6). Hence we find the most vi- 
rulent conflicts continually occurring be- 
tween Israel and the Ammonites. The king 
of Moab, aided by the Ammonites, subjected 
the Israelites for eighteen years (Judges in. 
12 14). Fresh invasions followed (xu 4; l 
Sam xi 11). Jcphthah, Saul, and David, 
how'ever, defeated them, and broke then- 
power (Judges xi. 32, 33 ; 1 Sam. xiy. 47 ; 
2 Sam. X., xii. 2G-31). They afterwards re- 
covered strength, and attacked Jehosha- 
phat, but were defeated, and, somewhat 
later, were made tributary to Uzziah and 
Jotham (2 Chron. xx. 1-30, xxvi. 8, xxvii. 
5^ Tl^ir enmity still continued: they 
united witli the Chaldeans to distress 
Judah, and occupied the territory east 
of the Jordan (2 Kings xxiv. 2 ; Jer. xlix 
1 • Zeph. ii. 8) : tlieir king Baalis instigated 
the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. xl. 14 xli. 
15) : they harassed the Jews after then- 
return from captivity (Neh. iv. 7, 8), and 
attacked them in the Maccabean wars (l 
Mace. v. 6, 30-43). Yet marriages were 
occasionally made between Israel and Am- 
nion • thus the mother of Rehoboam was an 
Ammonit€ss (1 Kings xiv. 31). The Ammon- 
ites appear to have been a nomad race . 
hnt a single city, Rabbah, is named among 
them ; though others are referred to (2 Sam. 
xii 31) In their incursions they exhibited 
great barbarity (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Amos 1. 13), 
and showed themselves regardless otthe 
ordinary rules observed by nations at all 
civilized (2 Sam. X. 4;. 

AM'NON if aim III).—!. The eldest son of 
David (called also Aminon), by Ahmoam 
the Jezreelitess. He dishonoured his halt- 
sister Tamar, and was in consequence mur- 
dered by Absalom (2 Sam. iii. 2, xiii.; 1 
Chron. iii. 1).— 2. One of the descendants of 
Judah (iv. 20). ^ ^ , , 

A'MOK (dee-p). A priest who returned to 
Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh. xn. 7, 

^^A'MON {ttie hidden ?). One of the eight 
principal deities of Egypt. His name is 
written on the monuments Amon-Re, 
• Amonthe sun ;' Re, the sun, being connect- 
ed with various other gods. In the oases 
Anion assumed the attributes of Noum or 
Nef , the ram-headed god; whence the Greeks 
imagined that he was always ram-headed^ 
and identified him with their Zeus or Ju- 
piter; he was therefore called in classical 
story Jupiter Ammon. He was worshipped 
at Thebes as Amon-Re, represented wear- 
ing a cap with two long feathers, and 
Amon-Rekamut-ef, 'Anion the sun who is 
both male and female,' represented as the 
generative principle. In this last form he 
is accompanied by figures of trees or 
other vegetable products. See Wilkinson s 
Anc. Egypt, chap. xiii. vol. iv. pp. 24.3-249 ; 
Mod. Egypt and Thebes, vol. ii. pp, 367, 375 ; 
Rawlinson's Jfferodoiits, App. to book ii. chap, 
iii. pp. 288, &c. ; Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. i. p. 61. . ^, , 

This deitv is here figured m a gathered 
linen tunic fastened by a belt : on his head 
Is a helmet or cap, in the front of which is 
the disk of the Bun, surmounted by two 



long and richly-coloured plumes, and from 
which a bandlet hangs down to the ground : 
in his right hand is the symbol of life, in 
his left the staff with the head of the 
hoopoe, denoting tranquillity : his skin is of 
a blue tint. 

The word Amon occurs in jSTah. lii. 8 
(marg. No-Amon), signifying Thebes. It is 
also found in Jer. xlvi. 25, marg. ; but in 
this place the textual rendering of 'the 
multitude ' is preferable : comp. Ezek. xxx. 
4, 10, 15. 




Amon. 

From Sculptures, Brit. Mus. 

A'MOK {architect, builder, or possibly 
foster-child).— I. A governor of Samaria in 
Ahab's time (1 Kings xxii. 26; 2 Chron. 
xviii. 25).— 2. The son and successor of Ma- 
nasseh king of Judah. He was twenty-two 
years old when he began to reign, nnd he 
reigned two years, 641-639 B.C. He was an 
ungodly prince, practising shameless idol- 
atry. He was assassinated by his servants ; 
but the people put the murderers to death, 
and placed the king's youthful son Josiah 
upon the throne (2 Kings xxi. 18-26 ; 
1 Chron. iii. 14 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 20-25 ; Jer. 
i. 2, XXV. 3; Zeph. i. 1; Matt. i. 10).— 3. 
A person also termed Ami, which see. 

AM'ORITE {mountaineer). A people de- 
scended from Canaan the son of Ham (Gen. 
X. 16; 1 Chron. i. 14). They were one of 
the nations of Canaan, perhaps the most 
powerful and numerous ; their name being 
sometimes taken so as to include all the 
Canaanitish tribes (Gen. xv. 16, xlviii. 22 ; 
Deut. i. 20; Amos ii. 9, 10). Hence we 
sometimes find a city said to be occupied 
by Amorites, which appears elsewhere as- 
signed to another tribe. Thus Jerusalem 
is Amorite (Josh. x. 3, 5), Jebusite (xv. 63j 



30 



AMOS] 



More particularly, however, the Aniorites 
occupied the mountains ; while the Canaan- 
ites dwelt in the lowlands (Numb, xiii, 29). 
Besides their settlements in the west, they 
extended themselves to the east of the Jor- 
dan, from the Arnon to Hermon (which in 
their language they called Shenir or Senir). 
Here they formed two kingdoms under 
Sihonand Og, including all Gilead and Ba- 
shan, which, on Sihon s refusal to let the 
Israelites pass peaceably, Moses conquered 
and assigned to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, 
and half Mauasseh (Deut. ii. 26-30, iii. 8-10). 
Five kings of the Amorites were destroyed 
by Joshua : still the nation was by no means 
exterminated. TVe find them in the pe- 
riod of the Judges (Judges i. 34-36, iii. 5), 
and even to the reign of Solomon, who 
subjected the remnant of them to bond- 
service (1 Kings ix. 20, 21). There is also 
a notice of them as existing after the capti- 
vity (Ezra ix. Ij. Mr. Grove, in Dr. Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 62, maintains 
that the name ' Amorite' was a local term, 
and not the name of a distinct tribe. His 
arguments are certainly strong, and de- 
serve all consideration. 

A'MOS (borne up, or burde^i) B.C. 810-785. 
The third of the minor piophets, according 
to the order of our bibles. He was a native 
of Tekoah, a small town of Judah, about 
twelve miles south of Jerusalem ; at least, 
this was his ordinary dwelling-place. He 
was not trained in the prophetic schools, 
and is said to have been ' among the herd- 
men of Tekoah' (i.l). He also describes 
himself as a keeper of cattle and ' a gatherer 
of sycamore fruit,' and says that he was 
taken from the flock (vii. 14, 15). But, 
though this seems to indicate a mean con- 
dition, and none but the poorest (we are 
told by ti-avellers) now gather or use syca- 
more fruit in Palestine (Tliomson, The Land 
and the Book, p. 23), yet it does not follow 
that Amos was uneducated, a mere w^ork- 
ing-man. David was taken from the sheep- 
folds (Psal. Ixxviii, 70, 71) ; and the word 
used in Amos i. 1 is the same that is ap- 
plied to Mesha, the tributary king of Moab 
(2 Kings iii. 4). 

Amos prophesied early in TJzziah's long 
reign ; for Jeroboam II. was at the time 
upon the throne of Israel. And, if the 
statement of 2 Kings xv. 1 is to be relied 
on, Jeroboam died in the fifteenth of 
Uzziah. But some critics are disposed to 
believe that an error has somehow crept 
into that text ; so that TJzziah's accession 
was twenty-seven years before Jeroboam's 
death. Be this, however, as it may, we can- 
not suppose the earthquake (Amos i. 1) to 
have occurred (according to the story of 
Josephus) when Uzziah attempted to burn 
incense. That attempt was later. Else 
Jotham his son would have been too young 
to assume the reins of government, for he 
was not born till his father had been 
twenty-seven years upon the throne (2 Kings 
XV. 2, 5, 32, 33) ; and, further, some of the 
predictions in Amos i. were fulfilled by 
Uzziah ; whose prosperity seems to have 
continued afterwards a considerable time 
(2 Chron. xxvi. 5-15). Of the personal his- 
tory of Auios \ve know no more. The length 



of his prophetic course, the place and time 
of his death, cannot be ascertained. 

AMOS, THE BOOK OF. These predictions 
were delivered on occasion of the oppres- 
sion and low estate of the two Israelitisb 
kingdoms through their idolatry and lux- 
ury. The punishment of the neighbouring 
nations was announced ; and this was in 
a measure accomplished by the victories 
of Jeroboam and Uzziah (2 Kings xiv, 23-29 ; 
2 Chron. xxvi. 6-15). The Israelites and Jews, 
too, might expect severe judgments ; yet to 
those who humbled themselves in true re- 
pentance the promise of deliverance is 
made, and the future blessing of Messiah's 
kingdom predicted. 

This book may be divided into two prin- 
cipal parts : 1. Plain declarations (i.-vi.) : 
this portion comprises a denunciation of the 
sins of adjacent nations (i. 1-ii. 3), and a re- 
proof of Judah and Israel (ii. 4-vi. 14).— 2. 
Prophetic visions and symbolic announce- 
ments (vii.-ix.) : the impending judgments 
are here pre-signified (vii. l-ix. 10), which 
Amaziah, the idolatrous priest, misrepre- 
sents ; and finally, consolatory promises 
are given (ix. 11-15). 

The style of the book is forcible ; and 
many of the images drawn from imral 
life are full of beauty. The composition 
would seem to show that Amos was not a 
coarse rustic, but a person of considerable 
attainments. His book is cited twice in the 
I^TeAv Testament— Acts vii. 42, 43, xv. 15-17. 

A'MOZ (strong). The father of the pro- 
phet Isaiah (Isai. 1. l,ii. 1). 

AMPHIP'OLIS (around the city), A city 
of Macedonia, on the river Strymon, The 
Athenians colonized it, and gave it its nam.e 
because the river flowed on both sides 
(Thucyd. lib. iv. 102). A celebrated battle was 
fought here in the Peloponnesian war, in 
which both Brasidas, the Spartan comman- 
der, and Cleon, the Athenian, were killed. 
This city became, under the Romans, the 
chief town of Macedonia prima. Paul and 
Silas passed through it on their way from 
Philippi to Thessalonica (A As xvii. 1). 

AM'PLIAS. A Christian at Rome to 
whom St. Paul sends a salutation (Rom. 
xvi. 8). 

AM'RAM (kindred of the lofty one, i.e. God"). 
—1. A Levite, father of Moses, Aaron, and 
Miriam (Exod. vi. 18, 20 ; Kumb. iii. 19, 
xxvi. 58, 59 ; 1 Chron. vi. 2, 3, IS, xxiii. 12, 13, 
xxiv. 20).— 2. One who had married a foreign 
wife (Ezra x. 34). 

AM'iiAM (redl). A descendant of Seir 
(1 Chron. i. 41). Possibly an error for Hem- 
dan (Gen. xxxvi. 26). 

AM'RAMITES. The family of Amram 
the Levite (Xumb. iii. 27 ; 1 Chron. xxvi. 23). 

AM'RAPHEL (guardian of the gods ?). A 
king of Shinar, who joined in the expedi- 
tion of Chedor-laomer (,Gen. xiv. 1, 9). 

AMULET. It appears to have been a 
general custom in ancient times, by no 
meims obsolete at the present day, for per- 
sons to endeavour to secure themselves 
against witchcraft, and specially the evil 
eye, also against disease, by tlie use of 
amulets or talismans. Tliese were some- 
times scrolls inscribed with sacred words; 
and doubtless many of this kind were 



31 



[ANANIAS 



among the Epliesian 'books' wliich were 
openly burned (Acts xix. 19) : sometimes 
tliey were stones, or shells, or pieces of 
metal, on which cahalistic figures were en- 
graved. The Hebrews were as fond of 
amulets as any other nation, and they at- 
tributed peculiar virtue to the phylacteries 
which they wore, sanctioned, as they con- 
ceived, by the command of Moses (Exod. 
xiii. 9 ; Deut. vi. 8. 9). Among the orna- 
ments of the women, amulets are to be 
reckoned ; and of this nature were probably 
the ear-rings mentioned in various places 
(Geu. XXXV. 4 ; Isai. iii. 20 ; Hos. ii. 13). The 
wearing of amulets on the sabbath was 
prohibited by the Jewish rabbins, except 
of those which were specially approved, 
i. e. such as were known to have cured not 
fewer than three persons. Modern travel- 
lers have described and figured amulets still 
worn In Egypt; and tokens of the like 
superstition in our own country might be 
produced without difficulty. 




Egyptian Amulets. 
From originals in Brit. Mus. 

1 Gold. 

2 Ring, with the word ' health ' inscribed. 

5 Scarabseus. 

4 Cornelian serpent's head. 
5, 5, 5 Porcelain eyes. 

6 Gold pendant inlaid with lapis lazuli. 

AM'Zl {Strong).—!. A Levite Q. Chron. vi, 
46).— 2. A priest (Neh. xi. 12). 



A'jSTAB (place of clusters, q. d. grape-town). 
A place in the mountains of Judah where 
once the Anakini dwelt (Josh. xl. 21, xv. 
50). It still exists about ten miles SSW. 
from Hebron, retaining its ancient name. 

AN'AEL (Tob. i. 21). 

A'NAH {an ansicer, ansicering). The son 
of Zibeon, grandson of Seir the Horite, and 
father of Aholibamah, Esau's wife (Gen. 
xxxvi. 2, 14, 18, 20, 24, 25, 29 ; 1 Chron. i. 38, 
40, 41). It is questioned whether there 
were two, a son of Seir, and a son of Zibeon, 
who bore the same name, Anah. It may be 
so ; but possibly a single person is meant, 
son being in the one case used for descend- 
ant. Further, it seems, from our translation, 
as if Anah was the daughter of Zibeon (Gen. 
xxxvi. 2, 14). But here daughter is used in 
a larger sense; Ahohbamali, daughter of 
Anah and grand-daughter of Zibeon. Anah 
was identical with Beeri, which see. 

ANA'HARATH {snorting, or, according to 
some, gorge). A city of Issachar (Josh, 
xix. 19). ^ ^ 

ANAI'AH (whom Jehovah answers). One 
who stood with Ezra at the solemn reading 
of the law (Neh. viii. 4) ; possibly the same 
who sealed the covenant (x. 22). 

A'NAK {long-necked, a giant). The son 
of Arba, and father of the giants of the 
south of Palestine. But perhaps Anak is to 
be understood rather of the race than as an 
ndividual (Numb. xiii. 22, 28, 33; Deut. 
ix 2 ; Josh. XV. 13, 14, xxi. 11 ; Judges i. 20). 

AN'AKIMS (Deut. i. 28, ii. 10, ix. 2 ; Josh, 
xiv. 15). A gigantic race, descended from 
Arba, located in the southern parts of Pa- 
lestine among the mountains of Judah 
and Ephraim (Josh. xi. 21, 22, xiv. 12), and 
specially in the neighbourhood of Hebron, 
where they were divided into three famiilies, 
those of Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. 
They were the dread of the Israelites, but 
were at length almost entirely extirpated ; 
so that there remained some of them only 
in the Philistine cities of Gath, Gaza, and 
Ashdod. SeeREPHAiM. 

ANA'MIM (probably responding uaters). 
An Egyptian tribe, whose location can be 
merely conjectured (Gen. x. 13; 1 Chron. 
i. 11). 

ANAM'MELECH {image of the Icing, or 
the shepherd and the flock, i. e. the constella- 
tion Cepheus : other derivations are pro- 
posed). One of the gods whose worship 
was introduced into Samaria by the Sephar- 
vites (2 Kings xvii. 31). See Adramme- 
LECJr, 1. , , , , 

A'NAN (a cloi-id:). One who sealed the 
covenant (Neh. x. 26). 

A'NAN (1 Esdr. v. 30). The Hanan of 
Ezra ii. 46. 

ANA'NI (contracted form of Ananlah). A 
descendant of David (1 Chron. iii. 24). 

ANANI'AH (whom Jehovah covers). Pos- 
siblv a priest (Neh. iii. 23). 

ANANI'AH {id.). A place where Benja- 
mites lived after their return from capti- 
vity (Neh. xi. 32). 

ANANl'AS (the Greek form of Hananiali, 
whom Jehovah has gradously given). — 
1 One who professed himself a Christian, 
and who, in order to gain the credit oi 



Ananias] 



32 : 



liberality, sold, in conjunction with his 
wife Sapphira, a piece of land, part of the 
price of which he hrought to the apostles, 
pretending it was all he had received by 
the sale. Peter was enabled to detect tlie 
fraud : and, at his stern rebuke, Ananias was 
struck dead. The same fate, for the same 
sin, shortly after bef el Sapphira an awful 
proof being given that the Lord is a jealous 
God, and that before his eye secret sins 
are laid bare (Acts v, l-ll). Perhaps Peter 
did not anticipate the judgment that fol- 
lowed, upon Ananias' sin ; though, in the 
case of Sapphira, he predicted her punish- 
ment.— 2. A Jewish disciple at Damascus, 
to whom the fact of Saul's conversion was 
announced in a vision. He was a devout 
man, of unblam cable character. He was 
commanded to go to Saul, and lay his hands 
upon him, that he miglit receive his sight, 
lost at the gates of Damascus. This Ana- 
nias did ; and Saul was then baptized (ix. 
10-18, xxii. 12-16). According to tradition, 
Ananias was afterwards bishop of Damas- 
cus. — 3. The son of Jfebedseus, appointed 
high priest by Herod, king of Chalcis, 
48A.D., succeeding Joseph, son of Camithus. 
He was sent to Pv,ome 52 a.d. by the procu- 
rator Cumanus, on a charge of oppression, 
brought against him by the Samaritans, 
but was acquitted, and probably resumed 
his office. He was, however, deposed 
shortly before Felix quitted his govern- 
ment, and was ultimately assassinated at 
the beginning of the last Jewish war. St. 
Paul was arraigned before him (xxiii. 2-5, 
xxiv. 1). See "Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
•Ananias ;' "Wieseler, Chron. cles Apost. Zeit., 
p. 77, and Chron. Synops., pp. 187, &c. 

AXANFAS.—l. (1 Esdr. v. 16).— 2, 3, 4, 5 
(ix. 21, 29, 43, 48).— 6. (Tob. v. 12,13).— 7. Ail 
ancestor of Judith (Judith viii. 1).— 8. Ha- 
naniah, i, e. Shadrach (Song of the Three 
Child. 66 ; 1 Mace. ii. 59). 

AXAN'IJEL (Tob. i. 1). 

A']S"ATH (an answer, sc. to prayer). The 
father of Shamgar (Judges iii. 31, v. 6). 

AiSTATH'EMA. A Greek word signifying 
set apart, devoted, and henc-e accursed ; 
being usually so translated in our version 
(e. g. Rom. ix. 3). It is equivalent to the 
Hebrew hherem, meaning so consecrated 
or devoted that it was not to be redeemed, 
but must belong to the priests, or be sacri- 
ficed (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29; IS'umb. xviii. 14). 
This word was used in devoting idolaters 
or the Canaanitish cities to destruction ; 
the extermination being carried out to a 
greater or less extent (Exod. xxii. 20 ; Xumb. 
xxi. 2, 3; Josh. vi. 17). The hherem was 
afterwards one of the three degrees of 
Jewish excommunication. See ExcoMifU- 
NiCATiON. There were also three degrees 
in the Christian church ; the admonition 
Ccomp. Matt, xviii. 15-17 ; Tit. iii. 10) ; sus- 
pension from the communion, or the lesser 
excommunication ; and expulsion from the 
church, called the greater excommunica- 
tion, anathema, and the like. A full account 
of these may be seen in Bingham, Orig. 
Eccles. book xvi. chap. ii. It can hardly be 
doubted that there was some solemn judi- 
cial excommunication practised in the 
apostolic times, and that St. Paul directs 



this in the case of the incestuous person 
I (1 Cor. V. 3-5) ; where the delivering unto 
j Satan (com p. 1 Tim. i. 20) probably indi- 
I cates some special power possessed by the 
I apostles which has not descended in the 
: church (though other views of it are some- 
times taken). But anathema does not seem 
to have always this judicial meaning. It 
must be used in a more general sense in 
such places as 1 Cor. xii. 3, marg.; Gal. 1. 8, 9. 
And thus it may mean only strong dislike 
and condemnation in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. 

AI^A'THOTH (answers, sc. to prayers, 
echoes).—!. A Benjaraite (1 Chron. vii. 8).— 
2. One who sealed the covenant (Xeh. x. 19). 

ANA'THOTH (id.). A city of Benjamin 
allotted to the priests (Josh. xxi. 18 ; 
1 Chron. vi. 60). It Avas to this place that 
Abiathar, of the family of Ithamar, was 
banished (1 Kings ii. 26) ; and here Jeremiah 
was born (Jer. i. 1, xi. 21, 23, xxxii. 7, 8, 9). 
Some of the people of Anathoth returned 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 23 ; Xeh. vii. 27). 
It must have been on or near a great road 
to Jerusalem ; for it is mentioned by Isaiah 
(X. 30) as a place in the onward march of 
the Assyrians. It has been identified with 
the modern 'Anata, about four miles north- 
east of Jerusalem. There are here some 
ancient remains. 

ANCHOB. (Acts xxvii. 29, 30). For an 
account of anchors used in vessels, see 
Ship. The Christian hope is symbolized by 
an anchor (Heb. vi. 19). 

ANCIENT OF DATS. An appellation of 
the Divine Being, God the Father, to whom 
the prophet Daniel sees 'the Son of man' 
brought to receive the investiture of glo- 
rious dominion (Dan, vii. 9, 13, 22 : comp. 
Psal. ex. 1, 2). 

AN'DREW (?7?an?2/?). One of the apostles, 
the brother (whether elder or younger is 
not known) of Simon Peter, with whom it 
would seem he lived (Mark i. 29). He was 
of Bethsaida, and became one of the dis- 
ciples of John the Baj^tist, at whose word 
he followed Jesus, ana afterwards brought 
his brother Simon (John i. 35-44). This was 
the first introduction of the brothers to 
Jesus ; and it was not till a subsequent 
period that they were specially called to 
attend him (Matt. iv. 18-20 ; Mark i. 16-18), 
and were at length appointed apostles 
(Matt. X. 2 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14). The 
order in which Aaidrew is named varies in 
diaerent places ; but generally he stands 
next after the three chiefs, and is as- 
i sociated with Philip. There are but a 
j few scattered notices of him in the evan- 
\ gelic history (Mark xiii. 3 ; John vi. 8, 9, xii. 
22). After the resurrection he is enu- 
merated with the rest of the eleven (Acts 
1. 13); and then we hear no more of him. 
Ti-adition has been busy with his later 
history ; and he is said to have been cruci- 
fied at Patrffi in Achaia, on a cross formed 
like the letter X, which has hence been 
called ' St. Andrew's Cross.' Sec Winer, 
Bihl. BWB. art. ' Andreas.' 

ANDRONI'CUS (victorious man ?). A Chris- 
tian at Rome, whom St. Paul salutes and 
calls his kinsman (Rom. xvi. 7). 

ANDRONFCUS.—l. A governor left at 
Antioch by Antiochus Epiphanes. Fcr hia 



33 



[anqex 



crimes he was degraded and executed (2 
Mace. iv. 31-38).— 2. An officer left by Anti- 
oclnis at Garizim (v. 23). 

A'NEM (two fountains). A Levitical city 
in Issachar (1 Ohron. vi. 73). It is probably 
tlie same with Bn-gannim (Josh. xix. 21, 
xxi. 29). See En-iiani^im. 

A'NER {a young man, or, perhaps, an 
exile). One of the three Amorite chiefs con- 
federate with Abraham (Gen. xiv. 13, 24). 

A'NER (id.). A Levitical city in the 
half-tribe of Manasseh west of the Jordan 
(1 Chron. vi. 70). In Josh. xxi. 25, this city 
is called Taanach : the two names might be 
easily confounded in Hebrew. 

ANB'THON (Matt, xxiii. 23, marg.). See 
Anise. 

ANETHO'THITE, ANETO'THITE. A na- 
tive of Anathoth (2 Sam. xxiii. 27 ; 1 Chron. 
xxvii. 12). See Anathoth. 

ANGEL. The word so translated in both 
the Old and the New Testaments properly 
signifies ' messenger.' It is frequently used 
to designate an ordinary messenger (1 Sam. 
xi. 3; Job i. 14; Luke vii. 24, ix. 52) : it is 
sometimes applied to a prophet (Hagg. i.l3); 
sometimes to a priest (Mai. ii. 7) ; some- 
times to a Christian minister (Rev. i. 20). 
In most of these places, the word found in 
our version is * messenger.' The term 
• angel,' however, as we ordinarily under- 
stand it, implies an order of created beings 
superior to man, of vast power, knowledge, 
and dignity. Certain of these are said to have 
sinned, and are called evil angels (Jude 6). 
See Devil. Others are pure, and are called 
'holy' or 'elect angels' (Matt. xxv. 31; 1 
Tim. V. 21). Some have chosen to doubt 
whether there be indeed such an order of 
intelligences, and whether the passages of 
scripture which seem to describe them are 
not examples of Jewish figurative speech ; 
just as the fancy of heathen nations per- 
sonified powers and qualities, even dedi- 
cating temples to imaginary beings, as For- 
tune, &c. To this it may be replied that, as 
the Deity has not peopled our world with one 
class of creatures only, so it is not unreason- 
able to believe that in his vast dominions 
there are other orders, of anature different 
from ours, but intelligent, and capable of 
doing Him, their Creator, active service. 
And there is proof positive of this in scrip- 
ture. Our Lord, speaking of men's future 
existence, describes them as like ' the an- 
gels of God in heaven' (Matt, xxii. 30). The 
comparison would be futile, were there not 
other beings, apart from men, actually in 
existence. Again, the author of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews argues the earnest heed 
due to the gospel, from the superiority of 
Christ over angels (Heb. i., ii.). Angels, then, 
there must be ; or what kind of argument 
should we have here for our Lord's dig- 
nity ? 

It would seem that among those termed 
angels there are differences of rank. Indeed 
the title is occasionally given to One who is 
their Head and Lord. For, while some, 
when they appear, speak of their delegated 
authority (Luke i. 19), and refuse the too 
great reverence which those they visit 
would pay them (Rev. xxii. 8, 9), there 
is also an angel who speaks with para- 



mount authority (Gen. xvi. 7-13, xlviii. 16), 
and demands the most obedient worship 
(Exod. iii. 2-6, xxiii. 20, 21). This Being is 
generally called the 'Angel of the Lord,' or 
'of Jehovah ; ' and, as ' no man hath seen the 
Father' (John vi. 46), we are justified in 
believingthat he was the Second Person of 
the Trinity, to be afterwards manifested 
in human flesh. The term ' archangel,' 
though it has come to mean in ordinary 
parlance a superior created angel, one of 
the probably many chieftains of the an- 
gelic hosts, is not so used in scripture. It 
is never there found in the plural number^ 
and never has a personal application except 
to Michael (1 Thess. iv. 16 ; Jude 9). Who, 
then, is Michael ? Some have believed him 
to be the Son of God. Dr. Fairbairn sup- 
ports this view with great force of argu- 
ment (Herm. Man., part ii. sec. 2, pp. 208-210). 
And certainly the way in v/hich Michael is 
described by Daniel, as ' one' or ' the first 
of the chief princes,' ' the great prince,' 
(Dan. X. 13, 21, xii. 1) seems strongly to 
point to such a conclusion. Yet it is hard 
to conceive that the divine Son would be 
spoken of in the way we find in Jude. And, 
therefore, whether or no he, the Lord of 
angels, is thus adumbrated in the use of 
prophetic symbol, it is perhaps more 
reasonable to conclude that, in the writings 
of apostles, a created angel is intended; 
archangel being not necessarily the desig- 
nation of a separate rank, but simply a title 
of dignity equivalent to 'mighty angel.' 
Yet, that there are orders of the created 
angelic hosts seems well-nigh certain ; 
else, why should the apostle give once and 
again distinctive names—' thrones ' and 
' dominions,' 'principalities' and 'powers' 
(Col. i. 16 : comp. Rom. viii. 38 ; Bph. i. 21) ? 
There is nothing unreasonable in the idea 
of a celestial hierarchy, aptly suited and 
harmoniously ranged ; just as in a body — 
true type of Christ's redeemed church- 
there are many members, eacli with its pe- 
culiar function, yet fitly joined and com- 
pacted into one proportioned whole. When 
Saravia questioned Hooker, shortly before 
his peaceful death, what were his contem- 
plations, he replied ' that he was meditat- 
ing the number and natm-e of angels, and 
their blessed obedience and order, without 
which peace could not be in heaven' (Life 
by Walton). One other name there is, be- 
sides Michael, given to an. angel. It was 
Gabriel who instructed Daniel as to the 
time of Messiah's coniing (Dan. viii. 16, ix. 
21) : it Avas the same Gabriel who, when 
the time arrived, announced to Zacha- 
rias, and to Mary, theimraediate appearance 
of the forerunner and of the King (Luke i. 
19, 26). 

Of the nature and personal stat« of angels 
it becomes us to speak with diffidence. 
Scripture is not intended to gratify specu- 
lative curiosity. Yet there are some par- 
ticulars which we may reverently gather. 
Angels are commonly called 'spirits;' but, 
when they have appeared to men, they have 
worn the human form (Judges xiii. 6 ; Acts 
i. 10), the form actually assumed by their 
Lord. There are ' celestial bodies ' as well 
as ' bodies terrestrial,' a ' natural body ' and 
D 



ANGER I 



^rcas'ttrw tit 



34 



a ♦ spiritual "body' (1 Cor, xv. 40, 44) ; it may 
l)e— we liave no rigbt to say with cer- 
tainty— tliat to angels belongs some spiri- 
tual substance, some refined veliicle, the 
means and instrument of their actings. Of 
their multitude we may speak with more 
confidence : they are expressly said to he of 
numbers vast (2 Kings vi. 17 ; Psal. Ixviii. 
17 ; Matt. kxyI. .53 ; Luke ii. 13). They are 
powerful also, excelling in strength (Psal. 
ciii. 20). And they are holy : they do God s 
will (21 ; Mark viii. 38) : never did corrup- 
tion touch them. And yet they may have 
had their trial, eren as man had, some pe- 
riod of probation, some test applied, which 
certain of their feUows could not stand. 
For as already noted, there were angels 
who kept not their first estate (2 Pet. ii. 4). 
Audit mav be that, as saved men owe their 
restoration to the Son of God, unfallen 
angels may owe their faithful stability to 
the same high Lord; 'elect' in him 
bound to him, not alone for creation, but 
for preservation too, and thus more fitly 
said to be gathered into one in him with 
the redeemed saints of earth (Eph. i. 10 ; 
PhiL ii. 10 ; Col. i. 17, 20). Interested they 
certainlv are in the progress of the church. 
INIuch they bave learned fi'om it (Eph. in. 
10^ and easerlv do they Avatch its develop- 
ment (1 Pet.-i. 12). For they acquire 
knowledge by degrees : of many things they 
are ignorant (Matt. xxiv. 36) ; and it adds 
to their blessedness, as tlieir enlarging 
faculties apprehend more and more of the 
' Immensitv of God ; the Avonders which they 
witness of his merciful dealing lighting up 
new iov in their hearts (Luke xv. 7, 10). 
Thev possess, then, a growing inteUigenc^ ; 
and'it shall grow on for ever. For they do 
not die (xx. 36) ; neither can disastrous 
change affect them: though they stand 
with humble reverence before their Creator 
(I«ai vi. 2\ yet, most glorious of all privi- 
le<^es, ' they do always behold the face of ' 
th°eir' ' Father which is in heaven ' (Matt, 
xviii. 10). , , . . , 

Of the functions of angels much is said. 
Kot only do they praise God, but they per- 
form his work, occupied at his command 
with various comanissions of mercy and of 
judgment. And, thos^gh there are long pe- 
riods in scripture history during which we 
do not read of angels being visible, still it 
does not follow tbat their operations were 
su=5pended. Thev guarded Elisha in Dothan ; 
and yet his servant, till his eyes were su- 
pernaturallv opened, saw them not (2- Kings 
vi 17) Neither must it be supposed, be- 
cause angels have been employed that 
natural or secondary causes were excluded. 
A pestilence ravaged David's kingdom, no 
doubt, according to its ordinary type ; yet 
an angel directed the avenging scourge 
(2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 17 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 15-20, 
27 30). By the ministry of angels, punish- 
ment has been inflicted on the ungodly 
(Gen xix. ; 2 Kinss xix. 35). But their more 
happy emplovment is to tend God's people 
(Psal. xci. 11, 12; Heb. i. 14). Thus they 
have delivered men from prison (Acts v. 19, 
xii 7-10) : thoy have given wholesome di- 
rections (X. P.-l), and comforted those in 
danger (\xvii. -^3, 24), and conveyed tbeinto 



their peaceful rest (Luke xvi. 22). But the 
most wonderful part of their function was 
when thGy waited on their Lord. They 
ministered to him after his temptation m 
the wilderness (Matt. iv. 11), and strength- 
ened him under his conflict in the garden 
(Luke xxii. 43). Tbey rolled away the stone 
from his tomb at his resurrection (Matt, 
xxviii. 2-4), and attended at his ascension 
(Acts i. 10, m. And they shall wait on him 
when he comes again in judgment, and 
arrange the order of that great day (Matt, 
xiii. 39, 41, 42, 49, 50, XXV. 31). If the ser- 
vants of Solomon, which stood continually 
before him, were happy (1 Kings x. 8), much, 
infinitely more are they that are employed 
about the person of the great King. 
•Praise ve him, all his angels: praise ye 
him, all his hosts ! ' (Psal. cxlviii. 2). 

It has been disputed whether each man 
has his own particular guardian angel. 
There was an ancient belief of this (Acts 
xii. 15) ; but we can hardly infer it from 
the general tenor of scripture. It is one 
of those matters on which we may con- 
tentedlv be ignorant. 

ANGER. An affection sometimes attri- 
buted to God (e.g. Isai. v. 25, x. 5; Mark 
iii. 5), not as though he could be excited as 
we are, but to show that evil is hateful 
to him, and just punishment must be 
inflicted for it. Anger, in men, is an infir- 
mitv, and, if not controlled, a sin (Eph. 
iv 26); it is reckoned, therefore, among 
those works ot the flesh which are to be 
put off (Col. iii. 8). . ^ ^ 

ANGLE (Isai. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15). See 
FlSHI>'G. , ^ ^ ^ 

ANI'A:?*! (sialvng of tlie people). A de- 
scendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 19). 

A'NIM (fountains). A town in the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. xv. 50). , 

ANISE (Matt, xxiii. 23). The marginal 
rendering is ' dill,' which we may believe 
to be here meant. This, Anetlium graveo- 
lens, is an umbeUiferous plant, producing 
a brisht brown flower. The seeds have an 
aromatic flavour and a carminative quality. 
Both plant and seeds were anciently used 
as a condiment. 

ANKLET. This word does not occur m 
our version ; but we have the thing men- 
tioned (Isai. iii. 18, 20), ' tinkling ornaments 
about their feet; ' ornaments of the legs.' 
In the first case, ankle-bands, anklets pro- 
perly so called, are meant. These were, and 
are now, in the east, frequently of value 
(2-old and silver) ; poorer people having them 
of iron. In 20, the step-chains are de- 
scribed, that is, as Gesenius says, the short 
chains which oriental females wore at- 
tached to the ankle-band of each foot, so 
as to compel them to take short and minc- 
ing steps. 

AN'NA (grace, or prayer). An aged pro- 
phetess of the tribe of Asher at the time 
of our Lord's birth (Luke ii. 36-38). 

The wife of Tobit (Tob. i. 9, 
and elsewhere). 

AX'A'J.AS (1 Esdr. v. 23). Senaah (Ezra 
ii. 35). 

AN'NAS (a contracted form of Ananias, 
i. e. Hananiah). A high priest of the Jews. 
He was the sou of Seth, and, in the thirty- 



35 



[anoint 




1, 2, 3, 4. Egyptian, from paintings. 

5. Modern, worn by dancing-girls. 

6, 7. Assyrian, of iron and bronze, from ori- 

pinals in the Nineveh Collection, British 
Museum. 

seventli year after the battle of Actium, 
i. e. 7 A.D., was appointed to the office hy 
Quirinus, then governor of Syria. But in the 
beginning of the reign of Tiberius, 14 a.d., 
he was removed by Valerius Gratus, the 
procurator of Judea, and was succeeded 
by Ismae], the son of Phal3i. Soon after, 
Eleazar, the son of Annas, became high 
priest, and, a year later, Simon, the son of 
Camithus; and then, in another year, Joseph 
Caiaphas, Annas' son-in-law, was appointed, 
about 25 A.D., and held the dignity till 36 
or 37. Annas continued to bear the title 
of high priest ; and it is not easy to adjust 
the particular relation in which he and Cai- 
aphas stood one to the other. Annas is 
sometimes named before Caiaphas ; and it 
was to him that our Lord was first tal^en 
(Luke iii. 2 ; John xviii. 13, 24 ; Acts iv. 6). 
Some have imagined that Annas was Sa- 
gan, or deputy, to Caiaphas ; others, that 
Annas was still president of the sanhe- 
drim during the high-priesthood of Caia- 
phas. But perhaps the respect and power 
he evidently retained were owing to his age, 
and to his being father-in-law to the high 
priest. He lived to advanced years ; and 



five of his sons enjoyed the seme pontifical 
dignity with himself. 

AN'NAS (1 Esdr. ix. 32). 

ANNU'US (1 Esdr. viii. 48). 

ANOINT. Anointing, as an official act, 
was one part of the solemn consecration of 
persons to a dignity or charge. Kings were 
anointed. The practice is first mentioned 
in Jotham's apologue (Judges ix. 8, 15). 
The idea, therefore, was familiar before 
the Hebrews were actually under kingly 
rule. When monarchy was, introduced, we 
find special notice of the anointings, some- 
times private by a prophet, and sometimes 
repeated, of various kings, as of Saul (1 
Sam. X. 1), of David three times (xvi. 13; 
2 Sam. ii. 4, v. 3), of Absalom (xix. 10), 
of Solomon (1 Kings i. 39), of Jehu (2 
Kings ix. 3, 6), of Joash (xi. 12) ; and we 
may fairly suppose that sovereigns to the 
end of the monarchy were similarly anoint- 
ed, as Zedekiah is designated ' the anointed 
of the Lord' (Lam. Iv. 20), and as the cus- 
tom would seem to have prevailed in other 
nations. The anointing of Hazael as king 
of Syria is spoken of (1 Kings xix. 15) ; 
and Cyrus is called the Lord's anointed 
(Isai. xlv. 1). In both these cases, how- 
ever, the expression may be figurative. The 
material of this unction appears to have 
been oil. 

Priests also were anointed ; that is, cer- 
tainly the high priest ; but it is very doubtf uJ 
whether this unction was extended to the 
ordinary priests. It is true that Moses was 
commanded to anoint Aaron's sons as he 
anointed their father (Exod. xl. 13, 15) ; but 
this may mean only that the sons were to 
be similarly anointed when any of them 
succeeded to their father's office. For, in 
the record of the consecration, the pouring 
of the anointing oil is described as only 
upon Aaron's head (Lev. viii. 12), in ac- 
cordance with the earliest direction given 
(Exod. xxix. 7) ; while nothing is said of 
anointing the heads of his sons, but merely 
of sprinkling the unguent on their gar- 
ments (21; Lev. viii. 30). And afterwards 
the high priest is particularly designated 
as the one ' on whose head the anointing 
oil was poured' (xvi. 32, xxi. 10). The ma- 
terial used for this anointing was a prepa- 
ration specially prescribed (Exod. xxx. 
22-33). 

It has been assumed that prophets were 
anointed, but with the faintest shadow of 
evidence ; the only alleged reasons being 
the charge to Elijah (1 Kings xix. 16), which 
was, probably, spoken figuratively — for Eli- 
jah, so far as we know, did not anoint Elisha, 
but cast his mantle upon him (19) ; and the 
epithet ' anointed ' said to be given to ' pro- 
phets ' (Psal. cv. 15)— where a moment's con- 
sideration of the context shows that not 
prophets, properly so called, are m.eant, but 
the patriarchs mentioned just before, to 
whom the two terms are symbolically ap- 
plied. Sometimes inanimate things were 
religiously anointed. Jacob poured oil upon 
the pillarat Beth-el (Gen. xxviii. 18); and the 
tabernacle, with all its vessels and appur- 
tenances, and the priests' garments, had 
the sacred unguent sprinkled on then? 
(Exoil. xxx. 26-28 ; I-ev.viii. 10, 11, 30). 



ANOS] 



38 



Anointing was common in ordinary life 
(Deut. xxTiii. 40 ; Ruth iii. 2) ; so that the 
ahstaining from it was a sign of monrning 
(2 Sam. xir. 2). Hence to he anointed 
meant to he prosperous and cheerful (Eccles, 
ix. 8). It vras a marlc of respect to a guest 
(Luke Yii. 46 ; John xii. 3) ; and it was part 
of the preparation of a hody for the tomh 
(Mark XYi. 1). Anointing the shield (Isai. 
xxi. 5) was to supple with oil the hides 
with which it was covered. Comp. Hen- 
derson, Isaiah, note, p. 186. 

The anointing of the sick with oil (^lark 
vi. 13; James v. 14) was symholical. The 
practice cannot he taken to authorize the 
administration in the Romish church of 
extreme unction. This ancient anointing 
was not as a preparation for death, hut a 
token of recovery- 

The anointing of the kings and priests 
had a typical reference to that great 
Anointed One, on whom peculiarly the unc- 
tion of the Spirit was poured (Isai. Ixi. 1), 
and who was anointed with the oil of glad- 
ness ahoye his fellows (Psal. xlv. 7). He 
was designated as the Priest and King 
of his church ; and in him, and through 
him, his true followers receive a holy 
unction (1 John ii. 20), and arc made 
'kings and priests unto God' (P^ev. i. 6). 
To them, therefore, the expression of 
Psal. cv. 15 may in a spiritual sense he 
applied. 

A'XOS a Esdr. ix. 34). 

ANT. A well-known insect (Prov. vi. 6-8, 
XXX. 25). The observed hahits of ants agree 
exactlv with the description here given. 
They dwell in societies in a kind of re- 
public. They pav the utmost attention to 
their young. The eggs are cleaned and 
licked till the worms are hatched, which 
are tended with the same care to their 
chrvsahs state. And then the pupffi, Avhich 
greatly resemble grains of wheat or rice, 
are brousht out into the sun, carried again 
into the^nests, heaped up there, so as to 
secure the proper degree of temperature, 
and carefully opened just when the trans- 
formation into the perfect insect takes 
place. It was for long supposed that ants 
gathered corn in summer and stored it for 
winter u=e. But this notion would seem 
unfounded : it probably arose from the re- 
semblance, already mentioned, of the pupae 
to grains of corn, and from a mis-mterpre- 
tation of what Solomon says. He does not 
utter a word implying that ants store up 
grain, hut simply observes that they, pru- 
dently industrious, collect their provisions 
in proper seasons ; a happy illustration to 
enforce the propriety of availing one's self 
of the favourable time without delay. Dr. 
Thomson, however, says that they plunder 
the farmer, and abstract large quantities of 
grain (The Land and the Book, p. 337). Ants 
are for the most part carnivorous : tliey are 
fond also of saccharine matter, which they 
procure from the body of the aphides or 
plant-lice. See Kitto's Cycl. of BM. Lit. 
art. ' Ant.' ^ ^ . . 

ANTICHRIST. An opposer of Christ; 
the rulins: spirit of error, which is an ene- 
my to the truth of the gospel as it reveals 
the person and dignity of Christ. St. J ohn 



in his epistles utters a warning against 
Antichrist (1 John ii. 18, 22, iv. 3 ; 2 John 
7). And other passages of scripture, such 
as 2 Thess. ii. 3-10, have been connected 
with wh^it St. John says, and supposed to 
point to some evil personal power which 
should arise in the last days. For an exa- 
mination of the theories propounded, the 
reader must be referred to books treating 
on the interpretation of prophecy. 

AKTI-LIB'AXUS (Judith i. 7). See ; 
Lebaxo>'. j 

AIT'TIOCH.— 1. A very celebrated Syrian I 
city called Antioch the Great, and Antioch , 
Epidaphnes, or by Daphne (where were the ; 
laurel-grove and sanctuary of Apollo and j 
Diana)7 in order to distinguish it from | 
other places of the same name. It was j 
founded by Seleucus Nicator 300 B.C., and j 
named by "him after his father Antiochus. j 
It was seated, just where Lebanon and i 
Taurus meet, iii a plain well-watered and j 
fruitful, on the river Orontes, 120 stadia \ 
from the sea. Part of it stood on the left ; 
bank, and part on an island in the stream ; : 
some portion also on the steep slope of | 
mount Silpius. Antioch soon grew into a | 
splendid town. The Syrian kings embel- j 
lished it. Pompey made it a free city, i 
Herod contributed to its adornment and 
convenience; and the Roman emperors , 
added various structures. Many Jews were 
settled in Antioch. Seleucus had invited 
them thither ; and they had special privi- 
leges conceded to them, being governed by 
their own ethnarch. The inhabitants gene- 
rally were pleasure-seekers and luxurious, 
and are said to have been fond of inventing 
nicknames. Hence probably the designa- 
tion ' Christians' given to the disciples of 
Christ (Acts xi. 26). Antioch is, next to 
Jerusalem, of greatest interest and impor- 
tance in the apostolic history. Some of 
its people received the gospel (no doubt 
while away from home) very shortly after 
the ascens'ion. For one of the seven was 
' Nicolas a proselyte of Antioch ' (vi. 5). But, 
when the disciples were scattered in the 
persecution after Stephen's death, certain 
of them came to Antioch, and, after preach- 
ing to the Jews alone, 'spake' also 'unto 
the Grecians,' founding here the first of the 
Gentile churches. Hither, therefore, when 
the intelUgcnce reached Jerusalem, Barna- 
bas was sent by the apostles; and he soon 
sought out Saul, and carried him with him 
to this new centre of gospel diffusion (xi. 
19-26). Thenceforward Antioch stands pro- 
minently forth. Hither prophets resorted 
(27) ; here the most eminent pastors minis- 
tered (xiii. 1) ; hence was despatched that 
first missionary expedition, in which Chris- 
tianity was planted throughout Asia (2-52, 
xiv,), and from which eventually came the 
introduction of the gospel into Europe (xv. 
36, xvi. 12); here, too, were battles fought 
for the fundamental principles of the faith 
(XV. 1, 2 ; Gal. ii. 11-14). "With this city were 
afterwards connected many most celebrated 
men, Ignatius, Chrysostom, and others ; and 
Antioch was long one of the great patri- 
archates of the church, with Jerusalem, 
Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople. It 
is still called Antakia ; but war, and pesti- 



37 



[antiochus 



lence, and earthquake, have done their 
work; and it is now a mean town, with 
10,000 inhabitants, among whom are some 
Jews and a few Christians. Ruins of its 
ancient grandeur, however, still subsist. 

2. Antioch of Pisidia, originally founded by 
the Magnetes on the Meander, was re-esta- 
blished and named like the Syrian city by 
Seleucus Nicator. It was on a ridge of the 
Taurus : it became a colony under Augustus, 
and was named also Cassarea. St. Paul, with 
Barnabas, visited it on their first mission- 
ary journey ; and here was delivered, in the 
synagogue, an address largely reported by 
St, Luke. The Jews, however, raised a 
persecution against them ; and the apostles 
were obliged to flee to Iconium (Acts xiii. 
14-51, xiv. 19). They passed through Anti- 
och again, on their return journey (xiv. 21- 
23) ; and it is very likely, though not ex- 
presslynoted, that Paul was at this Anti- 
och a third time on his second missionary 
tour (comp. 2 Tim. iii. 11 with Acts xvi. 
1-4). The site of the Pisidian Antioch has 
been ascertained by Arundell and Hamilton 
to be at the modern Yalobatch. There are 
still some ruins visible of the ancient town, 
ANTIOGHI'A (1 Mace. iv. 35, vi. 63; 
2 Mace. Iv. 33, V. 21). See ANTiocir. 
■ ANTIOCH'IANS (2 Mace. iv. 9, 19). In- 
habitants of Antioch. 
j ANTFOGHIS (2 Mace. iv. 30). 
I ANTFOCHUS (the withstancler). A name 
j borne by several persons, 
j 1. Antiochus II. was a king of Syria, 
j surnamed Theos, or ' the God.' He suc- 
I ceeded his father Antiochus I. (Soter) 262 b.c. 
i He carried on a war (inherited from his 
' predecessor) with Ptolemy Philadelphus ; 
but (250 B.C.) peace was made, on condition 
of Antiochus putting away his wife Laodice 
and marrying Berenice, the daughter of 
Ptolemy; and the first-born son of this 
marriage was to be declared heir of the 
Syrian throne. Berenice did not, however, 
long retain her place. In about a couple of 
years after the death of Ptolemy, Antiochus 
recalled Laodice, who, in jealous fear of 



dered Syria, and drove Seleucus II., Lao- 
dice's son, for a time from his throne ; which, 
however, he recovered ; and, after his death, 
his sons, Seleucus III. and Antiochus III. 
assembled forces for a fresh attack upon 
Egypt (Dan. xi. 7-10). 

2. Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, 
succeeded his brother Seleucus III. 224 B.C. 
He continued the war against Egypt, at 
first with success, but (217 B.C.) was entirely 
defeated by Ptolemy at Raphia, near Gaza. 
Thirteen years afterwards, when Ptolemy, 
was dead, and his son Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
a child, had succeeded to his throne, An- 
tiochus, by the help of allies and aided by 
the factious Jews (Dan. xi. 14), re-occupied 
Palestine, and, after some fluctuations of 
fortune, inflicted a decisive defeat upon 
the Egyptian army at Paneas ; and his suc- 
cess was welcomed by the Jews. It was 
then arranged that Ptolemy should marry 
Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus, with 
the dowry of Coele-syria, Phoenicia, and Pa- 
lestine. She favoured her husband's in- 
terests ; and so Antiochus turned his atten 
tion to Asia Minor and Greece, where at 
first he was successful, but was at length 
routed by the Romans at Magnesia, and 
obliged to conclude a dishonourable peace 
In 1 Mace. viii. 7, it is asserted that he was 
prisoner to the Romans ; but this assertion 
is corroborated by no other historian. In 
order to raise the money he was to pay to 
Rome, Antiochus attacked a temple in Ely- 
raais, but perished in the attempt, 187 B.C. 
He was tolerant and liberal to the Jews ; 
and his careei% as briefly sketched, is seen 
exactly to fulfil the prophecy of Daniel 
(xi. 14-19). 

3. Antiochus lY., surnamed Epiphanes, 
illustrious, and, in sarcasm, Epimanes, 
frantic, the sscond son of Antiochus the 
Great, obtained the crown of Syria, after 
the murder of his brother Seleucus Philo- 
pator, to the exclusion of Demetrius, the 
son of Seleucus, 175 B.C. On the first visit he 
paid to Jerusalem he was honourably re- 
ceived by Jason, who had corruptly been 




Tetradrachm of Antiochus Epiphanes. 



fresh misfortune, poisoned him, 246 b.c. 
Berenice and her child were also put to 
death. These events exactly fulfil Dan. xi. 6. 
Subsequently Ptolemy's son (Euergetes) re- 
venged the treatment of his sister, plun- 



made high priest (2 Mace. iv. 22), and who 
was afterwards as corruptly supplanted by 
Menelaus. Antiochus made four expedi- 
tions against Egypt, in order to secure 
himself in the possession of Coole-syrla 



ANTIPASj 



38 



and Phoenicia, which had heen the dower of 
his sister Cleopatra (now dead) to Ptolemy 
Epiphanes. These expeditions were under- 
taken 171, 170, 169, 168 B.C. After the se- 
cond, when he had ravaged a great part of 
Egypt, and taken Ptolemy Philometor pri- 
soner, he went to Jerusalem, plundered the 
temple, and massacred numbers of the 
people, leaving, when he departed, a Phry- 
gian governor there (1 Mace. i. 20-28 ; 
2 Mace. V. 1-23). After his fourth Egyptian 
expedition, in which he was checked by 
the Romans, he sent troops to Jerusalem, 
who committed the most fearful excesses. 
The Avorship of God was prohibited, the 
temple profaned, on the 15th of Cisleu, 
'the abomination of desolation,' i. e. an 
idol-altar, set up on the altar of God, and on 
the 25th of the month idolatrous sacrifice 
was offered (1 Mace. i. 29-64 ; 2 Mace. v. 24-28, 
vi., vii.). Many Jews apostatized ; but there 
were those who were determined to main- 
tain their faith. Mattathias and his sons 
resolved to take arms. After the dcatli uf 
Mattathias, his son Judas, surnamed Mac- 
cabeus, successfully carried on the cam- 
paign till he entered Jerusalem, cleansed 
and sanctified the temple, and restored the 
holy service (1 Mace, iii., iv., v.). Antiochus 
had meanwhile gone into tlie east. Hav- 
ing unsuccessfully attacked a rich temple 
in Elymais, he retired to Tabas in Persia, 
where he came to his end, and none did 
help him, not, however, till he had learned 
the Maccabean successes (vi. 1-16). See 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 'Antiochus IV.' 
This history remarkably illustrates Dan, 
xi. 21-45. Many interpreters of the pro- 
phecv, however, regard it, at least the 
latter part, as reaching far below the age 
of Epiphanes. 

A.Antioclius F., surnamed Eupator {of nolle 
descent), was but a child when he succeeded 
his father Epiphanes, 163 or 164 B.C., under 
the guardianship of Lysias, with whom he 
marched against Jerusalem and gained 
some advantages over Judas Maccabeus. 
He concluded a peace, however, in order 
to oppose his father's friend Philip, who 
had occupied Antioch. Philip was defeated ; 
but the next year Antiochus and Lysias fell 
into the hands of Demetrius Soter, who put 
them to death, 161 B.C. (1 Mace. vi. 14-63, vii. 
1-4; 2 Mace, xiii., xiv. 1, 2). 

5. Antiochus VI. was the son of Alexander 
Balas and Cleopatra, and after his father's 
death he continued some time in Arabia, 
but while yet a child was produced by 
Trvphon (called also Diodotus), an office}- 
of "his father, as a claimant to the throne 
of Svria against Demetrius jS'icator, 145 B.C. 
The" cause of Antiochus was successful, 
being supported by Jonathan Maccabeus; 
but Trvphon, who had used the young 
king's name for his own purposes, noAV 
threw off the mask, put Jonathan to death, 
then murdered Antiochus, and occupied 
the throne, 143 B.C. (1 Mace. xi. 39-74, xii. 
30-xiil. 32). 

6. Antioclius VII., surnamed Sidetes (of 
Side in Pamphylia), was the second son of 
Demetrius I. When his brother Demetrius 
Nicator was taken prisoner by the Par- 
thians, Antiochus married his wife Cleo- 



patra, 140 B.C., and, expelling the usurper 
Tryphon, gained possession of the kmgdom 
of Syria, 138 B.C. He made a treaty 
with Simon Maccabeus on liberal terms, 
but afterwards withdrew his concessions, 
and, as Simon was not inclined to submit, 
sent Cendebeus against him. He was 
routed by Simon's sons ; and then An- 
tiochus marched in person into Judea, 
but gi-anted terms to John Hyrcanus, who 
Sfubsequently accompanied him in a cam- 
paign against the Parthians, in which 
Antiochus lost his life, about 130 B.C. 
(1 Mace. XV., xvi. 1-10). 

7. The father of a Jewish ambassador 
(1 Mace. xii. 16, xiv. 22). 

AN'TIPAS (probably a contracted form 
of Antipater, for or like tlie father).—!. See 
Hehod, 3.-2. A faithful martyr in Pergamos 
(Rev. ii. 13). 
AXTIP'ATER a Mace. xii. 16, xiv. 22). 
ANTIPAT'RTS. A town in Palestine 
built by Herod the Great, on the site of 
Capharsaba, and named after his father 
Antipater. It is in a well-watered plain 
between Jerusalem and Ccesarea, forty-two 
Roman miles from the first-named, twenty- 
six from the latter place. There was, how- 
ever, a nearer road from Jerusalem to Anti- 
patris, bv which possibly the soldiers con- 
ducted St. Paul (Acts xxiii. 31). It is now 
a villaare called Kefr Saba. 

A^^'TO'XIA. A fortress or tower built 
by Herod, north-west of the temple. See 
Jerusalejl 

ANTOTHI'JAH {anstcers from Jehovah). 
A Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 24). 

AiS^TO'THITE. A native of Anathoth 
(1 Chron. xi. 28, xii. 3). See Anathoth. 

A'jSTIJB (bound together, confederate). A 
descendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 8). 

A'NUS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). A corrupt form of 
Bani (Neh. viii. 7). 

AP'AME (1. Esdr. iv. 29). A concubine of 
Darius king of Persia. 

APE. An animal mentioned (1 Kings x. 
22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21) as imported by the 
fleets of Hiram and Solomon. It is impossi 
ble to say what particular species of the 
ape or monkey family is intended ; the 
name may be general, including several 
varieties. It is observable that in the 
tomb of Thothmes III., at Thebes, among 
the presents figured as brought to the 
king are animals which appear to be ba- 
boons or baboon-like apes. 

APEL'LES. A Christian whom St. Paul 
calls 'approved in Christ' (Rom. xvi. 10). 
Tradition makes him afterwards bishop of 
Smyrna, or Heraclea. Winer, Bibl. BWB., 
art. ' Apelles.' 

APHAR'SACHITES, APHARSATH'- 
CHITES. The name of certain tribes 
introduced as colonists into Samaria by the 
king of Assyria (Ezra iv. 9, v. 6, vi. 6). They 
have been siipposed the same with the 
Pari-etaceni in Persia or Media of the Greek 
geographers. 

APHAR'SITES. These were also c-^:>lo- 
nists in Samaria (Ezra iv. 9j. They have 
been believed to be the Parrhasii, a Median 
tribe; though Gesenius would have them 
the Persians. 
A'PHEK {strength, a ivater-course).—!. A 



39 



[apocrypha 



city whose king was destroyed by Joslma 
(Josh. xii. 18). Perhaps it may 1)6 Identical 
with Aphekah (xv. 53).— 2. A place in the 
north of Palestine (xiii. 4) ; prohaljly the 
city assigned to Asher (xix. 30), called 
Aphik (Judges i. 31). This was, there can 
be little doubt, the Aphaca celeln-ated 
for its temple of Venus, now Afica, in 
Lebanon.— 3. A place where the Philis- 
tines pitched before the battle in which 
the ark was taken (1 Sam. iv.l). We can- 
not be sure whether that mentioned in xxix. 
1, is the same. Probably it was.— 4. A city 
in the plain country of Syria, on the road 
to Damascus (1 Kings xx. 26, 30 ; 2 Kings 
xiii. 17). It is now a village called Fik, 
about six miles east of the sea of Galilee. 

APHE'KAH (id.). A city in the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. xv. 53). See Aphek, 1. 

APHE'BEMA. One of the three go- 
vernments added to Judea from Samaria 
and Galilee by Demetrius Soter (1 Mace, x, 
30, xi. 34). 

APHER'BA (1 Esdr. v. 34). 

APHI'AH {refreshed). An ancestor of 
king Saul (1 Sara. ix. 1). 

A'PHIK {strength, or, perhaps, a torrent, or 
icater-course). A city not subdued by the tribe 
of Asher (Judges i. 31). See Aphek, 2. 

APH'RAH (fcavn, or probably dust). A 
place mentioned in Mic.i. 10. It has been 
supposed identical with Ophrah; but this is 
uncertain. 

APH'SES {dispersion). A head of one of 
the courses of the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 
15). 

APOCALYPSE. See Rbvelatiox, Book 

OP. 

APOC'P.YPHA. The name given gene- 
rally to certain ancient books and parts 
of books often appended to the scriptures 
of the Old Testament ; some of which are 
held by some divisions of the Christian 
church to be of canonical and divine autho- 

'^^Tlie following extract from the sixth 
article of the English church will show 
both the names of these books and the 
point of view in which they are regarded 
by the church of England. After enu- 
merating the canonical writings of the 
Old Testament, the article proceeds : 'And 
the other books (as Hierome saith), the 
church doth read for example of life and 
instruction of manners ; but yet it doth 
not apply them to establish any doctrine 
[In Libr. Sal. Pra;f., tom. i. cols. 939, 940. Op. 
Par. 1693-170G] : such are these follow- 



ing 



[Esdras 
1 & 2]. 



The third book of Esdras \ 
The fourth book of Esdras j 
The book of Tobias [Tobit]. 
The book of Judith. 
The Rest of the book of Esther. 
The book of Wisdom. 
Jesus the son of Sirach [Ecclesiasticusj. 
Baruch the Prophet. 
The Song of the Three Children. 
The story of Susanna. 
Of Bel and the Dragon. 
The Prayer of Manasses. 
The first book of Maccabees. 
The second book of Maccabees.' 
There are also some apocryphal writings 



claiming a place among the books of the 
New Testament ; but, as these have never 
been recognized in the Christian church, 
they require no notice here. 

The word avocrypha signifies generally 
•secret' or. 'hidden,' but it came by de- 
grees to have a bad sense, and to mean 
'spurious' or 'forged.' Various reasons 
have been alleged for the use of the term. 
Dismissing others as untenable, we may 
fairly suppose that books were denominated 
'apocryphal' either because they were not 
read in public, being kept, as it were, in the 
background, or else because they were re- 
garded as containing mysterious doctrines 
which were to be Avithheld from the mul- 
titude, and to be communicated only to 
those of understanding, to the initiated. 
Some there were of mythical character be- 
vond any in the collection now known as 
' Apocrypha :' to these such a designation 
would still more fitly apply. And, as several 
such books claimed to be the productions 
of illustrious men, prophets, and inspired, 
whose names, it was soon evident, were 
falsely assumed, both the propriety of the 
term Is obvious, and the natural conse- 
quent depravation of its meaning readily 
accounted for. The last-named reason, 
therefore, for the application of the word 
' Apocrypha' would seem the more probable 

°^Though the apocryphal books had not 
the high sanction of the canonical scrip- 
tures, and never formed apart of the Jewish 
canoTi,they yet were treated with respect 
by early Christian writers. They were cited, 
sometimes indeed as scripture was cited, 
and they received generally the name of 
' ecclesiastical,' 'uncanonical,' or ' not fully 
received,' rather than that of ' apocryphal,' 
a term more specially given to writings of 
an inferior cast. It was as the light of 
the reformation began to dawn that the 
question stood out more definite and dis- 
tinct. The imperfect authority of these 
works was more fully exposed ; while the 
church of Rome, on the other hand, gave 
them that formal sanction which they had 
never before received, pronouncing all but 
the two books of Esdras, and the Prayer of 
Manasseh, sacred canonical scripture, and 
anathematizing those who should not so re- 
ceive them {Concil. Trid. Sess. iv. Decret. de 
Canon. Script.). In the Romish canon, there- 
fore, Tobit and Judith have their place 
with the historical books of scripture. Wis- 
dom and Ecclesiasticus with the writings 
of Solomon: the Rest of Esther is made a 
part of the genuine book of that name : the 
story of the Three Children, Susanna, and 
Bel and the Dragon, are united to the ca- 
nonical Daniel ; and Baruch immediately 
follows Jeremiah. Whereas, in protestant 
bibles, in which these books find a place, 
they are relegated into a separate group, as 
peculiarly ' the Apocrypha,' and appended at 
the conclusion of the Old Testament. 

Some reasons, gathered from their in- 
ternal character and form, shall now be 
given, which force us to conclude that the 
Apocrypha is not inspired scripture. Proof 
that these writings have not had the sanc- 
tion of the church, Jewish and early Chris- 



A-pocrypha] 



40 



tian, to rank -with the canonical "books, will i 
be offered hereafter : see Canon of Scrip- 
TCIib; and notices of each portion sepa- 
rately will he found under their respective 
titles. 

There are particular characteristics which 
more or less distinguish one of these com- 
positions from another. But the following 
remarks will apply with considerable force 
to the whole of them. 

They are not extant in Hebrew. And, 
though it has been conjectured on proba- 
ble grounds that some were composed in 
Hebrew, or were based upon some Hebrew 
fragments, yet of a large proportion the 
original language, so far as it can be ascer- 
tained, was Greek ; and there is the signifi- 
cantfact on allhands admitted that the bibli- 
cal Hebrew terminates with the last canoni- 
cal writer. 

The prophetic spirit seems to have de- 
parted. In the canonical scriptures, con- 
temporary and running along with the his- 
torical records, there was the chain of pro- 
phets, men who announced authoritatively 
the message of the Lord of Hosts, in the 
days of Israelitish independence, during 
the captivity, and after tlie return. And 
the latest in time, as the last in position, is 
that solemn strain which seems to close the 
sacred utterances with the warning that 
not again, till the day of Messiah was at 
hand, should the heavenly voice sound 
forth, and God's word be heard once more 
by Mien. The apocryphal writers, allowedly 
posterior in time, nowhere take up the 
fallen cadence. The prophetic tone is not 
even assumed. There is no burning word 
from the Lord in them, making itself heard 
above the voices of men, and foretelling 
things to come. Evidently none of them 
has re-kindled the lamp of the sanctuarJ^ 

There is a feeble and apologetic tone in 
these books. They do not teach with au- 
thority. The simple grandeur of even the 
scripture narrative is wanting. So far 
from claiming inspiration, they sometimes 
bewail the want of it, and make excuse for 
the imperfection of their ovti writings 
(Eccliis. Prologue 2 ; 1 Mace. iv. 46, ix. 27, 
xiv. 41 ; 2 Mace. ii. 23-32, xv. 38). 

There is, further, an evident purpose, be- 
fore alluded to, to father these productions 
on ancient distinguished men. Leaving 
the books of Esdras out of the question, 
which, as already noted, even the church 
of Rome gives up, we find pieces attribu- 
ted to Solomon, to Jeremiah, to Daniel, to 
Baruch, when it is positively certain that 
they could not be the works of those 
writers. 

There is the introduction of fictitious 
speeches, doubtful letters, and a romancing 
air in what seems intended to be a his- 
torical narrative. Even if the stories of 
Tobit, Judith, Bel and the Dragon, &c. 
could be made to fit in with known facts, 
there are yet unbecoming embellishments, 
mythological notions, careless inaccuracies, 
which betray not merely a lack of inspira- 
tion, but a lack of truth. See Tob. vi. 7, 
14, viii. 2, 3 ; Rest of Esth. xvi. 10, 14 ; 2 
Mace, i., &c. &e. 

We may go farther. There are inexplica- 



ble contradictions, and demonstrable false- 
hoods, in many parts of the Apocrypha, 
Thus Nabuchodonosor and Balthasar, i.e. 
Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar, are repre- 
sented (Bar. i. 3, 9-12) as both alive at the 
time when Jerusalem was taken; which, if 
we are to adopt the view that Belshazzar is 
the Bil-shar-uzur of Sir. H. Rawlinson's 
discovery, is impossible. Also it is de- 
clared that no prophet was living at the 
time of the Babylonish captivity (Song of 
the Three Children 15). Two different 
and contradictory accounts, moreover, are 
given of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes 
(1 Mace. vi. 1-16 ; 2 Mace. ix.). And a state- 
ment is made (1 Mace. viii. 16) that the 
Romans had but a single yearly magistrate. 
Many other such examples might be pro 
duced. 

Doctrines, again, alien from those in 
scripture are inculcated ; as the efficacy of 
prayers /or the dead (2 Mace. xii. 43-45), and 
of prayers offered by the dead (Bar. iii. 4) ; 
a transmigration of souls (Wisd. viii. 20). 
There are also many assertions not in har- 
mony with the doctrine of justification by 
faith (Tob. xii. 8, 9 ; Ecclus. iii. 3, 30, xvii. 
22, XXXV. 3). Further, an act of suicide is 
mentioned in terms of strong commenda- 
tion (2 Mace. xiv. 41-46). 

It is, moreover, a significant fact that 
neither our Lord nor his disciples quoted 
the apocryphal books as they did those of the 
canonical scriptures. The most formal quo- 
tation, indeed, would have given them no 
authority ; since even heathen writers were 
sometimes cited by apostles (Acts xvii. 28). 
It must not be concealed that some conti- 
nental critics have of late diligently ex- 
amined the Apocrypha, and have maintained 
that there are numerous allusions in the 
apostolic writings, and reminiscences, evi- 
dencing a familiarity with the Apocrypha. 
We may well admit this. It is reasonable 
to suppose that the Jews in our Lord's time 
were, many of them, well acquainted with 
so important a part of their national lite- 
rature as the apocryphal compositions. 
But, if we grant, as demanded, that the 
NeAV Testament writers showed their fami- 
liarity with them by reminiscences and 
allusions, the argument is materially 
strengthened against their canonical au- 
thority. For we can hardly believe that, 
with these books in their minds, the apos- 
tles would never once have cited them as 
the Lord's word, as sacred scripture, if they 
had really been the word of God, the scrip- 
ture of truth. How is it that a sentence, a 
clause, is never introduced into the New 
I Testament Avith the decisive, ' It is written ?" 
1 It is conceived that considerations like 
I these tell very powerfully against any claim 
I that can be advanced for including the 
: Apocrypha among the canonical scriptures. 
But, in repudiating such a claim, there is 
' no intention of unduly depreciating these 
books. They are very valuable as exhi- 
i biting the current of Jewish thought in the 
1 interval between the cessation of Old Tes- 
I tament prophecy and the advent of Messiah. 

They contain, several of them, many noble 
I thoughts, and admirable maxims and pre- 
cepts. They furnish a large contribution 



41 



[apostle 



to an interesting period of Jewish history. 
Take them for what they really are, without 
requiring undue estimation for them, place 
them with other human writings, to he ex- 
amined and sifted by the sacred record, 
without exalting them to an equality with 
that word, as a co-ordinate judge, and we 
may well thank God for them, and may 
gather from their treasury many goodly 
pearls. But we must beAvare of introducing 
any meaner material into the pure edifice 
of divine truth ; lest, like the huilders who 
daubed their wall with untempered mortar, 
we find the ill-assorted structure speedily 
broken down, and brought dislocated and 
shattered to the ground (Ezek. xiii. 10-15). 

APOLLO'NIA (belonging to Apollo). This 
name was borne by various towns in Europe 
and Asia, as being dedicated to Apollo. 
That mentioned in Acts xvii. 1, was in Mace- 
donia in the district of Mygdonia, between 
, AmphlpolisandThessalonica, thirty Roman 
: miles from the first-named, thirty-six from 
; the other city. It was a colony of the Co- 
rinthians and Corcyreans. 

APOLLO' NIUS— I. An officer of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, slain by Judas Maccabeus 
(1 Mace. iii. 10-12 ; 2 Mace. v. 24-26). He is 
thought to be the same as the chief collector 
of tribute (1 Mace. i. 29).— 2. A governor of 
Coele-syria, made general of Demetrius Nica- 
tor (X. 69-79).— 3. The son of Thraseas, go- 
vernor of Coele-syria and Phenice under 
Seleucus III. (2 Mace. iii. 5-7, iv. 4).— 4. The 
son of Menestheus, sent by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes to the coronation of Ptolemy Philo- 
metor (21) : he is probably identical with 
No. 1.— 5. The son of Genneus, a lieutenant 
of Antiochus Y. (xii. 2). 
APOLLOPR'ANES (2 Macc. x. 37). 
APOL'LOS. A Jew of Alexandria, de- 
scribed as eloquent or learned and well 
acquainted with the scripture, who knowing 
only the baptism of John Baptist preached 
earnestly in the synagogues. He fell in at 
Ephesus with Priscilla and Aquila, and was 
more thoroughly instructed by them. He 
thenceforward became an efficient minister 
of the gospel (Acts xviii. 24-28). Having 
gone to Corinth he watered what Paul had 
planted ; and many of the unsettled Corin- 
thians were inclined to attach themselves 
to him as if he had been a mere party- 
leader (xix. 1 ; 1 Cor. i. 12, iii. 4-6, 22). It was 
probably on this account that he did not 
wish,Miough Paul requested him, to return 
to Corinth (xvi. 12), a sufficient refutation, 
one would think, of the strange notion 
entertained by some that the 'wisdom' 
which St. Paul censures was the doctrine of 
Apollos. He is mentioned once again (Tit. 
Iii. 13), evincing the continued confidence 
the apostle had in him. Nothing more is 
certainly known of Apollos : according to 
tradition he was bishop of Cassarea. 

APOLL'YON {destroyer). The Greek name 
of 'the angel of the bottomless pit' (Pi.ev. 
ix. 11). See Abaddon. 

APOSTLE. The official designation, im- 
plying messenger, of the twelve disciples 
whom our Lord chose, ' that they should be 
with him, and that he might send them 
forth to preach.' These twelve were ar- 
ranged in three groups, Simon I'eter and 



his brother Andrew, with James and John, 
the two sons of Zebedee ; then Philip, Bar- 
tholomew, Thomas, and Matthew ; and, 
lastly, James, the son of Alpheus, Lebbeus 
(called Thaddeus, Judas, and Jude), Simon 
Zelotes or the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot 
(Matt. X, 1-4 ; Mark iii. 13-19 ; Luke vi. 12-16 : 
comp. Acts i. 13). It is remarkable that the 
order of names in these groups varies in 
the different lists. Dr. Alford {Note on Matt. 
X. 2) draws out an illustrative scheme, which 
will be found in the next page. 

Of the evangelists, while Matthew nar- 
rates the sendmg forth of the apostles to 
preach, Mark and Luke describe the choice 
of them ; and 'this choice, it appears, was 
made upon a mountain, not improbably that 
well-known horned hill of Hattin where also 
the notable sermon on the mount was de- 
livered (Eilicott, Hist. Lect. pp. 177, 178 ; 
Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, pp. 368, 369, 
4th ed.). Some time after their appoint- 
ment the apostles Avere sent forth to preach 
and perform miracles, a special charge 
being given them (Matt. x. 1, 5-42 ; Mark 
vi. 7-13; Luke ix. 1-6). They generally, 
however, accompanied their Master, wit- 
nessed his mighty works, heard the expla- 
nation of his parables, and were the selected 
company at the institution of the comme- 
morative supper or eucharist. One, how- 
ever, Judas, betrayed him ; and when he 
was seized they all forsook him (Matt. xxvi. 
47-56). One or two plucked up courage to 
attend his examination (John xviii. 15, 16), 
and one was present at his execution (xix. 
26). But, so far as appears, they took no 
part in the Lord's burial, and could hardly 
be persuaded that he was risen. After hi a 
resurrection, the eleven, the traitor being 
no more, had frequent interviews with him, 
and witnessed his ascension (Luke xxiv. 
50, 51). According to their Master's com- 
mand, they continued at Jerusalem, waiting 
for the promised effusion of the Holy Ghost. 
But one other must be appointed to fill the 
place of Judas ; and it was a necessary qua- 
lification that he must have been of the 
company that had from the early beginning 
of his ministry continuously attended the 
Lord. Two were nominated ; and, a solemn 
appeal being made to God by lot, Matthias 
was chosen (Acts i. 15-26). After the day of 
Pentecost the apostles were different men.. 
No longer fearful and temporizing, they 
preached boldly in the name of Jesus. They 
took the lead, as the acknowledged heads of 
the movement (v. 12, ]3), specially devoted 
themselves to ministerial labour (vi. 2-4), 
fxercised peculiar powers (viii. 14-18), and 
had primary authority in the church (ix.27, 
XV. 2 ; 1 Cor. ix. 1, xii. 28 ; 2 Cor. x. 8, xii. 12 ; 
Gal. i. 17, ii. 8, 9). Two centres and two de- 
partments of apostolic working are de- 
scribed in the Acts of the Apostles, from 
Jerusalem among the Jews by Peter, from 
Antioch by Paul among the Gentiles. For 
Paul was extraordinarily appointed to the 
apostleship by Christ (i. 1) ; and others seem 
to have been added, as Barnabas (Acts 
xiv. 14) ; and according to the belief of 
some writers many more (see Bp. Jer. 
Taylor, Episcopacy Asserted, § 4, pp. 15-20, ed. 
1647). 



apothecary] Oj€ Crca^urp at 





Matt. X. 2-4. 


Luke vi. 14-16. 


Mark lii. 16-19. 


Acts i. 13. 






Simon 


Peter. 




2 


Andre^v. | 


James. 


3 


James. 


John. 


4 


Jotin. 


Andrew 


5 


Philip. 


6 




Earth olomevr. 




Thomas. 


7 


Thomas. 


3Iatthe^v. 


Bartholome^v. 


8 


Matthe^^. 


Thomas. 


MattheTV. 


9 1 James, the son of Alplieus. 


10 


Lehbens, or Thad- 
deu3 


Simon Zelotes. 


Thaddeus. 


Simon Zelotes. 


11 


Simon the Canaau- 
Ite. 


Judas, the brother 
of James. 


Simon the Canaan- 
: ite. 


Judas, the brother 
of James. 



12 1 Judas Iscariot. Vacant 



Scripture says little of thepersonalhistory 
of most of the apostles ; but what is known 

j of each will be found under their respective 
names. The title is once given to our Lord 
(Heb. iii. 1). 

APOTHECARY (Exod. xxx. 25, 35, 
xxxvii. 29; >Teh. iii. 8; Eccles. x. 1). Tlie 

■ original word means rather a perfumer, a 

j maker of unguents. 

APPA'IM {,the jiostrils). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 30, 31). 

APPEAL (Acts XXT. 11, 12, 21, 25, xxvi. 
32, xxTiii. 19). In the Hebrew common- 
wealth there seems originally to have been 
no power of appeal ; for Moses, the highest 
authority, personally judged all the causes 
and questions which were brouglit to him 
(Exod. xviii. 13). But, at Jethro's sugges- 
tion, he established inferior courts, re- 
serving the harder cases (.and therefore 
sanctioning the principle of appeal) to him- 
self ■14-2G ; Deut. i. 17). And this principle 
was afterwards further carried out (xvii. 
8-13). We find traces of appeal in the Is- 
raelitish history (Judges iv. 5 ; 2 Sam. xv. 2 ; 
2 Chron. xix. 5-11 ; Ezra vii. 25) ; and, when 
the sanhedrim was instituted the final ap- 
peal lay to them ; the previous regular 
stages of procedure being described by 
Jewish writers. Among the Eomans ap- 
peal might be made from a magistrate to 
the people : under the emperors this was 
naturally to them. 2s'o sentence had been 
given against St. Paul ; and therefore his 
appeal properly was not from an inferior 
verdict to that of the highest authority; 
but, as he had a right to be tried either 
bvthe local court, which Festus proposed 
to him (Acts XXV. 9), or by the emperor, 
he by his appeal withdrew the decision 



I from the inferior tribunal, and claimed the 
i judgment of the highest, the emperor him- 
I self. 

1 AP'PHIA. A Cln-istian lady addressed by 
St. Paul with Philemon (Philera. 2) ; very 
probablv she was Philemon's wife. 

: AP' PEL'S. A sui'name of Jonathan 

■ Maccabeus d ^lacc. ii. 5). 

i AP'PII FOli'UM (forum, or marl:et-x>Jace ■ 
• of A-opiv.s). A well-known station on the \ 
I Appian road, which led from Ptome to 
! Capua. It doubtless derived its name from 
; Appius Claudius, who constructed the road. 
! It was about 43 Roman miles from the 
: great city ; and its site is marked by some 
i ruins near Treponti. A body of Christians j 
! from Rome met St. Paul at this place (Acts 

■ xxviii. 15). 

! APPLE, APPLE-TREE. A fruit and tree 

■ repeatedly mentioned in scripture (Prov. 
^ XXV. 11 ; Sol. Song ii. 3, 5, vii. 8, viii. 5 ; Joel 
: i. 12). The apple is said to be little known 
. in Palestine ; and accordingly the quince, 

■ Pijrus cydonia, or preferably the citron, 

: Citrus viedica, has each been suggested as 
' the tree intended. Evidently a fruit of 
; rich colour and fragrant odour must be that 
I in question. But Dr. Thomson declares 
I strongly in favour of the ordinary apple. 
I He says he has seen it flourishing near As- 
! kelon '; adding that citrons are hard and indi- 
! gestible, and the tree on which they grow 
so small and slender, that no one would 
ever think of sitting 'uuder its shadoAv;' 
whereas, ' as to the smell and colour, aU the 
demands of the biblical allusions are fully 
met r)y these apples of Askelon ; and no 
doubt,' in ancient times and in royal gar- 
dens, their cultivation was far superior to 
what it is now, and the fruit larger and 



43 



[ARABIA 



more fragrant ' {The Land and the Book, 
T>n 545 546). But a writer in the Quart. 
Review', July, 1863, p. 69, produces Dr. 
Hooker's autliority for believing these so- 
called apples to he quinces. 

AO'UILA (eagle). A Jew of Pontus, who, 
with his wife PrisciUa, left Home in conse- 
quence of the decree of Claudius hanishmg 
fhe Jews, 50 or 51 a.d. He repaired to 
Corinth, where St. Paul found him (whether 
at that time a Christian or not is douhtful). 
And, as they were of the same craft, tent- 
makers, the apostle and Aquila worked 
together (Acts xviii. 2, 3). Subsequently 
Aquila and PrisciUa accompanied Paul to 
Buhesus, and, being left there, they, when 
Anollos came, instructed him more tho- 
roughly in the truth of the gospel (18, 
19 26) Aquila was at Ephesus when the 
First Epistle to the Corinthians was written 
(1 Cor. xYi. 19) : at a later period he had re- 
turned to Rome (Rom. xvi. 3-5) ; and, still 
later he was again at Ephesus (2 Tim. iv. 
19) Nothing further is certainly known of 
these persons: tradition says they were 
beheaded. . , „ . 

AK (city). The principal city of Moab, 
not far from the frontier, about ten miles 
to the south of the river Arnon (Numb. xxi. 
15 28 ; Isai. XV. 1). It was also known as 
Rabbath Moab and Areopolis ; and the rums 
are still called Babba. It is sometimes taken 
for the land of Moab generally (Deut. ii. 
9 18, 29) ; and it can hardly be doubted that 
it was to this city Balaam was brought 
(Numb. xxii. 30). 

A'RA {lion). A chief of Asher (1 Chron. 
Tii. 38). . 

A'RAB {ambush). A place m the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. xv. 52). 

ARA'BAH (a sterile region). A name men- 
tioned in our translation in but one place 
(Josh, xviii. 19) ; but the word occurs re- 
peatedly in the original, and is usually 
translated 'plain;' also 'wilderness,' or 
' desert.' Sometimes it is used generally 
(Isai. xxxiii. 9, xxxv. 1); but more fre- 
quently, having the article prefixed, it 
denotes one particular district, and that is 
the sunken plain or ravine which stretched 
from the foot of Anti-libanus down to the 
eastern gulf of the Red sea, a length of 
not less than 250 miles.. The whole of this 
tract was understood by the Israelites as 
comprised in the Arabah ; but, as there is a 
break, a wall of cliffs crossing it about 10 
miles south of the Dead sea, the modern 
Arabs call the part from the most northerly 
point to these clifEs the Ghor, while the 
southern portion is denominated Wady el- 
'Arabah. The Ghor runs nearly due north 
and south ; the Arabah north-east to soutli- 
west. Through the deep cleft of the Ghor 
the Jordan flows ; and the ' plains' of Moalj 
or of Jericho denote portions of the hot 
valley on the east or west of the Jordan 
(Numb. xxii. 1 ; Josh. iv. 13). The Wady el- 
Arabah is from 4 to 15 or 16 miles in breadth, 
shut in on both sides by chains of rugged 
mountains, those to the west 1200 to 1500 
feet in height, the Tih, being most dreary 
and desolate, the eastern chain higher, 2000 



on each side from time to time penetrate 
the mountain walls. The surface of the 
Arabah is a frightful desert, with scarce 
any vegetation, and the heat often unbear- 
able. But through this region It was that 
the Israelites passed; it possesses, there- 
fore, a peculiar interest for the student of 
scripture (comp. Jer. ii. 6). It used to be a 
favourite theory that the Jordan originally 
drained into the Red sea ; this it is now 
seen is impossible, the Red sea being on a 
level with the Mediterranean, while the 
Jordan and the Dead sea are far below that 
level ; so that the northern portions of the 
Arabah drain to the Dead sea. 

Much light is thrown upon various pas- 
sages of scripture by the right understand- 
ing of what the Arabah or ' plain ' really is: 
see Josh. viii. 14; 2 Sam. ii. 29; 2 Kings 
XXV. 4. Dr. Stanley has appended to his 
Sinai and Palestine, app. pp. 487, 488, a 
very useful table, exhibiting the different 
places in which Arabah occurs in the ori- 
inal, with the mode in which it is rendered 
in our version. This is for the most part 
plain,' or 'plains,' if the word be plural, 
except Deut. xi. 30, ' champaign,' and Ezek. 
xivii. 8, 'desert.' In the poetical books, 
according to this table, it occurs either 
with or without the article in the general 
sense of desert. 

ABABATTINE (1 Macc. v. 3). A place 
in Idumea. 

ARA'BIA {arid, sterile). A large country 
of "Western Asia, more extensive as we un- 
derstand it than the district so called in 
both the Old and New Testaments. The He- 
brew name 'Arab, most likely signifying (as 
noted above) ' sterile,' was applied to nearly 
the same territory as that called Kedem, 
' the east' (Gen.x. 30, xxv. 6, xxix. 1), lying 
to the east of Palestine, but north of the 
Arabian peninsula. The appellation ob- 
tained gradually a wider scope. 

Arabia was distributed by the Greek geo- 
graphers into Arabia Felix, or the Happy, 
Petrsea, or the Stony, and Deserta, or the 
Desert. But another nomenclature has 
been recently adopted : Arabia Proper, or 
the great peninsula as far as the northern 
wastes ; Northern Arabia, or the vast Ara- 
bian desert, bounded by the peninsula, the 
Euphrates, Syria, and the desert of Petra ; 
Western Arabia, comprising the peninsula 
of Sinai, and the desert of Petra, bounded 
by the Red sea, Egypt, Palestine, and 
Northern Arabia. 

Arabia Proper consists, for the most part, 
of high table-land, declining towards the 
north But along the whole extent of coast 
from the gulf of Akabah, or Elanitic gulf, 
to the head of the Persian gulf, the shores 
are low and fiat. Nearly parallel, however, 
to the Red sea, is a chain of mountains. 
The districts of this great territory are 
variously numbered and limited. Gene- 
rally they are said to be five : of v/hich the 
Hedjaz is the most sacred, containing the 
holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and the 
Yemen the most fertile. It is the frank- 
incense and spice country, with various 
mineral and metallic products. It yields 



to "2iooi;et, "and Tnouut Hor fisiug to i "^^^V"^ ^^^f, 
5000, but cultivated and fertile. Wadics j desert parts alEoid pasturage alter .he 



Arabia] 



Ojc Creas'tiri? of 



44 



rains. Palms, vines, fig-trees, &c., are 
found here : tlie "breeds of horses and ca- 
mels are famous ; and different kinds of 
domestic and wild animals abound. The 
Arabian tribes seem to have been mainly 
the descendants of Joktan, of the family 
of Shera (Gen. x. 25-29), identified according 
to their own traditions with Kahtan, whom 
thev call the father of all the pure Arabians 
of Yemen ; his grandson Saba giving birth 
to the founders of different noble tribes. 
Ishmael is said to have married one of 
Kahtan's descendants. But, besides the 
Shemitic race, an old Cushite people appear 
to have had settlements in the Arabian 
peninsula; and there are inscriptions yet 
remaining in the ancient cities and on 
buildings of the south which are thought 
to corroborate this. 

Xorthern Arabia, the position of which 
has been indicated above, is a vast wilder- 
ness, divided into the deserts of Syria, of 
Arabia (or, more accurately, of Mesopo- 
tamia), and of Irak. It appears to be a 
liigh and hilly tract, the abode of serpents 
and wild beasts, burnt up by a cloudless sun. 
The vegetation is scanty ; and the wells in 
the few oases are brackish and unpalatable. 
The heat is sometimes mitigated by colder 
nights, and by violent winds : these winds, 
however, carry along clouds of sand ; and 
the terrible simoom occurs from June to 
September. Here, too, the phenomenon of 
the mirage especially mocks the wayfarer 
with that apparent water, which, when he 
reaches it, proves but glowing sand. This 
desert is traversed by wandering predatory 
tribes, descendants of Ishmael and of Abra- 
ham's sons by Keturah. Their camels find 
sustenance in the prickly shrubs which the 
soil produces ; and after the rains there is 
pasture enough in the bottoms for flocks 
and herds. The Bedouins who range the 
Arabian desert often extend themselves 
bevond it, and are ready to plunder the 
neighbouring countries whenever occasion 
serves. We read of their incursions in 
scripture (2 Chron. xxi. 16, 17 ; Jer. iii. 2) ; 
sometimes, however, we find them sub- 
jected, and bringing tribute to Jerusalem 
(2 Chron. xvii. 11). And some trade seems 
to have passed through their hands, 
the productions, probably, of southern 
Arabia being transmitted by way of their 
country (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28 ; Ezek. xxvii. 
20-24). 

Western Arabia, comprehending, as be- 
fore said, the peninsula of Sinai, is tra- 
versed by chains of mountains, running 
for the most part from north to south, 
penetrated by defiles and valleys. Much of 
it is desert, and destitute of vegetation ; 
but there are fertile districts and well- 
watered wadies. Serpents and lizards 
abound : quadrupeds are not numerous ; 
but there are foxes, hyenas, and wild-goats 
on the loftv mountains. Palm-trees, aca- 
cias, &c., grow here. The climate in the 
sandy valleys between the walls of rock is 
in the summer very sultry ; it is, however, 
considered healthy, though the average 
lensth of life of the inhabitants is not 
great. The dews are heavy on the sea- 
coasts. The original inhabitants of this 



part of Arabia were the Horites, or Horini 
of mount Seir ; who were dispossessed by 
the children of Esau (Gen. xiv. 6 ; Deut. 
ii. 12, 22). So that afterwards it was peo- 
pled by theEdomites and Ishmaelites, the 
families having intermarried (Gen. xxviii. 
9, xxxvi. 3). Hence the country was knoAvn 
as the land of the Edomites or Idumeans: 
and here were the settlements of the Na- 
bathseans, generally supposed to be de- 
scendants of Ishmael's son, Nebaioth, 
which see. Petrawas the chief city of the 
country, a flourishing place, through which 
the caravan traffic passed from the interior 
to the Elanitic gulf of the Red sea. See 
Winer, BihL BWB. art. ' Arabia.' 

The origin generally of the Arabian tribes 
has been pointed out in the preceding 
sketch : the settlements of different fa- 
milies in various parts of Arabia, according 
to the scripture distribution, are noticed 
under the names of their respective foun- 
ders. See, also. Earth. It may be added 
that some peoples not properly Arabian 
have occupied some parts of the extensive 
Arabian districts. Such were the Edomites 
already named; such also were the Ama- 
lekites, whose seat was in Western Arabia. 
Between the pure Arabs and the clans 
which have been naturalized amongst them 
a distinction has always been made. But 
for more precise information as to the 
division of races, and the provinces or king- 
doms into which Arabia has been distri- 
buted, other works must be consulted : it 
would obviously be out of place here ; and, 
besides, much uncertainty exists in regard 
to several particulars. 

Arabian manners and customs tend to il- 
lustrate those we find mentioned in the 
scripture. It must be remembered that 
there are two classes of Arabs— the wan- 
dering tribes, and others of more settled 
habits, dweUers in towns. It must be re- 
membered, also, that by the mixture of 
nations the ancient special types have been 
largely modified, and that Mohammed con- 
fessedly borrowed Jewish observances. 
Still, to adopt the language of a writer in Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible,\ol. i. p. 97 (to whom 
this article is much indebted), ' no one can 
mix with this people without being con- 
stantly and forcibly reminded either of the 
early patriarchs or of the settled Israelites. 
We may instance their pastoral life, their 
hospitality (that most remarkable of desert 
virtues), their universal respect for age 
(comp. L'^v. xix. 32), their familiar defer- 
ence (comp. 2 Kings v. 13), their supersti- 
tious regard for the beard. On the signet- 
rins:, which is worn on the little finger of 
the"" right hand, is usually inscribed a sen- 
tence expressive of submission to God, or 
of his perfection, &c., explaining Exod. 
xxxix. 30, " the engraving of a signet. Holi- 
ness to the Lord," and the saying of our 
Lord (John iii. 33), " He . . . hath set to his 
seal that God is true." As a mark of trust, 
this ring is given to another person (as m 
Gen. xli. 42). The iuk-hora worn in the 
girdle is also very ancient (Ezek. ix. 2, 3, 11), 
as well as the vail. A man has a right to 
claim his cousin in marriage, and he re- 
linquishes this right by taking off his shoe. 



45 



[aRaRAT 



as the kinsman of Ruth did to Boaz (Ruth 

^^bf Ai-abian history, it must snfflee to say, 
this people were not subjected by the great 
monarchies which rose and fell in their 
neighbourhood. They were the independent 
confederates of the Persians ; and it was 
not till 107 A.D, that Arabia Petrgsa yielded 
to the Roman power. Before the tnue of 
Mohammed the Arabians had never been 
united iuto one common mass. He formed j 
them into a nation by giving them a com- 1 
mon faith. Their early religion is supposed 
to have been fetishism, stone-worship, tree- 
worship, &c. They adored, also, the hea- 
venly bodies (Job xxxi. 26-28). After the 
Christian era, the gospel made progress in 
Arabia: Judaism, too, was propagated; 
and the corruptions of both paved the way 
for the success of Mohammed. He founded 
a caliphat, which, in a single century, em- ^ 
braced Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, . 
Barbary, Persia, and Khorasan, and subse- I 
quently had a much wider extension. The i 
caliphs of the Ommiade family ruled at , 
Damascus from 670 to 750 A.D. : the Abbas- , 
sides from 750 to 1258 at Baghdad, founded 
762 Arabia was but a province of this 
vast empire ; and after the removal of the 
seat of government to Baghdad it soon 
was divided again into petty states. 

The Arabic language is the richest and 
most developed of all the Shemitic or Se- 
mitic tongues. Originally confined withm 
the limits of Arabia, it has with the spread 
of Islamism largely extended itself through 
\sia and Africa. There were, unquestion- 
ably, many dialects of it. Thus, the Him- 
yaric in Yemen was simpler than that of 
central Arabia, and more nearly allied to 
the Hebrew. The Koreishite was the dia- 
lect of Mecca : it prevailed through north- 
western Arabia! till it became emphatically 
the Arabic language, in which all Arabic 
literature is found. It flourished till the 
14th or 15th century, when it degenerated 
into the yet-spoken vulgar Arabic, which is 
more simple, but corrupted with many fo- 
reign and especially Turkish words. 

ARABIANS. Dwellers in Arabia i2 Chron. 
xvii. 11, xxi. 16, xxii. 1, xxvi. 7 ; Neh. ii. 19, 
vi. 1 ; Isai. xiii. 20 ; Jer. iii. 2 ; Acts ii. 11). 

A'RAD (wild ass). A Benjamite (1 Chron. 
viii. 15). 

A'RAD (id.). A Canaanitish southern 
city, but to the north of the wilderness of 
Judah (Judges i. 16). Its king attacked the 
Israelites, and was destroyed (Numb. xxi. 1, 
i xxxiii. 40) ; where the Hebrew text should 
be rendered ' The Canaanite king of Arad :' 
see Josh. xii. 14. Its site has been iden- 
tmed with the hill Tejr J. rdd, eight hours 
aouch from Hebron. 

AB'ADUS (1 Mace. xv. 23). Perhaps An- 
VAD, which see. „ ^ . , 

A'RAH (wandering).— I. A chief of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 39).— 2. A man whose descend- 
ants returned from Babylon (Ezra ii. 5 ; 
Neh. vii. 10).— 3. One whose grand-daughter 
Tobiah had married (vi. 18) ; possibly the 
same with No. 2. 

A'RAM (Mgh region).— I. A name among 
the sons of Shera (Gen. x. 22, 23 ; 1 Chron. 

17).— 2. A grandson of Nahor, Abraham s 



brother (Gen. xxii. 21).— 3. A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 34).— 4, A descendant of 
Judah (Matt. i. 3, 4 ; Luke iii. 33), called in 
the Old Testament Ram, which see. 

A'RAM (id.). The name of the country 
which is ordinarily in our version rendered 
Syria. It stretched to the north-east of 
Palestine on to and beyond the Euphrates. 
For, though some make that river the boun- 
dary, yet it is clear (2 Sam. x. 16) that there 
were Syrian or Aramaean tribes beyond the 
Euphrates. When first the name occurs 
CGen. xxiv. 10) it is as Aram Naharaim, 'Aram 
of the two rivers' (Mesopotamia in our 
version) the highland region between the 
Euphrates and the Tigris, to the north of 
Babylonia. But see Mesopotamia. Aram 
is frequently used alone for the land, or the 
people (Numb, xxiii. 7). But sometimes we 
have Padan-Aram, the plain or cultivated 
district of Aram, usually believed to be the 
region below mount Masius, between the 
Khabour and the Euphrates (Gen. xxv. 20) ; 
though it must be admitted that some have 
arrived at a diiferent conclusion. There 
1 were many small kingdoms, too, comprised 
' in the country of Aram, distinguished each 
' of them by some special name, as Aram 
Zobah (1 Sam. xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3, x. 6, 8) ; 
< Aram Rehob, or Beth-rehob (6,8); Aram 
Maachah (6, 8 ; 1 Chron, xix. 6) ; Geshur 
' in Aram (2 Sam. xv. 8 : com p. 1 Chron. 
I ii. 23) ; Aram Damascus (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6) ; 
all these smaller states being Aram, or 
, Syria generally ; just as, in our own 
! times, a number of inferior kingdoms, and 
I petty principalities, form in the aggregate 
Germany. Damascus was by far the most 
poAverful of them ; and its influence gra- 
I dually extended, till by Aram or Syria there 
came to be understood that monarchy of 
I which Damascus was the capital (1 Kings 
XX. 1 ; Isai. vii. 1, 2). This great country 
was peopled by the descendants of Shem , 
and possilily some one of the smaller tribes 
might be the posterity of Nahor's grandson. 

A'RAM-NAHARA'IM (Judges iii. 8, marg.; 
Psal. Ix. title). See Aram. 

A'RAM-ZO'BAH (Psal. Ix. title). See 
Aram, Zobah. 

ARAMI'TESS. The concvibine of Manas- 
seh (as it would seem) is called an Aramitess 
in our version (1 Chron. vii. 14) : the ori- 
ginal word is generally rendered ' Syrian.' 

A'RAN (wild goat). A descendant of Seir 
the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 28 ; 1 Chron. i. 42). 

ARAN'IAH (2 Sam. xxiv. 18, marg.) See 
Arauxah. 

AR'ARAT (holy land). The name of the 
mountains on which the ark rested after 
the flood (Gen. viii. 4). The same wora 
occurs elsewhere (2 Kings ix. 37 ; Isai. 
xxxvii. 38 ; Jer. li. 27), but in the first two 
of these places it is rendered in our version 
Armenia, which see. The term would 
seem to mean the highlands of Armenia, an 
elevated plain rising 3,000 or 4,000, or more, 
feet above the level of the sea, looking , 
down upon the low country through which | 
the Araxes flows on the north, and the wide j 
expanse of Mesopotamia on the south. This i 
region may well be conceived the cradle of : 
the human race. The vegetation is abun- 
dant of the kind best suited for pastoraJ 



43 



and nomad tribes. The communications 
are easy with surrounding more mvitmg 
districts. And it appears tliat tradition 
has always pointed to this country_ as 
first occupied hv Noah and his immediate 
descendants. The mountain which we call 
Ararat is denominated by the natives Massis, 
by the Tnr^s Agri-dagh, and by the Persians 
Kuh-i-Niih, i.e. Noah's mountain. 

' WbetheryouTiewit distant or near, says 
Kitto, 'the whole of its noble proportions, 
from the level of the plain to the summit, co- 
vered with snow even in the height of sum- 
mer, are taken in at one view. It i.=,in fact, 
the culminating point, the gigantic corner- 
t^tone of the ranges of mountains which 
bound the three great empires of Russia, 
Turkey and Persia. Never had nations a 
more noble boundary ; nor is there, per- 
haps, another object on earth, which, trom 
its mere natural aspect, would seem so 
worthv to be regarded as a monument of 
the greatest event in the world's history— 
the bridge between the ante-diluvian and 
the post-diluvian world. " Nothing," as Mr 
Morier Avell remarks, " can l)e more beautiful 
than its shape, more awiul than its height : 
all the surrounding mountains sink into 
insi2:niflcance when compared with it : it is 
perfect in all its parts ; no hard rugged fea- 
tures, no unnatural prominences, every- 
thing Is in harmony, and all combines to 
render it one of the sublimest objects m 
nature." The valley from which it rises is 
that of the river Aras, the ancient Araxes 
The rise of the^ mountain from its broad 
base is gradual, till it reaches the region of 
perpetual snow, which is somewhat more 
than one-third below the summit, when its 
shape becomes more conical and steep, ine 
cone is surmounted with a crown of ice, 
which glitters in the sun with pecuhar 
brightness, and becomes the cynosure or 
the traveller's eye for many days. This 
peak is, however, not alone in aU this glory. 
It has near to, and arising from, the same 
broad base, " another self ,"alikemostnearly, 
but lower and smaller in all its proportions ; 
although, if not overlooked by its tall neigh- 
bour, it would be reckoned among high 
mountains. Hence, perhaps, it is that the 
sacred text speaks of "the mountains of 
Ararat" rather than of a single mountain 
(Dailv Bible Illustrations, Sixth week,Fourth 
day) The heights of these peaks are, re- 
^nectivelv, 17,750 and 13,420 feet above 
fhl sea! and i4,573 and 10,435 feet above 
the plain. The country around shows 
evident traces of volcanic agency which 
does not seem to be yet exhausted. July 
2 1840 a fearful earthquake occurred, 
destroying the village of Argurl on the 
slopes of the mountain and the monastery 
of St. James. There were clouds of sul- 
phurous smoke evolved; and fragment's of 
rock, ice, and snow were hurled to a vast 

^^The ^Armenians used to maintain that 
Ararat had never been ascended. Professor 
Parrot, however, a German, reached tlie 
fiummit in 1829, after two unsuccessful 
at Ss. He found it a^ slightly-convex 
and almost-circular platform, about 220 
feet in diameter, declining at tlie extre- 



mity steeplv on all sides. It was a mass 
of ice unbroken by a single stone. To the 
east-south-east was the lesser peak, looking 
like the top of a square truncated pyramid, 
with rocky elevations jutting out at the 
edges and in the middle. It was a glorious 
sight in descending 'to behold the dark 
shadows Avhich the mountains on the west 
cast upon the plain, and then the profound 
darkness which covered all the valleys, and 
which rose gradually higher and higher on 
the side of Ararat, whose icy summit was 
still illuminated by the beams of the setting 
sun.' Other ascents have since been made. 
On July 11, 1856. a party of five Englishmen 
set out for the summit of the Greater 
Ararat, and, to the no small astonishment 
of the inhabitants of the country, succeeded. 
The details, given by Major Ptobert Stuart, 
one of the party, will be found m the 
Journ. ofSacr. Lit., Oct. 1856, pp. 236-239. 

It is probable that the ark rested eitber 
on the lower mountain, or in some depres- 
sion between higher peaks. See Winer, 
Bibl.RWB. art. 'Ararat;' and Duns, Bibl. 
A^oi. Science, vol. i. pp. 208-213. 
AB'ABATH (Tob. i. 21). . 
ARAU'NAH (ark ? a large ash or pnie). A 
Jebnsite, it has been supposed of royal race, 
from whom David purchased a threshmg- 
floor as a site for an altar to the Lord 
(2 Sam. xxiv. 18-25). In 1 Chron. xxi. 18-28 ; 
2 Chron. iii. 1, the name is Oman. There is 
a discrepancy in the two accounts in respect 
to the price paid by David. According to 
the author of Samuel it Avas fifty shekels of 
silver; whereas in Chronicles we find the 
sum stated to be six hundred shekels of 
gold. But we may suppose the floor, oxen, 
and instruments purchased for the fifty 
shekels ; the larger area, in which the teni- 
ple Avas subsequently built, for six hundred. 
Or the first named sum was the price of the 
oxen, the last of the ground. 

AR'BA, AR'BAH {liero of Baal). The an- 
cestor of the Anakim, fi'om Avhom Hebron 
had the name of Kirjath Arba, city of Arba 
(Gen. XXXV. 27 ; Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13, xxi. 11). 

AK'B \THITE. A native of the Aeabah, 
which see (2 Sam. xxiii. 31 ; 1 Chron. xi. 32). 

ARBAT'TIS (1 Mace. v. 23). Some plac3 
or district in the north of Palestine, the 
location of which can be merely conjec- 
tured. _ 
AR'BEL rHos. x. 14\ See Beth-Arbel. 
ABBE' LA (1 Mace. ix. 2). A place m 
Galilee, not far from the western shore of 
the lake of Geimesaret. It would seem to 
be identical with the modern Irbid ; and in 
the neighbourhood are many remarkable 
caves. Dr. Thomson thus describes them : 
Enterins: the Wadii HamCan, he says, ' Look 
up now to that cliff on the left. It is more 
than a thousand feet high : and a large part 
of it is absolutely perpendicular. It is per- 
forated bv a multitude of caverns, holes, 
and narrow passages, the chosen resort of 
robbers in former days. The walls and for- 
tifications Avhich united these caverns, and 
defended them against attack, are still 
visible. Thev are now called Ki'daet ibn 
3ran, but anciently they bore the name of 
Arbela, from a village on the top, a little 
back from tbe precipice, the rums of which 



47 



MMt Wim^le^Qt* [architectufe 



are now naraed iroid. Josephus lias a gra- 
pbic description of the capture of these 
caves hy Herod the Great. After various 
expedients to expel them [the robbers] had 
failed, he let boxes filled with soldiers down 
the face of the precipice, and landed them 
at the entrance of the caverns. This was a 
most daring exploit, but it succeeded ; and 
by fire and sword the robbers were entirely 
exterminated' {The Land and the Book, p. 
423). 

AR-'BITE. Paarai, one of David's warriors, 
is called the Arbite (2 Sam. xxiii. 35), pro- 
bably as a native of the city Arab, which 
see. In the corresponding list (1 Chron. xi. 
37) we have Naarai, the son of Ezbai. 

ABBO'NAI (Judith ii. 24). A river, de- 
scribed as In or near Cilicia. 

ARCH (Ezek. xl. 16). The word is ren- 
dered ' galleries ' or ' porches ' in the mar- 
gin. See Architecture. 

ARCHANGEL (1 Thess. iv. 16; Jude 9). 
See AxGBL. 

ARCHBLA'TJS {prince of the people). The 
son of Herod the Great, by Malthace, a Sa- 
maritan lady. He and his brother Anti- 
pas were brought up at Rome. On his 
father's death he succeeded to his authority 
over Idumea, Judea, Samaria, Including 
the Important cities of Ca^sarea, Sebaste, 
Joppa, and Jerusalem, with the title of 
ethnarch. When he went to Rome to re- 
ceive investiture, the Jews sent a complaint 
after him ; to which, however, the emperor 
Augustus paid no attention. To this jour- 
ney our Lord may be supposed to allude 
(Luke xix. 12, 14). Archelaus was guilty of 
cruelty in his administration ; so that in 
the ninth or tenth year of his government 
the Samaritans preferred charges against 
him; and he was consequently deposed and 
banished to Vienne in Gaul, where it Is 
generally believed he died. He married 
Glaphyra, the wife of his brother Alexander. 
It was through fear of him that Joseph and 
Mary, under the divine sanction, carried 
Jesus into Galilee (Matt, ii. 22). 
ARCHERY. See Arms. 
AR'CHEVITES. A tribe introduced as 
colonists into Samaria by the king of As- 
syria (Ezra iv. 9). They were probably from 
Erech, which see, 
AR'CHI (Josh, xvi. 2). See Arohite. 
ARCHir'PUS {master of the horse). A 
Christian teacher (it is generally supposed) 
at Colosse, and possibly the son of Phile- 
mon (Col. iv. 17 ; Philem. 2). Wieseler, 
however {Chron. des Apost. Zeit. p. 452), 
argues with considerable probability that 
A.rchippus resided at Laodicea. 

AR'CHITE. The designation of Hushai, 
David's friend (.2 Sam, xv. 32, xvii. 5, 14; 
1 Chron. xxvii. 33), possibly as connected 
with the place or district called Archi (Josh, 
xvi, 2\ But it is difficult to say what that 
place or district was. It has the article in 
the original there, just as in the word ap- 
plied to Hushai. Perhaps it may signify 
'the Archite district,' i,e, the district of 
Erech, which lay on the f ron tier of Ephivai m ; 
but this is merely a conjecture from the 
Hebrew form. 

ARCHITECTURE. Some knowledge of 
building there must have been at a very 



early period of the world. The wants of 
men would soon lead them to construct 
habitations. And we find that Cain is said 
to have built a city, a collection of habita- 
tions, and to have given it a definite name 
(Gen, iv, 17). The progress of the mecha- 
nical arts is noted among Cain's posterity ; 
and, while some are said to have dwelt in 
tents, as breeders of cattle, others are men- 
tioned as practising metallurgy : these last 
wei'e, of course, more likely to congregate 
in towns (20, 22). Considerable proficiency 
TincLuestionably must have been made for 
the completion of such a structure as the 
ark of Noah. Shortly after the flood cities 
were again built, and the materials used for 
them are specified (x. 10-12, xi. 1-9). 

Passing by the architecture of other na- 
tions. It may be observed that,when the Is- 
raelites went to live in Egypt, they not only 
beheld the great buildings of that country, 
but were forced by their taskmasters to 
take part in their construction (Exod. i. 11). 
They must therefore have acquired some 
experience and skill. When freed, how- 
ever, from servitude and settled in the land 
of Canaan, we find little notice of any of 
their buildings. They had, indeed, to fortify 
or make additions to some of the cities whi ch 
they possessed (Numb, xxxii. 34-38), but 
for the most part— and they were reminded 
of the gratitude they ought to feel for it— 
they inhabited cities which they did not 
build and found houses which other hands 
had prepared (Dent. vi. 10-12). And these 
were of no mea,n character, as the still-ex- 
istinghabitations of Argob show, as well as 
the account given of Dagon's temple among 
the Philistines (Judges xvi. 23-30). It was 
not till the days of David that architecture 
was cultivated much among the Israelites 
That monarch enlarged and strengthened 
Jerusalem, and built himself a palace there; 
but Avith the aid of foreign artizans (2 Sam. 
V. 9-11). Much more was done by Solomon. 
Besides the temple, and his palace, and that 
which was called the house of the forest of 
Lebanon, and the house for his wife, the 
daughter of Pharaoh (1 Kings vii. 1-12), he 
built or fortified various cities, and carried 
on a vast number of magnificent works (ix 
17-19). Great skill, it would seem, was 
i-h-own in these structures, many of them 
being decorated with carvings, sculpture, 
and inlaid work. But then it was not 
merely native talent that was employed, 
Solomon, like his father, had to seek assist- 
ance, specially for the ornaments and furni- 
ture, from Tyre (vii, 13, 14; 2 Chron. ii. 7, 
14). Later kings, of both Israel and Judah. 
encouraged architecture ; so that the greater 
j number of them, from Rehoboam and Jero- 
boam downwards,>are mentioned as builders 
(xii. 25 ; 2 Chron. xi. 5-11, and elsewhere). 
The Jews who returned from captivity 
were able to re-build their temple (Ezra 
iii. 8-10, vi. 14, 15) and to fortify Jerusalem 
(Neh. iii., vi. 15) ; and afterwards many 
; magnificent works were completed, as 
I Herod's temple (Mark xiii. 1,. 2) and other 
structures. 

Of the character of Jewish architecture 
little can be said, unless we may judge from 
Assyrian^ Egyptian, and Persian remains. 




Remaius of arch of bridge between Zi 
From photograph. 

another a little more than twenty, and the 
whole width of the bridge as about fifDy-one 
feet, while its length across the Tyropoeon 
to the perpendicular face of Zion could not 
hare been less than 350. Of course tliere 
must have been several piers and arches. 
The whole causeway is supposed to have 
formed a magnificent passage from Zion to 
the south porch of the temple' ^The Land 



Arch. 



Some of the vast stones still to be seen at 
Jerusalem may have belonged to Solomon's 
or to Herod's temple. A very remarkable 
relic is a part of an arch in the bridge which 




L Arch at Gournon, Thebes. From * Description 
de I'Egypt.' 

united Zion tn the temple, and on which it 
is heheved that Titus stood while parley- 
ing with the Jews. Dr. Thomson describes 
one of the stones as ' twenty-live feet long. 




2. Brick arches. Memnonium. 

and the Book, p. 691). It may be added here 
that arches of a very early date, both in 
briclc and stone, have been discovered in 
E?ypt, also ancient arches of kiln-burnt 
bricks in the ruins of Nineveh. Some of the 
reservoirs yet existing in Palestine were 
most probably the work of Hebrew kings. 

As to the sources whence materials were 
procured, there are quarries under Jeru- 
salem, from which came much of the stone 
required for the temple and other buildings, 



49 



[AREOPAGUS 




3 

5. Arch in stone. Tomb at Thebes, 




4 



4. Arch-Gateways. From Nineveh marbles. 

The traces of the workings there are of 
peciiliar interest. 

01 architectural tools we find a few men- 
tioned in scripture, as the saw, the mea- 
suring-rted, and tlie pUimh-line (1 Kings 
vii. 9; Ezek. xl. 3; Amos vii. 7, 8). See 
House, Tempi^e. 

ARCTTJ'RUS (Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 32). The 
word rendered Arcturus in our veision is 
given in the. margin as 'ash' (pei-haps 
a bier, or, according to some, a 7iight- 
watcher). The constellation intended is 
the Great Bear, and the 'sons' (also called 
in Arabic ' daughters of the bier ') are 
the three stars in the tail. See Carey, The 
Book of Job translated, Illustrations, Job 
ix. 9, pp. 439, 440. 

AllD (fugitive^). 1. A son of Benjamin 
(Gen. xlvi. 21).— 2. A grandson of the same 
patriarch (Numb. xxvi. 40) ; who is else- 
where called Addar (I Chron. viii. 3). But 
is not improbable that only one person is 
meant, and that the word ' sons' is used in 
Gen. xlvi. 21 in a larger sense. 

AR'DATH (2 Esdr. ix. 26). 

ARD'ITES. A family of Benjamin, de- 
scendants of Ard (Numb. xxvi. 40). 

AR'DON {fugitive). One of the tribe of 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 18). 

ARE'LI (lion of my God, i.e. of heroic 
birth). A son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16 ; Numb, 
xxvi. 17). 

ARE'LITES. A family of Gad, descend- 
ants of Areli (Numb. xxvi. 17). 

AREOP'AGITE. A member of the court 
of the Areopagus (Acts xvii. 34). 




5. Arch. Tomb at Thebes, time of Thothmes I. 



AREOP'AGUS (Mars' HilV). A narrow 
naked ridge of limestone rock at Athens, 
sloping upwards from the north and terml- j 
nating in an abrupt precipice on the south, | 
fifty or sixty feet above a valley which divides ; 
itfrom the west endof the Acropolis. It had 
its name from the legend that Mars (Ares), 
the god of war, was tried here by the other 
gods on a charge of murder. Here sat the 
court or council of the Areopagus, a most 
ancient and venerable tribunal, celebrated | 
through Greece. It took cognizance of cri- i 
minal charges, as murder, arson, wounding ; i 
but the lawgiver Solon added to its func- j 
tions and gave it also censorial and political ! 
powers. Those who had held the office of i 
archon were members of this court, and j 
they sat for life, unless guilty of some 
crime. The Areopagus was resi-)€cted under 
the Roman dominion, and existed in the 
empire. Here it was that St. Paul made his 
memorable address (Acts xvii. 19-34) ; one of 
the council, persuaded by it or more fully 
instructed afterwards, becoming a Chris- 
tian. But it does not appear that the 
apostle was, properly speaking, tried ; rather 
he was placed on this spot in order that 
what he had to say might be more commo- 
diously heard by the multitude. Sixteen 
stone steps from the agora (market) yei 
exist, and the stone seats forming three 
sides of a quadrangle looking southwards, 
also two blocks, appropriated, it is believed, 
to the accuser and the criminal. See Cony 
beare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St 
Paul, vol. i. pp. 440-444, 2nd edit. 
' 1^ 



A'RES (1 Esdr. v. 10). A form of Arali 
(Ezra ii. 5). 

AR'ETAS. A king of Arabia Petreea, 
wliose daughter Herod Antipas had mar- 
ried, and divorced at the instance of Hero- 
dias. Aretas consequently attacked and 
entirely defeated Antipas, who solicited 
help from Rome ; and Vitellius, governor 
of Syria, was thereupon commanded by the 
emperor to march against Aretas. But he- 
lore this command could he executed Tibe-. 
rius died, 37 a.d. ; and Antipas was soon after 
banished to Lyons. Though there is no 
distinct historical record of the fact, yet 
there is strong presumption that, during 
the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, Aretas 
was in"' possession of Damascus (see "Wie- 
seler, Cliron. des Apost Zeit. pp. 167-175). It 
was under an ethnarch or governor ap- 
pointed by him that the endeavour was 
•uade to apprehend St. Paul (Acts ix. 24, 25 ; 
2 Cor. xi. 32, 33). The name or title Aretas 
was borne by several Arabian chiefs or 
kings. 
AR'ETAS (2 Mace. v. 8). 
ARE' US (1 Mace. xii. 20). A king of Sparta, 
no doubt the first of the name, who wrote a 
letter to Onias, the high priest of the Jews. 

AR'GOB (stony). A person killed with 
Pekahiah, king of Israel (2 Kings xv. 25). 
See Keil, Comm. on Kings, transl. vol. li. 
pp. 30, 31. 

AR'GOB (id.). A district to the east of 
the Jordan, formerly part of the ancient 
kingdom of Og. It is always called 'the 
region of Argob' (Deut. iii. 4, 13, 14 ; 1 Kings 
iv. 13) ; the word translated ' region' (once 
•country') being a very peculiar one: in- 
deed it signifies a ' cord,' and, applied to 
ajiy district, would show that it had a very 
distinct boundaiT, like the sea-line of the 
Mediterranean coast ; to designate which 
we have this same word (Zeph. ii. 5-7). Ar- 
gob was allotted to the half-tribe of Ma- 
nasseh, and was, in later times, called 
Trachonitis, the ron.gh, and has been satis- 
factorily identified as the modern well- 
defined Lejdh. It is a most extraordinary 
tract of country, in the shape of an ir- 
regular oval, its eastern side nearly like the 
arc of a bow, about 22 miles from K to S. 
and 14 from E. to W. Mr. Porter describes it 
as presenting a picture of the wildest deso- 
lation, a kind of Cyclopean city, completely 
prostrate, whose blackened and shapeless 
fragments were scattered rudely over the 
plain— a plain yet thickly studded with 
ruined cities and villages. 'Round the 
whole Lejah the border is defined like a 
coast-line, which indeed it very much re- 
sembles with its inlets and promontories.' 
• The physical features,' Mr. Porter adds, 
' present the most singular phenomena I 
have ever witnessed : . . it is wholly com- 
posed of black basalt, which seems to have 
issued from innumerable pores in the sur- 
face of the earth, and thence in a liquid 
state to have flowed out on every side till 
the whole plain was covered. Before cool- 
ing it was agitated by some fierce and 
powerful tempest or other such force, and 
then shattered by internal motions and vi- 
j brations. The cup-like pits from which 
the lava was projected are still seen, and 



50 



also the wave-like aspect of a thick liquid 
which cools while flowing or is agitated 
while cooling.' Edrei and Kenath have 
been identified in this region ; and, as 
already said, there are the ruins of many 
other cities. The whole aspect and circum- 
stances of the Lejah furnish a remarkable 
proof of the accuracy of the sacred writers. 
See Porter, in Journ. ofSacr. Lit, July, 1854, 
pp. 295-302. 

ARIARA'TRES a Mace. xv. 22). A king 
of Cappadocia, sixth of the name. See 
Prideaux, Connect, vol. ii. pp. 218, &c., edit. 
1858 ; Winer, Bihl. RWB., art. ' Ariarathes.' 

ARI'DAI (the strong, or of noble birth). 
The ninth son of Haman (Esth. ix. 9). 

ARIDA'THA (id.). The sixth son of 
Haman (Esth. ix. 8). 

A'RIEH (lion). A person killed with 
Pekahiah, king of Israel (2 Kings xv. 25). 
See Argob. 

A'RIEL (lion of God, or hearth, i.e. altar 
of God).— I. One of the chief men with 
Ezra on his return from Babylon to Jeru- 
salem (Ezra viii. 16).— 2. A symbolical name 
given to Jerusalem (Isai. xxix. 1, 2, 7). It 
is questioned whether Jerusalem is so called 
as signifying 'lion of God,' or 'altar of 
God.' The second meaning suits best with 
Ezek. xliii. 15, 16. where the word (though 
there are variations in the reading) twice 
occurs ; and perhaps this may incline the 
balance in favour of the same signification 
in Isaiah. It may be added that Ariel is in 
the original of 2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chron. 
xi. 22, where our version has ' lion-like 
men;' and it has been supposed that the 
word is here too a proper name, and that 
Benaiah slew the two sons of Ariel, a 
Moabite. 

ARIMATHE'A (tJie heights). A city of 
Judea (supposed by some identical with 
Ramah, the residence of the prophet 
SamueD, the birth-place of Joseph, who 
begged the body of our Lord for burial in 
his own tomb (Matt, xxvii. 57 ; Mark xv. 43 ; 
Luke xxiii. 50, 51; John xix. 38). The 
modern village Renthieh is thought to be 
on the site of Arimathea. See Ramah. 

A'RIOCH (lion-like).—!. The king of El- 
lasar, confederate with Chedor-laoraer (Gen. 
xiv. 1, 9).— 2. The captain of Nebuchad- 
nezzar's guard (Dan. ii. 14, 15, 24, 25). 

A'RIOCH (Judith i. 6). The name as- 
cribed to a king of the Elymeans. 

XRl'^AI (lion-likel). The eighth son of 
Haman (Esth.ix. 9). 

ARISTAR'CHUS (excellent chief). A Thes- 
salonian Christian, who accompanied St. 
Paul on his third missionary journey (Acts 
xix. 29, XX. 4), was with him on his voyage 
to Rome (xxvii. 2), and is afterwards men- 
tioned as his fellow-labom-er and prisoner 
(Col. iv. 10 ; Philem. 24). According to tra- 
dition, he Avas bishop of Apamea. 

ARISTOBU'LUS (excellent counsellor). A 
person to whose household at Piome St. Paul 
sends salutation (Rom. xvi. 10). Of himself 
nothing is known. 

ARISTOBU'LUS. A Jewish priest in 
Egypt in the reign of I'tolemy Philomctor, 
to whom the Jews of Palestine addressed a 
letter (2 Mace. i. 10). Perhaps he was iden- 
i tical with the peripatetic philosopher of 



61 



LARMAGEl JON 



ihe same name ; but Winer dissents from 
this opinion iBihl BWB., art. • Aristo- 
l>ulus, 1'). 

ARK, NOAH'S. See Flood. 

ARK OF THE COV^ENANT. Tlie sacred 
cnest or coffer, deposited in the most lioly 
place of the tabernacle and the temple, 
variously called the ' ark of the testimony ' 
(Exod. XXV. 22) and the ' ark of God' (1 Sam. 
iii. 3). It was made of shittim or acacia 
wood, of oblong shape, 2} cubits in length, 
l.i in breadth and depth. It was overlaid 
within and without with pure gold, with a 
border or edging also of gold. There were 
four golden rings attached, one at each 
corner, through which staves or poles like- 
wise of acacia plated with gold were passed 
to bear the ark when it was carried. These 
staves were never altogether removed, but 
were drawn out so far as to allow the ark 
to stand against the back wall, the other 
ends then reaching to the vail which sepa- 
rated the sanctuary from the most holy 
place (Exod. xxv. 15 ; Numb. iv. 6 ; 1 Kings 
viii. 8 ; 2 Chron. v. 9). The lid of the ark, 
fitting it in size, was called the mercy-seat, 
and was made of pure gold. Upon it at the 
two ends were two cherubim, also of gold, 
facing each other, and stretching out their 
wings as a kind of canopy, between which, 
upon the mercy-seat, was the symbolical 
presence of the Deity (Exod. xxv. 10-22, 
xxxvii. 1-9). In the ark were put the ori- 
ginal tables of the law, a quantity of manna 
in a golden vessel, and Aaron's rod that 
had budded (Heb. jx.4). It is true that the 
manna and the rod are said to be placed 
before the testimony (Exod. xvi. 33, 34; 
Numb. xvii. 10) ; but the assertion that in 
the time of Solomon (1 Kings viii. 9) the 
tables alone were in the ark would rather 
seem to imply that previously something 
else haclioeen there (See Alford, The Greek 
Test, note on Heb. ix. 4). Before it was also 
laid a copy of the book of the law (Deut. 
xxxi. 26). 

This ark was regarded with peculiar 
reverence, as the sacred resting-place 
of the Deity. When the tabernacle was 
moved, the priests were to cover the 
ark with a blue pall, after which it was 
carried on march by the Kohathite Levites 
(Numb. Iv. 5, 6, 19, 20, vii. 9, x. 21) ; and the 
priests appear to have borne it into the 
sanctuary (1 Kings viii. 3, 4, 6). It was 
carried by priests across tiie Jordan (Josh, 
iii., iv.), and around the walls of Jericho 
(vi. 2-16). Doubtless as soon as the tabernacle 
was set up in Canaan the ark was placed in 
it. Thus we And it with the tabernacle at 
Shiloh (1 Sam. iii. 3) ; and thence it was 
sent for by the army, and In the defeat 
which followed it was captured by the Phil- 
istines (iv. 3-22). In their land It remained 
seven months, l)ut was restored in conse- 
quence of the infliction of severe plagues. 
It first reached Beth-shemesh on its return, 
and was thence, after the punishment of 
the curious Beth-shemites, transferred to 
Kirjath-Jearim (v., vi., vii. 1, 2). Though sta- 
tionary here for a while, it was perhaps oc- 
casionally brought out (xiv.l8),and carried 
back. And for some time it must have been 
little regar ded. But David, actuated by bet- 



ter feelings, resolved to take it to Jerusalem. 
His first attempt, however, was unsuccess- 
ful, and marked by a sad catastrophe, the 
death of Uzzah, who had too boldly touched 
it. It was then deposited in the house of 
Obed-edom ; and the Lord blessed his reve- 
rent treatment of the sacred symbol. Then 
three months afterwards, encouraged by 
what he heard of this blessing, David ac- 
complished his pious purpose, brought up 
the ark with glad rejoicings, and placed it 
in a special tabernacle he had prepared for 
it (2 Sara, vi; 1 Chron. xiii., xv., xvi. 1-6). 
Thence it was solemnly transferred to the 
temple (1 Kings viii. 1-9 ; 2 Chron. v. 2-10). 
Some psalms appear to have been composed 
on one or other of these joyful occasions, 
e. g. xxiv., xlvii., cxxxii. 

The ark ought always to have continued 
in the temple ; but there is reason to be- 
lieve that it was removed by Manasseh or 
Anion ; for we find an injunction by Josiah 
to restore it to its place (2 Chron. xxxv. 3). 
In the sack of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, it doubtless perished; and the 
Jewish tradition respecting it (preserved 
2 Mace. ii. 4, 5) Is unworthy of credit. It was 
not in the second temple ; and the want of 
the holy ark must have been grief to those 
who remembered the first house, and 
thought of Jehovah's visible presence 
there (Ezra iii. 12, 13). As a kind of sub- 
stitute there was a stone basement in the 
sanctuary three fingers high, on which the 
high-priest placed the censer on the day of 
atonement. Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Euu- 
deslade.' 

ARK'ITE (fugitive). Thename of a branch 
of Canaan's descendants (Gen. x. 17 ; 1 
Chron. i. 15). They probably inhabited 
Area, a Phoenician town at the north- 
western base of Lebanon, where the wor- 
ship of Astarte was practised. A temple 
was also erected here to Alexander the 
Great ; and in this place (to which the name 
of Csesarea Libani was given) the em- 
peror Alexander Severus was born. The 
ruins still exist at Tel'Arlca, four miles 
south of the Nahr-el-Kelnr, and twelve 
north of Tripoli. 

ARM. This word is often used as a sym- 
bol of strength (Exod. vi. 6 ; 1 Sam. ii. 31 ; 
Psal. X. 15 ; Ezek. xxx. 21, 22, 24, 25). Some- 
times the allusion is to the disengaging of 
the arm from the clothing, that its action 
might be freer and more energetic (Isai. 
Iii. 10). 

ARMAGED'DON (the hill, or, perhaps, ^/je 
city of Megiddo). A symbolical name for 
the place where a final struggle between 
the hosts of good and evil must take place 
(Rev. xvi. 18). For an exposition of the 
apostle's meaning, the reader must be re- 
ferred to commentaries : it will be sufficient 
here to say that there is an allusion to that 
great battle-field where Barak and Gideon 
conquered (Judges iv., v. 19, vi. 33, vii.), 
where Saul and Josiah fell (1 Sam. xxix. 1, 
xxxi.; 2 Sam. iv. 4; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-24), 
the plain of Esdraelon, on the southern 
border of which Megiddo stood. See 
Esdraelon. It was customary with the 
sacred writers to re-produce the scenes of 
former great events as the platform on 



ARMENIA] 



identified witli Armenia. See vvmer, -tJt 
^SlT^iX'Sment worn npon t.e 
upper part of the arm (2 Sam. 1. 10). See 
Bracelet. 




Assyrian armlets. 1 , 2, 5, from Nu.oveh marbles 

4, 6, iron, from originals m Brit. »lus. 
tn pxi^t on which their weapons arc de« 
Pictcd we can only, therefore gather 
So n the notices in ^criptnre and by com- 
parison with what we know of the ha^^^^^^ 
of the neighbouring nations, the natuie oi 
the a?n?s w th which the Israelites fought. 
I §f offensive arms, the sword requires 
the fi?st'Sotice. It must have ^een o^^^^ ^f 
the earliest weapons m use, as we tlnd t ie 
' mintion of it at the very beginning of the 
i volume (Gen. iii. 24, xxxi. 26, xxxiv 

' S 26) ; and so commonly was t employed 
?hat i became synonymous with war (Ezek. 




Egyptian armlets, 

ARMO'NI (helongivgto avaUc^^^^lV^'"'^' 

dcrn discoveiy ^^f^^^.^^land defence used 
upon the modes of attack ^ua ue ^.^h 
by ancient natio s J^^^^Romans ; 

presented In '5?hf«e peoples. But no arms 
and paintings olthos^^ ^,3 

^SverS :'\?e,;,>'er!f anf Joufl.tuve Known I 



lilV" of' flint ; Ezelc y. n. Ve'nS- W- 
Sl;ry;a';fe[ra!°tL''iielf;^w^lorcr\vaTa 

SS^aTeSi-r.^'rSai^.'ll 
■ ^nd tlwt It U?d two edges (Psal. ex 1.x 6). 
Ti, e tett that David was able to use Go- 
li tli-s swovd is an additional proof that 
l e wca on was not a heavy one (1 Sam. 



53 



[armoub 



xrit 51, xxi. 9). Swords, though very an- 
ciently they may have been of stone, must 
generally have been metallic, as their glit- 
tering or shining is mentioned (Deut. xxxii. 




1, 2, 2, 3, 3. Assyrian swords and daggers. 
Nineveh marbles. 



41 : see also Isai. ii. 4). They were kept m 
a sheath, girded on the loins (2 Sam. xx. 8), 
and resting on or against the thigh (Psal. 
xlv. 3). To gird on the sword was to pre- 
pare for war (1 Sain. xxv. 13). Thewhettmg 
or sharpening of the sword is also spoken 
of (Psal. vii. 12 ; Ezf k. xxi. 9, 10). And the 
sword is said to 'devour' (.2 Sam. ii. 26), 
because the Hebrew word for 'edge' ia 
literally ' mouth' of the sword. 

The spear was another offensive weapon. 
Of this there were different kinds. The 
most formidahle is that which we find 
Goliath carrying. In his case, no doubt it 
was of extraordinary size; the shaft or 
staff a heavy piece of wood, the head made 
of metal (1 Sam. xvii. 7), This kind of 
spear Saul was in the habit of using 
(xxii. 6, xxvi. 7, 8, 11, 12, 16, 22 ; 2 Sam. 1, 6), 
and it was this, called ' javelin ' m our ver- 
sion, with which he tried to pin David to 
the wall (1 Sam. xviii. 10, 11, xix. 9, 10), not 
throwing it, as some have imagined, as a 
missile— the weapon was too ponderous for 



that — hut running at him with it. This 
spear must have had a metallic strong 
point at its butt end ; it could thus be with 
more facility stuck: into the ground (xxvi. 7), 




Assyrian spearman. Nineveh marbles. 



and it was with this point that Abnei 
struck Asahel quite through his body 
(2 Sara. li. 23). There was a lighter kind of 
spear, which, when not in use, was sus- 




Egyptian spearman. Rosellini. 
pended from the shoulder (1 Sara. xvii. 6 
where it is erroneously rendered ' target, 
and in the margin ' gorget,' also' shield,' 45) 
This weapon was thrown after ' shaking 



or poising (Job xli. 29). It was one of 
tills kind that Josliua lield in liis hand, and 
with it he made a signal to his troops (Josh, 
viii. 18). Perhaps it had a flag affixed, like 




Group of bronze and iron arrow heads, from 
originals in the Niueveh collection. 

the lances of the modern Polish lancers. 
There were some other kinds of spears, 
javelins, or darts, which we are not ahle 
exactly to distinguish. One was the weapon 




1. Darts or javelins. Nineveh marhles. 

2, 5. Babylouiau bronze spear-heads. Brit. 
Mus. 

4, 4. Egyptian spear-heads. Brit, iuus. 
6. Darts. Brit. Mus. 

used by Phinehas (Xumh. xxv. 7) : the ori- 
ginal word is the same as that translated 
'lancets' (1 Kings xviii. 28^/. Another was 
a missile weapon (2 Cliron. xxiii, 10, 
xxxii. 5). And a third was a statf with a 
eharp point, with which Joab transfixed 
Absa'.om (2 Sam. xviii. 

A • battle-axe ' is mentioned (Jer. li. 2n\ 
This seems to have been (as Ilenucrson 
Euegests, The Prophet Jeremiah, p. 260) ' the 
cluh anciently used by warriors for the pur- 

j pose of clearing a%vay all wiiU \vhom they 

I came in contact.' 




Egyptian maces and clubs. 7, 7. Assyrian 
maces and clubs. 




Egyptian battle. axes. 
Champollion. 



Eoscllini and 



A very important weapon was the bow 
This is mentionedvery early with reference 
both to the chase and to war (Gen. xxi. 20, 
xxvii. 3, xlviii. 22, xlix. 23, 24). And we 
find that it was in common use in the ar- 
mies of various other nations (.J i-i'-i?*?* "^'-H > 
1 Sam. xxxi. 3 ; 1 Kings xxii. 34 ; 2 Chron. 
XXXV. 23) as well as among the Israelites. 
The warriors of the tribe of Benjamin 
seem especially to have practised archery 
(1 Chron. viii. 40 ; 2 Chron. xiv. 8, xvii. 17) ; 
hut the bow is mentioned also as the wea 
pon of other tribes (1 Chron. v. 18 ; Psal. 
Ixxviii. 9). Bows were made of great 
strength, sometimes of steel or brass 
(xviii. 34); and considerable force was re- 
quired to bend them : the Hebrew word for 
'bend' signifies properly ' to tread;' the 
foot, therefore, was used. The bow-string 
is mentioned (xi. 2, xxi. 12). Arrows 
(and possibly also bowsj were kept in a 



65 



anivcr (Gen. xxvii. 3 ; Psal. cxxvii. 5 ; Isai. 
Kxii. 6). Care was taken to sharpen tliern 
(xUx. 2) : sometimes possiljly tliey were 




1, 2 3, 4, 5. Assyrian and Egyptian quivers 
' and bows. 




T^yplian archer. Roscllini. 



[armouk 



barbed (Psal. xxxviii. 2), and poisoned 
(Job vi. 4), and sometimes tipped with some 
burning matter (Psal. cxx. 4). ' Fiery darts ' 




Assyrian arcliers shootinpr from behind a larga 
shield or movable screen. Nineveh marbles. 



are spoken of in the New Testament (Eph. 
ri. 16) : these would seem to have been spe- 
cially intended to set Are to buildings 
(Winer, Bibl.RWB., art. ' Bogen,' notes). It 
has been suggested by a writer in Dr. 
Smith's Bid. of the Bible, vol. i, p. Ill, that 
bolts or st(mes, as well as arrows, were dis- 
charged from the bow. This is probably 
the meaning of 1 Chron. xii. 2. Such bows 
would be like the cross-bows of the middle 
ages. Larger engines for this purpose were 
devised by Uzziah's officers (2 Chron. xxvi. 



DA „ 

There was one more very effective weapon 




Egyptian slinR<»r. 



aemoubJ 



of ofEence— the sling. It was made of 
plaited thongs, broad in the middle, to hold 
the missile securely, and then was whirled 
two or three times round to deliver the 
stone or hullet with the greatest force. It 
was the natural weapon of a shepherd 
(1 Sam. xvii. 40, 49, 50) ; and the use of it 
as well as of the bow (mentioned above) 
must have been specially cultivated by 
the Benjamites, who could sling with either 
hand, and hit a mark with the nicest 
exactness (Judges xx. 16). Slingers are 
afterwards described as doing considerable 




Assyrian slinger. 
execution against a town of Moab (2 Kings 

Of ^defensive armour we find the follow- 
ing kinds specifled. 

A coat of mail, or a breast-plate. Various 
devices were employed to make body-ar- 
mour strong enough to resist a blow or 
thrust, and to turn aside a missile. Some- 
times leather, aird sometimes metal in 
scales or rings was used. The corslet of 
Goliath is literally a harness of scales ; 
that is, a scaled coat of mail, consisting of 
small plates (1 Sam. xvii. 5). It was a 
mailed coat that Ahab wore ; and the arrow 
that killed him probably penetrated be- 
tween tlie breast-plate, the close-fitting 
part, and that which hung more loosely 
down (1 Kings xxii. 34). The same original 
word is sometimes rendered ' habergeon ' 
CIS eh. iv. 16). 

Another piece of defensive armour is 
also called 'habsirgeon' (Exod. xxviii. 32, 
ixxlx. 23). It is supposed to have been of 
linen thickly woven or quilted, with a bind- 
ing round the neck, and plated on the breast 
with mail. One of the priest's vestments had 
a similar hem or binding at the neck, to 
prevent its tearing. The meaning of the 
'habergeon' of Job xli. 26 is doubtful : some 
suppose it an offensive weapon. 




1 and 2. Assyrian mail. Nineveh marbleg. 

5. Fragment of chain-mail, Assyrian, frora 
Kouyunjik. Brit. Mus. 

4. Greek cuirass, from original in Brit. Wiif 
Temple collection. 

6. Persian chain-mail. Kcr Porter. 




Egyi^tian cuirasses and mai'.. from na:n\aud 




1 and 2. Assyrian helmets, from the iron ori- 
ginals. Brit. Mus. 

5. Sassanian, from the iron original. Brit. 
Mug. 

4. Assyrian forms of helmet. Nineveh mar- 
blcs. 

5. Efryptian helmets, from paintings and sculp- 
ture. Rosellini and CharnpolUon. 

6. Helmets of allies. Egyptian ditto. 



Shields. 
Kosellini. 
Nineveh marbles. 



tendant (1 Sam. xvii. 7). Another smaller 
shield or target seems to have been more 



xxvii. 10). The Hebrew word implies lici.crht 

and roundness; whence we may infer the =u.^iv. v.. rroons 
shape. Various materials were anciently especially employed by h^^^^^^^ 
tised for helmets : in some of the places just 1 The difference between these two pieces, ot 



58 



armour is manifest bytlie greater weight 
of gold required for the first, rendered 
• targets,' than for ttie others-, translated 
•shields,' which Solomon made (1 Kings x. 
16, 17). Two other descriptions of shield 
are mentioned ; one in 2 Sam. viii. 7 ; but it 
is quire uncertain whether a shield be 
meant here ; tlie other in Psal. xci. 4, of 
AvhiclL the sliape perliaps was round. Shields 
■were sometimes made of iight wood, co- 
vered with bull's hide of two or more thick- 
nesses bordered with metal : light ones were 
of wicker-work or osier, covered also with 
liide. Sometimes they were studded with 
nails or metal pins. They were grasped by 
a wooden or leathern handle, and occasion- 
ally suspended by a thong from the neck. 
They were smeared with oil, both to pre- 
serve them from injury by weather, and to 
render them so smotjth that missiles might 
more readily glance off. They were also 
kept in coverings till actually wanted. 
Hence, to'anoiut'or 'uncover' the shield 
was to prepare for battle (Isai. xxi. 5, xxii. 6). 

Armour and Aveapons are somietimes em- 
ployed symbolically. There is a battle to be 
fought by the Christian against his spiri- 
tual foes : it is natural therefore to repre- 
sent him as supplied with armour for his 
protection (Eph. vi. 13-17). But Roman wea- 
pons are here referred to ; such as the 
apostle was in the habit of seeing round 
him during his detention in Rome. 

ARMY. When the Israelites were num- 
bered, the enumeration included those only 
who had reached the age of military service. 
Thus, at the census noted at the beginning 
of the book of lumbers, the 603,550 was the 
number of the males 'from twenty years 
old and upward, all that were able to go 
forth to war in Israel' (isumb. i. 45, 46). 
These men were not soldiers, nor were they 
generally armed or trained as soldiers : 
they were the raw material from which 
military forces when required might be 
drawn." It is true that to keep order in 
their encampments and in their journcy- 
ings through the wilderness something like 
military discipline was observed (ii., x.) ; 
but had this not been the case the tribes 
would have been confused into one tumul- 
tuous mass, and journeying and encamp- 
ment have ])een alike impossible. When 
occasion of vrar arose, a draught was made 
from the numbers capable of bearing arms. 
Thus it was when the Amalekites attacked 
Israel in Rephidim (Exod. xvii. S-lQi ; and 
thus, yet more remarkably, when the trans- 
Jordanic tribes were held to have perfectly 
fal filled their promise of marching with 
their brethren to the conquest of Canaan 
by detaching little more than one-third of 
their population fit for military service. 
For the total numbers of the two tribes and 
a half (reckoning Manasseh to be equally 
divided) were 110,580 (Xumb. xxvi. 7, 18,34) ; 
and the army they sent across the Jordan 
was but • about,' that is, in round numbers, 
•40,000' (Josh. iv. 13). It is true that the 
whole population fit to serve were, in case 
of necessity, liable to serve. And accord- 
Inglv we read ver often of general levies 
(Judges xix. 29, 30, xx. 1, 2; 1 Sam. xi. 6-8), 
necessary in a country where there was no 



standing army. But, after such a muster, 
the law allowed a wide latitude of ex- 
emption from actual service. Such as had 
built a house and had not dedicated it ; 
such as had planted a vineyard and had 
not eaten the fruit of it ; such as were 
betrothed to a Avife and had not taken 
her, or were just married; and, above 
all, such as were fearful and did not choose 
to fight, were at perfect liberty to depart 
(Deut. XX. 5-8, xxiv. 5). We see the opera- 
tion of this law in Gideon's army : the muster 
of 32,000 was speedily reduced to 10,000 
(Judges vii. 2, 3) ; in that particular case 
there being afterwards by God's command 
a further reduction to 300 (4-7). We are not ; 
therefore to take the numbers furnished by j 
the census rolls as the amount of the Is- ' 
raelitish armies brought into the field. See 
Census. i 

At a time when there was no stand- ; 
ing array the appointment of officers was 
no^ till forces were raised. This, it ap- 
pears, was to take place after the muster 
had been made and exemptions allowed 
(Deut. XX. 9). The officers are styled ' cap- 
tains of thousands' and 'captains of hun- 
dreds ;' and it is likely that the marshalling 
of them and their men was according (as 
far as might be) to their tribes and families 
(Xumb. xxxi. 4, 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 18 ; 2 Cbron. 
XXV. 5). This mustering and marshalling 
would seem to have been under the direc- 
tion of special functionaries called 'officers' 
CDeut, XX. 5-9), and afterwards ' scribes of the 
host' (2 Kings xxv. 19 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 11). 
Directions were given in the law for the 
conduct of an army in the field. The priests 
were to accompany the troops and encou* 
rage them : conditions of peace, too, were 
to be offered to a hostile city before attack- 
ing it ; and fruit-trees were not to be de 
stroyed in a siege (Xumb. x, 9 ; Deut. xx. 1-4, 
10-15, 19, 20). These regulations must ne- 
cessarilj', however, have been modified by 
circum.stances, as ambushes and surprises 
were not disallowed; and sometimes, iu 
hope of securing the more solemn and 
effectual presence and aid of the Deity, the 
ark of the covenant was carried into the field. 

When the monarchy was established, the 
nucleus of a st;i:;ding army was f')rmed. 
Three thousand men were embodied by 
Saul (1 Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 52, xxiv. 2). David 
also retained a number of household troops. 
In his wanderings while persecuted by Saul, 
he had collected 400, afterwards swelled to 
600, men (xxii 2, xxiii. 13, xxv. 13, xxx. 9) ; 
and this corps seems always to have been 
kept distinct : there were also the Chereth- 
ites and Pelethites under a special com- 
mander (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. IS, xx. 7) ; the 
whole together forming a body like our 
regiments of guards. David also organized 
what may be called the militia of his king- 
dom. These amounted in all to 288,000, 
under twelve commanders ; bodies of 24,000 
being called out in turn each for a month of 
service (1 Chron. xxvii. 1-15). David, more- 
over, established a kind of military order of 
merit, in three classes, the first and second 
containing three respectively, and the third 
thirty. Among these were his most distin- 
guished captains. Two lists of them are 



69 



[aena 



civen (2 Sam. xxiii. 8-39; 1 Cliron. xi. 10-4/), 
with some variation, one list contammg a 
greater numlDcr of names than the otlier ; 
those possibly being added who succeeded 
to the places of such as had died Then 
there was a class called shalishim, thirds, 
whose exact character it is not easy to 
ascertain. They might have been con- 
nected with the ' threes' or the thirty ]ust 
noticed ; and there are various other con- 
icctures respecting them. They are enu- 
merated in the military list of Solomon's 
army, and there called 'captains' (1 Kings 
ix 22) : vrhich list seems to comprise the 
different ranks, ' men of war,' i.e. privates, 
sub-officers, captains, chiefs, and chariot 
and cavalry officers ; the officering of the 
troops being now probably in the king's 
hands (2 Chron. xxv. 5). Whatever the sha- 
lishim were, their chief was a personage of 
high rank.; as the name is given to that 
' lord' who was in immediate attendance on 
,the king of Israel in the siege of Samaria 
(2 Kings vii. 2, 17-20). At the head of the 
armv was * the captain of the host' (1 Sam. 
xiv. 50 ; 2 Sam. viii. 16, xix. 13 ; 1 Kings iv. 4, 
xvi 16 ; 2 Kings iv. 13). This was a standing 
office; audit conferred great dignity and 
power. David himself was little able to con- 
trol Joab his commander-in-chief (2 Sam. 
iii. .39 : 1 Kings ii. 5). 

The armies of Israel for long consisted 
only of infantry (1 Sam. iv.lO, xv. 4j ; which 
accounts for the fear they had of those 
nations who employed war-chariots (Judges 
i 19, iv. 3). It was found, however, when 
t'hej' had to combat in their own plains and 
with the bordering nations, that chariots 
and horsemen would be of advantage. Ac- 
cordingly, David, mindful probably of the 
warning in the law not to 'vmltiplrj horses,' 
(Deut. xvii. 16), reserved a few, and but a 
few, of the chariots and horses he took 
from the Syrians (2 Sam. viii. 4). Solomon 
largely increased this arm of his forces : he 
had 1,400 chariots, 4,000 horses for them, 
and a body of 12,000 cavalry, and he had 
depots for these in various towns of his 
kingdom 0- Kings ix. 19, x. 26; 2 Chron. i. 
14, ix. 25). Elsewhere, indeed (1 Kings iv. 
' 26), he is said to have had 40,000 stalls for 
! his horses ; but possibly there is some error 
i of transcription in the last-named text. 

After the division of the kingdom there 
I are frequent notices of military affairs. 
' War-chariots were used (xxii. 34, 35; 2 
j Kings viii. 21) : horsemen are spoken of 
1 (xiii. 7); and freauently the numbers of 
men capable of bearing arms are recorded 
■ (e. g. 2 Chron. xiv. 8). But it is probable 
I that armies were absolutely mustered m 
! time of war exclusively, and that the 
i standing force consisted only of bodies of 
guards, of which we have incidental notices 
2 Kings xi. 4, 9, 11, 13, 15, 19). 
I Of the commissariat department we read 
' little; but it would seem that there must 
i have been some regular system pursued 
i (Judges XX. 10). And we find during Absa- 
} lom's rebellion that the country around 
t David's head-quarters supplied him with 
j provisions (2 Sam. xvii. 27-29 : comp. xvi. I). 
• Sometimes mercenaries were hired (,2 Chron. 
' xxv. 6) : but there is no mention of any pay 
I 



being given to tlie ordinary troops : doubt- 
less, therefore, armies were accustomed to 
raise supplies for themselves by plundering 
the country (1 Sam. xiii. 17, 18, xxvii. 8, 9, 
XXX. 16). The soldier was, however, at least 
at some periods, provided with arms (2 
Chron. xxvi. 14) ; and there are notices of 
armouries (xi. 12, xxiii. 9 ; Neh. iii. 19 ; Sol. 
Song, iv. 4). So also there was a repository 
for the shields used not in war but on occa- 
sions of state (1 Kings xiv. 28). 

Of the tactics of Israelitish armies m the 
field we know but little. Sometimes the 
forces were divided into two (2 Sam. x. 9-14), 
and sometimes into three bodies (Judges 
vii. 16, ix. 43 ; 1 Sam. xi. 11 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 2) ; 
the disposition in the last case being pro- 
bably into a centre and two wings. We 
have also instances of ambushes (Josh. viii. 
4, 9, 12 ; Judges xx. 29), night attacks (Gen. 
xiv. 15 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 38 ; 2 Kings viii. 21), and 
flank movements (2 Chron. xiii. 13), with the 
purpose of hem.ming the enemy in. And, 
when the onset was made, it was accom- 
panied with loud shouts (1 Sam. xvii. 20). 

In the view wo have of Jewish wars in 
post-exilian times we see the Mosaic regu- 
lations well observed ; the general appoint- 
ing the inferior officers (l Mace. iii. 46-56). 
In the Maccabean wars it was found neces- 
sary for the Jews to defend themselves on 
the sabbath day (ii. 31-41) ; and in those wars 
we first of all find any notice of regular pay 
being given to the soldiery (xiv. 32). A 
standing force seems to have been conti- 
nued from that time ; till ultimately the 
Jewish armies were assimilated to those of 
their Roman conquerors. 

Little can here be said of the constitution 
of the Roman army ; the account of which 
must be sought in other books. But a few 
particulars are needed to explain the refer- 
ences in the New Testament. The Romans 
were banded in legions ; each of which com- 
prised ten cohorts, each cohort three ma- 
niples, and each maniple two centuries, the 
century originally containing 100 men. See 
Legiox. The cohort is in our version usu- 
ally called a 'band' (Matt, xxvii. 27: Acts 
X. 1, xxi. 31). In a legion there were six 
tribunes. Claudias Lysias, termed the 
'chief captain' (31, 37, xxii. 24), was a 
tribune. The centurions were officers 
who commanded centuries. The 'captain 
of the guard' (xxviii. 16) was the com- 
mander of the Praitorian troops. Besides 
the ordinary cohorts of the legion, there 
were independent cohorts of volunteers; 
and it has been supposed that colKU'ts of 
this class served in Judea. The Roman 
head-quarters were at Csesarea. A cohort 
was usually stationed at Jerusalem ; but at 
the great festivals this force was increased, 
disturbances being then not unlikely ; the 
more because the emblems on the Roman 
standards were considered idolatrous by 
the Jews, to whose feelings certain- con- 
cessions were made. 

For notices of the 'Italian band* and 
♦Augustus' band' see the articles under 
those names. 

AR'NA-i2 Esdr. i. 2). A name answering 
to Zerahiah in the genealogy of Ezra (Ezra 
vii. 4). 



ajinak] 



AR'NAN (active). One of David's pos- 
terity (1 Chron. iii. 21). 

AR'NON (a noisy stream). A river rising 
iTi the Arabian or Moabitisli mountains, 
and flowing with a westerly course into the 
Dead sea. It was the boundary between 
the Amorites to the north and Moab to the 
south ; also it, or one of its affluents, 
would seem to have been the eastern boun- 
dary of Moab (Judges xi. 18). When the 
Israelites had conquered Sihon, the Anion 
became their southern trans-Jordanic bor- 
der ; Moab still occupying the south of the 
stream. Arnon is very generally mentioned 
in connection with the city Aroer, whicJi 
i stood upon its north bank (Numb. xxi. 
i 13-15, 24-28, xxii. 36; Dent. ii. 24, 36, iii. 
; 8, 12, 16, iv-. 48; Josh. xii. 1, 2, xiii. 9, 16; 
I Judges xi. 13, 18, 22, 26 ; 2 Kings x. 33). 
j There were fords of Arnon (Isai. xvi. 2), 
! and also high places (Numb. xxi. 28), which 
may be those mentioned in Isai. xv. 2. See 
; BAiiOTH. Arnon seems, in later times, 
j when the tribes had been removed by fo- 
reign conquerors, to have been reckoned a 
I Moabitish river (Jer. xlviii. 20). There is 
j no doubt that the stream el-Mojeb is the 
j ancient Arnon, and the Wady el-Mojeb the 
ravine through which it flowed. This is a 
deep and romantic chasm, bounded by high 
perpendicular cliffs of red, brown, and yel- 
low sandstone. Tamarisks, canes, &c., grow 
along the course of the stream, which is 80 
or 90 feet broad, and from 4 to 10 feet in 
I depth near its Junction with the Dead sea. 
j According to Burckhardt, there is a hill 
I with ruins on pasture ground just at the 
' junction of an affluent, the Lejnm, with the 
; Arnon, above Aroer: it is perhaps the site 
of 'the city by the river' (Deut. ii. 36), ' in 
the midst of the river ' (Josh. xiii. 9, 16). 
I ARO'D (loild ass). One of the sons of 
Gad (Numb. xxvi. 17), called also 
ARO'DI (id.). (Gen. xlvi. 16). 
ARO'DITES. One of the Gadite families 
descended from Arod, or Ai'odi (Numb, 
xxvi. 17). 

ARO'ER {ruins T). — \. A city on the 
north bank of the Arnon, assigned, after 
the conquest of Sihon, to the tribe of Reu- 
ben (Deut. ii. 36, iii. 12, iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 2, 
xiii. 9, 16 ; Judges xi. 26 ; 1 Chron. v. 8). Ic 
was afterwards, with the rest of tlie 
trans-Jordanic terrltorj-, occupied by Ha- 
zael, and was subsequently in the possession 
of Moab (2 Kings x. 32, 33 ; Jer. xlviii. 19) 
Ruins have been found called 'Ara'ir, on 
the old Roman road at the immediate brink 
of the Wady el-Mojeb, or ancient Arnon. 
They are doubtless the remnants of Aroer. 
—2. A town over- against Rabbah of Am- 
mon, built or fortified by the Gadites 
(Numb, xxxii. 34; Josh. xiii. 25; Judges 
xi. 33 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5). Perhaps this was 
tlie city mentioned in Isai. xvli. 2. See, how- 
ever, Henderson, Isaiah, p. 156. The mo- 
dern 'Ayra, 2, hours' south-west of es-Salt, 
may be the site of this Aroer.— 3. A place 
in Judah (1 Sam. xxx. 28). This is thought 
to be in the modern Wadij 'Ar'drah, 11 miles 
west-south-Avest from Bir es-Seb'a, on the 
road from Gaza to Petra. 
I ARO'ERITE. A native of Aroer; it is 
! imcertain which (1 Chron. xi. 44). 



GO 



A'EOM (1 Esdr. v. 16). 

AR'PAD (prop, supporf). A city or pro- 
vince of Syria, generally named in con- 
junction with Hamath (2 Kings xviii 34 
xix. 13 ; Isai. x. 9 ; Jer. xlix. 23). 

AR'PHAD (id.). A different form in our 
version of the name Arpad (Isai. xxxvi. 19, 
xxxvii. 13). 

ARPACH'SHAD (Gen. x. 22, marg.). The 
same as 

ARPHAX'AD (strong-hold of the Clialdees). 
One of the sons of Shem, ancestor of Eber, 
and possibly of the Chaldeans (Gen. x. 
22, 24, xi. 10-13 ; 1 Chron. i. 17, 18, 24). The 
name has been thought to be preserved in 
Arrapachitis, a province of northern As- 
syria, perhaps peopled by the descendants 
of Arphaxad. 

AEPIIAX'AB. A king of the Modes, 
said to have been slain byNabuchodonosor 
(Judith i. 1-15). Some have tried to iden- 
tify him with Phraortes ; but the history of 
Judith is fable or allegory. 

ARROWS. See Arms, Divination. The 
word is often used symbolicallv (e.g. Psal. 
xvlli. 14, cxxvii. 4, 5 ; Prov. xxv. 18). 

ARROWSNAKE (Gen. xlix. 17, marg.). 
See Adder. 

AR' SAGES a Mace. xiv. 2, 3, xv. 22). A 
king of Parthia and Media, who, besides 
having the ordinary royal title of Arsaces, 
was called Mlthridates. He took the Syrian 
king Demetrius Nicator prisoner, and de- 
tained him till his own death. See Pri- 
deaux. Connection, vol. ii. p. 244 

AR'SARETH (2 Esdr. xiii. 45). An ex- 
tensive region said to be beyond Euphrates. 

ARTAXERX'ES (mighty warrior, or 
king).— I. A name borne by a king of Persia 
(Ezra iv. 8, 11, 23). If the part of the book 
of Ezra In which this king is mentioned be 
chronologically in its place, Artaxerxes 
must be the Pseudo-Smerdis, See, how- 
ever, Ahasuerus, 1. If Lord A. C. 
Hervey's theory be well grounded, this 
Artaxerxes will be Longimanus.— 2. An- 
other Artaxerxes is recorded as havine, in 
the seventh year of his reign, commis- 
sioned Ezra to return to Jerusalem, giving 
him, and those who accompanied him, large 
privileges (Ezra vii., viii. i). Ezra and 
Nehemiah were contemporary, the one 
charged with an ecclesiastical administra- 
tion, the other a civil governor : w^e may 
therefore, fairly conclude that it was the 
same Artaxerxes who in his twentieth year 
sent his cup-bearer Nehemiah into Judea 
(Neh. 11. 1) ; and that the Artaxerxes of 
Nehemiah is Longimanus is evident from 
the length given of his reign (v. 14, xiii. 
6) ; for Xerxes, whom some suppose to 
have commissioned Ezra, reigned not more 
than 21 years. If we Avere to believe that 
Xerxes sent Ezra, and Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus Nehemiah, there would be a dis- 
tance of 33 years between their respective 
arrivals at Jerusalem. And this we cannot 
reasonably allow. It is more difficult to 
say who was the king meant in Ezra vi. 14, 
but perhaps he also was Longimanus. 

AR'TEMAS (complete, or perhaps a con- 
tracted form of Artemldorus, the gift of Ar- 
temis, i.e. Diana). A companion of St. Paul 
cTit. iii. 12). 



^l)t ExtK^uv^ at 



61 



[asaiah 

ARTS From their long residence in I very vigorously, rooted out abominations, 
p^mt the M^^^^ acquired and renewed the altar whicli was 'before 

SS e knowlSge of tl^ c^^^^^ practised by the porch of the Lord,' which, we may sup- 
^( i V^^^itiflu^^^ as they pose, had been desecrated, or fallen to 

wm'e efn\ l^^^^^^^ '^e^^^^- He destroyed also the high places 

JIfe wo?ks for wLch Egypt has been cele- I of idol worship, though some appear to 
brated cExod. 1. 11). With architectur- 



i have remained— those, at least, where i 



thev must have been acquainted; and, ' criflce was olfered to Jeli^qvah-and brought 
when Se tabernacle was to be constructed, into the temple many things that both his 
wp ^Pnrt tbVt there were carvers, gold- father and himself had dedicated. And, 
fs eno-rLS^ eiS^ because the influence of the queen-motncr 

&c readrior the ^vas exerted for evil, Asa did not spare 

their lesnective^CT^^^^ But the arts could her: he removed her from her em nent 
not havrbeen mudi c^ in the He- rank, burnt the symhol of her idolatry, 

brewcomu^^^^^^ cast the ashes of it into tbe brook 

wP fiiid arti/a^^^^ from Tyre (1 Kidron. So great was now his reputation 

K?ngs v 6 vifTs).'^^^^^^ for prosperity and godliness that many 

Kings v. D, vu. ^^{;„/t„„i...,-^^ A out of Ephraim and Maiiasseh resorted to 

him ; and he had possession of certain ci- 
ties in mount Ephraim (1 Kings xv. 8-15* 



been carried to great perfection in Assyria 
(Ezek. xxiii. 12, 14, 15). See Handicraft. 

of^'^oYomo™ ^on— pos- 2" Chrom xiv., xv). There was then peace 

n kS fvf 10?. ' till Asa's flve-and-twentieth year (xv. 19), 



Bibly in Judah (1 Kings Iv. 10) 

ARU'MAH 'elevated). A city apparently 
near Shechen. (Judges lx.41) : it is, perhaps, 
the same with Rumah (2 Kings xxiii. 36.) 

AR'VAD (wandering, place of fugitives). 
A place belonging to Phoenicia, the in- 
habitants of which are mentioned as ma- 
riners contributing to the defence of Tyre 



not the flve-and-twentieth year of his 
reign, but after the disruption of Reho- 
boam's kingdom. Baasha, king of Israel, 
was alarmed at the drain from his do- 
minions: to check it, therefore, he began 
to fortify Ramah, a Benjamite town, when 
Asa, in great consternation (Jer. xli. 9) 



CF.yek xxvii 8 ll). It is a small rocky sent large presents to Ben-hadad I., king of 
isS tSadus off the north coast of Syria, to induce him to attack Baasha. 
pSc a, Sut uvo miles from the con- Ben-hadad fell upon the northern distric s 
«n?nt opposite Antaradus, a little above of Israel, and effectual y stopped Baasha s 
Sie moX^ of ^^^^ Eleutherus, now A^a/^r- in-oject ; that Asa seizmg the ma^^^^^^ 
el Kehir The island is still inhabited by i that were at Ramah, fortihed Geba and 
Ibout 3 000 people, 'living by fishery and Mizpah with them ((1 Kings xv 16-22 ; 
na?i 'ation Snd preserving the traditional i 2 Chron. xvi. 1-6). But the prophet Hanam 
?kil °S drawing fresh water from suV was sent to reprove the king for his seek- 
inarine soSSsT whilst the name of the lug help from Syria, instead of relymg, as 



marine sources , 

village, Buad, recalls the original name; 
and the massive Phoenician walls, partly 
preserved in different points, bespeak its 
ancient power and magnificence.' Kalisch, 
Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., p. 273. 

AR'VADITE (Gen. x. 18 ; 1 Chron. i. 16). 
An inhabitant of Arvad. See above. 

AR'ZA (earth). The steward of king 
Elah's house (1 Kings xvi. 9). 

A'SA (physician).— I. The son and suc- 
cessor of Abijah, king of Judali, 955-914 B.C. 
His own mother was probably dead when 
he began his reign ; consequently his grand- 
mother Maachah continued to occupy the 
station of queen-mother. The first ten 
years of his reign he was unmolested, 
probablv the consequence of the great 
victory'his father had gained over Jero- 
boam. He set himself, therefore, to streng- 
then his kingdom by fortifying various 
cities, and by augmenting his army. Per- 
haps also he then commenced some of those 
religious reforms which he afterwards 
more fully carried out. But at length he 
was attacked by Zerah, king of Ethiopia, 
supposed to be Osorkon I., 2nd sovereign 
of the 22nd Egyptian dynasty, who ad- 
vanced with a million of men to Mareshah. 
Asa besought God for help, and met and 
entirely defeated this mighty host, return- 
ing to Jerusalem enriched v/ith plunder. 
He was welcomed by the prophet Azariah, 
Bon of Oded, who encouraged him to 
zealous exertions in Jehovah's service. 
Accordingly, Asa carried on bis reforms 
- 



he had done in the war with Zerah, upon 
God. Asa was not disposed to bear this 
reproof : he put Hanani in prison, and 
seems to have resorted to some other 
acts of arbitrary power (7-10). We read 
little more of him : in his latter years he 
was diseased in his feet ; and it is said, 
• in his disease he sought not to the Lord, 
but to the physicians.' But, when he died, 
he was lamented by his people, who ' made 
a very great burning for him' (2 Kings 
XV. 23, 24 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 11-14).— 2. A Levite 
(1 Chron. ix. 16). 
ASABI'AS (Bar. i. 1). 
A'SAEL (Tob. i. 1). 

ASAH'EL (whom God made).— 1. The ne- 
phew of David, son of his sister Zeruiah, 
and brother of Joab and Abishai. He was 
fleet of foot, and pursued Abner so keenly 
after a skirmish, that that warrior was re- 
luctantly compelled, in self-defence, to kill 
him (2 Sam. ii. 18-32, iii. 27, 30, xxiii. 24 ; 
1 Chron. xi. 26, xxvii. 27).— 2. A Levite 
(2 Chron. xvii. 8).— 3. Another Levite 
(xxxi. 13).— 4, Father of a person employed 
with Ezra (Ezra x. 15). 

ASAHI'AH (whom Jehovah made'^. An 
officer of king Josiah (2 Kings xxii.12,14) ; 
he is also called Asaiah (2 Chron. xxxi v. 20), 
which is the same name. 

ASAI'AH (id.).—l. A descendant of Si- 
meon (1 Chron. iv. 36).— 2. A Levite (vi.30).— 
3. One of Judah's posterity (ix. 5}.- 4. A 
Levite of r,he family of Merar (xv. 6, 11) 
—5. See ASAHiAii. 



62 



AS'AXA a Esdr. v. 31). A form of Asnah 
(Ezra ii. 50). 

A'SAPH (collector).—!. The father of 
Joah, recorder to king Hezekiah (2 Kinsrs 
xviii, 18, 37; Isai, xxxvi. 3, 22).— 2. A Levite 
musician, one of the leaders of the singers 
in the reign of David (1 Chron. vi. 39), He 
is called a ' seer,' and is said to have com- 
posed several of the Psalms ; of which 
I. and Ixxiii.— Ixxxiii. are in the titles at- 
tributed to him ; several of these must, 
however, he of later date than the times of 
David. His descendants, or a school of 
musicians founded by hlra, are called sons 
of Asaph ; and some of these returned 
from captivity with Zeruhbahel (Ezra ii. 41 ; 
jSTeh. vii. 44). We often find Asaph spoken 
of in later ages with distinction (2 Chron. 
xxix. 30 ; Neh. xii. 46).— 3. The keeper of 
the king's forest to Artaxerxes (ii. 8).— 4. A 
Levite (xi. 17). 

ASAR'EEL (whom Godliath bound, sc. hy 
a vow). A descendant of Judah (1 Chron, 
iv. 16), 

ASARE'LAH {upright towards God). A 
musician (1 Chron. xxv. 2). lu 14 he is 
called Jesharelah. 

AS'ARITES. See Atap.ites. 

AS'CALOX (1 Mace, x. 86). See ASHKELO>\ 

ASCEXSIOX. The glorious return of the 
Son of God, clothed in that assumed nature 
in which ihe had achieved the perfect 
triumph of humanity over every foe, to his 
Fatlier's throne, there to sit till all things 
shall he subdued beneath his feet (Acts. i. 1- 
12). This the utterances of the ancient 
seers predicted (Psal. xxiv. 7-10, Ixviii. 18). 
This our Lord himself pre-siguifled, as he 
taught in Capernaum (John vi. 62), and 
more fully announced to the apostles, as 
necessarj-- for the establishment of tlie 
gospel dispensation, by the bestowal of the 
Spirit (xvi. 7-12, 28). As our Mediator and 
Forerunner hath Christ ascended (Heb. 
iv. 14, vi, 20, ix. 24-28), a fact of unspeak- 
able consolation to the humble believer, 
and a continued admonition for him while 
on earth to set his affections on things 
above (Col, iii. 1, 2). Our Lord's words to 
Mary Magdalene in reference to his ascen- 
sion (John XX. 17) have caused some diffi- 
culty. We must certainly understand by 
them a change in the kind of intercourse 
between him and his most attached fol- 
lowers. Love must not now be shown by 
earthly gestures ; but yet there was also, 
as the reason of the prohibition, a cheering 
intimation, that a closer intercourse should, 
in its due time, he enjoyed ; the love of his 
beloved ones being exalted and intensified 
into the pure spiritual touch of heaven. 
See Ellicott, Illst. Lect, p, 387. 

ASE'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 32). 

ASEBE'BIA (1 Esdr. viii. 47). A form of 
Sherebiah (Ezra viii. 18). 

ASEBFA (1 Esdr. viii. 48). Hashabiah 
(Ezra viii. 19). 

AS'EXATH {she is of Keith, the Egyptian 
Minerva?). The daughter of Poti-pherah, 
priest or prince of On, given in maiTiage 
to Joseph by the king of Egypt (Gen. xli. 
io, 50, xlvi. 20). 

A'SER (Luke ii. 36). The Greek form of 
AsiiEU, which see. 



AS'ERER (1 Esdr. v. 32). A form of 
Sisera (Ezra ii, 53), 
ASH. See Ash-tiiee, 
ASH (Job, ix, 9, marg.). See Arcturus. 
A'SHAN {smoke). A city in the plain, at 
first assigned to Judah rJosh. xv. 42), but 
afterwards to Simeon (xix, 7 ; 1 Chron. 
iv. 32). It was given to the priests 
(vi. 59 : comp. Josh. xxi. 16, where we find 
Ain instead of Ashan). It may be the Chor- 
ashan of 1 Sam. xxx. 30. 

ASH'BEA {I adjure). A name in the ge- 
nealogical lists of Judah (1 Chron, iv, 21), 

ASH'BEL {determination o f God, or fire of 
Baall). One of the sons of Benjamin (Gen, 
xlvi. 21 ; Isumb. xxvi. 38 ; 1 Chron. viii, 1), 

ASH'BELITES, A family of Benjamin, 
descended from Ashbel (Numb, xxvi. 38). 
ASH'CHEXAZ (1 Chron, i, 6; Jer, li,27). 

See ASHKENAZ. 

ASH'DOD (rt strong-hold, castle). One of 
the five principal cities of the Philistines, 
originally assigned to the tribe of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 46, 47), but which does not appear 
to have been occupied hy them (xi. 22 ; 
Judges iii. 3). It was there specially that 
the worship of Dagon was cele])rated ; for 
to Ashdod first the ark of God was carried 
and placed in Dagon's temple (1 Sam. v.). 
; Uzziah dismantled it, and built some fort- 
resses in the neighbourhood ; hut as late 
\ as Xehemiah's time it retained its peculiar 
I language (Xeh. xiii. 23, 24). Ashdod stood 
about 3 miles from the ;Mediterranean, 
midway between Joppa and Gaza, on the 
great high road from Egypt into Palestine. 
It was hence a place of importance, and 
was frequently hesieged. Tartan, sent by 
Sargon, king of Assyria, attacked and took 
it (Isai. XX. 1): it underwent a long siege 
by Psammetichus, khig of Egypt (possibly 
alluded to in Jer. xxv. 30\ It is threatened 
(Amos i, 8, iii. 9; Zeph, ii. 4; Zech. ix. 6) : 
it was destroyed by the Maccabees (1 Mace, 
V. 68, X, 84), and was kno-svn in iSTew Testa- 
ment times as Azotus (Acts viii. 40), It is 
now an insignificant villa^re, called Esdud 

ASH'DODITES *(Xeh. iv. 7), and ASH'- 
DOTHITES (Josh, xiii. 3). Inhabitants of 
Ashdod, 

ASH'DOTH PIS'GAH {out-pourinqs, i.e. 
ravines of Pisgah). Pro])ab]y a district 
along the base of mount Pisgah, defining 
the territory of Reuben and Gad (Deut, 
iii, 17, iv. 49, where our translation gives 
' springs of Pisgah ; ' Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20), 

ASH'ER {happy). One of the sons of 
Jacob by Zilpah, Leah's maid, so called be- 
cause Leah considered herself happy at his 
birth (Gen. xxx. 12, 13), We know nothing 
of the personal history of this patriarch, 
further than that he had four sons and a 
daughter. Two grandsons are also men- 
tioned (Xlvi. 17). Probably one of the 
sons, Ishuah, died without posterity ; as, 
when the families of the tribe are enume- 
rated (Xumb. xxvi. 44, 45), they are but 
five, three from the sons, two from the 
grandsons, Jacob's prophetic hlessing 
upon Asher is brief and expressive (Gen. 
xlix. 20), indicating the rich fruitfulness of 
his settlements. This tribe mxiltiplied fast. 
At the first census they numbered 41,500 
males fit f^ir w;ir (Numb, i. 40, 41), at the 



63 



[ashkenaz 



second 53,400 (xxvi. 47). The blessing of 
Moses on Asher was an amplification Oi. 
that of Jacob. He was to be Increased with 
children: the tribe Avas already numerous. 
He was to be acceptalile to his brethren, 
dipping his foot in oil : the fruitfulness of 
his territory would render his descendants 
wealthy, so that they would be accounted by 
the rest of the nation as adding to the 
general welfare. His shoes were to be iron 
and brass : the mountains which closed in 
the district to the north were like iron or 
brazen walls ; or perhaps, as some think, 
there may be a reference to the Phcenician 
metallic manufactures. As his dnys, so his 
rest was to be: his condition of rest or 
prosperity would be continued (Dent, 
xxxiii. 24, 25). The territory of Asher was 
in the north-westei-n part of Palestine, 
reaching to the Mediterranean on the west, 
on the niU'th bounded by Lebanon and 
Syria, on the cast by Naphtali, on the south 
by Zebulun. Dr. Thomson reckons it at 60 
miles In length with a mean breadth of 10 
or 12 {The Land and the Book, p. 311). A 
particular description of it is given in Josh, 
xix. 24-31 ; but, as several of the places 
mentioned have not been identified, it is 
not possible to trace the frontier with 
precision. The coast line seems to have 
extended from the Shihor-Libnath (per- 
baps the Zerka) at least to Achzib, now Es- 
Zih. This territory, therefore, enclosing 
Tyre, reached northwards to Sidon. But 
the tribe did not conquer the whole of the 
portion allotted to it (Judges i. 31,32): it 
probably enjoyed the advantages of the 
Phoenician commerce, and, satisfied with 
the fruitf ulness of its own soil, it took little 
part in the troubles which distracted the 
more southern tribes. It did not even share 
with Zebulun and Naphtali in the victory 
over Jabin, but remained secure from 
molestation in its creeks, where the cha- 
riots of Sisera could not penetrate. Most 
likely the Asherites were infected with the 
idolatry of their Phoonician neighbours. 
The population seems gradually to have de- 
creased. In the list of 1 Chron. vii. 30-40, the 
fighting men were but 20,000. Asher is not 
mentioned in the distribution of govern- 



when the Israelites left Egypt (Exod. 
xxxiv. 13 and elsewhere). See Ashtoreth. 

ASH'ERITES (Judges i. 32). The de- 
scendants or tribe of Asher. 

ASHES. After sacrifices liad been offered 
on the altar of burnt-offering, they were, 
from time to time, to be collected and 
removed (Lev. vi. 10, 11). For this purpose, 
shovels and ash-pans were provided (Exod. 
xxvii. 3, xxxviii. 3). According to the 
Talmud, the priests undertook the service 
of removal by lot. On the great festivals, 
however, they remained till the following 
morning. The ashes which gradually accu- 
mulated from the altar of incense were 
similarly taken away by priests chosen by 
lot. From the ashes of the red heifer put 
into water a kind of lye was made, which 
was used for purification (Numb. xix.). We 
find another use of ashes mentioned. Per- 
sons in deep aifliction, or intending to show 
their penitence for sin, put ashes on their 
head, or sat or sometimes rolled themselves 
in ashes (2 Sam. xiii. 19; Job xlii. 6 ; Matt, 
xi. 21). 

ASHI'MA {a goat ivith short hair, other- 
wise heaveni). A deity worshipped by the 
men of Hamath (2 Kings xvii. 30), respect- 
ing which there are a variety of notions. 
It has been supposed to be the Phoeni- 
cian Esmun, the Greek iEsculapius. Other 
conjectures may be seen In Winer, Bihl. 
BWB., art. ' Asima.' 

ASH'KELON, AS'KELON (migration 1). 
One of the five cities or the Philistines, on 
the shore of the Mediterranean, between 
Gaza and Ashdod. It lay ofl: the great road 
from Egypt, and was consequently of small 
Importance in biblical history, and appa- 
rently little known. The exploit of Samson 
there is almost the only event noted as 
connected with it (Judges xiv. 19). It is 
also called Askelon (i. 18 ; 1 Sara. vi. 17 ; 
2 Sam. i. 20), In the writings of the pro- 
phets this city is occasionally mentioned 
(Jer, XXV, 20, xlvii. 5, 7 ; Amos i, 8 ; Zeph. 
ii. 4, 7 ; Zech, ix, 5). In later times it was 
a place of importance, celebrated for the 
worship of Derceto, the Syrian Venus ; and 
was of note in the Crusades ; but now it 
presents only a mass of ruins, surrounded 
by an amphitheatre of rock. It is called 



ments by David (xxvii, 16-22). And, though , , . , . 

many of Asher came to Jerusalem at thel ElJore; but the name Askelon is not quite 
call of Hezekiah (2 Ohron.xxx.il), yet their forgotten. Orchards are still filled with 
country must have been overrun succes- fruit there, and produce figs and excellent 
sively by the Assyrian and Babylonian con-| apples ; but see Apple. The ' eschalot ' or 
qut;rors. No judge or eminent man is named * shallot,' it may be added, a kind of onion 
of this tribe: the prophetess Anna, how- 
ever, was an Asherite (Luke ii. 36). 

ASH'ER (id.). A place on the border of 
Manasseh (Josh, xvii, 7). The hamlet of 
Teydsir may perhaps represent it. 

ASHE'RAH (fortune, happiness, possibly 
straight). This word is rendered in our 
translation * grove;' which it is clear must 
be an error (2 Kings xvii. 10). It appears 
to mean the symbol or image of the god- 
dess Ashtoreth (xxi. 7, xxiii. 6), _ and 
was certainly made of wood, as it is 
described as cut down (Judges vi. 25, 26, 
29, 30; 2 Kings xxiii. 14) and burnt. In 
shape it was probably a large pillar, planted 
or fixed in the ground. We find continual 
reference to these images from the time 



was first brought from Ashkelon, whence 
it derives its name. 

ASH'KENAZ (the meaning is uncertain) 
A son of Gomer, of the family of Japheth 
(Gen, X, 3), called also Ashchenaz (1 Chron. 
i. 6; Jer. li. 27). As the name is coupled 
with Ararat and Minni, the original seat of 
the descendants of Ashkenaz must have 
been in the neighbourhood of Armenia or 
the Caspian. Kalisch identifies it with the 
ancient city Rhagre, in the eastern part 
of Great Media, a day's journey south of 
the Caspian. The ruins of this city exist 
at Bhey, not far from Teheran. Tlie sur- 
rounding territory is high and cold (Comm. 
on Old Test. Gen., pp. 237, 238). Other 
conjectures would place Ashkenaz nearer 



ashnah] 

to the Euxine, where places with some re- 
semblance of name are found. The Jewish 
rahhis identify it with Germany. 

ASH'NAH {the strong, fortified)—!. A 
town in the plain country of Judah (Josli. 
XV. 33).— 2. Anotlier town in the same plain, 
probably to the south of the former (xv.43). 

ASH'PENAZ (possibly horse's nose). The 
master of Nebuchadnezzar's eunuchs (Dan. 
i. 3). 

ASH'RIEL (vow of God). See Asriel. 
ASHTA'ROTH {statiLes of Astarte ?). A 
city, probably so called from the worship 
of Astarte there. It was one of the chief 
places in the dominions of Og, and was 
afterwards in the territory of the eastern 
Maiiassites (Josh. ix. 10, xii. 4, xiii. 12, 31). 
It is said to have been assigned to the Ger- 
slionite Levites (1 Chron. vi. 71) ; but else- 
where (Josh. xxi. 27) Beeshterah is men- 
tioned : this, however, is probably only a 
variation of the name. See Beeshterah. 
Ashtaroth is also called Astaroth (Deut. 
i. 4). See Ashteroth-Karnaim. 

ASHTA'ROTH (Judges ii. 13, x. 6; 1 Sara, 
vii. 3, 4, xii. 10, xxxi. 10). The plural of 
Ashtoreth, or statues of that goddess. 

ASHTERA'THITE. The designation of 
one of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 44), 
probably a native of 

ASH'TEROTH-KARNA'IM Ushteroth of 
the tioo horns, horned AstaHe), A place which 
was the abode of the Rephaim in the time 
of Chedor-laomer (Gen. xiv. 5). It is often 
supposed that it is identical with Ashtaroth ; 
but there are reasons for questioning this. 
Ashterotli-Karnaim is doubtless the Carnaim 
or Carnion of Maccabean history. 

ASHTO'RETH {star, the star Venus D. 
The principal female deity of the Phcsni- 
cians, as Baal was the chief god. The names 
of the two are frequently conjoined. The 
plural number of this word sometimes 
occurs : it possibly means images of the 
goddess, or it may imply that she was wor- 
shipped at different places under some dif- 
ferent aspects or modifications. For, when 
it is intended to point out the special god- 
dess of one place or people, the word is sin- 
gular (1 Kings xi. 5, 33; 2 Kings xxiii. 13) ; 
as there are different ideas and different 
appellations of the Virgin Mary in the dif- 
ferent churches where she is specially ho- 
noured ; as ' our Lady of Loretto,' &c. The 
plural will therefore signify the Ashtoreths, 
and its use is easily to be explained. The 
Israelites did not select 07ie particular form, 
which would have required the singular 
expression : they sought after the divi- 
nities, one and the same in themselves, of 
the different cities with which they came 
into contact. Ashtoreth, or Astarte, has 
been believed to be the moon-goddess, em- 
bodying the idea of productive power. 
She has also been identified with the Assy- 
rian divinity Ishtar, who represented the 
planet Venus. A writer in Dr. Smith's Diet 
of the Bible, vol. i. p. 123, considers that ' both 
the moon and the planet were looked upon 
as symbols, under different aspects and per- 
haps at different periods, of the goddess, 
just as each of tkem may in different aspects 
of the lieaA^ens be regarded as the "queen 
of heaven.'" The worship was most likely 



Extu^nv}} at 



64 



identical with that of Venus. Sec Winer,!?/?)?. 
RWB., art. ' Astarte ;' Keil, Comm. on Kings, 
transl, 1 Kings xi. 5-8, vol. i. pp. 188-1 9P 

ASH-TREE. A tree mentioned only once 
(Isai. xliv. 14). It is not easy to say pre- 
cisely what kind is intended. It may be the 
ash ; it has also been supposed a thornvtree 
which grows in Arabia and produces bitter 
berries. But perhaps it is more reasonable, 
with ancient interpreters, to believe it a 
species of pine. 

ASH'UR {blacl-ness, Uack). One of the 
descendants of Judah, called the 'father,' 

i. e. builder or settler, of Tekoa (1 Chron. ii. 
24, iv. 5). 

ASH'URITES. A tribe mentioned as 
under the authority of Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. 

ii. 9), It is questionable who were intended. 
Some have imagined Geshurites ; but they 
were certainly independent in the time of 
David (iii. 3, xiii. 37, 38). It is more likely 
that the Asherites, or children of Asher, are 
meant : a slight alteration of the original 
word, supported by manuscript authority, 
gives this meaning. The word occurs in 
our version of Ezek. xxvii. 6 ; but the 
rendering cannot be defended. See Hen- 
derson's Ezekiel, note on the place. 

ASH'VATH {fabricated). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 33). 

A'SIA. This word never occurs in scrip- 
ture with the large meaning which we 
assign to it. In the Old Testament it is not 
found : in the New Testament it means the 
Roman province so called. Previously it 
was variously used. Thus Antiochus the 
Great is termed king of Asia (l Mace. viii. 
6), because his dominions included, besides 
Syria, the greater part of Asia Minor. And 
this title was given to several Syrian kings 
(xi. 13, xii. 39, xiii. 32 ; 2 Mace. iii. 3). The 
king of Pergamos appears also to have had 
it. Attains III., sovereign of this countrv, 
left his dominions to the Romans, 133 B.a ; 
and then Asia became a Roman province. 
Its boundaries were from time to time 
changed; but generally it may be said to 
have comprised Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, and 
Caria ; and thus it must be understood in 
Acts vi. 9, xix. 10). Sometimes, however, the 
name is used in a more restricted sense; 
and Phrygia is distinguished from Asia 
(ii. 9, 10, xvi. 6). Asia was made by Augustus 
one of the senatorial provinces, and was 
governed, therefore, by a proconsul. It 
prospered under the emperors ; and the 
gospel was propagated there by St. Pan! 
(xix. 10 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 19). The seven cities, 
to the churches in which the apocalyptic 
epistles were written, were in Asia. 

ASIAR'CHyE. These are called in our 
version 'the chief of Asia' (Acts xix. 31). 
The Asiarchs were officers annually chosen 
by certain cities of proconsular Asia. They 
def raj-ed the expense of the games and spec- 
tacles ; and their functions were, in a great 
measure, religious. They are thought after 
having once held the office to have retained 
the title. There were analogons names of 
similar officers in other provinces. See 
Winer, Bibl. RWB., art. ' Asiarchen.' 

ASIBI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 26). 

A'SIEL {created of God). A descendant of 
Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 35), j 



65 



ASSYIIIA 



A'SIEL (2 Esdr. xiv. 24). 

AS'IPHA (1 Esdr. V. 29). A form of Ha- 
suplia (Ezra ii. 43). , ■ -.o . i 

AS'KELON (mzsrraizo7i?) (Judges 1. 18; 1 
Sam. vi. 17 ; 2 Sam. i. 20). See Ashkelon. 

ASMODE'US (Tob. iii. 8). An evil spirit 
of wbom various fanciful stories are related 
by the Jewish rabbins. See Winer, Bihl. 
liWB., art. ' Asmodi.' 

ASMONE'ANS. See Maccabees. 

AS'iSTAH (thorn-bush, or, perhaps, store- 
house). One whose descendants, Nethinim, 
retuiTied with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 50). 

ASNAP'PEK- (perhaps leader of an army, 
or stoift ?). An Assyrian king or satrap who 
planted various bodies of colonists in Sa- 
maria (Ezra iv. 10). It is often supposed 
that this was another name of Esar-haddon 
(2) : but we can merely conjecture. 

A'SOM (1 Esdr. ix. 33). A form of Hashum 
(Ezra X. 33). ^ . 

ASP (Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job xx. 14, 16 ; Isai. 
xi 8 ; Rom. iii. 13). See Adder, Serpent. 

ASPAL'ATHUS (Ecclus. xxiv. 15). Pro- 
bably some kind of spice. The Vulgate ren- 
ders it halsamum aromatizans, i.e. balm. 

ASPA'THA (perhaps from the Sanscrit, 
given by the horse, i.e. by Bramah in the 
form of a orse). The third son of Hanian 
(Esth. ix. 7). 

AS'PHAB (1 Mace. ix. 33). 

ASPHAB'ASUS (1 Esdr. V. 8). A form of 
Mispar (Ezra ii. 2). 

AS'RIEL (voio of God?!. A son of Mana^seh 
(Numb. xxvi. 31 ; Josh. xvii. 2) ; he is also 
called Ashriel (1 Chron. vii. 14). 

AS'RIELITES. A family of Manasseh, 
descended from Asriel (Numb. xxvi. 31). 

ASS. Several words are used in scripture 
to denote this useful animal. Athon is a 
she-ass : the word implies slow motion, and 
occurs in Gen. xii. 16, xxxii. 16 ; Numb. xxii. 
23. Some so designated may have been 
of a special breed and superior growth, 
hence selected for ridiug. For this word is 
used for the animal on which distinguished 
persons rode (Judg. v. 10) ; where the ad- 
junct means a light reddish colour ; actually 
white asses being very rarely found. Hhamdr 
is believed to imply a reddish colour, and is 
the common terra for a male ass (Gen. xii. 
16, xxiv. 35; Exod. xiii. 13). 'Air is de- 
rived from a root denoting heat, perhaps 
heat of running, so that the idea of swift- 
ness may be implied. This word is used for 
an ass's colt, or a young w^ell-grown male 
ass (Judges x. 4, xii. 14). There are two 
Greek words occurring in the New Testa- 
ment for ass (Matt. xxi. 2, 5). All these 
names denote the domestic ass, employed 
by the Israelites as a beast of burden, for 
ploughing and for riding. Properly tended 
it is strong and active, and is held in much 
estimation in the east. It is worcliy of 
remark that an ass and an ox were not 
to be put to plough together (Deut. xxu. 
10) Two words are used for the wild 
ass, 'arod and pert. They both occur in Job 
xxxix. 5. Some have imagined the two iden- 
tical, each word implying swiftness ; but 
perhaps two distinct species are meant 

(Asimis hemippus and Asinus onager 1), 

though we can hardly identify them with 

I recision. See a good account of the wild 



ass in Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 
378, 379. 

ASSABPAS (1 Esdr. i. 9). 

ASSAL'IMOTH (1 Esdr. viii. 36). Perhaps 
a form of Shelomith (Ezra viii. 10). 

A8SANPAS (1 Esdr. viii. 54). A form of 
Hashabiah (Ezra viii. 24). 

AS'SHUR (a step). One of the sons of 
Shem (Gen. x. 22 ; 1 Chron. 1. 17). His de- 
scendants peopled the land of Assyria, 
which see. The same original word is gene- 
rally translated 'Assyria;' though, in Gen. 
X. 11, it appears as if it were the name of a 
person : the verse should be rendered as in 
the margin : ' he went out into Assyria.' 

ASSHU'RIM {steps). Descendants of De- 
dan ; probably an Arabian tribe (Gen. xxv. 
3) : they have been thought the same with 
the Ashurites (2 Sam, iii. 3) in the vicinity of 
Gilead. See Ashurites. 

ASSIBE'ANS (1 Mace. ii. 42, vii. 13, 2 
Mace. xiv. 6). A name given to the more 
orthodox party among the Jews in Macca- 
bean times. See Prideaux, Connection, vol, 
ii. p. 159, for an account of them. 

AS'SIR {captive). 1. A Levite, son of 
Korah (Exod. vi, 24 ; 1 Chron, vi. 22).— 2. A 
descendant of David (iii. 17).— 3. A descend- 
ant of Korah (vi, 23, 37). 

AS'SOS. A sea-port in Mysia or Troas, 
over-against the island of Lesbos, twenty- 
four miles from the town of Troas, St. Paul, 
on his journey to Jerusalem, let the vessel 
go rou-nd, while he crossed by land from 
Troas and again embarked at Assos (Acts 
XX, 13, 14), 

ASSUE'BUS (Tob, xiv, 15). 

AS'SUR (Ezra iv. 2 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 8), Sec 
Assyria. 

AS'SUB (1 Esdr, v. 31). i 
ASSURANCE. There is an ' assurance of | 
understanding' (Col. ii. 2), a complete or 
perfect understanding; an 'assurance of 
hope' (Heb, vi. 11), that unmoved hope foi 
which Christians were diligently to strive ; 
an ' assurance of faith ' (x. 22), a certainty of 
access to God by the new and living way, by 
the blood of Jesus. It is also said that the 
gospel came to the Thessalonians ' not in 
word only, but . . . in much assurance ' 
(1 Thess. i. 5), assurance possibly of faith, 
being really accepted and laid hold of. The 
original Greek word is the same in all these 
passages. The term 'assurance' has come 
theologically to signify the certainty an in- 
dividual entertains of his own salvation. It 
is not the place to enciuire here whether or 
no scripture authorizes a man to entertain 
such assurance ; but it is evident that the 
passages above referred to do not bear upon 
the question. 

ASSYR'IA. One of the great monarchies 
of the ancient world. It exercised a power- 
ful influence upon the Israelites, and is 
frequently alluded to in the sacred history, 
and in the writings of the Hebrew pro- 
phets. The name occurs first inourversior 
as the equivalent of Asshur (Gen, ii. 14 
xxv. 18), and may be considered as applying 
both to a defined region, properly denomi- 
nated Assyria, and to the empire enlarged , 
and consolidated by the subjection of j 
neighbouring districts, over which the 
king of Assyria had rule. The term is also 



ASSYRIA] 



66 



applied, after the fall of the original state, 
to those kingdoms which succeeded, and 
which comprised countries formerly obe- 
dient to the Assyrian sceptre. 

It is not easy to describe accurately the , 
boundaries of Assyria properly so called. | 
They have probably varied at different { 
times. But it may be said generally that, | 
' at first but a small district, it afterwards | 
comprised the region between the Tigris i 
on the west and south-west, and the moun- 1 
tains of Kurdistan on the east. In the 
nortli it extended to the mountain-range 
of Armenia, probably including some dis- 
tricts of Mesopotamia north-west of the 
Tigris : to the south and south-east, it bor- 
dered on Babylonia and Susiana. This ter- 
ritory has been estimated at from 300 to 400 
miles in length, with an average breadth 
of 150. Rawliuson computes the lengt-li 
diagonally from Diabekr to the alluvium of 
the lower vahey, the point of separation 
from Babylonia, at 350 miles, the breadth 
from the Euphrates to the mountain-chain 
of Zagros as varying from 300 to 170 miles, 
comprising about 75,000 square miles. {Five 
Great Monarchies, Assyria, vol. i. chap. i. pp . 
226, 227.) S-ome would make It larger, and 
give it a superficial area of about 100,000 
square miles. Mexiia, it will be seen, lay to 
the eastward of Assyria beyond the moun- 
tains of Kurdistan ; and Persia extended far 
away to the south-east. This country con- 
tained many great cities, of which the most 
renowned was i^ineveh. It presents m dif- 
I ferent parts a varied aspect. Lower ranges 
' of hills on the north and north-east adjom 
the chains of Armenia and Kurdistan : un- 
dulating districts succeed, sinkmg down 
into the great Mesopotamian flat, mter- 
-sected by the beautiful limestone ridge of 
the Sinjar. The tracts on the right bank 
of the Tigris are almost desert : those on 
the left eastward are well-watered and more 
fertile; and there are still evident traces 
of ancient citltivation and prosperity (see 
Rawlinson, i&ifi. pp. 225-264). _ 

Of the early history of Assyria little can be 
said Frofane historians differ ; and scrip- 
ture' gives but scanty information ; neither 
do the deciphered inscriptions carry us 
very far. We mav, however, perceive that 
Babylon is older than Nineveh ; that Ba- 
bylon was the beginning of IS^imrod's em- 
pire ; but that, not content with the settle- 
ments he had acquired, he invaded the 
country called Asshur from the son of 
Shem and there founded cities afterwards 
most famous (Gen. x. 8-12). So far the 
sacred record would seem to teach us. But 
it mentions no early Assyrian kingdom. 
And indeed there are incidental notices 
which seem inconsistent with the notion 
that such a kingdom subsisted. Thus cer- 
tain eastern monarchs are named (Gen. 
xiv 1,9) as pushing their conquests west- 
wards ; but there is no record of an Assyrian 
king among them. In the times of the 
early ludges, 

Chushan-risbathaim, king of 
Mesopotamia, subjected Israel (Judges in. 
8 10) • Mesopotamia, then, was not at that 
time overshadowed by the Assyrian power. 
Again, David and Solomon ruled over an 
extended empire : their authority reached 



to the Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 3, x. 16-19 , 
1 Kings iv. 21, 24) ; and yet they never 
came into any collision with Assyria. It is 
a reasonable inference that it was not till 
later times that there was any formidable 
Assyrian monarchy, extending its sway 
over the neighbouring nations. Not till 
the reign of the Israelitish king Menahem 
do we find the scripture records noticing 
the growth of the Assyrian empire. 

The following is a list of the kings whom 
the sacred writers mention. Their names 
only and approximate dates (according to 
Kalisch) are supplied here : more detailed 
accounts will be given of them in the ar- 
ticles under their respective names :— 

77o'. Pul (2 Kings xv. 19, 20 ; 1 Chron. 
V.26). 

740. Ti^lath-Pileser, or Tilgath-Pilneser 
\2, Kings XV. 29, xvi. 10 ; 1 Chron. 
V. 26 ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 16, 20). 
720. Shalmaneser (2 Kings xvii. 3-6, 

xviii. 9-12). 
717. Sargon, whose general was Tartan 

(Isai. XX. 1). 
712. Sennacherib (2 Kings xviii. 13— 

xix. 37 ; Isai. xxxvi., xxxvii.). 
696. Esar-Haddon (2 Kings xix. 37 ; Ezra 

iv. 2 ; Isai. xxxvii. 38). 
These appear to form a connected series 
of kings. The names of nearly all of them 
are found in the Assyrian inscriptions. It 
may be desirable to give a list of the mon- 
archs as preserved in those inscriptions 
It must, however, be understood, that a 
great deal of uncertainty hangs over the 
history derived from monumental records 
Names vary much ; while corrections and 
additions are frequently made by those who 
are investigating them ; so that at present 
they must be regarded as supplying merely 
the rough materials of history. The sub- 
joined list is greatly abbreviated fi'om that 
given liy Dr. Kalisch {Comm. on tlw Old Test 
Gen., pp. 290-292). 

1250 (about). Derceto. 
1200. Divanukha (or Divanurish). 
1150. Tiglath-Pileser 1. He was defeatea 
by the Chaldean king Merodach- 
adan-akhi. . ■, , , 

1130. Anakbar-beth-hira (or Shimishbel- 
Bithkira). 

1050. Mardokempad (IMesessimordacus). 
1000. Adrammelech I. . , „ . 

960. Anaku-Merodach (or Shimish Bar). 
930. Asshur-uchar-bal (or Asshur-akh-pal, 
or Sardanapalus ?), the son of the 
preceding monarch, the builder of 
the north-west palace at Nimroud : 
he proceeded into Chaldea beyond 
Babylon. 

900. Silima-rish (the son of the former; 
also read Shalmanubar, Temenbar, 
or Divanubar) fought against Ben- 
Hadad, who was dethroned (!) like 
. his successor Hazael : he received 
presents from Jehu, the son (i.e. 
later successor) of Omri, king of 
Samaria. He probably founded the 
central palace of Nimroud. He 
reigued more than 31 years. 
Anabaraxes. 



67 



[ASSYRIA 



865. Shanias-adar. 

840. Adramnielech II. 
Baldasi. 
Asliurkish. 

800. Sliamas-phul, carried on wars against 
Asia Minor and Babylon : lie reigned 
but 4 years. 

774. Phulukh (Pul), invaded Syria, and re- 
ceived tribute from Samaria, Edom, 
and PJiilistia, marched against Me- 
nahem, king of Israel, and against 
the king of Damascus, which city 
was taken (in 750). Phulukh in- 
vaded Armenia and then Babylon, 
and received the homage of the 
Chaldeans. 

747. Tiglath-Pileser II., probably an 
usurper, who dethroned his prede- 
cessor. He carried away the tribe 
of Naphtali, and became the ally Of 
Ahaz against the Syrians (2 Kings 
xvi.). Among his tributaries were 
Menahem (Pekah?), king of Sa- 
maria, Rezin of Damascus (in 739), 
Hiram of Tyre, and others. He 
died in 729. 

729 to 721. Shalmaneser. His name does 
not appear on the monuments, 
which seem to have been mutilated 
by his successor, Sargon, who 
usurped the throne. He besieged 
Samaria unsuccessfully in 724-723. 

721 to 703. Sargon took Samaria in 721, and 
carried away many Israelites into 
Assyria. He waged war with Mero- 
dach-Baladan, king of Babylon, 
with Susiana, Armenia, and Media, 
with Carchemish, Hamath, and Da- 
mascus, with Ashdod, Jabneh, Gaza, 
and with African tribes : he received 
tribute from tlie Pharaoh of Egypt, 
the queen of the Arabs, and the 
chief of Sheba: he made also an 
expedition to Cyprus. He built 
tjie greater part of the palaces at 
Nimroud. 

/03 to G80. Sennacherib, or Sanheril), 
founded the palace at Kouyunjik. 
He subdued Merodach-Baladan,who 
had recovered Babylon, and took 
all the Chaldean towns. In the 
third year of his reign he crossed 
the Euphrates, attacked the Syrians 
(Hittites), defeated the kings of 
Tyre and Sidon, and took many 
towns on the sea-coast. The people 
of Ekron had dethroned their king, 
Padiya, an Assyrian vassal, and de- 
livered him to Hezekiah, king of 
Judah. Tirhakah, king of Egypt, 
sent an army into Judea ; but Sen- 
nacherib defeated it, restored Pa- 
diya to his throne, took 46 cities 
and fortresses, and imposed a tri- 
bute on Hezekiah, carrying off 
many captives. He undertook an- 
other expedition against Merodach, 
and made his son ruler over Ba- 
bylon, whence he returned with 
rich spoil, which he employed 
mainly in the erection of temples 
and palaces at Nineveh. At last 
he was murdered ])y his sons. 

68Ct. Esar-Haddon, also his soa, waged war 



against Phoenicia, Syria, Asia Mi- 
nor, Armenia, Media, Susiana, and 
Babylonia, sent a queen to rule 
over the Arabs of Edom, made an 
expedition Into Africa, and was, 
therefore, called the ' conqueror of 
Egypt and Ethiopia.' 
660. Asshur-bani-bal (Sardanapalus III.), 
his son, undertook a campaign 
against Susiana and Elam, and 
added a second palace at Kou- 
yunjik. 

630. Asshur-ebid-ilut. He was probably 
the last Assyrian king ; for Cya- 
xares, king of Media, and Nabo- 
polassar, king of Babylon, destroyed 
Nineveh in 625. 
We can rely but little on the accounts 
given by secular historians. They are both 
fragmentary and contradictory. Ctesias 
carries the origin of the empire to a very 
early date ; while Herodotus places it com- 
paratively late. A king, Sardanapalus, is 
mentioned, devoted to luxurious indul- 
gence. A rebellion was organized, which 
he was unable to suppress ; and, being be- 
sieged in Nineveh with no hope of relief, 
he set fire to his palace, and perished with 
his wives and treasures in the conflagra- 
tion. The first Assyrian empire was thus 
dissolved ; but a second arose, over which 
Pul, Sennacherib, and others reigned, till 
it, too, came to an end. Mr. Rawlinson, in 
Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 130, 
while admitting that some change or revo- 
lution occurred, adduces reasons for doubt- 
ing the asserted dissolution of the empire 
by the catastrophe of the so-called Sar- 
danapalus. He observes that there is no 
apparent loss of vigour, that succeeding 
monarchs were as powerful as any of their 
predecessors, unsurpassed in authority, 
wealth, or splendour. The second Assyrian 
kingdom, therefore, was really greater and 
more glorious than the first. 

Whatever be the obscurities resting on 
the early rise or later fortunes of this 
monarchy, we may readily trace in general 
the Assyrian progress to empire. At first 
confined within narrow limits, it became at 
length, by the addition of neighbouring 
districts, a formidable state. It does not 
appear that the districts so conquered were 
absolutely incorporated into a single body. 
Left under the sway of their own chiefs, 
who were reduced to vassalage, they con- 
tinually had or took occasion for revolt. 
And hence the deportations of captives, to 
break the independent spirit of feudatory 
states, and render rebellion more difficult 
and hopeless. The Assyrian empire, at its 
widest extent, seems to have reached from 
the Mediterranean and the river Halys in 
the west, to the Caspian and the Gi-eat 
Desert in the east, and from the northern 
frontier of Armenia south to the Persian 
gulf. 

The fortunes of this empire are the more 
interesting as they are the theme of In- 
spired prophecy. The dark cloud threaten- 
ing Israel and Judah for their unfaithful- 
ness to God is described in strains of solemn 
warning. Sometimes 'the nations from 
far ' are spoken of ; and their terrific might 



ASSYRIA] 



68 



and mode of warfare are detailed vrithout 
naming tliem (Isai. v. 26-30). Sometimes m 
express words the king of Assyria is said 
to be smnmoiied as the Lord's executioner, 
and the desolation he should cause is vivid y 
depicted (viii. 17-25). Samaria wouid fail , 
and her fall might well admoni5h_ Jiidah. 
Judah should deeply suffer. The invader 
should march through her territory : hut 
the Lord would effectually defend Jeru- 
salem (X. 5-34\ Passages from scripture 
historvhave already heen referred to, show- 
ing how exactly these predictions were 
fulfilled. The Assyrian king, m the might 
of his power, subjected the ten tribes, and 
carried multitudes of them into the far 
east: he passed also like a flood over the 
countrv of Judah, taking many of the 
cities throughout her territory; and in ih= 
presumptuous boldness he conceived that 
no earthly power could resist him, and cn en 
defied Jehovah, the God of Jacob. But 
thevirainthe daughter of Zion' laughed 
him to'icorn : ' the daughter of Jertisalem 
had 'shaken her head' at him. And the 
firm purpose of the Lord was to defend 
that citv to save it, for his own sake and 
for his 'servant David's sake. The catas- 
trophe is related with awful brevi ty : Then 
the an^el of the Lord went forth, and 
.mote in the camp of the Assyrians an 
hundred and fourscore and five thousand, | 
and. when they arose early in the morn- 
ins behold they were all dead corpses | 
(xxxvii.\ Tliere is a trace of some great , 
disaster in Herodotus (lib. ii..Ul) ; bnt of : 
course the Assyrian inscriptions do not , 

'^^The^empire attained afterwards probably [ 
it^ greatest power and widest extension. 
Butlt was doomed. It was an ungodly em- , 
pire. And when it had done its wor^ it 
would perish. He who rules JUS^^.^SV,^^ 
world would destroy Assyria (^^h ch had 
been Ions before warned by JonalO, as As- 
svria had' destroyed other kingdoms. A c- 
cordinslv, in the prophecies of _ ^ahum 
andZephaniah. we find denunciations pre- 
dicting the entire downfall of this haughty 
power! The language is fearfully precise 
hneyel-i was to be utterly waste : the 
Assvrian nobles were to dwell m the du=t. 
And it should be no temporary rum, to be 
afterwards repaired. ' The Lord ^fh given 
a commandment concernmg thee, that no 
more of thy name be sown. . . • n" rh? 
; thv crave.' 'There is no healing o^ tbj 
I bruise : thv wound is grievous : all that 
j hear the bruit of thee shall clap the hands 
' over thee.' ' This is the rejoicing city hat 
dwelt carelessly, that said m her lunit I 
am, and there is none besides nie : l o^^l^ 
she become a desolation, a place f-^r beasts 
to lie down in ! Every one that pas.eth b 
her shall hiss, and wag his hand i:>am 
i ii iii; Zeph. ii. 13-15\ V. e have few 
dptai'l^ of the result. The work of destruc- 
«onVems to have been effected by the 
Mede= and Babvlonians. Assyiia ^t.., anu 
never aea n reckoned among the na- 
r^ons ; the very places being for long cen- 
turies unknown where her proudest cities 
hid VtoocL (See, for an interesting account 
of the f ullliment of the divine wora. 3xi. 



Vance Smith's Propltecies relating to Xincveh 
and the Assyrians, 1S57.") 

The excavations which have been so suc- 
cessfullv prosecuted have sup.plied a fund 
of information as to the manners and 
habits of the Assyrians. The sovereign 
was the despotic ruler and the pontiff, and 
the palaces contained also the temples. 
With no limitation of the mor.arch's power, 
the people were kept in a servile condition ; 
and the usual consequences of such a state 
of thinss were visible in their moral de- ; 
eradation. The chief officers of state were 
eunuchs. The conquered provinces being 
placed under the authority of dependent 
prince^, insurrections were frequent: and 
the sovereign was almost always engaged 
in putting down some struggles for nide- 
pendence. War was waged with rutlness 
ferocitv. Cities were attacked by raising 
artificial mounds : the besieging_ armies 
sheltered themselves behind shields of 
wicker-work, and battered the defences • 
' with rams. In the field they had formidable 
' war-chariots. And the sculptures exhibit 
the modes of cruelty practised upon those 
that were subdued. They were flayed, they 
were impaled : their eyes and tongues were 
cut out : rinss were placed in their lips ; and 
their brains were beaten out with maces 
(comp. Ezek. xxvi. 7-12\ 

The ^s-vriaus worshipped a multitude of 
■ £rod« 'A""sshur (probably the ^'isroch of the 
Scriptures, and the eagle-headed deity of 
the sculptures), was the chief. But there 
were 4.000 others, presiding over the pheno- 
mena of nature and the events of life. Anu 
i* <;aid to have been lord of the moua- 
taiu=, or of foreign countries. Then 
<-here were San, Merodach, and Bar, Xebo, 
Dason a fish-god, Bel and his consort Mylit, 
Shamesh and Ishtar (Kalisch, v.hi supr. 
p. 301'; but see Babel, closing part of the 

''^'^ThearcMtecture of the Assyrians was of a 
Ta=;t and imposing character. But a notice 
of their buildings will come more properly 
under the head of Ni^'eveh, which see. In 
the fine arts they had made considerable pro- 
ficiencv. Their sculptures are diversified, 
spirited, and faithful. They had, however, 
little knowledge of perspective, and did 
not properlv distinguish between the front 
?nd the side views of an object. Animals, 
therefore, were represented with five legs ; 
and sometimes two horses had but two 
fore-le^s The later sculptures are found 
in advance of the earlier. The Assyrians 
were skilled in engraving even the hardest 
=vbsrances. Thev were familiar with me- 
tal lur^w. and manufactured glass and ena- 
mel ^ : \hev carved ivory, and varnished 
and painted pottery. They indulged in the 
luxuries of life. Men wore bracelets, 
chains, and ear-rings, fiowin- robes, oima- 
mented with emblematic devices wrought 
in eold and silver: they had long-fringed 
'carves and embroidered girdles. The vest- 
ments of officials were generally sym- 
bolical : the head-dress was characteristic ; 
and the kins alone wore the pointed tiara. 
The beard and hair were carefully arranged 
in artificial curls; and the eyebrows and 
ev J; ashes were stained black. Of the wo- 



69 



[athauah 



men there are few representations. Tlie 
weapons of war were richly ornamented, 
especially the swords, shields, and quivers. 
The helrnets were of brass, inlaid with 
copper. The chariots were embellished, 
and the horses sumptuously caparisoned. 
Their literature, so far as we at present 
know, was confined to mere annals, pane- 
gyrics on conquerors, and invocations of 
the gods. Little indeed can be expected 
from a series of inscriptions, dictated by 
the ruling powers, who did not hesitate 
sometimes to falsify the records of their 
predecessors. 

The wealth of Assyria was derived 
from conquest, from agriculture, for 
which their country was favourably cir- 
cumstanced, and from commerce, for 
which thev had peculiar facilities. But 
these advantages, as they contributed to 
wealth, fostered luxury, and that corrup- 
tion, under (as has been observed) a grind- 
ing tyranny, which is the sure precursor of 
an empire's ruin (Kaliscli, The Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 301-303). 

ASSYRIANS. The inhabitants of As- 
syria (Isai. X. 5, 24, and elsewhere). 

ASTA'ROTH {images of Astarte). (Dcut. 

1. 4\ See ASHTAROTH. 

AS'TATE (1 Esdr. viii. 38). A form of 
Azgad (Ezra viii. 12). 

ASTROLOGERS (Isai. xlvii. 13 ; Dan. i.20, 
ii. 27, iv. 7, V. 7). See Divination. 

ASTRONOMY. Asia was probably the 
cradle of astronomy, in the knowledge of 
which the Chaldeans are said to have ex- 
celled. We have no accounts in scripture 
of the progress made by the Hebrews in 
tills science. But the starry heavens 
were naturally the ol)ject of admiration; 
and they saw therein evidence of that 
mighty hand which had created such won- 
ders (Psal. viii. 3, xix. 1). Names were 
given to some of the stars (Saalschutz, 
Arch. derHebr., cap. 46, vol. ii. pp. 72-74) ; and 
the worship paid to them by idolaters is 
noticed. See Stars. 
ASTY'AGUS (Bel and Dr. 1). 
ASUP'PIM (coZZerfio?i?, hence,with 'house,' 
a storehouse). It is questionable whether 
this word should be taken as aproper name 
(1 Chron. xxvi. 15, 17 : comp. marg.). In 
Neh. xii. 25, it is rendered 'thresholds,' 
and, marg., ' treasuries' or 'assemblies.' 

ASY^'CRITTJS, (incomparable). A Chris- 
tian at Rome to whom St. Paul sends salu- 
tation (Rom. xvi. 14). 

A'TAD (the southern buckthorn, Christ's 
thorn). The threshing-floor of Atad was 
the place where a solemn mourning was 
made for Jacob, lasting seven days (Gen. 
1. 10, 11). It was in consequence called 
Abel-Mizraim, which see. 

ATA'PtAH (a crown). One of the wives 
of Jerahmeel, a descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 26). 

ATAB'GATIS (perhaps an opening). A 
goddess, whose temple at Carnaim or Cnr- 
nion (Ashteroth-Karnaim) was destroyed 
bv Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace. v. 43, 44; 
2' Mace. xii. 2G). She was the Syrian Dcr- 
ceto, represented with the body of a wo- 
man and the tail of a fisn, and had cele- 
brated temnles at Hierapolis and Askelon, 



She has been identified with the heavenly 
Venus and other deities, and seems to have 
been considered as the cause and genera- 
tive power producing things from mois- 
ture. A singular ceremony was performed 
in her temple at Hierapolis. Twice a year 
water, brought from a distance, was poured 
into a chasm, because it was said the 
waters of the deluge drained away through 
that chasm. 

AT'ARITES (1 Chron. ii. 54, marg.), m 
some editions ' Asarites.' This is the mar- 
ginal variation of Ataroth, the Housa 
OF JOAB, which see. 

ATA'ROTH icroivns).—!. A town, appa- 
rently in Gilead, assigned to and fortified 
by the Gadites (Numb, xxxii. 3, 34).- 2. A 
town on the border of Ephraim (Josh, 
xvi. 2, 7) : it is possibly the same with 
Ataroth-Addar. 

ATA'ROTH- A'DAR {crowns of Addar, or 
greatness). A place on the border of Ben- 
jamin (Josh, xviii. 13), which is called also 

ATA'ROTH-AD'DAR (id.), and marks the 
border of Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 5). It may 
be the same with Ataroth, 2. 

ATA'ROTH, THE HOUSE OP JOAB. 
This appears in the genealogy of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 54). Nothing certain can be 
said of it. Perhaps it was a place. 

A'TER {shut up, hound, perhaps dumb). 
—1. A person, termed ' of,' possibly a de- 
scendant of, ' Hezekiah,' Yvhose children 
returned from the captivity (Ezra ii. 16 ; 
Neh. vii. 21).— 2. Another, whose descend- 
ants, called porters, also returned (^Ezra 
ii. 42; Neh. vii. 45).— 3. One, perhaps the 
representative of the posterity of No. 1, 
who sealed the covenant (x. 17). 

ATEREZI'AS (1 Esdr. v. 15). A corrupted 
form of Ater of Hezekiah (Ezra ii. 16). 

A'THACH {lodging-place). A place in 
Judah, to the inhabitants of Avhich David 
sent presents (1 Sam. xxx. 30). 

ATHAI'AH (probably the same with 
Asaiah, whom Jehovah made). A descendant 
of Judah (Neh. xi. 4). 

ATHALI'AH (whom Jehovah afflicts).— 
1. The daughter of Ahab by Jezebel. She 
was married to Jehoram, king of Judah ; 
and, when her son Ahaziah was slain by 
Jehu, she destroyed the rest of the royal 
family except Joash, an infant, who was 
concealed in the temple by his aunt Jeho- 
sheba (most likely not Athaliah's daughter), 
the wife of Jehoiada the high priest. Atha- 
liah usurped the throne for six years, 
884-878 B.C. In the seventh year, Jehoiada 
resolved to produce the young prince. 
Accordingly, having concerted measures 
with the principal officers, Levites, and 
leading men of the kingdom, and having 
properly disposed the guard on the ap- 
pointed day, he presented Joash to the 
persons assembled, anointed and crowned 
him, and delivered the testimony, or book 
of the law, into his hand. The matter had 
been so well arranged, that Athaliah, pro- 
bably engased in her idolatrous worship in 
the house of Baal, had no intelligence till 
it was too late. When she heard the shouts 
of the people, she rushed into the temple, 
and saw the young king standing by, or 
I perhaps on, a pillar or platform; but he? 



A.THAUIAS] 



70 



cry of ' treason ' only caused lier o^\'n 
an-est and deserved execution (2 Kings 
viii. 18, 26, xi. ; 2 Cliron. xxii. 2, 10-xxiii. 21, 
x)^iv. 7).— 2. A Benjamite (l Cliron. viii. 26). 
--3. One whose son, witli many of tlie same 
family, returned from Babylon with Ezra 
(Ezra viii. 7). 

ATRABI'AS (1 Esdr. v. 40). 

ATHA'RIM {regions). This is the proper 
name of a place in the south of Palestine, 
thousrh rendered in our version 'by the 
way of the spies' (Numh. xxi. 1). Wilton 
interprets ' the way of the merchants,' i.e. 
the caravan-road. {The Negeb, p. 129 note). 

ATHENIANS. The inhabitants of Athens, 
whose character is described in Acts xvii, 
21, 22. 

ATEEXO'BIUS a Mace. xv. 28, 32, 35) 
ATH'ENS. Little can here be said of 
this most celebrated city ; a full account 
of which would obviously be out of place 
in a work like the present. The student 
will naturally consult books specially treat- 
ing on classical geography and antiq.uities. 

Athens, the chief town of Attica, was 
visited by St. Paul on his second mis- 
sionary journey, after he had been sent 
awav, for safety, from Berea (Acts xvii. 
13-15). Athens, in the time of the apostle, 
was 'included in the Roman province of 
Achaia, but was a free city, retaining some 
of the forms which had belonged to it in 
its palmv days. The Athenians, curious 
and iuQuisitive, as they had ever been, 
mockinsly desired St. Paul to give them 
some acxiount of the new doctrine he was 
setting forth. For both in the Jews' syna- 
gogue, and also in the agora or market- 
place, he had disputed with those who 
came to him, and had preached the gospel 
of Jesus raised by God's mighty power 
from the dead. ^ ,i ■, 

Within the citv were four notable hills, 
three northwards, forming almost a semi- 
circle. The Acropolis, or citadel, was the 
most easterly of these: it was a rock 
about 150 feet high. Next, westward, 
was a lower eminence, the Areopagus or 
Mars' Hill, and then the Pnyx, where the as- 
semblies of the people were held. To the 
south of these three hills was a fourth, the 
Museum. The agora lay in the valley between 
the four. It has been supposed that there 
were two market-places, but it is now satis- 
factorily proved that there was but one. 
The localities, therefore, which Paul fre- 
quented, are readily understood. He was 
taken from the agora, and brought up to 
the Areopagus, where he delivered his 
wonderful address (18-31). His preaching 
made no great impression: the philoso- 
phers despised it. Some, however, clave 
to him ; and a Christian community was 
formed, of which Dionysius the Areopa- 
gite (32-34) is said to have been the first 
bishop. _^ 

Athens, situated about five miles from 
the sea, its port being the Pirteus, has 
been made the capital of the modern king- 
dom of Greece. 

ATH'LAI (whom Jehovah afflicts). One 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 28), 
AT'IPHA (1 Esdr. v. 32). A form of 
Hatipha (Ezra ii. 54). 



ATONEMENT. A certain mode of ap- 
peasing anger, and so satisfying for ofEence 
committed, as to make those at one who 
were at variance. In the notion of atone- 
ment that of substitution is very com- | 
monly implied. It is understood that, if i 
the full penalty of a fault is not exacted, 
something is offered or something endured 
instead, in order to pacifj^ and reconcile. 
In theological speech, atonement has re- 
spect to offence committed against the 
Deity. 

Human language is imperfect, and human 
conceptions are at fault, when applied to 
the Most High. He is not touched with 
aiiffer, resentment, &c., in the gross sense 
in which we commonly use the terms. We 
have, therefore, to take care that we do 
not represent him as bard to l)e mollified, 
with a thirst of vengeance to be slaked by 
the suffering of a victim. Nowhere does 
scripture assert that the Father had a pur- 
pose of burning wrath against the world, 
which was changed by the interposition of 
the Son, on whom it lighted, so that, satiated 
by his punishment, he spared mankind. Tbe 
scripture rather teaches that ' God so loved 
the world, that he gave his only-begotten 
Son, that whoso believeth in him should 
not perish, but have eternal life' (John 
iii. 16). ' God is love' (1 John iv.l6). But 
God cannot allow sin, which is rebellion 
against his authority (Habak. ii. 13). It is 
consequently impossible that he can pass 
over it. Hence he threatens to visit it witn 
apenaltv: 'the soul that sinneth it shall 
die' (Ezek. xviii. 4). His infinite holiness 
and justice, and the intrinsic demerit of 
sin, require this. And therefore 'nothing 
could render it consistent with the divine 
G-lory to pardon and save sinners, which 
did not exhibit God's justice and holiness 
in as clear a light in showing them mercy, 
as these attributes would hare appeared in, 
had he executed the threatened vengeance' 
(Scott's Essays, Ess. vi.). The proper no- 
tion, then, of an atonement, theologically, 
is that which brings the forgiveness of 
transorressors into harmony with all the 
perfections of the Godhead. One of these 
perfections must not be exalted to the de- 
pression of another : all must be equally 
and fully honoured. 

This, devised in the counsels of the 
eternal Three, was carried forward by the 
Son of God, who took human flesh, that in 
the nature that had sinned he might make 
satisfaction for sin. He made this satis- 
faction by his obedience unto death, per- 
fectly fulfilling the divine law, for he ' did 
no sin ;' and enduring the penalty of it, for 
* his own self bare our sins in his own body 
on the tree' (1 Pet. ii. 22, 24). In such a 
sacrifice, God's judgment against the evil 
and desert of sin was most illustriously 
displayed. As no other sacrifice of like 
value could be found, proof was given to 
the universe that sin was the most disas- 
trous evil, and that its ' punishment was 
not the arbitrary act of an inexorable 
judge, but the unavoidable result of per- 
fect holiness and justice, even in a Being 
of infinite mercy ' (Scott, ubi supr.). 
i God's plan was formed from the begin- 



23 (file UnolKlrtfCfe* [atonement 



71 



nlng; and the earlier revelatioi>s were 
intended to prepare the world for the 
declaration of Ms righteousness, ' that he 
might he just and the justifler of him 
wliich helieveth in Jesus' (Rom. iii. 26). 
Thus the ordinances of the Mosaic law 
shadowed forth the great work which 
Christ was to accomplish. When a man 
had sinned, he was to bring a victim, and 
lay his hand upon its head, putting upon 
it, as it were, his sins, which, in some 
cases, were to ho confessed over it ; and 
then the victim, being slain, was offered 
to the Lord (Lev. i. 2-9, iv. 2-12, xvi. 21). 
Thus was purgation made under the law : 
'almost all things are, by the law, purged 
with blood ; and without shedding of blood 
is no remission ' (Heb. ix. 22). The sacri- 
fices of the law, however, ' could not make 
him that did the service perfect, as per- 
taining to the conscience' (9). They 
cleansed from ceremonial pollution ; but, 
while they were a means, divinely ap- 
pointed, of present worship, they were ' a 
figure,' pre-signif ying and pointing to some 
better sacrifice. And from their virtue, 
such as it was, the sacred writer takes oc- 
casion to argue as to the efficacy of Christ's 
blood-shedding : ' If the blood of bulls and 
of goats, and the ashes of an heifer sprin- 
kling the unclean, sanctifleth to the purify- 
ing of the flesh, how much more shall the 
blood of Christ, who through the eternal 
Spirit offered himself without spot to God, 
purge your conscience from dead works, to 
serve the living God 1 ' (13, 14). Such rea- 
soning would be very inconclusive, if no 
real atonement were made by Christ, if his 
death were only an example of obedience 
to God, a pattern for his servants to follow. 
It is not enough to reply that the teachers 
of Christianity adopted the language they 
found in use among the Jews, without in- 
tending to sanction the inference thence 
yielded that Christ's blood-shedding was a 
satisfaction for sin. For, in that case, 
they would advisedly have spoken in a way 
likely to mislead those whom they ad- 
dressed. And, besides, the terms of the 
introductory covenant would, on such a 
supposition, have been more precise than 
those of the evangelical dispensation, 
which it was the great object of revelation 
to unfold to the world— that is to say, 
more pains would have been bestowed on 
the temporary scaffolding than on the per- 
manent structure. It must, then, be ad- 
mitted that the argument fairly holds from 
the preparatory typical rites to tlie actual 
completed work; and that argument is 
most weighty for the doctrine of the 
reality of Christ's atonement. 

But we are not left to a deduction, how- 
ever forcible. There are plain declarations 
of the New Testament, made yet plainer by 
oar knovv'ledge of the way in which those 
to whom they were immediately spoken 
would interpret them : 'He hath made him 
to be sin for us, who knew no sin, that we 
might be made the righteousness of God 
in him ' (2 Cor, v. 21) : ' Christ hath re- 
deemed us from the curse of the law, ])eing 
made a curse for us ' (Gal. iii. 13). Again : 
• Ye know that ye were not redeemed with 



corruptible things, as silver and gold . . . 
but with the precious blood of Christ, as 
of a lamb without blemish and without 
spot' (1 Pet. 1. 18, 19). Again, in a passage 
before referred to : ' "Who his own self bare 
our sins in his own body on the tree ... by 
whose stripes (the language of the Old 
Testament being appropriated) ye were 
healed' (ii. 24). And once more: 'Thou 
wast slain, and hast redeemed us to God by 
thy blood ' (Rev. v. 9). Here a purchase is 
spoken of : men are said to be redeemed: 
a price is paid for their deliverance ; and 
this price is Christ's blood ; and in the 
shedding of it he is said to be made a curse 
for us, to be made sin, though really he 
knew no sin. And the understanding of 
these expressions is facilitated and fixed 
by those legal types, as before said, which 
had rendered familiar to the mind of a Jew 
the Idea of a victim dying for the people's 
sin ; the clean animal being substituted 
for the guilty man, and being represented 
as having his (the man's) iniquities laid 
upon it. The Jewish mind had thus been 
schooled in the belief of an atonement. 
Surely, it may be repeated, the apostles 
would not have so spoken, if they did not in- 
tend to teacii that Christ was a true propitia- 
tion, and really made satisfaction in his 
death for the sins of men. And, Indeed, if 
their language, used under such circum- 
stances, does not imply the verity of an 
atonement, it may not unreasonably be 
said that no language coiild be made de- 
finite enough to express it beyond the pos- 
sibility of a cavil. 

The crushing grief of our Lord's death 
is most hard to be explained, if he was 
giving merely an example of sublime devo- 
tion to the Father's will. Many of his fol- 
lowers have triumphed in the pangs their 
persecutors inflicted : why was he, the 
Master, so unutterably sorrowful, if some 
mysterious burden was not laid up(m his 
soul ? Indeed, why did he die at all? Few 
will say that he died merely as a martyr. 
And it hardly could be necessary that he 
should be subjected to an unjust death for 
the sake of showing unreserved obedience. 
How could God's justice require such sub- 
mission? 

The objections urged against the doc- 
trine of the atonement, as if a vicarious 
sacrifice for sin were Irrational, or placed 
the character of the Deity in an unamiable 
light, are not, when sifted, found to be 
A^ery cogent. It must always be remem- 
bered that Christ's atonement was not to 
induce God to show mercy, but to make the 
exercise of his love to sinners consistent 
with the honour of his law and the 
pure glory of his name. Sin is therein 
especially branded ; and God's wisdom, 
righteousness, holiness, faithfulness, and 
mercy, are most eminently displayed. And, 
whereas it is said that he must forgive 
freely without requiring satisfaction, be- 
cause he commands his creatures freely to 
forgive, it is forgotten that the cases are 
not parallel. Private offences are to be 
forgiven freely. But a ruler must execute 
his just laws. And so God is a great King, 
and as a king he administers public justice 



A-TOJ^EMENT] 



€^^0 €:rra^itrg of 



72 



and will not arbitrarily clear tlie guilty. 
Doubtless tbere is mucli in his purposes 
and plans wliich we are incapable of riglitly 
estimating. Enough is revealed to show 
us that ' God was in Clirist, reconciling the 
world unto himself, not imputing their 
trespasses unto them' (2 Cor. v. 19). But 
we shall do well to recollect that, ' as the 
heavens are higher than the earth, so are' 
his 'wavs his:her than' our 'ways and' 
his 'thoughts than' our 'thoughts' 
(Isai. Iv. 9). ■ , . . ^ 

The atonement is a vast subject, and 
would require a volume to illustrate it 
fully Here it is not possible to introduce 
more than a few of the briefest hints and 
sugijestions in regard to it. 

ATONEMENT, DAY OF. A day, the 10th 
of the 7th month, on which a great annual 
solemnitv was observed by the Israehtes. 
The services of it are particularly de- 
scribed in Lev. xvi. It was to be 'a sabbath 
of rest,' on which they were to 'alHicf 
their souls, that is, to humble themselves 
with fasting (xxiii. 27-32). After the usual 
morning sacrifice, the high priest went 
into the holy place, with a bullock for a sin- 
offering, and a ram for a bumt-oflermg, 
for himself and his family, and, having 
bathed, he put on his plain white linen 
garments (xvi. 3, 4). He then received 
two li:ids from the congregation for a sin- 
offering, and a ram for a burnt-offermg, on 
the part of the people (5\ Sacrificing the 
bullock for himself and his house, he took 
some of its blood, and, having a censer 
heaped with burning coals from the brazen 
altar, and incense in his hands, he went 
into the most holy place, threw the incense 
on the burning coals that a cloud of fra- 
grant smoke might rise to shadow the 
mercy-seat, and sprinkled the blood either 
upon or before the mercy-seat eastward, or 
i both, seven times. On the two goats, sup- 
' plied bv the congregation, and presented 
I at the tabernacle, lots were cast : one of 
I them thus was to be 'for the Lord,' the 
i other ' for Azazel,' or ' for the scape-goat ' 
: (7 8) The goat for the Lord was killed as 
a sin-offering for the people ; and the high 
: priest carried some of its blood into the 
mo<:t holv place, and did with it as he had 
done with the blood of his own bullock 
(9 15\ Then, coming from behind the 
vail, he made atonement for the holy place, 
because of the uncleanness of Israel, 
Eprinkling the horns of the altar of in- 
cense there with the blood (16; Exod. 
XXX 10). And, while he was doing this, no 
man but himself was to be in the taber- 
nacle (Lev. xvi. 17). And then the priest 
was also to sprinkle in a similar way the 
altar of burnt-offering, thus purifying it 
would seem, the whole tabernacle (18, 19). 
It must, however, be observed that many 
critics imasine the alt^ir last spoken of to 
be the altar of incense, said above to be 
purified. After aU this, the remaining 
goat was to be brought; and the priest, 
laving both his hands upon its head, con- 
fessed over it the sins of the people, and 
sent it by a proper person into the wilder- 
ness, there to be let go, and to carry 
the iniquities laid upon it into - ^"'^'-^ ' 



, land not 



inhabited (20-22). The high priest then, 
returning into the tabernacle, put off the 
white linen garments, bathed, and resumed 
his ordinary robes. He next offered the 
two rams, burnt-offerings for himself and 
for the people, also the fat of the sm- 
offerings, while their flesh and skins and 
dung were burnt without the camp ; the 
man that burnt these, and the man who let 
loose the scape-goat, both having to wash 
their clothes and to bathe before they were 
re-admitted into the camp (23-28). The 
supplementary offerings were probably 
made at the time of and with the ordinary 
evening sacrifice (Numb. xxix. 7-11). lu 
the ceremonies performed the gradation, 
as Winer has remarked, was very observ- 
able : first the high priest and his family 
were purified ; then, by the ministration of 
the priest so made clean, the sanctuary and 
the altar : and afterwards the whole congre- 
gation (Bibl EWB., art. ' Versohnungstag). 

The tvpical intention of these ceremonies 
is clear and very instructive. The purifi- 
cation of the priest, and his entrance (then 
onlv allowed) into the holiest with blood, 
the atonement for the holy place which 
had svmbolically contracted defilement 
from the uncleanness of the children of 
Israel, might all receive a lengthened ex- 
planation. It must, however, be suflicient 
here, referring the reader for fuller parti- 
culars to other books (such as Dr.Fairbairn's 
Typology of Scripture, book iii. chap. iii. 
sect. 5, vol. ii. pp. 307-317), to note the parti- 
cular lessons taught by the two goats, one 
of which was sacrificed, the other sent into 
the wilderness. 

These two (we have a similar case m the 
two birds at the cleansing of the leper. 
Lev. xiv. 4-7) constituted but one type, two 
things having to be shown, viz. the blood- 
atonement, and the carrying away of sin. 
One of the goats was to be slain for a sin- 
offering, and the other presented alive 
before the Lord, not, as our version has it, 
' to make an atonement with him * (xvi. 10), 
but to be atoned for, that afterwards the 
atoned-for iniquities of the people might 
be laid upon him and carried far away 
into the wilderness— a most striking exhi- 
bition of the deep and lasting ' oblivion 
into which (as Dr. Fairbairn observes) the 
sins of God's people are thrown, when once 
they are covered with the blood of an ac- 
ceptable atonement' (comp. Psal. ciii. 12 : 
Mic. vii. 19). Surely this symbolical action 
illustrates the doctrine laid down in the 
preceding article, and would have little 
meaning if it were not the shadow of that 
hieh sacrifice in which, as we hold, the sins 
of "men were laid on Christ, atoned for by 
his precious blood-shedding, and carried 
away, no more to be remembered against 
the pardoned transgressor. And thus the 
ancient interpreters rightly regard both 
the goats as typifying Christ, the one in 
his death, the other in his resurrection, 
'who was delivered for our offences, and 
was raised again for our justification' 
(Itom iv. 25). The notion of some modem 
writers, that the goat set free betokened 
Barabbas released while Jesus was cruci- 
fied, need not be here discussed. 



73^ ^UiU mnoti^kTige. [attalia 


Various particulars of the proceedings on 
the day of atonement are given by Josephns 
(AntiqM^. iii. 10 § 3 : comp. Winer as cited 
above) : these, however, cannot he here 
dwelt on. But it may be interesting to know 
how thef estival is observed by modern Jews 
in England. On the previous day ' the most 
Pious go to the synagogue about two o clock 
and remain there until four. Having re- 
turned and breakfasted, the ceremony of 
keparoth, or atoning sacriflces, takes place. 
The sacrifice consists of a cock for a male, 

and a hen for a female The ceremony 

is performed by the head of the family, for 
himself first, and then for his household. 
After repeating a cabalistic prayer com- 
posed for the occasion, he takes the cock m 
his hand. ... He then moves the atone- 
ment round his head, saying, " This is my 
atonement : this is my ransom. This cock 
goeth to death ; but may I be gathered and 
enter into a long and happy life, and into 
peace." All this is repeated three times. 
Having done so for himself, he does in like 
manner for the members of the family, 
introducing the alterations that are to be 
made for the other persons. As soon as 
the prescribed order is performed, they lay 
their hands on the atonement, as was usual 
with the sacriflces, and immediately after 
it is given to the shochet to be slaughtered. 

. . The synagogue is . . . lighted up with 
numerous candles, and the evening service 
commenced, which brings in the great fes- 
tival of yom kippur, or day of atonement. 
The service begins with kol nidrei, a form 
of absolution from all vows, oaths, &c., 
and is done in the following manner. The 
chief rabbi, accompanied by two other 
rabbis, ascend the reading-desk, and say, 
"With the cognizance of the Omnipresent, 
and the congregation of the celestial and 
terrestrial assemblies, we declare it per- 
mitted to pray with transgressors." The 
chazan (reader), with a solemn tremulous 
voice, then says, "All vows, obligations, 
oaths, or anathemas . . . they shall all be 
deemed absolved, forgiven, annulled, void, 
and made of no effect. . . ."' The vov/s, 
&c., here intended are described as purely 
religious, affecting only a person's own 
conscience, and with no reference to obli- 
gations between man and man. ' The cha- 
zan repeats it three times, to which the 
congregation respond three times, "And 
it shall be," &c. (Numb. xv. 2G). The ser- 
vice continues about three hours. . . The 
I following morning, i.e. the morning of the 
i day of atonement, the service commences 
! about six o'clock, and continues all day 
! until the evening. The s/zac/iri«i, or morn- 
ing service, consists of prayers, supplica- 
tions, &c., adapted for tlie day, near the 
end of which the law is taken out and 
read, as on the sabbath, to five persons 
The portion is Lev. xvi. To the inaphtir 
(reader of the lesson from the prophets) is 
i read NumV). xxix. 7-11; and tlie portion 
i from the prophets is Isai. Ivii. 14 to Iviii 
1 After a few more prayers, the shachrith is 
1 over, hnving lasted . . . about six hours 
The musaph (additional prayers) is next 
' rehearsed, making mention of the addi 
tional sacrifice of the day (Numb. xxix. 7) 


together with supplications to the Al 
mighty to seal them to life. Near its close, 
the blessing of the cohanim (priests) is 
pronounced, and is performed in the fol- 
lowing manner. A silver basin and jug 
with water are brought into the synagogue, 
which each one present takes, and pours 
over the hands of each, of the cohanim, 
and gives them a towel, wherewith to dry 
the hands. This l^eing over, they walk up 
and stand in a row in front of the ark, en- 
veloping their heads and faces in their 
talithim (scarves) : turning to the congre- 
gation, they -repeat the blessing, as re- 
corded in Numb. vi. 23-27. Tlie micsaph 
being finished, which generally lasts till 
about four o'clock, they begin the nnnchah 
(afternoon service), when the law is taken 
out . . . and read to three persons. The 
portion is Lev. xviii. The last of the three 
is the maphtir, who reads the portion from 
the prophets, which is the whole book of 
Jonah. Several prayers are added, and 
these end the afternoon service. Next fol- 
lows the nenqilah . . . which is considered 
the great conclusion prayer. It lasts till 
after sunset, when the shophar (trumpet) 
is blown, as a signal that the duties of the 
day are over ; the whole closing with the 
words, "Next year we shall be in Jeru- 
salem ! " To this other prayers are added, 
which last about half an hour. The festival 
is then concluded, after their having fasted 
from twenty-four to twenty-six hours, and 
having continued in the exercise of their 
service upwards of twelve hours, without 
the least intermission. Every Jew who has 
the least feeling of Judaism attends the 
synagogue on the day of atonement. . . . 
Leather shoes, or anything made of calfs- 
^kin, are not allowed to l)e worn on this 
day, in sad remembrance, we are told, or 
the golden calf worshipped by their fore- 
fathers (Exod. XXX ii.). Consequently the 
majority wear cloth boots or shoes ; wnilst 
those who are not so provided go with 
onlv stockings on their feet. Neither are 
they allowed to adorn themselves with any 
gold ornaments, in remembrance of the 
material of which the ubove-mentioned 
calf was made' (Mills, The British Jews, 
chap. vi. pp. 168-174). 

Nothing has as yet been spoken of the 
name of the 'scape-goat,' which is said to 
be 'for Azazel' (Lev. xvi. 8, niarg.). rhis 
will be more properly noticed elsewhere. 
See Scape-goat. 

AT'ROTH {crowns'). Most probably this 
word should be connected with Shophan, 
which follows. Atroth-Shophan(f/i(3crou-)i5 
of Shophan) was a city of Gad, so called to 
distinguish it from Ataroth, named ]ust 
before (Numb, xxxii. 34, 35). ^ * ^ 
AT'TAI {opvortune).—!. A descendant oi 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 35, 36).— 2. A Gadite 
chief (xii. ll).-3. A sou of Rehoboam 
(2 Chron. xi. 20). _ ^ , 

ATTALl'A. A sea-port of Pamphylia, 
built by Attains Philadelphus, king ot 
Pergamos (159-138 n.c), whence the name. 
Paul and Barnabas, returning from their 
missionary journey, sailed from Attalia to 
- Antioch (Acts xiv. 25, 26). This city stiU 
. exists under the name of Satahn. 



ITTALUS] 



74 



AT'TALUS (1 Mace. xv. 22). One of the 
kings ol Fergamos. 

ATTRABA'TES (1 Esdr. ix. 49\ Perhaps 
a corruption for the Tirshatha (Neh. viii. 9). 

AU'GIA a Esdr. v. 38). Tlie name attri- 
buted to the daughter of Berzelus (Bar- 
zillai), from whom some of those who could 
not establish their claim to the priesthood 
were descended : comp. in the canonical 
scripture Ezra ii. 61. 

AUGUS'TUS. The first Roman emperor. 
He was the son of Caius Octavius, by Atia, 
Julius Cresar's niece, and was born 62 B.C. 
Being adopted by his great-uncle, and 



Dent. xix. 6). There were various re- 
gulations wisely introduced into theMosaic 
law to restrain this custom. See Cities of 
EEFtJGE, Murder. 

A'VIM, A'VIMS (inhabitants of ridns'). 
An ancient people, originally dwelling in 
the south-west of Palestine, whence thoy 
were driven by the Caphtorim (Deut. ii. 23). 
They are again mentioned, probably as lo- 
cated farther to the north, among the 
tribes yet remaining unsubdued in Joshua's 
old age (Josh. xiii. 3), Avhere they are called 
Avites. Nothing more is known of them : 
see, however, Wilton's Negeh, p. 159. 




Coin of Augustus. 



made his general heir, he came into Italy 
as Caius Julius CaBsar Octavianus. He 
formed one of what is called the second 
triumvirate, with Mark Antony and Le- 
pidus. Lepidus was soon set aside, and 
Antony entirely defeated at the battle of 
Actium, 31 B.C. After this victory, Octavius 
was saluted emperor {imperator) by the 
senate, and, 27 B.C., had the designation or 
title Augustus. It was he who confirmed 
Herod as king of the Jews, and enlarged 
his dominions. In his reign our Lord was 
born (Luke ii. 1). He died at Nola in Cam- 
pania in the 76th year of his ago, 14 A.D. 

AUGUSTUS' BAND. There was a band 
or body of men called Augustani, identical, 
very probably, with the veterans specially 
summoned (evocati) to service by the em- 
perors, who formed Nero's body-guard when 
lie went into Greece. To this band Julius 
would seem to have belonged (Acts xxvii. l). 
See "Wieseler, Chron. des Apost. ZeiL, note, 
pp. 389-393. 

AUBA'NUS (2 Mace. iv. 40). 

ATJTE'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). A corrupted 
form of Hodijah (Neh. viii. 7). 

AY 'A (oveHurning , ruin). A place or dis- 
trict in Assyria, whence colonists were 
brought into the cities of Samaria (2 Kings 
xvii. 24). The locality cannot be identified. 
See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Avva.' 

AV'ABAN (1 Mace. ii. 5). The surname of 
Eleazar, one of the Maccabean family. 

A'VEN (nothingness).— I. The name ap- 
plied to the city elsewhere called On, or 
Heliopolis (Ezek. xxx.17).— 2. A contracted 
form (Hos. x. 8) of Beth-aven (5) i.e. Beth-el. 
—5. A place mentioned by Amos (i. 5), and 
called in the margin Bikath-Aven. It seems 
to be the great plain of Lebanon, in which 
Baalbek is situated, still called el BuM'a. 

AVENGER OF BLOOD. In a rude state 
of society, the nearest relative of a person 
slain was conceived bound to put the slayer 
to death (Numb. xxxv. 19, 21, 24, 25, 27 



A'^^'IM {ruins). A city of Benjamin 
(Josh, xviii. 23). Some have imagined that 
a remnant of the people called Avim may 
have lived in it. 

A'VITES.— 1. (Josh. xiii. 3). See Avor.— 
2. The inhabitants of A va (2 Kings xvii. 31). 
See AvA. 

A'YITH (ruins). A city where the Edo- 
mite king Hadad reigned (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 
1 Chron. i. 46). 

AWL. A tool mentioned only in con- 
nection with the boring of a slave's ear 
(Exod. xxi. 6 ; Deut. xv. 17). 

AXE. There were undoubtedly different 
kinds of this instrument among the H9> 
brews. A word very commonly employed for 
it embodies the idea of sljarpness. Such an 
axe was used for felling trees and the like, 
and had probably a heavy head (Judges ix. 
48 ; 1 Sam. xiii. 20 ; Psal. Ixxiv. 5 ; Jer. xlvi. 
22). Another word was derived from cutting 
(Deut. xix. 5, XX. 19 ; 1 Kings vi. 7 ; Isai. 
X. 15). This too was used for cutting wood ; 
but we may gather from the first-named 
passage that the head was attached to the 
handle in the way usual with modern axes, 
or more probably fastened with thongs, 
which might readily slip. Egyptian axes 
so constructed have been found. In 2 Kings 
vi. 5 ; Isai. x. 34 an axe is signified by the 
word ' iron,' a proof that the heads were of 
that metal, not, as in various Egyptian spe- 
cimens, of bronze. Another word translated 
' axe ' (Isai. xliv. 12, marg. ; Jer. x. 3), means 
a carver's knife. Some others occur. 

AZ'ABL (1 Esdr. ix. 14), A form of Asahel 
(Ezra X. 15). 

AZAB'LUS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). 

A'ZAL (noNe, root, or declivity of a raonn 
tain?). The place to which the cleft in 
mount Olivet is, according to Zechariah's 
prophecy (xiv. 5), to extend. 

AZALI'AH (whom .Tehovah reserved). The 
father of Shaphan the scribe (2 Kings 
xxii. 3 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 8). 



75 



[azriel 



AZANI'AH (whom Jehovah hears). A 

AZ APR' ION (1 Esdr. v. 33). Perhaps a 
corruption of Sophereth (Ezra ii. 55J. 

A^'AJ^A (1 Esdr. V. 31). 

AZA'RAEL (whom God helps). A musi- 
cian (Neh. xii. 36). . ^ . ,i 

AZA'REEL iid.).-l. A Benjamite (1 
Chron. xii. 6).— 2. A chief singer (xxv. 
18) • he appears to he the same with 
Uzziel (4).— 3. A chief of the tribe of Dan 
(xxvii 22).— 4. A man who had taken 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 41).— 5. A priest, 
CNeh. xi. 13) possibly the same with Aza- 

"^^AZARI'AH (whom Jehovah helps).—!. 
The son or grandson of Zadok, high priest 
in Solomon's time (1 Kings iv. 2 ; 1 Chron. 
vi 9).— 2. A chief officer under Solomon 
a kings iv. 5).— 3. A king of Judah (2 Kmgs 
xiv. 21, XV. 1, 6, 7, 8, 17, 23, 27 ; 1 Cliron. 
iii. 12). He is more generally called Uzziah, 
which see.— 4. A descendant of Judah by 
Zerah (ii. 8).— 5. Another of Judah's pos- 
terity (38, 39) ; perhaps the person men- 
tioned (2 Chron. xxiii. 1) as son of Obed.— 
6, 7. Two others in the line of high priests, 
the first grandson of the before-named 
high priest (1 Chron. vi. 10, 11, 13, 14 ; Ezra 
vii. 1, 3).— 8. A Levite (1 Chron. vi. 36 : 
comp. 24X— 9. A priest of the line of Zadok 
(ix 11), 'perhaps the same with the one 
mentioned inNeh. vii. 7, called Seraiah m 
Ezraii. 2 ; Neh. xii. 1 : he or his representa- 
tive sealed the covenant (x. 2).— 10. A pro- 
phet who encouraged Asa (2 Chron. xv.1-7). 
—11 12 Two sons of king Jehoshaphat 
xxi'2).-13. The king of Judah generally 
known as Ahaziah (xxii. 6).— 14. Son of J e- 
roham, one of the captains with whom 
Jehoiada concerted the crowning of king 
Joash (xxiii. 1).— 15. The high priest who 
resisted Uzziah in his attempt to burn in- 
cense (xxvi. 17-20). It is doubtful whether 
this priest was one of those before-men- 
tioned.— 16. An Ephraimite chief (xxviii. 
12)— 17, 18. TwoLevites (xxix. 12).— 19. A 
high priest in the reign of Hezekiah (xxxi. 
10, 13). It is also uncertain whether he 
was one of those before-mentioned.— 20. 
One who helped to repair the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. iii. 23, 24). This may be the 
same person elsewhere referred to (viii. 7, 
xii 33).— 21. One of the chiefs who deter- 
mined against Jeremiah's warning to go 
into Egypt (Jer. xliii. 2).— 22. The original 
name of one of Daniel's companions m 
Babylon, called there Abed-nego (Dan. i. 
6, 7, 11, 19, ii. 17). 

AZARI'AS.-l. (1 Esdr.ix. 21).-2. (43).- 
3 (48).-4. (2 Esdr. i. l).-5. The name as- 
sumed l)y the angel said to accompany 
Tobias (Tob. v. 12, and elsewhere).— 6. (Song 
of Three Child. 2, 66).— 7. A captain m the 
Maccabean wars (1 Mace. v. 18, 56, 60). 

A'ZAZ {strong). A Reubenite (1 Chron. 
v. 8). 

AZA'ZEL (Lev. xvi. 8, marg.). See Atone- 
ment, Day of, Scape-goat. 

AZAZI'AH (whom Jehovah strengthens). 
1. A musician (1 Chron. xv. 21).— 2. An 
Ephraimite chief (xxvii. 20). — 3. An 
overseer of offerings and tithes (2 Cliron. 



LI: 



xxxi. 13). 



AZBAZ'ARETH (1 Esdr. v. 69). Probably 
a corrupted form of Esar-haddon. 

AZ'BUK {strong devastation, q.d. a strong 
place devastated). The father of NehemiaU 
(not the governor) (Neh. iii. 16). 

AZE'KAH (dug over, hroTcen up). A place 
to which Joshua's pursuit of the Amorites 
extended after the.battle for the relief of 
Gibeon (Josh. x. 10, 11). It stood m the 
plain country of Judah, to which tribe it 
was allotted (xv. 35). In later times, we 
find the Philistines pitching near it (1 Sam. 
xvii. 1) : it was fortified by Eelioboam 
(2 Chron. xi. 9), and was one of the last 
towns taken by Nebuchadnezzar in Zede- 
kiah's reign before Jerusalem fell (Jer. 
xxxiv. 7). It was again inhabited after the 
return from captivity (Neh. xi. 30). It has 
not yet been satisfactorily identified ; but 
it must have been very near Beth-horon. 

A'ZEL (noble). A descendant of Saul 
(1 Chron. viii. 37, 38, ix. 43, 44). _ „ , 
A'ZEM (strength, bone). A city allotted 
at first to Judah, afterwards to Simeon 
(Josh. XV. 29, xix. 3). In 1 Chron. iv. 29,_it 
is given as Ezem. Wilton considers Iim 
andAzem' as designating one place— I]e- 
Azem, and identifies it with the modern 
el-Aujeh of the 'Azazimeh Arabs (TheNegeb, 
pp. 154-lfi'7). 
AZEPHU'RITH (1 Esdr. v. 16). 
AZE'TAS (1 Esdr. v. 15). 
AZ'GAD (strong in fortune).— \. A person 
whose descendants returned from capti- 
vity (Ezra ii. 12, viii. 12 ; Neh. vii. 17).— 
2 X man who sealed the covenant (x. 
15): possibly the representative of the 
posterity of No. 1. 
AZPA (1 Esdr. v. 31). 
^^r^/ (2 Esdr. i. 2). 

AZI'EL (whom God consoles). One of the 
Levite porters, appointed to play on the 
psaltery (1 Chron. xv. 20). The name is a 
contracted form of Jaazicl (18). 

AZI'ZA (strong). One who had taken a 
foreign wife (Ezra x. 27). 

AZMA'VETH (strong as or to death).— 
1 One of David's warriors (2 Sam.xxui. 31 ; 
1 Chron. xi. 33).— 2. A descendant of Saul 
(viii. 36, ix. 42).— 3. A Benjamite (xii. 3) ; 
perhaps identical with No. 1.— 4. Davids 
treasurer (xxvii. 25). ^^ 

AZMA'VETH (id.). A place probably m 
Benjamin, about which the singers settled 
after the return from the captivity (Neh. 
xii 29) Some of the inhabitants of Azma- 
veth returned from Babylon witb Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 24). In Neh. vii. 28 it is 
called Beth-Azmaveth. 

AZ'MON (strong). A place on the south- 
ern boundary of Palestine (Numb, xxxiv. 
4, 5 ; Josh. XV. 4) ; the modern Wady el 
Kusdimeh. , 
AZ'NOTH-TA'BOPv. (ears, i.e. summits, of 
Tabor). A place on the boundary of Naph- 
tali (Josh. xix. 34). . , . 

A'ZOR (a helper). One m the line of our 
Lord's ancestors (Matt. i. 13, 14). 

AZO'TUS (Acts viii. 40). The Greek form 
of ASHDOD, which see. 
AZO'TUS, MOUNT (1 Mace. ix.l5). . 
AZ'RIEL (whom God helps).— I. A cbiel 
of the trans-Jordanic half-tribe of Manas- 
seh (1 Chron. v. 24).-2. The father of a 



azrikam] 



7G 



I chief of Xaphtali (xxvii. 19).— 3. The father 
I of Seraiah, one of Jehoiakim's officers (Jer. 
; xxxvi, 26\ 

AZRI'KAM ihclp against the enemy).— 
1. One of the descendants of David (1 Chron. 
ill. 23).— 2. A descendant of Sanl (viii. 38, 
iz. 44).— 3. A Levite (ix. 14 ; ^seh. xi. 15). 
—4. The governor of the honse of king 
Ahaz (2 Cliron. xxriii, 7). 

AZTJ'BAH (/orsakeoi, ruins).— 1. The mo- 
ther of king Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xxii. 
42 ; 2 Chron. xx. 31).— 2. A wife of Caleb, 
son of Hezron (I Chron. ii. 18, 19). 



AZ'UR (helper).— I. The father of Hana- 
niah, the false prophet of Gibeon (Jer. 
xxviii, 1).— 2. The father of a person in the 
time of Ezekiel (.Ezek. xi. 1). This name is 
identical with Azzur. 

AZU'RAN (1 Esdr. v. 15). 

AZ'ZAH {the strong) (Dent. ii. 23: 1 
Kings iv. 24 ; Jer. xxv. 20, xivii. 1, marg.) 
See Gaza. 

AZ'ZAN (very strong). A chief of Issa^- 
char (Tsunih. xxxiv. 20). 

AZ'ZUR (helper). One who sealed the co- 
venant (Xeh. X. 17). 



B 



BA'AL (lord, possessor). The supreme 
God of the Canaanitish and Plioenician na- 
tions. The word is sometimes used in the 
plural, Baalim; and it may he observed 
that, in the original, the name of the deity, 
whether singular or plural, is always distin- 
guished hy the article, unless when it has 
some qualifying adjunct. The worship of 
Baal seems to have extended to several 
neighbouring countries. Thus, the Baby- 
lonian Bel is generally considered as iden- 
tical with Baal, the word being contracted. 
On this point, however, see Bav.iinson's 
Herodotus, vol. i. pp. 318, 594, &:c., 627, &c. 
Traces of this worship are found at Car- 
thage ; the names of men being frequently 
compounded with that of the god, as Han- 
nibal. Baal has often been taken as the re- 
presentative of the sun ; hut still there are 
diversities apparent, for the Babyloniaii 
god is identified with the planet Jupiter. 
It is probable that, the general idea being 
that of lord or sovereign owner of the uni- 
A'erse, different modifications were occa- 
sionally introduced, and different notions 
held in regard to which of the heavenly 
hodies it would be more fitting to identify 
with such a ruler. The Israelites came in 
contact with Baal-worship when on the 
herders of Moab and Midian (Numb. xxii. 
41, XXV. 3) ; and very soon after their es- 
tablishment in Canaan they yielded to this 
evil influence (Judges ii. 11-13). Througli 
the time of the judges it appears to have 
more or less prevailed, though checked 
' now and then by some energetic magis- 
trate, till the days of Samuel (vi. 25-32, 
viii, 33, ix. 4, X. 6, 10 ; 1 Sam. vii. 4). In 
later times, we find the worship of Baal 
openly practised in the northern kingdom 
of Israel, being sanctioned by the alliance 
of Aliab with Jezebel (1 Kings xvi. 31, 32) ; 
and, in spite of the exertions of Elijah 
. (xviii.), and the policy of Jehu (2 Kings x. 
i 18-28), it iirevailed till the period of the 
I carrying away of the ten tribes (xvii. iGj. 
; Judah, too, was grievously infected with 
I the same idolatry (xi. 18, xxi. 3 ; 2 Chron. 
i xxviii. 2). We may easily gather from the 
' sacred writers a notion of the pomp and 
; ceremonies of Baal-worship. There were 
teiQples, images, and altars, on emineriCes 



and on liouse-tops (1 Kings xvi. 32, XA'iii. 20 ; 
2 Kings X. 26, xi. 18; Jer. xi. 13, xxxii. 29). 
There were multitudes of priests, wlio^e 
mode of addressing the god is specified 
(1 Kings xviii. 19, 26-28) : they offered in- 
cense and even human sacrifices (Jer. vii. 9, 
xix. 5), and thus provoked to anger the God 
of heaven. Ko wonder tliat his judgments 
at length descended on such a people. 

Baal is often used in composition witt 
other words for the names of both mer 
and places. It is not always, however, that, 
so compounded, it has reference to the idoi- 
god : it frequently implies merely the no- 
tion of. possession. 

BA'AL (lord).— I. A man of the tribe of 
Reuben (1 Chron. v. 5).— 2. A descendant of 
Benjamin (viii. 30, ix. 36). 

BA'AL (uZ). A town in the territorj' of 
Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 33). It appears to be 
the same with Baalath-Beer (Josh. xix. 8). 

BA'AL-BE'RITH (covenant-lord). The 
name under which Baal was worshipped by 
the Shechemites (Judges viii. 33, ix. 4 : comp. 
46). It was not as the god of covenants, 
but as in covenant with them, that they so 
honoured the false deity, 

BA'AL-GAD (lord of fortmie). A place in 
the valley of Lebanon, on the northeni or 
north-western boundary of Palestine (Josh, 
xi. 17, xii. 7) which remained unconquered 
at tlie division of the land (xiii. 5), It has 
often been supposed that Baal-Gad was 
Baalbek ; but it is more likely to have been 
Banias, where there was for a long time a 
sanctuary of the god Pan. And perhaps 
Baal was worshipped in this place under 
the character of Gad, ' good fortune.' 

BA'AL-HA'MON (place of niultitude). A 
place at which Solomon is said to have had 
a vineyard (Sol. Song viii. 11). The situa- 
tion can onlv be conjectured. 

BA'AL-HA'NAJ^' (lord of grac-e).—l. A king 
in Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39 ; 1 Chron. i. 
49, 50).— 2. An overseer of olive and syca- 
more trees in the time of David (xxvii. 
28). 

BA'AL-HA'ZOR (having a village or hain- 
let). A place ' by Ephraim,' where Ahsalom 
had a sheep-farm (2 Sam. xiii. 23). 

BA'AL-HER'MON (place of Herman). Thig 
may be only another name of nermt)n 



— ____============- ~~ 1 


(imV^es iii. 3 ;l Chron. r. 23) : l^y some it is 
Opposed the same with Baal-Gad See 
Winer, Bibl. RWB., arts. ' Baal-Gad, Baal- 

^bT'Al'-ME'ON {place of dioelling). A toAvn 
built or lortifled, with a change of name 
hv the Reubenites (Numb. xxxu. 38 , l 
Chron V. 8). It appears to have been af ter- 
\4rds possessed by the Moabites (Ezek. 
XXV 9) This toAvn is also called Beth-Baal- 
IN'-eon 'Beth-Meon, and, in a contracted 
form Beon, though this last name may be 
put for Meon. It was about three miles 
south-east of Heshbon ; and its rums still 
bear the name of Mimi, or 3Iaein._ 

BA'AL-PB'OR {lord of the opening, there 
being an allusion to the character of the 
rites of worship). The god of Moab and 
Midian, sometimes called Peor only (Nimilx 
XXV 3 5, 18 ; Deut. iv. 3 : Josh. xxii. 1/ ; 1 sal. 
cvi *28; Hos. ix. 10). Baal-Peor has_ been 
identified with Priapus : his worshippers 
were guilty of fornication and all unclean- 

" BA'AL-PERA'ZIM {place of IreacUes, or 
hnrsUngs forth, i.e. defeats). A i^l ace near 
the valley of Rephaim, where David de- 
feated the Philistines (2 Sam. v.20 ; 1 Cliron 
xiv 11). It was so called because David 
said that the Lord had ' burst like a rush of 
waters ' upon his enemies. It is alluded to 

"'bSl-SHA'LISHA {lord of Shalisha, 
i place of Shalisha, or of three). A place pro- 

bably no great distance from the Gi gal 
; (2 Kings iv. 38, 42) mentioned m Elishas 

history. ^ ■, . ^ 
1 BA'AL-TA'MAR {jolace of palm-trees). A 

place near Gibeah of Benjamin (Judges 

i ^ bIaL'-ZEBUB {lord of the fly, flu-da- 
\ '^trover). Baal was worshipped in this cha- 
racter at Ekron (2 Kings i. 2, 3, 6, IG). The 
; multitude of flies in hot climates will ac- 
i count for the designation. ^ ^ ^ 
i BA'AL-ZE'PHON {place of Typhon, or sa- 
1 cred to Typhon, otherwise lord of the north, 
! or place of a watch-tower). A point near to 
which the Israelites crossed the Red sea, 
and therefore on its western shore ; but it 
is difficult to fix on the exact position 
(Exod. xiv. 2, 9 ; Numb, xxxiii. 7). 

BA'ALAH {mistress).—!. Another name 
for the city of Kirjath-Jearim, which 
see and therefore in the territory of Judah 
(Josh XV. 9, 10 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 6). The mount 
Baala'h on the border of Judah (Josh. xy. 11) 
was probably at some distance.— 2. A town 
in the south of Judah (xv fO) : is also 
termed Balah (xix. 3), and Biihah (1 Chron. 
iv. 29). See Bizjothjah. . ^ , 
BA'ALATH {id.). A town m the tribe of 
Dan (Josh. xix. 44). This has been thougln 
to be the place that Solomon built or forti- 
fied (1 Kings Ix. 18 ; 2 Chron. vui. 6). 

BA'ALATH-BE'ER {having a well). A 
town in the territory of Simeon (Josh 
xix. 8), probably the same with Baal (1 
Chron. iv. 33). Mr. Wilton, who supposes 
fhis nnnther form of Bealoth (Josh. xv. 24; 
Identifies it with 'the runied site called 
Kurnub, on the southern declivity of tlit 
swell, or low ridge which bears the name oi 
KiMet el-Baid: Ho considers thia the 


Baalath that Solomon fortified, being a 
frontier towni, one of the limits of the 
Bimeonite territory. He also thinks that it 
was called Ramath of the South, as another 
appellation (xix. 8), being the * South Ra- 
moth' (1 Sam. xxx. 27) to which David 
sent some of his booty {The Negeb, pp. 
89-97). ^ T ^ 7^ 
BA'ALE OF JTJDAIT {citizens of Jndak). 
A name given to the city Kirjath-Jcarim 
(2 Sam. vi. 2). See Baalah, 1. 

BA'ALI {my lord). The name which Israel 
was no more to call the Lord when restored 
to his favour (Hos. ii. 16) ; the word having 
reference to the idol-god. 'God says. So 
whollv do I hate the name of idols, that, on 
account of the likeness of the word Baal, 
my lord, I will not be so called, even m a 
right meaning. . . . Yet withal God says 
that he will put into her mouth the ten- 
derer name of love, Ishi, lit. my man. In 
Christ, the returning soul, which would 
give herself wholly to God, however far 
she had wandered, should not call God so 
much her Lord as her Husband' (Dr. Pusey, 
Minor Propltets, pp. 19, 20). 

BA'ALIM {lords) (Judges ii. 11, m. 7, 
viii. 33, X. 6, 10, and elsewhere). The plu- 
ral form of Baal, which see. 

BA'ALIS {son of exultation). A king of 
the Ammonites (Jer. xl. 14). , 

BA'ANA or BA'ANAH {son of affliction).— 
1 A Benjamite, one of the murderers o£ 
Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. iv. 2, 5, 6, 9).— 2. The 
father of one of David's warriors (xxiii. 
29; 1 Chron. xi. 30).— 3, 4. Two officers 
under Solomon (1 Kings iv. 12, 16).— 5. One 
who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2 ; 
Neh vii. 7).— 6. A person whose son took 
part in re-building the wall of Jerusalem 
(iii. 4). He may be identical with the one 
who sealed the covenant (x. 27). 
BA'ANA (1 Esdr. v. 8). 
B A AN I' AS (1 Esdr. ix. 26). A form of 
Benaiah (Ezra x. 25). 

BA'ARA {brutish, accordingto ^ome, new- 
moon). A wife of Shaharaim, a Benjamite 
(1 Chron. viii. 8). ^ ^ 

BAASEI'AH {work of Jehovah). A Lcvite, 
one of the ancestors of Asaph (1 Chron. 
vi. 40). 

BA'ASHA {wickedness, or, as some sup- 
pose, in the work). Son of Ahijah, of Ihe 
tribe oE Issachar. He was probably of mean 
origin. At the siege of Gibbethon, he con- 
spired against Nadab, king of Israel, killed 
him and all his family, and possessed him- 
self of the throne. He attempted to fortify 
Ram ah, with a view, it would seem, of pre- 
venting the access of the Israelites into 
Judah (2 Chron. xi. 14. 16) ; but his design 
was frustrated by a Syrian invasion, insti- 
gated by Asa, king of Judah. Baasha's evil 
conduct provoked the denunciation of God's 
judgments upon his house, as predicted by 
Jehu the prophet. He roigned 24 years, 
953-930 B.C., and was buried in Tirzah, his 
capital. (1 Kings xv. 16-22, xvi. 1-7, xxi. 22 ; 
2 Chron. xvi. 1-6 ; Jer. xli. 9). 

BA'BEL {confusion, or gate of U, a Ba- 
bylonian deity). The name of the place 
afterwards celebrated as Babylon, the 
great capital of the Chaldean monarchy. 
Its origin is related by Moses. Some time 



after the flood, when men had "begun to 
multiply, and perceived that the natural 
consequence of multiplication would be the 
dispersion and estrangement of those who 
bad hitherto formed but one community, 
they determined to erect a mighty tower, 
which should serve as a rally ing-point and 
centre of union for their families, the me- 
tropolis of an universal monarchj\ Fan- 
ciful motiA'es have frequently been ascribed 
to these projectors ; but their intention is 
plainly enough declared by the sacred 
writer. Their tower was not designed to 
protect them against another flood, nor 
was it to be the vast temple of some idol. 
Rather they were influenced by a thorough- 
ly-sensual desire of glory, to be attained by 
gigantic monuments and by earthly do- 
minion. They said ' Let us make us a name.' 
The place where they were settled was fa- 
vourable to their plan. They had journeyed 
in the east from that Armenian region near 
Ararat wdiich has justly been considered 
the cradle of the human race, and they 
wore now in the plains of Shinar. Bricks 
they could make of thepure clay they found 
\ there ; and asphalt or bitumen was abun- 
tlant for cementing their materials to- 
gether. They were all, too, of one 'lii>,' 
their speech and their intonation the same, 
so that they could plan and work concord- 
antly together. Therefore they began to 
build a tower ; and a city was to cluster 
round it. And no doubt their structure 
i was assuming large dimensions— though 
how long they were employed on it we have 
no means of judging— when God disap- 
pointed their ambitious purpose, con- 
founded their language, and thus dispersed 
them, according to their families, through 
various regions (Gen. xi. 1-9). That this 
was a sudden catastrophe is evident from 
the tenor of the sacred narrative. If we 
! are to believe the record, therefore, the di- 
j versity of tongues did not grow out of a 
I mere natural development, according to 
I the ordinary circumstances which, in the 
\ lapse of time, mould the languages of va- 
' rious tribes. Much was, no doubt, left to 
i that development ; and the difference, flrst 
; stamped by some immediate exercise of 
divine power, was permitted to increase 
I and multiply into the vast variety of dia- 
i lects now existing in the world. But, when 
: those who speculate on the origin and di- 
: vergence of language demand an almost- 
i incalculable number of years for reaching 
: the present state, they must be reminded 
' that he, that made the mouth and distin- 
: guished man with the power of articulate 
! speech, could, as easily as he created, 
i change the forms of utterance, and that 
i here we are expressly told that, on an occa- 
' sion when it seemed good to his wisdom, 
j he did so interfere, and produced at once 
an alteration which otherwise ages might 
I not have been long enough to consum- 
mate. 

j God docs not, be the expression used 
I with all reverence, needlessly expend su- 
' pernatural power. We are not obliged to 
suppose that he formed the complete sys- 
tem of the world's languages : it is enough 
to believe that, after the direction was 



-I I 

given, external agencies and influences did j 
their work. So that we may trace a rela- j; 
tion still manifest of the daughter-dialects 
to the parent-speech. Research more and 
more illustrates this, and shows the high 
probability that there was some primitive 
single Asiatic language. More cannot safely 
be said. The judgment of scholars diifers 
as to the one which represents most nearly 
the original type. Many, however, are iu- 
clined to point, as most probable, to the 
Sanscrit. 

Thus, then, the pride of those builders 
was chastised. And the name fixed upon 
their unfinished work was Babel. Very 
impressive are the words of Kalisch : ' The 
future character of the overbearing city is ; 
clearly mirrored iu the history of its begin- 
ning: the same boastful spirit, which the 
prophet Isaiah chastises in the Babylonian 
prince, who speaks in his heart, " 1 will as- i 
cend up to heaven, above the stars of God ' 
will I erect my throne" (Isai. xiv. 13), 
prompts here the exclamation, " Let us ; 
build a city and tower, whose top may rea ch \ 
to heaven ; " but, just as there the arrogance j 
is crushed by the words, "but thou de- | 
scendest into the grave, and into th6 ; 
deepest pit " (15), it Is here checked by the 
simple but emphatic remark, " and they left | 
off to build the city " {Comm. on the 0. T. 
Gen., p. 314). 

From the beginning a cloud lowered 
over Babylon ; and in her history a strik- 
ing lesson is read to the world. She became 
very great, the full-blown development of j 
confident vanity, the example of what ar- I 
rogant ambition might grow to, the em- | 
bodiment of scornful strength, the image j 
of careless security ; the worldly spirit be- | 
ing paramount in her, acknowledging even ; 
in the heavens no superior (Dan. iv. 30, 32). i 
But the judgment of God was travelling i 
on. In her hour of pride inspired prophets 
foretold her ruin. And the present utter 
desolation of this mistress of kingdoms 
continues to deliver the impressive warn- 
ing that God will bring down the haughti- 
ness of men, and that those that exalt 
themselves against him shall be abased. 
He may use them as his instruments for a 
time ; but their day shall come. We should 
read the story of Babylon in vain, if we did i 
not carry along with us this principle, and 
see how it knits together the narrative, 
and vindicates itself in the ultimate catas- 
trophe, 'Babylon the great is fallen, is 
fallen.' 

iS'imrod appears to have established here 
the first strong-holds of his empire ; and 
hence Babylonia was called ' the land of 
]S;"imrod' (Mic. v. 2). Additional towns he 
founded in Shinar, as Erech, and Accad, and 
Calneh. Afterwards, probably grasping at 
more dominion, he went into AssjTia, and \ 
there built Kineveh and other cities (Gen. 
X. 10-12). 

Later Babylonian kings mentioned by the 
sacred writers are the following ;their names 
and approximate dates alone being given | 
here : further information respecting them 
will be fourid in the articles appended to 
their respective names. j 



79 



B.C. 

2130 ? Atnraphel, called king of Shinar, one 

ot the confederate monarchs who 
invaded Canaan in the days of 
Abraham (Gen. xiv. 1-16). 

720 Merodach-Baladan, otherwise Bero- 
dach-Baladan, who was contempo- 
rary with Hezekiah (2 Kings xx. 
12, 13 ; Isai. xxxix. 1, 2). 

607 2s^elmchadnezzar, or Nebuchadrezzar, 
the great monarch under whom 
Babylon attained its highest pitch 
of power, and who captured and 
burnt Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiv., 
XXV. 1-26; 2 Chron. xxxvi. ; Jer. 
xxxix., lii. 1-30 ; Dan. i., li., iii., iv.). 

562 Evil-Merodach, who released Jehoi- 
achin (2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. In. 
31-34). , . ^ „ 

541. Belshazzar, who was slam when Ba- 
bylon was taken (Dan. v., vii. 1, 
viii. 1). 

It is evident that there are considerable 
gaps in this list ; several monarchs having 
reigned of whom the sacred record makes 
no mention. But there is a most important 
document, known as the canon of the geo- 
grapher Ptolemy, which arranges in chro- 
nological order, with the length of each 
rei'^n the kings of Babylon from Nabon- 
assar down to Darius Codomannus, that 
Persian monarch whom Alexander the 
Great subdued. This, so far as it bears 
upon the scripture history of Babylon, shall 
be given here :— 

Era of Length of 

B.C. ^Tabonassar. reign. 



confirmed ; and doubtless further investiga- 
tions will clear up many difficulties still 
remaining. The following table of Baby- 
lonian kings is abridged from that given 
by Dr. Kalis ch, Comm. on the 0. T. Gen., 
pp. 280-290. 



B.C. 

2230. 



1950 



1850 



1800 



1500, 



1 

15 
17 
22 
27 

39 

44 
46 
49 
55 
56 
60 



81 
101 
123 
144 
187 

189 
193 
210 



12 
5 
2 
3 
6 
1 
4 



13 

20 



21 
43 



17 



Nabonassar 14 
Nadius 2 
Chinzinus and Porus 5 
Elul9eus 5 
Mardocempalus [MerO' 

dach-BaladanJ 
Arceanus 
Interregnum 
Belibus 
Aparanadius 
Regibelus 
Mesesimordacus 
Interregnum 
Asaridanus [Esar-IIad- 

don] 
Saosduchinus 
Cinneladanus 
Nabopolassar 
Nebuchadnezzar 
lUoarudamus [Evil- 

Merodacb] 
Nerigassolassarus 
Nabonadius 
Cyrus 

Much additional light has been thrown 
upon the history of Babylon, and the suc- 
cession of the kings, by the discoveries 
which have of late years been made there, 
and the progress in deciphering the ii> 
scriptions on the monuments examined 
Uncertainty, however, still exists m re- 
gard to these : the researches are as yet 
little more than tentative ; but it is most 
satisfactory to know that the scripture re- 
cord is already materially illustrated and 



1150. 
800. 
774 

720 
700 



625 
to 
604. 



Urukh was the first great Clialdean 
builder. His name appears on the 
masonry of Mugeyer, Wurka, Nif- 
f er, and Senkereh. 
Ilgi, associated in the inscriptions 

with Urukh. 
Shinti-khak, probnbly of Elamite de- 
scent. His name is on the bricks 
of Wurka. 
Kudur-Mapula, i.e. Ravager of the 
West. His name occurs at Mu- 
geyer. He has been supposed iden- 
tical with Chedor-laomer (Gen. xiv.) 
See, however, Chedor-laomer. 
. Ismi-Dagon, a Chaldean king. 
There is then a long line of kings, 
from the ruins on the lower Tigris 
and Euphrates, not fewer than 25. 
The principal are 
Ibil-anu-duma) Of whom only the 
Gurguna j names are known. 
Purna-puriyas. His name occurs on 

bricks at Senkereh. 
Durri-galazu, his son. He repairea 
the temple of Sin, or the moon, at 
Ur o£ the Chaldeans. 
Khammurabi. He built a palace at 
Kalwada, near Baghdad. His bricks 
have been discovered in Mugeyer 
and Senkereh. 
Shamsu-Iluna. His name is on the 
clay tablets of the tombs of Tel 
Sifr. 

Sin-sbada. He repaired the palace at 
Wurka. 

Znr-sin. , . 

Rim-sin. A stone tablet bearing his 

name was found in Mugeyer. 
Naram-sin. The last four monarchs, 
bearing the epithet Sin, were espe- 
cial devotees of the moon-god. 
Merodach-adan-akhi. He defeated the 
Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I. 
. Babylon was invaded by Shamas-phul ; 
and in 

by Phulukh (Pul), who received the 

homage of the Babylonians ; in 
by Sargon, who defeated Merodach- 
Baladan ; and in 
by Sennacherib. 

The Babylonian empire was, during 
the whole of this period, at least 
since about 1300, alternately free 
from Assyria and dependent on it. 
It was materially weakened, pro- 
bably subjugated, by Sennacherib. 
Afterwards Babylonia was con- 
quered by the Chaldeans from Kur- 
distan ; and a new Babylonian em- 
pire was founded under Nabopo- 
lassar. The succeeding monarchs 
are therefore of the Chaldean dy- 
nasty. 

Nabopolassar. His name has been 
read on tablets from Wurka. Be 
reigned 21 years. 



so 



B.C. 



Na^oknduri-iiznr (Xebiichadnezzar). 
Ke repaired the temple of tlie seTen 
spheres in Birs 2simrud, originally 
erected by MerodactL-aclan-aklii. The 
Inscriptions enumerate tlie various 
work: 



I Tras found almost hopeless. All such plans, 
'liovreyer, vvere frustrated hy Alexanders 
I death. Ado it ceased to he a metropolis. 
The Selcucidce (Syrian kings) made Autioch 
their capital: a' new city, Seleucia, was 
i framded near Bahylon : and for it^ and for 
from 



orkshe executed, detail his west! i various ^^^^r towns from time to 
■n rnnnnp^ts nnd record ti' e ^nl)- ' ^''^mg m its ricinitA, x^aly , n furnished 
^1o?^'S'1Se'^oiSiS^ 0^ ^x^e ^-arerials, till its inhabitant, perished from 



jection of the countries on the 
Mediterranean : they contain, also, 
an obscure allusion to his tempo- 
rary insanity : but there is no men- 
tion made of the captivity of the 
Jews. This monarch's name is also 
inscribed on tablets of TS'urka. He 
reii^ncd 43 years. 
5G1. Evil-5rerodach, or Elvarodam. 

Bel-adiii-ingar (or Bel-shum-ingar : 
comp. the Samgar-Xebo of Jer. 
xxxix. 3). He had been i^rovincial 
governor under Nebuchadnezzar, 
and probably was never really king, 
though so styled to give a colour- 
ing to his son's claim to the throne. 
559. ^"■ergal-shar-uzur (Xeriglissar : 
Jer. xxxix. 3), 



he studiously avoided mentioning 
^Tebuchadnezzar's name, whose of- 
ficer he had been, referring to him 
merely as a former king. He had 
married Nebuchadnezzar's daugh- 
ter ; so that Evil-Merodach, against 
whom he fought, was his brother- 
in-law. 

555. Nabonidus, the last Babylonian king. 
He built a temple to the moon at 
Ur of the Chaldees. The prayer on 
the monuments is for 
Belshar-ezer (Belshazzar), his eldest 
son, whom he probably made co- 
resrent. The name of Nabonidus is 
also on the bricks of the red mound 
of Senkerch. 

53S. Babylon wa; 
tablished 



and its mo^t magnificent structure; 
became unsightly heaps. 

The descriptions Ave have of ancient Ba- 
bylon show it to have been of vast size and 
astonishing magnificence. Herodotus and 
Ctesias both saw it, if not in its greatest 
glory, at least when it had suffered compa- 
ratively little. Their accounts do not ex- 
actly tally ; yet the main features of them 
are 'the sanie. They describe Babylon as 
built upon the Euphrates ; that river run- 
ning through it. It was four-s^iuare, sur- 
rounded by a deep moat, and enclosed 
within a vast circuit of double walls, mea- 
suring. Herodotus say5,4S0 stadia, i.e. about 
5G miles. Ctesias. however, gives a smaller 
On the monuments, I measui-nient, 360 stadia, or about 42_ inih^s. 



Probably Herodotus, who speaks of an outer 
and an inner wall, means the circuit of 
the outermost ; while Ctesias, who men- 
tions onlv one, may have referred to that 
which was the inner. The height of these ; 
walls must bare been enormous : 200 royal ; 
cubits, or 337ifeet. according to Herodotus, I 
50 fathoms, or 300 feet, according to Cte- 
sias ; and, though other authorities dimin- 
ish these estimates, yet writers well Quali- 
fied to judge believe them trustworthy. 
Herodotus describes the thickness of the 
walls as 50 royal cubits, or abuut 85 feet. 
Smaller measurements are given by others ; 
but perhaps these referred to the interior 
walls specially declared by Herodotus to be 
narrower than the outer ones. Two hun- 
■ ' to liave been 



^-,,0 p^. 1 dred and fifty towers are said to have been 
Ibe ^S.Sn eS^^^^ T^^^^^ irregular intervals along the 

the Pel =ian empire. ^^.^^^ strengthen the weakest parts ; and 



From these different sources, ; 



..•alls, to strengthen the weakest parts ; and 
tolerable ! there were one hundred gates of brass. 



with brazen side-posts and hntels. If these 
descriptions be thought exaggerated, it 
must be observed, that in several points 
they are corroborated by scripture testi- 
monv. The brazen gates are mentioned by 
Isaiah (Isai. xlr. 1, 2) ; and the massive 
walls are commemorated by Jeremiah i^Jer. 
L 15, 11. 53, 55). 

The city was divided by great streets, 
crossing each other at right angles, those 
which led to the river being closed with 



outline of Babylonian history may be con- 
structed. At an early period a powerful 
kingdom, Babylon declined before the ris- 
ing empire of Assyria. Nevertheless it was 
not absorbed into that monarchy. It had 
still its own monarchs, and, though some- 
times oblised to bend, and even conquered 
"bv its miehty neighbour, it was generally 
gatlierinsr" strength till, on the fall of Ni- 
neveh, Babylon became the great Asiatic 

power, the head of the countries over which ..^..^ ^ — i - . ^ 

A^^vria had reisned. In this period of | brazen gates, through which access to the 
y.ir::.,^^.,>v Babvlon was proud and luxu-j quays was gained. These quays lined txie 
r^Vn~ - i^ut at L-n-rh the Persian invasion i banks of the Euphrates along ns whole 
cime • and then the ^rreat citv beean to | course through the city. The streaui was 
sink into the ruin from which she never crossed by a bridge, at each extremity of 
emerged The defences after Cyrus's con- which was a royal palace ; that at the eastern 
qucnVere dilapidated and neglected. It side being larger and more magnmcent 
1^ trurthat Babylon was still one of the 1 than the other. This palace ^as near,y 
capitals of the new monarchy; and the i seven miles m circuit, enclosed bytlnte 
Persians made it a place of royal re.sidence. | ioity walls_ %vith prodigious Jowejs. ^ Jhe 
But it revolted, and was subdued again and 
a--iin. twice in the reiu-u of Darius Hys- 
ta^pis, once in that of Xerxe=. Each con- 
quest lowered it ; and the process of decay 
j went on, 
1 desired to 



when Alexander the Great 



second wall was 300 feet high, the interior 
still hisher, of coloured brick, representing 
fi^ures^and hunting-scenes. The smaller 
palace had a hiu-u wall 3^ miles in circum- 
ferf^nce, and was similarly embellished. 



restore it to splendour the task 1 These structures were united by, beside* 



hi 



tlie bridge, a tunnel under the river. A 
magnificent temple is also described. This, 
the temple oi Belus, rose from a base of 
200 yards every way. It was of pyramidal , 
form, eight square compartments or stages 
being placed one upon another. A winding | 
ascent, passing round all the stories, led to i 
the platform on the simimit, on which I 
stood a chapel or shrine, containing no | 
statue, but where the god was believed to 
dwell. Hanging-gardens are, moreover, 
mentioned, rising in terraces, on the top- 
most of which grew trees of a vast size 
(Prideaux, Connexion, vol. i. pp. 80-89; New- 
ton, Diss, on Froph. Diss, x.; ' Ruins of Ba- 
bylon ' in Amer. Bibl. Bepos., July, 1834, pp. 
158-189 ; Winer, Bibl.RWB., art. 'Babel.' 

Such is a condensed summary of the size 
and splendour of this mighty city. The 
accounts differ, as above acknowledged, m 
detail, but substantially they agree. So 
that it is clear that Babylon, vast and pow- 
erful, defended by the strongest bulwarks, 
and garrisoned by a multitudinous popula- 
tion, standing in the very highway of the 
world's business, might fairly have been 
expected to last out through all ages, or, if 
she lost her empire, at least to have re- 
tained her existence. Why should not Ba- 
bylon, as well as Damascus, Hebron, Joppa, 
Jerusalem, be still the abode of men ? 

Were any one now to proclaim of the 
great cities of the earth, of London, Paris, 
&c not merely that they should suffer, or 
be plundered, but that where their crowded 
millions congregate there should be deso- 
lation, no human habitation within their 
precincts, doleful creatures alone frequent- 
ing their ruins, and that at no distant date, 
their time of fall being near to come, their 
days not to be prolonged, ' I presume,' as 
Bishop Newton says, ' we should look upon 
such a prophet as a madman, and show no 
farther attention to his message than to 
deride and despise it.' Yet it was m the 
palmiest days of Babylon, it was even be- 
fore she had attained her full splendour, 
that the history of her entire and disgrace- 
ful fall was predicted by the Hebrew pro- 
phets Surely it is not possible to read 
their words of Babylon's then-future doom, 
and to compare them with the result, with- 
out a full conviction that these men fetched 
their knowledge of things to come froni 
the secret communications of the Most 

We must examine somg of these predic- 
tions. Isaiah describes In emphatic terms 
the haughtiness of Babylon, ' Babylon, 
the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the 
Chaldees' excellency' (Isai. xui. 19) ; the 
golden city ;' claiming;?odlike power. Thou 

hast said in thine heart I will ascend 

above the heights of the clouds: I will be 
like the Most High' (xiv. 4, 13, 14) ; boasting 
in her security, ' Thou saidst, I shall be a 
lady for ever . . . thou that art given to 
pleasures, that dwellest carelessly, that 
sayest in thy heart, I am, and none else 
besides me : I shall not sit as a widow, 
neither shall I know the loss of children, 
(xlvii 7 8). But even then the nations 
were "designated that should destroy her : 
•The noise of a multitude in the moun- 



tains, like as of a great people ; a tumul- 
tuous noise of the kingdoms of nations 
gathered together: the Lord of Hosts 
mustereth the host of the battle.' * Behold 
I will stir up DheMedes against them ' (xiii. 
4, 17) : ' Go up, O Elam, besiege, O Media' 
(xxi. 2) ; and the very warrior is addressed 
by his title who should pour his victorious 
legions on the devoted city : ' Thus saith 
the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose 
right hand I have holden,to subdue nations 
before him ; and I will loose the loins of 
kings, to open before him the two-leaved 
gates; and the gates shall not be shut' 
(xlv, 1, 2). And the awful sentence is read, 
' Babylon . . . shall never be inhabited, 
neither shall it be dwelt in from generation 
to generation ; neither shall the Arabian 
pitch tent there ; neither shall the shep- 
herds make their fold there; but wild 
beasts of the desert shall lie there ; and 
their houses shall be full of doleful crea- 
tures ; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs 
shall dance there, and the wild beasts of 
the islands shall cry in their desolate 
houses, and dragons in their pleasant pa- 
laces' (xiii. 19-22). It must be observed 
that certain critics, swayed mainly, it may 
almost be thought, by an indisposition to 
believe that God could so long beforehand 
reveal futurity to his prophets, ' declaring 
the end from the beginning' (xlvi. 10), have 
maintained that some of the chapters of 
Isaiah were really written by one who lived 
in the time of the captivity. This theory 
will not bear investigation. It has been 
proved untenable. See Isaiah. But, even 
supposing it were just, little difference 
would be made in the argument. If all the 
seers that foreboded the doom of Babylon 
could be shown to have lived at the capti- 
vity, what then ? Babylon was still at her 
height of power ; and the prophetic utter- 
ances look far onward, receiving more com- 
pletely their fulfilment in subsequent ages, 
and testifying to what our own eyes can 
see of the state of Babylon. It is not 
merely that prophecy declares that the city 
should be taken and should fall ; it describes 
its utter wasteness and world-long desola- 
tion. And here is the moral wonder, that 
this should so long ago have been por- 
trayed. 

Let us add a fewmore predictions, taken 
from Jeremiah, who lived in the reign of 
Nebuchadnezzar, and can hardly be sup- 
posed to have survived that great monarch. 
' It shall come to pass, when seventy years 
are accomplished, that I will punish the 
king of Babylon, and that nation, saith 
the Lord, for 'their iniquity, and the land 
of the Chaldeans, and will make it per- 
petual desolations' (Jer. xxv. 12). And 
actual details are given : ' Babylon is taken : 
Bel is confounded : Merodach is broken in 
pieces : her idols are confounded : her 
images are broken in pieces. For out of 
the north there cometh up a nation against 
her, which shall make her land desolate; 
and none shall dwell therein : they shall 
remove, they shall depart, both man and 
beast' (1. 2, 3). ' Babylon is suddenly fallen 
and destroyed : howl for her : take balm 
for her pain, if so be she may be healed 



baeel] 



82 



TTe would have healed Babylon ; "but she is 
not healed. . . . O thou that dwellest upon 
many waters, abundant in' treasures, thine 
end is come, and the measure ot thy cove- 
tousness. . . The mighty men o± Babylon 
have forborne to fight, they have remained 
in their holds : their might hath failed : 
they became as women : they have burnt 
her dwelling-places : her bars are broken. 
One post shall run to meet another, and 
one messenger to meet another, to show 
the king of Babylon that his city is taken 
at one end, and that the passages are 
stopped, and the reeds they hare burnt 
with fire, and the men of war are affrighted. 
. . . And Babylon shall become heaps, a 



All this ruin fell upon Babylon, as it 
had been foretold. The golden city became 
heaps of rubbish. And so completely was 
its magnificence swept off by the ' besom 
of destruction,' that the very site of it was 
for long a perplexing mystery. Modern in- 
vestigations, while they have exactly dis- 
covered what once was Babylon, liave 
shown us yet more satisfactorily how the 
threatened' doom was executed. 

It would require a volume to describe 
the ruins of this gi-eat city. Only some 
brief particulars can be detailed here. On 
the banks of the Euphrates,' says Kalisch 
(p. 314\ ' about 40 miles south-west of 
Baghdad, lies the town Hillah, which. 




Plan of Babylon. Sir R. Ker Porter. 

A Babil, or Mujelibeh. B Kasr. C Amran-ben-Ali. T> Enclosure, and building within it, 
perhaps once connected with ruins on the left bank, also marked ]). E Parallel lines of 
rampart, F Lines of rampart meeting at a right angle. H Embankment aJong the river 
side. 



dwelling-place for dragons, an astonish- 
ment and an hissing, without an inhabitant. 
. . . The sea is come up upon Babylon : she 
is covered with the multitude of the waves 
thereof. Her cities are a desolation, a dry 
land, and a wilderness, a land wherein no 
man dwelleth, neither doth any son of man 
pass thereby. . . , for the Lord God of re- 
compences shall surely requite. And I wiU 
make drunk her princes, and her wise men, 
her captains, and her rulers, and her mighty 
men ; and they shall sleep a perpetual sleep, 
and not wake, saith the King, whose name 
is the Lord of hosts. Thus saith the Lord 
of hosts : The broad walls of Babylon shall 
be utterly broken ; and her high gates shall 
be burnt with fire; and the people shall 
labour in vain, and the folk in the fire, and 
they shall be weary' (li. 8, 9, 13, 30-32, 37, 42, 
43, 56-58). 



though next to Baghdad and Basra the 
grea:;est in the pashalik, is meanly and ir- 
regularly built, narrow and dirty, with di- 
lapidated mosques and public baths ; but it 
is enclosed by a strong wall, and well pro- 
tected by a garrison, towers, and a battery, 
and contains a population of about 10,000 
Jews and Arabs, carrying on a rather-ani- 
mated commerce on the Euphrates. This 
town is in almost all directions surrounded 
by immense ruins, appearing the work of 
nature rather than of men, shapeless heaps 
of rubbish, lofty banks of ancient canals, 
fragments of glass, marble, pottery, and 
bricks, mingled with a nitrous soil which 
impedes all vegetation, and renders the 
neighbourhood " a naked and hideous 
waste," re-echoing only the dismal sounds 
of the owl and jackal, of the hyena and 
the lawless robber. These piles mark the 



area once occupied, by the mistress of tlie 
ancient world' The ruins are chiefly on 
the left or eastern bank of the Euphrates ; 
the town of Hillah being on the western 
side. The most remarkable are two long 
lines of rampart which meet at a right 
angle : these form, with the river, a kind 
of 'triangle, and thus enclose most of the 



plain, and is tolerably flat at the top. It is 
composed chiefly of unbaked bricks ; but 
Dr. Layard has shown {Nineveh and Bcv- 
hylon, pp. 503-505) that it was originally 
coated with fine burnt bricks, cemented 
with good mortar. It was probably built 
in stages. In the excavations which have 
been made here, cofflus with skeletons, 



Babil or Mujelibeh, 



noted masses. Subtending the angle at 
which these ramparts meet arc two other 
parallel lines running nearly due north and 
south. Between these and the river are 
the principal ruins. But the remarkable 
mass of Babil lies without the ramparts to 
the north : next, proceeding southward, is 



arrow-heads in bronze and iron, small glasa 
bottles, and glazed pottery, &c., have been 
found, together with bricks inscribed with 
the name of Nebuchadnezzar. This has 
been supposed to be the remnant of the 
ancient temple of Belus, which Nebuchad- 
nezzar re-bui!t. 




the Kasr ; after that the mound of Amran- 
ben-Ali; and at some distance to the south- 
west on the western side of the Euphrates 
is the Birs Nimrud. 

The mass called Babil, or Mujelibeh, 6 
or 7 miles north of Hillah, is oblong in 
shape, about 200 yards long and 140 broad. 
Tt rises to the height of 140 feet above the 




The Kasr, probably the great palace of 
Nebuchadnezzar, Is an ii-regular square of 
about 700 yards. In the centre rises a solid 
mass of masonry, in which architectural 
ornaments are still to be seen, piers, but- 
tresses, and pilasters. The walls are of 
burnt brick, of a pale yellow colour, united 
by a fine lime cement, and on each are the 



babel] 



84 



name and titles of IS'ebucliadnezzar. ' This 
Tonderfal piece of masonry is so perfect 
and so fresh in colour, that it seems hut 
the work of yesterday, although it is un- 
doubtedly part of a building which stood 
in the midst of old Babylon.' The rest of 
the ruins are masses of rubbish, and have 
contributed for many generations mate- 
rials for the building of neighbouring 
towns. In this rubbish, however, have 
been found some slabs inscribed by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, with an account of the con- 
struction of the edifice; also enamelled 
bricks of various colours. These colours, 
briJliant blue, red, deep yellow, white, and 
black, retain much of their original bright- 
ness ; and portions of figures are still trace- 
able in them. There are other remarkable 
features of the Kasr, a subterranean pas- 
sage Availed and floored with bricks, a huge 
lion standing over a man with out-stretched 
arms, &c., which many travellers have de- 
scribed. 

The mound called Amran-hen-AU has its 



name fi'om the domed tomb of a Moham- 
medan saint, which stands upon its sum- 
mit. According to Rich, it is an irregular 
parallelosram, 1,100 yards by 800 ; but others 
give it a'diflerent shape, and describe it as 
of difEereut dimensions. Iso masonry is 
visible ; and the materials of it are thought 
to be of an inferior description. It has 
been supposed to be the remains of the 
ancient hanging-gardens : if so, it must be 
of the palace also to which they were at- 
tached, as the mass is far larger than the 
site occupied by the gardens. Mr.Rawlm- 
son, in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. 
p 154, savs: 'Most probably it represents 
the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon it- 
self of which Iisebuchadnezzar speaks in 
his Inscriptions as adjoining his ovm more 
magnificent residence. It is the only part 
of the ruins from which bricks have been 
derived containing the names of kings 
earlier than Nebuchadnezzar, and is there- 
fore entitled to be considered the most 
ancient of tlie existing remains.' This 
mound served, in later times, for a bury- 



inff-place. Here have been found curious 
terra-cotta bowls. Round their inner sur- 
face are inscriptions in old Chaldee, but 
written in strange mixed characters. They 
appear to have been charms against evil 
spirits. They are believed to date from 
tiie third century before Christ to the llith 
century after Christ. 

Some of the less important remains in 
the immediate neighbourhood of those 
which have been just described are thought 
to indicate the site of the smaller palace, of 
the bridge over the Euphrates, &c. But 
there is "one more distant structm-e of im 
posing proportions, which was long sup- 
posed to be the ruined tower of Babel. 
This is cnMed ihe Birs Nimrud,a.l)QVit six 
miles to the south-west of Hillah, and con- 
sequentlv west of the Euphrates, and about 
the same' distance from it ; and it seems to 
be pretty well ascertained that it did not 
belong t^o Babylon itself, but to the neigh- 
bouring town of Borsippa. This vast mass 
is described as consisting of two distinct 




parts, but both enclosed by the same wall. 
The western portion, though lower, is the 
lareer of the two, 1,200 feet in diameter : it 
is traversed by ravines and water-courses, 
and has upon its summit two small Mo- 
hammedan mosques. The higher mound 
rises abruptly on the western face, but on 
the other side are a series of gradations or 
«tage= The walls are of vast thickness, 
and allow at half their height a circuit 
round the ruins. The bricks of tlie ex- 
terior are for the most part kiln-bunit: 
those of the interior are mixed with 
chopped straw and baked in the sun ; and 
the whole mass is pierced with square 
holes. The hiehest part is a wonderful , 
specimen of Babylonian architecture, a | 
solid piece of masonry 28 feet broad and | 
35 feet in height, so compacted that a piece j 
cannot be separated from the rest. It has | 
been shattered and cloven by some cata- i 
strophe, probably by fire ; but it still stands ; 
erect. The view from the top is said to i 
pre=ient a scene of most striking utter de- ; 
=oiation. From a careful examination of 




Bire Nimrad. 



85 



[babel 



the Birs in its present state, the form and 
character of the original building may be 
reasonably conjectured. It must have been 
a kind of oblique pyramid : ' Upon a plat- 
form of crude brick:, raised a few feet above 
the level of the alluvial plain, was built of 
burnt brick the first or basement stage, an 
exact square, 272 feet each way, and 26 feet 
in perpendicular height. Upon this stage 
was erected a second, 230 feet each way, 
and likewise 26 feet high, which, however, 
was not placed exactly in the middle of the 
first, but considerably nearer to the south- 
vfestern end, which constituted the back of 
the building. Tlie other stages v/ere ar- 
ranged similarly ; the third being 188 feet, 
and again 26 feet high ; the fourth, 146 feet 
square, and 15 feet high ; the fifth, 104 feet 
square, and the same height as the fourth ; 
the sixth, 62 feet square, and again the 
same height ; and the seventh, 20 feet 
square, and once more the same height. 
On the seventh stage there was probably 
placed the ark, or tabernacle, which seems 
to have been again 15 feet high, and must 
have nearly, if not entirely, covered the top 
of the seventh story. The entire original 
height, allowing 3 feet for the platform, 
would thus have been 156 feet, or, without 
the platform, 153 feet. The whole formed 
a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler slope 
facing the north-east, and the steeper in- 
clining to the south-west. On the north- 
east side was the grand entrance ; and here 
stood the vestibule, a separate building, 
the debris from which, having joined those 
from the temple itself, fill up the interme- 
diate space, and very remarkably prolong 
the mound in this direccion' (Rawlinson's 
Herodotus, Vol. ii. pp. 582, 583). This was 
called the Temple of the Seven Spheres; 
and the different stages were appropriated 
to the heavenly bodies, and were differently 
coloured according to the rules of Sabgean 
astrology : thus, the lowest was black, as 
dedicated to Saturn ; the second, to Jupi- 
ter, was orange ; the third, red, in honour 
of Mars ; the fourth was devoted to the 
sun, and was gold-coloui'ed ; the fifth, white 
(or, according to some, yellow), to Venus ; 
the sixth, blue, consecrated to Mercury; 
while the seventh belonged to the moon, 
and was silver-coloured, or silvery green. 
According to the inscriptions, tbis temple 
was founded more than 1100 years B.C. by 
Merodach-adan-akhi. He did not, however 
complete it ; and the portions he erected fell 
into decay. Nebuchadnezzar, some cen- 
turies after, repaired and finished it. It was 
partially destroyed by Xerxes. Alexander 
the Great determined to restore it ; but, 
after considerable labour had been be- 
stowed in trying to clear away the rubbish 
he abandoned the design. And so it 
mouldered on. Various relics have been 
discovered here. 

Such has been the fall of haughty Ba- 
bylon. Who shall say tliat the word of the 
Lord spoken by his servants the prophets 
has not been literally and most marvel- 
lously fulfilled? 

A few words must be said in regard to 
the religion of the Babylonians or Chal- 
deans. It was nearly allied to that of the 



Assyrians (some of whose gods have been 
already named : see Assyria) ; the same 
beings, though with some difference of 
name or of position, being reverenced by 
both peoples. 

The religion of Chaldea, according tc 
Rawlinson, was to a certain extent astral 
The heaven itself, the sun, the moon, the 
five then-known planets, all had their re- 
presentatives as chief objects of worship. 
But this astral element Avas partial. The 
religion was not mere Sabteanism, the ado- 
ration of the heavenly host ; and the gods 
corresponding to the sun and moon and 
planets were more than simple representa- 
tions of those natural objects. They had a 
life and history attributed to them, as in 
classical mythology, and seem to have 
denoted deified heroes rather than celestial 
bodies. 

At the head of the Pantheon was II or 
Ra, considered the fount and origin of 
deity. In Assyria, however, Asshur was the 
chief. Next to II came a triad : Ana, Bil or 
Belus, and Hea or Hoa ; answering to the 
classical Pluto, Jupiter, and Neptune re- 
spectively. Each of these was coupled 
with a female principle, or wife : that of 
Ana was called Anat ; of Bil, Mulita or 
Beltis ; of Hea, Davkina. Another triad 
succeeded : Sin or Hurki, the moon-god, 
married to one whose name is unknown, 
but who is designated as 'the great lady' ; 
San or Sansi, the sun, married to Ai, Gula 
or An unit ; and Vul (?) the god of the atmo- 
sphere, whose wife was Shala or Tala. Five 
inferior deities then followed : Nin or 
Ninip (Saturn), Merodach (Jupiter), Nergal 
(Mars), Ishtar (Venus), Nebo (Mercury) , 
some of them having wives. These were 
the principal gods, among whom a certain 
relationship existed. After them come the 
second and third orders, in which vast 
numbers were reckoned. Many of these 
deities had their special places of worship 
in particular cities. Thus, Babylon was 
under the protection of II; though in the 
great temple there Bil, and, in later times, 
Merodach, was peculiarly honoured. But 
possibly the same deity may have been in- 
tended by both names. And it must be 
understood that there is as yet some uncer- 
tainty in regard to the mythology of both 
Assyria and Babylon. Bil has usually an 
adjunct, Nipru ; and Bil-Nipru (hunter- 
lord, perhaps Nimrod) was worshipped 
chiefly at Nipur (Niffer) or Cain eh. Ana 
was adored at Erech {Wurka). The moon- 
god had his principal shrine at Ur {Mugheir) ; 
the sun-god, at Larsa or EUasar, and Sip- 
para. Nin, the fish-god, had one famous 
temple at Nineveh and another at Calah 
(Mmrildl). The chief seat of Nebo's wor- 
ship was at Borsippa, where the Birs was 
dedicated to him. Nergal's emblem was 
the man-lion of the sculptures : Cutha was 
his particular city. 

' Among the follies and fables of Babylo- 
nian idolatry some ti'ace of original truth 
may be discerned. Thus, they had tradi- 
tions of the Creation and of the Flood, 
based, it would seem, on scripture history. 
There was also a remembrance preserved 
of the great tower erected on the plains of 



babel] 



86 



Sliinar, and of the events connected there- 
with. See Rawlinson's Five Great Monar- 
chies, chap. vii. vol. i. pp. 138-188 ; also 
Herodotus, App. hook i. essay x. vol. i. 
pp. 584-642. 

BABEL, TOWER OF. See BABEL. 

BA'BI a Esdr. viii. 37). A form of Behal 
(Ezra Yiii. 11). 

BAB'YLON. The Greek form of Babel, 
which see.— 2. A place where there was 
a Christian church, from which St. Peter 
sends a salutation (1 Pet. v. 13). It has 
heeu much disputed whether the apostle 
meant the great city so called : It Is most 
probable that he did. See Peter, Epistles 
OF.— 3. The word Is frequently used symho- 

"tilSa^oVrlsi: ¥li'e fASiiiih.s Of Ba- 
bylon (Ezra iv. 9). A colony of them had 
been planted in the cities of Samaria. _ 

BABYLO'NISH (Josh. vii. 21). Belonging 
to Babylon. The original is 'garment of 
Shiuar; . ^ . ,i 

BA'OA (weepina, Jamentation). A valley 
in Palestine, probably sterile (Psal. Ixxxiv. 
6). The pilgrim- journeys to Jerusalem are 
here described. Those who so go up, ' pass- 
ing through the valley of weeping, make 
it a spring,' i.e. the sterile land becomes to 
them a watered valley. The plural of this 
word is rendered ' mulberry trees' in 2 Sam. 
V. 23, 24 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 14, 15. 

BAC'CHIBES. A governor of Meso- 
potamia, whom Demetrius Soter sent into 
Judea. Three expeditions of his are men- 
tioned ; in the second of which Judas 
Maccabeus was defeated and slain : the 
result of the last was a peace concluded 
with Jonathan, the brother of Judas (1 
Mace, vii., ix"). 

BACCEU'RUS. A singer (1 Esdr. ix. 24). 
BACCHUS, or Dionysus. The name of 
the god of wine in classic mythology. Ki- 
canor threatened to erect a temple to him 
on the site of the temple at Jerusalem (2 
Mace. xiv. 33). And the Jews were forced 
by Antiochus Epiphanes to go in proces- 
sion, carrying ivy at his feast (vi. 7). 

BACE'NOB. Probably captain of a troop 
under Judas Maccabeus (2 Mace. xii. 35). 

BACH'IllTES (Numb. xxvi. 35). A family 
of Ephraim, through Becher. which see. 

Bx\D(^ER. The word occurs generally m 
connection with skins (Exod. xxv. 5, xxvi. 
14, XXXV. 7, 23, xxxvi. 19, xxxix. 34 ; Numb, 
iv. 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 25). The ancient ver- 
sions supposed it significative of a colour ; 
but for such a supposition there is no suf- 
ficient ground. It must have denoted the 
skin of some animal, wbicli was used as 
an outer covering for the tabernacle and 
its appurtenances, and as shoes for females 
(Ezek. xvi. 10). And, though certainly there 
are reasons which make in favour of con- 
sidering the animal in question literally a 
badger, yet we may mucli more probably 
suppose that the seal is intended. Seals 
were numerous on the stores of the penin- 
sula of Sinai : tents were covered with seal- 
skins (Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. ii. 56) ; and to 
this day shoes are made of them. 

BAG, BAGS. * This is the earliest indica- 
tion,' says Dr. Kitto, Pictorial Bible, on 
2 Kings xii. 10, 'of a still-subsisting eastern 



custom, under which, to save the trouble 
of repeated counting, a certain sum is put 
up in a bag, which, being sealed and pro- 
perly labelled, passes current (in Turkey 
ander the name of "a purse") for tlie 
amount it contains. It is the authority of 
the seal which gives the bag currency ; for 
the seal is that of a public officer, or of a 
person of known responsibility ; and, if, 
when at length opened, any deficiency 
should appear, he is bound to make it good, 
if the claimant can prove that the bag was 
previously free from any marks oE violence, 
and that the seal remained unbroken.' Tlie 
word is elsewhere used in our version for 
a scrip, wallet, purse, &c. 

BA'GO (1 Esdr. viii. 40). A corrupted 
form of Bigvai (Ezra viii. 14). 

B AGO' AS. An eunuch under Holo^ernes 
(Judith xii. 11). 

BA'GOia Esdr. v. 14). A corrupted form 
of Bigvai (Ezra ii. 14), 

BAHARU'MITE, or BARHU'MITE. A 
native of Bahurim (1 Chron. xi. 33). In 
2 Sam. xxiii. 31 the word is Barhumite. 

BAHU'RIM (yoimg meii). A village ap- 
parently belonging to Benjamin, not far 
from Jerusalem, beyond Olivet to the east, 
on one of the roads leading to the Jordan, 
from which Shimei came out to curse David 
(2 Sam. xvi. 5), and where Jonathan and 
Ahimaaz were hid in a well (xvii. 17-21). 
Azmaveth, called the Barhumite (xxiii. 31) 
and the Baharumite (1 Chron. xi. 33), was 
probably a native of this place. 

BA'JITH (liouse, or temple). This word 
has the article in the original (Isai. xv. 2) ; 
it is not, therefore, a proper name, but 
signifies ' the temple,' doubtless the prin- 
cipal one, of Chemosh. It is probably 
identical with the ' sanctuary ' (xvi. 12). 

BAKBAK'KAR (xvastmg of the moimt, or, 
according to some, diligent searching). A 
Levite (1 Chron. ix. 15). 

BAK'BUK (a bottle). The children of 
Bakbuk, Nethinims, returned from cap- 
tivity (Ezra ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 5.3). 

BAKBUKI'AH (emptying or wasting oj 
Jehovah). A Levite (Neh. xi. 17, xii. 9, 25). 
It is not certain that the Bakbukiah of the 
last place is the individual mentioned in 
the former two. 
BAKER, BAKING. See BREAD. 
BA'LAAM (foreigner, otherwise destruc- 
tion of the people). Balaam was the son of 
Beor (Bosor, 2 Pet.ii. 15) ; and his dwelling 
was at Pethor in Mesopotamia (Dent, 
xxiii. 4). He gained so great a reputation 
as a prophet, that it was believed that his 
blessings or curses could influence the 
destinies of nations. Accordingly, when 
the Moabites and Midianites ai-^prehended 
danger from the advance of Israel, they 
sent to Balaam with offers of reward if he 
would go and curse the Hebrew tribes. 
The prophet was unwilling to lose the 
opportunity of aggrandisement, though he 
professed obedience to God, who warned 
him that the Israelites were blessed, and 
rebuked him by an angel, and by the por- 
tent of his ass speaking. Some expositors 
imagine that this was not a real event, but 
a vision, because Balaam expressed no 
surprise, and his companions do not seem 



87 ^tblt mixntalel?ge. [balnuus 


to hare witnessed it, and also because he 
afterwards speaks (according to our ver- 
sion, the accuracy of which may he ques- 
tioned) of falling into a trance (Numb, 
xxiv 3, 4, 15, 16). But the testimony of the 
apostle Peter (2 Pet. ii. 16) seems decisive 
as to the actual occurrence of the fact. It 
is true that the genuineness of 2 Peter has 
been suspected, but not on sufficient 
grounds. See Peter, Epistles of. The 
humble believer, therefore, need not ques- 
tion the miraculous interposition of the 
Deity at such a critical poiut in the history 
of his chosen people. 

When Balaam came to Balak, instead of 
pronouncing curses, he uttered, under 
divine inspiration, blessings upon Israel, 
and, being dismissed by the king of Moab 
in anger, he delivered a remarkable preaic- 
tion reaching to the times of Messiah 
(Numb, xxii., xxiii., xxiv.). Some difficulty 
has been felt because, in xxiv. 25, we are 
told that Balaam 'returned to his place,' 
while, in xxxi. 8, 16, he is said to have 
given evil counsel to the Midianites, and 
to have fallen in the war of that nation 
with Israel. But Ave may suppose that he 
went to his own home, and afterwards 
returned to Midian ; or, more probably, as 
the elders of Midian as well as of Moab 
invited him at first, that on his journey 
liomewards (see a somewhat-similar ex- 
pression In Jonah iv. 2; for Jonah did 
not really reach Tarshish) passing into 
Midian he lingered there, perhaps afresh 
incited by eager greed, and there gave 
that fatal counsel which proved his own 
destruction ; so that he is a beacon to warn 
the world that the highest gifts may be 
possessed, nay, even the prophetic spirit, 
and yet the possessor be graceless and a 
castaway. Balaam is referred to in Micah 
vi. 5 ; Rev. ii. 14. The meaning of Nicolaus, 
the name of the founder of the sect con- 
demned in the last passage, is identical 
with Balaam. Bishop Butler has a note- 
worthy sermon (vii.) on the character of 
Balaam. 

BA'LAO, for Balak (Rev. ii. 14). 

BAL'ADAN {Bel is his lord, i.e. wor- 
shipper of Bel). The father of i\Ierodach- 
Baladan, king of Babylon (2 Kings xx. 12 ; 
Isai. xxxix. 1). . . ^ 

BA'LAH (perhaps basTifulness). A town 
in the territory of Simeon (Josh. xix. 3). 
It is the same with Baalah (xv. 29), and 
Bilhah (1 Chron.iv. 29). See Biz.tothjah. 

BA'LAK (emptier, spoiler). The son of 
Zippor, king of Moab, who hired Balaam to 
curse the Israelites (Numb, xxii.-xxiv. ; 
Josh. xxiv. 9 ; Judges xi. 25 ; Micah vi 5j. 

BA'LAMO (Judith viii. 3). This has been 
supposed identical with Baal-Hamon. It 
is, however, but a conjecture. 

BALANCES. The HebrcAVS were com- 
manded to have 'just balances ' (Lev. xix. 
3C) The Avord from which the name m the 
original is derived signifies ' to poise : ' Ave 
may conclude, then, that these scales re- 
sembled those in ordinary use among our- 
selves. Wilkinson, describing the Egyp- 
tian balance, says, 'The principle of the 
common balance was simple and ingenious : 
the beam passed through a ring suspended 


from a horizontal rod immediately above 
and parallel to it ; and, when equally bar 
lanced, the ring, Avhich was large enough 
to allow the beam to play freely, shoAved 
when the scales were equally poised, and 
had the additional elfect of preventing the 
beam tilting when the goods Avere taken 
out of one and the Aveights suffered to re- 
main in the other. To the lower part of 
the ring a small plummet was fixed ; and 
this being touched by the hand and found 
to hang freely, indicated, Avithout the ne- 
cessity of looking at the beam, that the 
Aveight Avas just' (Anc. Egypt, vol. ii. p. 240). 
There Avas another Avord employed, of av Inch 
the original signification Avas the ' making 
level.' It is used Avith the former (Prov. 
xvi 11, translated 'weight;' Isai. xl. 12, 
translated ' scales'), and has been thought 
to be a ' steel-yard.' The balance is a sym- 
bol of justice and fair dealing (Job xxxi. 
6 • Psal Ixii. 9 ; Dan. v. 27). The notion im- 
plied, hoAveA-er, in Rev. vi. 5, 6, Avas that of 
scarcity. , . 
i?^£^»S'J.iW5^ a Esdr. IX. 43). 
BALDNESS. Natural baldness must have 
been uncommon among the Israelites, as 
it provoked derision (2 Kings u. 23). Be- 
sides, a suspicion of leprosy might attach 
to it, as Ave gather from the minute direc- 
tions of Lev. xiii. 4.0-43. But the head was 
sometimes shaven, as at the accomplish- 
ment of a Nazarite or other vow (Numb, 
vi. 18 ; Acts xAaii. 18). And this Avas a sign 
of mourning and degradation (Isai. iii. 24, 
XV 2 ; Jer. xlvii. 5, xlviii. 37 ; Ezek. vii. 18). 
The producing of artificial baldness Avas 
forbidden to the priests, and, in some mea- 
sure, to the Israelitish people, as being an 
imitation of heathen practices (Lev.xxi.5; 
Deut. xiv. 1 ; Ezek. xHa^ 20), 

BALM, BALSAM-TREE. The gum of a 
tree or shrub mentioned as growing in 
Gilead; elsewhere also in Palestine. It 
was considered a choice product, used m 
healing Avounds, and AA'as an article of ex- 
port (C4en. XXX vii. 25, xliii. 11 ; Jer. viii. 22, 
xlAi. 11, li.8 ; Ezek.xxvii. 17, Avhere 'rosm' 
marg.). The original AVord is tzert, or tzurf ; 
and naturalists are not fully agreed as to 
the plant Avith which it is to be identified. 
Duns, however, says : ' After much discus- 
sion and countless theories, it may now 
be concluded that the tzert is the produce 
of a shrub known to botanists as the Bal- 
samodendron Gileadense, the generic name 
being that given to it by Theophrastus 
(balsamon dendroii). It belongs to the na- 
tural order of dicotyledonous plants Amy- 
ridacece, or myrrh family, a group remark- 
able for their fragrant resins. . .A spurious 
article is manufactured in Palestine from 
the fruit of one of the oleasters, called by 
the natives zukwn, and sold to travellers 
as the famous balm of Gilead' (Bibl. Nat 
Science, vol. i. pp. 466-471). Jahn (Bibl. Antiq., 
part i. chap. iv. 74) speaks of balm being dis- 
tilled from a tree indigenous near Mecca 
and Medina. The sap extracted from tlie 
trunk is opobalsamum, that from the 
branches cut off and boiled xylobalsamum, 
the juice of the fruit carpobalsaimim. 

BALNU'US a Esdr. ix. 31). Probably a 
corrupt form of Binnui (Ezra x. 30). 



I 



balthasae] 



8b 



BALTHA'SAB, A form of Belshazzar 
(Bar. i. 11, 12). 

BAOIAH {high •place). This word, fre- 
quently occurring in the Hebrew scrip- 
tures, is regarded as a proper name only in 
Kzek. XX. 29. The place is obscure, but; 
seems to imply that, iu spite of God's re- 
proof, the people still spoke of and ho- 
noured the high places where they were 
accustomed to sacrifice. 

BA'MOTH (heights). A station of the 
Israelites in the territory of Moab (jS"umb. 
xxi. 19, 20 : Gomp. 28) : it is probably alluded 
to in Isai. xv. 2, and would seem to be the 
same with 

BA'MOTH-BA'AL {heights of Baal) (Josh, 
xiii. 17 : comp. ISTumb. xxii. 41). This place 
was allotted to Reuben. The site may be 
on the present Jebel AUdrus. 

BAN (1 Esdr. y. 37). 

BANAI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 35). A form of 
Benaiah (Ezra x. 43). 

BAiS'D. The 'band' (:Matt. xxvii. 27) 
was the cohort, the tenth part of tlie 
Roman legion. Accompanying this band 
were the officers of the council, with ser- 
vants and others from the high priest (John 
xviii. 3, 12, 18). See Alford, Tlie Greek Test., 
note on Matt. xxvi. 47. 

BA'NI {built).— 1. A Gadite, one of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 36).— 2. A Levite, 
of the line of Merari (1 Chron. vi. 46j. 
— 3. A descendant of Judah (ix. 4). — 
4. One whose posterity returned from cap- 
tivity (Ezra ii. 10, x. 29, 34), called also 
Binnui (Neh, vii. 15).— 5. One of those sons 
of Bani who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra 
X. 38).— 6. A Levite (Neh. iii, 17).— 7. An- 
other Levite (viii. 7, ix. 4, 5, x. 13).— 
8, One who sealed the covenant, perhaps as 
representing the sons of Bani (x. 14). 
— 9. A Levite of the sons of Asaph (xi. 22), 
possibly the same witb Xo. 6 or 7. 

BA'NID (1 Esdr. viii. 36:'. 

BANISHMENT. See Punishmexts. 

BANK (Luke xix. 23). See Muney-chan- 

BANNAI'A a Esdr. ix. 33). 

BANNER (Exod. xvii. 15, marg. ; Psnl. 
XX. 5, Ix. 4 ; Sol. Song ii. 4, vi. 4 ; Isai. xiii. 
2). See Standard. 

BAN'NUS (1 Esdr. ix, 34) : comp. Ezra 
X. 38. 

BANQUET. Festal entertainments among 
the Hebrews had often a religious aspect : 
thus, they accompanied those great solem- 
nities of worship when the people were to 
appear before the Lord in the place where 
his sanctuary was (Deut. xvi. : comp. Tob, 
li. 1) ; they were usual, also, at the ordi- 
nary sacrifices (1 Sara. ix. 12, 13, xvi. 2,3; 
1 Kings iii. 15), and, besides, at the making 
of covenants (Gen. xxvi. 30, xxxi. 46, 54). 

Tlie more domestic occasions on which 
banquets were given were at the wean- 
ing of children (xxi. 8) ; at weddings 
(xxix. 22; Judges xiv. 10; John ii. 1-11) ; 
on birthdays, specially those of kings 
(Gen. xL 20; Job. 1. 4; Matt. xiv. 6); 
at certain rural anniversaries, as sheep- 
shearing (1 Sam. XXV. 2, 36 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 
23-29), harvest (Ruth iii. 2, 3, 7 ; Isai. ix. 3), 
vintage (Judges ix. 27) ; at funerals (2 Sam. 
iii. 35 ; Jer. xvi. 7 ; Ezek. xxi v. 17 ; Hos. 



ix. 4) ; and in the exercise of hospitality on 
the arrival or departure of friends, or 
even strangers (Gen. xviii. 2-8, xix. 3, 
xxxi. 27 ; 2 Sam. iii. 20, xii. 4 ; 2 Kings vi. 
22, 23 ; Luke v. 29, xv. 23, 24). Banquets 
were generally held in the evening ; and 
the beginning to feast early in the day is 
censured (Eccles. x. 16 ; Isai. v. 11, 12). 

Invitations were sent by servants (Prov. 
ix. 3; Matt. xxii. 3) ; and fitting prepara- 
tions were made, by killing oxen, mingling 
wine, and furnishing the table (Prov. ix. 2 ; 
Isai. xxii. 13 ; Matt. xxii. 4). It was then 
customary, when everything was ready, to 
send again to the invited guests. This 
practice survives to the present day, ' not 
very strictly among the common people, 
nor in cities where western manners have 
greatly modified the oriental; but in Le- 
banon it still prevails. If a sheikh . . . 
invites, he always sends a servant to call 
you at the proper time. This servant often 
repeats the very formula mentioned in 
Luke xiv. 17, " Come ; for the sitpper is 
ready." The fact that this custom is mainly 
confined to t^ie wealthy and to the nobility 
is in strict agreement with the parable, 
where the certain man who made the great 
supper and bade many is supposed to be of 
this class' (Dr. Thomson, The Land and the 
Book, p. 125). 

The guests, when they arrived, were 
bound to appear in befitting dress (Eccles. 
ix. 8; Matt. xxii. 11, 12). Sometimes the 
master of the house bestowed robes on 
those he entertained. It is not intended to 
say that this was ordinarily the custoni, 
yet there can be little doubt that on 
special occasions, particularly by sove- 
reigns, it was done (2 Kings x. 22). An 
oriental monarch now presents a robe of 
honour to persons admitted to his court. 
The guests were received with a kiss (Luke 
vii. 45) : water was offered for their feet if 
they had come from a journey (Gen. xviii. 
4, xix, 2, xliii. 24) : rich perfumes were 
pom'ed upon their head, beard, clothes, 
and sometimes feet (Psal. xxiii, 5 ; Amos 
vi. 6; Luke vii. 38, 46; John xii. 3) ; atid 
they were, it would seem, occasionally 
crowned with flowers (Wisd, ii, 7, 8). Per- 
sons were arranged at table (at which the 
ancient Hebrews sat ; though afterwards 
the custom of reclining was introduced) 
according to their rank and the honour' 
intended to be paid them (Gen. xliii. 33 ; 
1 Sam. ix. 22 ; Mark xii. 39 ; Luke xiv. 1-\0). 
Portions were selected by the master of the 
feast for each guest ; and a double or even 
five-fold portion, or some peculiar dainty, 
was taken to those who were specially ho- 
noured (Gen. xliii. .34; 1 Sam. ix. 23, 24). 
Joseph at his entertainment to his brethren 
sat at a separate table (Gen. xliii. 32), and 
to this circumstance, probably, the sending 
of messes is to be attributed : in ordinary 
cases, where all sat at one board, the cus- 
tom in this respect might differ little from 
otir own, save that it was probably the an- 
cient practice, as it certainly is at the pre- 
sent day, for an oriental entertainer, in his 
politeness, to pick out of the dish some 
choice morsel for an honoured guest, and 
even occasionally to insist on putting it 



89 



[baptism 



into his mouth. Portions were sometimes 
sent from the banquet to poorfriends (Neh. 
viii. 10, 12 ; Esth. ix. 19, 22) ; but this seems 
to have been more on occasions oi general 
festivity than at an ordinary social enter- 
tainment. The entertainer did not always 
preside ; for we find a ' governor,' or ' ruler 
of the feast,' distinct from the bridegroom 
who furnished the wedding entertainment 
(John ii. 8-10). This ' governor' was gene- 
rally some chosen friend ; and his duty was 
to take charge of the provision and to di- 
rect the servants. 

The sumptuousness of a banquet was ex- 
hibited in the multitude of the guests, the 
daintiness and profusion of the viands, the 
richness of the wines, often mixed with 
spices, and the music, dancing, and varied 
revelry, carried frequently to an excess of 
luxurious debauchery, which we find the 
prophets and apostles censuring in the 
strongest language (2 Sam. xix. 35 ; Isai. v. 
11, 12, 22 ; Amos vi. 3-6 ; Matt. xiv. 6 ; Rom. 
xiii. 13 ; 1 Pet. iv. 3 ; 2 Pet. ii. 13). A wed- 
ding banquet lasted a week (Gen. xxix. 
27, 28; Judges xiv. 10-18); riddles being 
sometimes proposed for the entertainment 
of the company. Occasionally it seems to 
have been extended to fourteen days (Tob. 
viii. 19. 20) ; though, according to the rab- 
bins, if the bride were a widow, three days 
ought to be the limit. Royal banquets 
were sometimes very protracted. The fes- 
tival celebrated by Ahasuerus (Xerxes) 
lasted half a year, being wound up by a spe- 
cial entertainment continued for seven 
days (Esth. i. 3-5). At this feast the sexes 
were separated (9). But at Belshazzar's 
banquet his wives and concubines were 
present (Dan. v. 2). In the New Testament 
we read of women being admitted to the 
room where a banquet was given (Luke vii. 
37, 38; John ii. 1-5) : it is, however, some- 
times noted that they waited on the guests 
(xii. 2). The custom of reclining at 
meals gave opportunity for anointing a 
person's feet (3) : it also explains how the 
head of one was close upon the breast of 
him who was immediately above him (xiii. 
23). 

Besides the general warnings against ex- 
cess, others were needed in apostolic times. 
For Christians living in the midst of hea- 
thens might appear, when food that had 
been offered to an idol was placed on the 
table, to be paying respect to that idol. St. 
Paul's direction is wise and explicit (1 Cor. 
X. 27-31). Comp. Winer, Bihl. RWB., art. 
' Gastmahle.' 

BAN' UAS (1 Esdr. v. 26). 

BAPTISM. A rite instituted by our Lord, 
in order to admission into his church, by 
the symbolical application of water. 

A kind of baptism had, there is reason to 
believe, been practised among tlie Jews 
prior to Christ's advent. Proselytes, if 
men, submitted to circumcision and bap- 
tism, and presented an oblation; if they 
were women, the ceremonies were baptism 
and the oblation. Such persons were bap- 
tized in the day-time by immersion, and 
were instructed in certain parts of the law 
while they stood in the water. The whole 
family of a proselyte, infants included, 



were baptized with him. It is questioned, 
indeed, whether proselyte-baptism was in 
use so early as above stated ; and many cri- 
tics have argued for its later introduction. 
But, as Dr. Alford very well says, ' the bap- 
tism or lustrati(m of a proselyte on admis- 
sion would follow as a matter of course, by 
analogy, from the constant legal practice 
of lustration after all uncleannesses ; and 
it is difficult to imagine a tim-e Vv'hen it 
would not be in use. Besides, it is highly 
improbable that the Jews should have bor- 
rowed the rite from the Christians, or the 
Jewish hierarchy from John' {The Greek 
Test, note on Matt. iii. 6). Still, this much 
must be conceded : if proselyte baptism 
were indeed practised so early, it was but 
of secondary impoi'tance: it was not the 
special initiatory rite by which an alien 
was grafted into the Jewish church : it was 
rather one of the ablutions obligatory upon 
those already members of that church, than 
an ordinance in order to their becoming so. 
(See the question argued by Dr. M. Stuart, 
Amer. Bihl. Bep.,\oL iii. pp. 338-355). 

We must, therefore, take some wider basis 
for the baptism of John. The custom of ab- 
lution, as already observed, was frequent 
under the law. The Jewish mind was fa- 
miliarized to it as a symbol of purification 
from disease and pollution. WhenNaaman, 
therefore, v/as to be cleansed from his le- 
prosy, and his flesh to come again as that 
of a little child, he was to wash in Jordan. 
The command was very significant. It was 
a test of humble obedience : his compliance 
with it was the crisis of an incipient new 
and healthy life. Very natural, therefore, 
and very apposite was the language of the 
prophets, when describing the admirable 
nature of the new covenant. Clean water, 
it was said, was to be sprinkled on those to 
whom, by the power of the Spirit, a heart 
of flesh would be given (Ezek. xxxvi. 35-37) : 
a fountain was in that day to be opened for 
sin and for uncleanness (Zech. xiii. 1). 
Hence the Jews would regard baptism as a 
symbol of the approach of the Messianic 
kingdom ; and hence their questioning of 
John why, if he were not Elias, the imme- 
diate herald of Messiah, he presumed to 
baptize (John i. 25). John had received a 
direct commission from God (33). It was 
not that, finding such lustration in use, 
he adopted it as deeming it a fit sym- 
bol of his mission, but that God, taking, as 
he so often does, the idea already familiar 
to the nation, invested it with new signifi- 
cance when he sent John to baptize with 
water, and stirred up thereby the expecta- 
tions of the Jews for the near appearance 
of the Christ. John baptized unto repent- 
ance, and was surprised when Jesus sought 
baptism at his hand. But, though Jesus, 
who had no sin, needed no repentance or 
purification, it became him in this way to 
'fulfil all righteousness' (Matt. iii. 13-15). 
He came to bear our sins, for which he en- 
dured the curse of the law; and, being in 
the likeness of sinful flesh, it was fit that 
he should ' go through those appointed 
rites and purifications which belonged to 
that flesh ' (Alford). It was, too, his conse- 
cration to his public ministry, on which he 



baptism] 



90 



"n-as now to enter — the inaugural rite, with 
the descent of the Spirit and the testimony 
of the Father, of that new dispensation of 
which he was to he the Mediator. 

The distinct assertions of tlie evangelists 
that supernatural circumstances occurred 
at our Lord's baptism must not he qualified 
or explained away (Matt. iii. 16, 17 ; Mark i. 
10, 11 ; Luke iii. 21, 22). Nor are the ac- 
counts of the first Gospels inconsistent 
with that in the fourth (John i. 33, 34), 
Whether others besides Jesus and John 
were present at the time we know not, or 
whether, if there were, they were cogni- 
zant of the miracle (comp. Acts ix. 7). Yet 
it was no mere vision, no figurative expres- 
sion that was used : the facts as recorded 
must be reverently accepted. The Father's 
voice, the Spirit's form, were really heard 
and seen. 

The baptism of John was introductory to 
the higher baptism instituted by Christ 
(Matt. iii. 11 ; Acts xviii. 25, 26, xix. 2-5). 
And we find that very early in his ministry 
our Lord began to baptize, through his dis- 
ciples, those that resorted to him (John iii. 
22, 26, iv. 1, 2). Just before his ascension, 
too, he gave a solemn charge to the apos- 
tles that they should make disciples in all 
nations, 'baptizing them in the name of 
the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
Holy Ghost' (Matt, xxviii. 19; Mark xvi. 
15, 16). Thenceforth the practice ever pre- 
vailed. And we find the sacred writers 
dAvelling in the strongest terms on the pri- 
vileges and obligations of baptism. Men 
were baptized into Christ's death: they 
were buried with him by baptism into 
death : baptized into Christ, they had put 
on Christ (Rom. vi. 3, 4 ; Gal. iii. 27). It 
was to be the beginning of a now life : 
planted in the likeness of Christ's death, 
they were to be also in the likeness of his 
resurrection (Rom. vi. 5). 

The different opinions which have been 
maintained respecting the efficacy of bap- 
tism must be sought in other worKs. They 
have been widely divergent in different 
sections of the Christian church ; and much 
sharp controversy has been provoked. It 
must be sufficient here to cite the well- 
weighed language of the 27th article of the 
Anglican church : 'Baptism is not only a 
sign of profession, and mark of difference, 
whereby Christian men are discerned from 
others that be not christened, but it is also 
a sign of regeneration or new birth, where- 
by, as by an instrument, they that receive 
baptism rightly are grafted into the church ; 
the promises of forgiveness of sin, and of 
our adoption to be the sons of God by the 
Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed ; 
faith is confirmed and grace increased by 
virtue of prayer to God.' ^ 

There is also disagreement as to the per- 
sons entitled to receive baptism. Without 
defining minor variations of judgment, it 
must be enough to say that some deny the 
rite to children. Children, however, were 
capable of church-membership among the 
.Jews; for circumcision was performed on 
the eighth day after birth. We can hardly 
suppose that Christianity withdrew this 
privilege. And, if it did.-sve should expect 



to find Jewish cavillings on this account. 
It is superfluous to say that not a trace of 
these is apparent in the New Testament. 
Further, the baptism of households is noted 
by the sacred writers: were there no chil- 
dren in any of these households ? Lydia 
alone is said to have had her heart opened. 
But Lydia and her household, it is added, 
were baptized (Acts xvi. 14, 15). Moreover, 
not only so far as we can judge from the 
remains of antiquity were children baptized 
In the primitive church, but— and this is 
very noteworthy— when men began, as 
some did, early to object to infant baptism, 
they never argued against it on the ground 
of novelty, introduced after the apostolic 
age, and contrary to apostolic custom. 
More cannot be said here on this point. 

The mode of baptism, moreover, has been 
disputed— whether it should be by sprink- 
ling, by affusion, or by immersion ; or, as 
has sometimes been the practice, by affu- 
sion after immersion. This has been keenly 
argued. But it may fairly be said that the 
manner of applying the water can be of 
but little consequence. In the English 
church all the three modes are recognized. 
Immersion is prescribed, and pouring per- 
mitted, in the rubric of her baptismal ser- 
vice ; while, by long custom, sprinkUng is 
very frequently practised. 

There is a baptizing for the dead spoken 
of in scripture (1 Cor. xv. 29), the explica- 
tion of which has puzzled commentators. 
It would be tedious to recount the various 
notions which different theologians have 
entertained. Some have imagined that a 
custom of the Marcionites mentioned by 
Chrysostom is alluded to. These, it seems, 
placed under the bed of a dead catechumen 
a living man, who answered for the de- 
ceased, and was baptized in his stead (In 
JEpist. i. ad Cor., horn. xl. tom. x. p. 378, edit. 
Bened.). But there is no proof that such a 
custom existed in St. Paul's days, and all 
presumption that (if it did) he would not 
have mentioned it without censure. Some, 
again, believe that another custom is al- 
luded to, that of baptizing over the monu- 
ments or graves of the martyrs who died for 
the faith in hope of a future resurrection. 
But this, too, Avas a post-apostolic custom. 
Other suggestions maybe seen in Bingham, 
Oricj. Eccles., book xi. chap. iv. sect. iv. ; 
Alford, The Gh-eek Test., note on 1 Cor. xv. 
29-34, and elsewhere. In so great a diversity 
of opinion it is impossible to speak with 
anv confidence. But the view, substan- 
tiaUy that of Olshausen, seems not un- 
worthy of consideration— they are baptized 
in the place of the dead. If there were no 
resurrection, if those who die live not again, 
who would stand forward to fill up their 
ranks? But, when they die in hope that 
the body sown in weakness shall be raised 
in power, as knowing that it is through the 
grave and gate of death that they pass to 
their joyful resurrection, we may well be- 
lieve that fresh combatants will press for- 
ward over those that fall, that they will 
take on service with Christ, and undaunt- 
edly assume his badge. The death of their 
predecessors dismays them not : the cer- 
tainty of their owp death does not quench 



91 



[bariah 



tlieir ardour : they are * baptized for the 
dead,' ' in sure and certain hope of the re- 
surrection to eternal life, through our Lord 
Jesus Christ; 

BARAB'BAS (son of Abba). A man who 
had heen engaged in an insurrection or riot 
in Jerusalem shortly before our Lord's 
passion. He, with his accomplices, was 
lying under sentence of death, when Pilate, 
who was bound by custom to release a 
prisoner at the passover, proposed this man 
or Jesus to the choice of the people. He 
was, doubtless, persuaded that common 
decency would oblige them to prefer the 
innocent SaAn"our to so notorious a malefac- 
tor. But the people, instigated by the priests, 
demanded Barabbas, who was set iii.ee, while 
Christ was delivered to be crucified. It has 
been imagined that Bai-abbas was merely 
the head or promoter of some patriotic re- 
sistance to the Roman rule. But in that 
case rilate would not have proposed him ; 
for he would have been sensible that the 
Jews would naturally prefer him. Besides, 
he is called a robber and a murderer (Mark 
XV. 7 ; Luke xxiii. 25 ; John xviii. 40 ; Acts 
iii. 14). 

BA'RACHEL (whom God hath blessed>. 
The father of Elihu (Job xxxii. 2, 6). 

BARACHI'AH (whom Jehovah hath bless- 
ed). A form, in some copies of our version, of 
Berechiah (Zech. i. 1, 7). See Berechiah. 

BARAOHI'AS (Matt, xxiii. 35). The Greek 
form of Barachiah, or Berechiah, which 

^^BA'RAK (lightning). A general whom 
God raised up to deliver Israel from the 
oppression of Jabin, king of Canaan. This 
oppression was a judgment for their sins, 
and it lasted for twenty years (Judges iv. 
1-G) ; a sufficient proof, if the credibility of 
the sacred narrative is at all to be maintained, 
that we have not in the history of Barak's 
victory (as some have imagined) only a 
repetition of Josh. xi. 1-12. Barak was the 
son of Abinoara of Kedesh-naphtali, and he 
was directed to muster 10,000 men of Naph- 
tali and Zebulun towards mount Tabor. 
He refused, however, unless Deborah would 
accompany him. To this she consented,but as- 
sured him that he would not, in consequence, 
have the whole honour of the victory. 
Accordingly Deborah and Barak marched 
together. The result shall be told in tlie 
words of Dr. Thomson (The Land and the 
Book, pp. 435, 436) : ' On the morning of that 
eventful day, probably long before it was 
light, Deborah set the little army in motion 
with the energetic command and animating 
promise, " Up ; for this is the day in which 
the Lord hath delivered Sisera into thine 
liand. Is not the Lord gone out before 
thee ?" (Judges iv. 14.) Rapidly they descend 
the mountain, cross over by Nain into the 
valley of Jezreel, then incline to the left to 
avoid the low and marshy ground, and by 
the first faint light of the morning they are 
upon the sleeping host of the Canaanites, 
This assault, wholly unexpected, threw them 
into instant and irrecoverable confusion. 
But half-awake, the whole army fled in 
dismay down tlie plain, hotly pursued by 
the victorious Barak. No time was allowed 
to recover from their panic. God also 



fought against them: "The earth trem- 
bled : the heavens dropped ; the clouds also 
dropped water." Josephus adds, that a 
storm from the east beat furiously in the 
faces of the Canaanites, but only on the 
backs of the Jews. The storm is required 
by both the narrative of the action and 
the song of victory. It was to this, I 
suppose, that Deborah alluded—" Is not the 
Lord gone out before thee?"— and this it 
certainly was which swelled the Kishon, so 
that it swept away and drowned the flying 
host ; for it never could do that except 
during a great rain. The army of Sisera 
naturally sought to regain the strongly- 
fortified Harosheth of the Gentiles, from 
which they had marched up to their 
camping- ground a short time l)efore. This 
place is at the lower end of the narrow vale 
through which the Kishon passes out of 
Esdraelon into the plain of Acre ; and this 
was their only practicable line of retreat. 
The victorious enemy was behind them : 
on their left were the hills of Samaria, in 
the hand of their enemies: on their right 
was the swollen river and the marshes of 
Thora : they had no alternative but to make 
for the narrow pass which led to Harosheth. 
The space, however, becomes more and 
more narrow, until within the pass it is only 
a few rods wide. There, horses, chariots, 
and men become mixed in horrible con- 
fusion, jostling and treading down one 
another; and the river, here swifter and 
deeper than above, runs zigzagfrom side to 
side of the vale, until, just before it reaches 
the castle of Harosheth, it dashes sheer up 
against the perpendicular base of Carmel. 
There is no longer any possibility of 
avoiding it. Rank upon rank of the flying 
host plunge madly in ; those behind crush- 
ing those before deeper and deeper in the 
tenacious mud. They stick fast, are over- 
whelmed, are swept away by thousands. 
Such are the conditions of this battle and 
battle-field, that we can follow it out to the 
dire catastrophe.' See Harosheth. After 
the battle, Deborah and Barak celebrated it 
in a divine ode ; and Israel had many years' 
rest from enemies (Judges iv., v.). The date 
is difficult to determine. Barak was possibly 
contemporary with or a little posterior to 
Shamgar. Browne (Ordo Sa^cl, p. 261) places 
him a century later. He is mentioned by the 
author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 32). 

BARBARIAN. This term is commonly 
used in the New Testament to denote those 
who were not Greeks (Rom. i. 14) ; just as 
the Israelites called all other nations Gen- 
tiles. At first, indeed, it signified persons 
who spoke a foreign (Acts xxviii. 2, 4 ; the 
dialect was Punic) or unknown (1 Cor. xiv. 
11) language. Afterwards it conveyed the 
notion of ferocity ; and so the Romans, 
who had acquiesced in the Greek meaning 
of the word, excepted themselves, and 
regarded those as barbarians who were 
neither Greeks nor Romans. See Winer, 
Bibl. nWB., art. ' Barbnren.' 
BARBER (Ezek. v. 1). See Beard. 
BARHU'MITE (2 Sam. xxiii. 31). See 
Baharumite. 

BARI'AH (a fngitivc). One of David b 
posterity (1 Chron. iii. 22). 



BAR-JESUS] 



^l)t Creasuri) at 



92 



BAR-JE'SUS (son of Jesus') (Acts xiii. 6). 
See Elymas. 

EAR-JO'i^A {son of Jona) (Matt. xri. 17). 
See Peter. 

BAR'KOS (painter). One ^vhose descend- 
ants, jSfetliinim, returned from captivity 
with ZernlDbabel (Ezra ii. 53 ; Jv'eb. vii. 55.) | 
BARLEY. A Avell-known species of grain, i 
The HebreAv word implies ' bristling,' appo- : 
sitely descriptive of the bearded ears of ! 
barley ; and when used in the singular it 
signifies barley in growth (Exod. ix. 31 ; 
Deut. A-lii. 8 ; Job xxxi. 40 ; Isai. xxviii. ' 
25 ; Joel 1. 11) ; when in the plural, the grain ; 
after threshing (2 Sam. x^ii. 28 ; 1 Kings iv. ' 
28 ; Jer. xli. 8 ; Ezek. iv. 9). Barley was of 
course not so much valued as wheat ; 
a remarkable illustration of which is the 
fact that, whereas the ordinary meat-offering 
was of tine, that is, wheat-flour (Lev. ii. 1), 
the offering of the woman suspected of 
adultery was to be of barley-meal (Ivumb. v. 
15: comp. Hos. iii. 2). Barley-harvest was 
earlier than that of wheat ; this grain being 
usually cut in April. The barley generally 
grown in Palestine is our own common 
kind, Hordeum cUstichnm. 

BAR'IS^ABAS (son of exliortation, or of con- 
solation). The surname given by the apostles 
to Joses or Joseph, a Levlte of Cyprus. 
AMiether he was a personal disciple of our : 
Lord we have no information : he is first ; 
named as being at Jerusalem shortly after 
the ascension, and selling his land to bring | 

' the price into the common fund of the 
church (Acts iv. 36, 37). It has been said — | 
but the authority is not very good— that he 

' was a fellow-student with Paul under 
Gamaliel. Be this as it may, the two haa 
probably some early intimacy; for, after 
Saul's conversion, when he came to Jeru- 
salem, all the disciples were afraid of him, 
till Barnabas took and introduced him to 
the apostles (ix. 27). We next hear of 
Barnabas when tidings reached the church 
at Jerusalem of the work of grace at Anti- 
och. They deemed it right to send thither 
some eminent man; and Barnabas was 
selected for the charge, which hetindertook 
with high commendation of the sacred 
writer as ' a good man and full of the Holy 
Ghost,' and with great success ; so that, 
desiring a coadjutor, he sought out Saul and 
carried him to Antioch, where they both 
continued a year, till on the prophecy of a 
coming famine they were sent to convey 
relief to the brethren in Judea (xi. 22-30). 
Returning to Antioch they were accom- 
panied by John Mark, Barnabas's nephew 
(xii. 25). 'iS'ext we find them (and it is ob- 
servable that Barnabas is still named first) 
designated by the Holy Ghost for mis- 
sionary service. Accordingly, a solemn ser- 
vice was held, to consecrate them with 
imposition of hands— not to the ministry : 
teachers they were before, and, besides, St. 
Paul declares that he received his ministry 
and apostleship neither 'of man nor by 
man' (Gal. i. 2),— but for this special work. 
They went first to Cyprus, the country of 
Barnabas, accompanied by Mark (who.how- 

' ever, soon left them), and then, returning to 
the cor.tinent, preached the gospel through 

j I'amphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia, where 



Barnabas, possibly from the gravity of lils 
aspect, was supposed by the ignorant people 
to be Jupiter, and afterwards came back'to 
Antioch. Through this journey they were 
both recognized asapostles ; but Paul, after 
his rebuke of Elymas the sorcerer, took the 
lead, and is almost always afterwards named 
before Barnabas (xiii., xiv.). The next no- 
tice we have of Barnabas is his going with 
Paul, on account of the dissensions respect- 
ing circumcision, to Jerusalem, where a 
council was held and a decree made, with 
which they returned to Antioch (xv. 1-35). 
And possibly during the stay at Antioch 
after this return may have occurred the 
visit of Peter and the faltering of Barnabas 
(Gal. ii. 11-13). Then Paul proposed to him 
a fresh missionary journey. Barnabas, 
however, was anxious to have Mark with 
them, which Paul declined ; and, alas ! the 
contention was sharp between them ; and 
they separated, and, so far as we know, met 
no 'more. Barnabas went with Mark to 
Cyprus ; and here the scripture notice of 
him ends (xv. 36-39) ; save that we may con- 
clude that he was alive when St. Paul wrote 
to the Corinthians, and that he, like Paul, 
maintained himself by his own labour (1 
Cor. ix. 6). There are sundry traditions of 
his later life, but none that can be relied 
on. And there is an epistle extant under 
his name : but the chief modern critics pro- 
perly disbelieve its genuineness. 
BARO'DIS (1 Esdr. v. 34). 
BARRE^v^TESS. It Avas regarded as a 
great misfortune among the Hebrews to be 
barren. Among the blessings, therefore, 
promised by the Lord to the covenant 
people, if they were faithful to the cove- 
nant, was this, that there should be no ste- 
rility among them or their cattle (Exod. 
xxiii. 26; Deut. vii. 14). Sons, rather than 
daughters, were specially desired, for per- 
petuating a man's lineage and establishing 
him a house ; but it was also in the hope of 
becoming the parent of Messiah, for the 
realization of which many an Israelitish 
woman ardently longed. We find various 
illustrations in scripture history of the wish 
for children ; and strange expedients were 
sometimes resorted to for procuring them 
(Gen. xxi. 6, 7, xxv. 21, xxx. 1-4, 16, 17 ; Deut. 
XXV. 5, 6 ; Judges xi. 37-39 ; 1 Sam. i. 4-11). 

BAR'SABAS (son of Saba). 1. (Acts i. 23i. 
See Joseph, 10.— 2. (xv. 22). See Judas, 7. 

BAE'TACUS. The father of Apame, a 
concubine of Darius (1 Esdr. iv. 29). 

BARTHOL'OMEW (son of Talmai). One 
of the twelve apostles selected by our 
Lord (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14 ; 
Acts i. 13). Under the name Bartholomew 
nothing more is recorded of him in scrip- 
ture ; but, if we may identify him with 
Isathanael (a name found only in St. John's 
Gospel), for which there is much proba- 
bility, we are told that he was of Cana in 
Galilee, that he was brought to Jesus by 
Philip, and had the high commendation of 
Christ, 'Behold an Israelite indeed' (John i. 
47). See Kathaxael. According to vary- 
I ins? traditions Bartholomew preached the 
: gospel in India, perhaps Arabia, or Armenia, 
and was flayed alive there, and then cruci- 
fied with his head downwards. 



FT 

1 1 














' j 
"J 

1 

I 

[ 

! 


BARTIMiE'US., or BARTIME'US (son of 
Time2i<). A Wind man, tbe son of Timeus. 
Our Lord restored him to sight in the 
neighbourhood of Jericho (Mark x. 46-52). 
If tbis narrative be compared with Matt. 
XX 29-34 ; Luke xviii. 35-43, some differences 
appear. For St. Matthew speaks of two 
of these. According to some writers, as 
Greswell and Ebrard, our Lord healed one 
of these (as in Luke) on entering Jericho, 
and another (Bartimeus, as in Mark) on 
leaving it : and Matthew has, with charac- 
teristic brevity in recording miracles, com- 
bined both these in one. For other modes 
of solution see Home's Introd. to Script., 
edit. Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 473, 474. 

BA'RUCH (blessed). 1. The son of Neriah 
(Jer. xxxii. 12, 13, 16), most probably the 
brother of ~ Seraiah, chamberlain to king 
Zedekiah (li. 59). He is called ' the scribe ' 
(xxxvi. 26), and was the attendant and 
amanuensis of the prophet Jeremiah (4). 
Baruch is said by Josephus to have shared 
Jeremiah's imprisonment during the siege 
of Jerusalem (Antiq., lib. x. 9, § 1). He 
wa& certainly afterwards with the prophet 
among the people who were preparing to 
go into Egypt, and was accused of having 
prompted Jeremiah in the message he de- 
livered from God to charge them to remain 
in Judea (Jer. xliii. 3). He was also carried 
into Egypt (6, 7), where, according to one 
tradition, he died, while, according to an- 
other, he went after Jeremiah's death to 
Babylon and died there. There is a special 
message to him in xlv., with a promise 
that his life should be preserved through 
the calamities of the time.— 2. A person who 
helped to re-build the wall of Jerusalem 
(Neh. iii. 20).— 3. A priest who sealed the co- 
venant (X. 6), possibly the same with No. 2. 
—4. One of the descendants of Judah (xi. 5). 

BA'BUCH, THE APOCRYPHAL BOOK 
OF. The author of this book obviously 
claims to be the same with Jeremiah's 
friend; but forgery is apparent on the face 
of it. For, though it is not agreed what 
date is intended in i. 2, yet, if it were the 
fifth year of Jehoiachm's captivity, Jeru- 
salem was not then burnt ; if the time of the 
cai)ture and destructicm of Jerusalem be 
meant, Baruch was not then in Babylon; 
it is questionable whether he was there in 
the fifth year after ; and, besides, the temple 
worship was then at an end, whereas tins is 
represented (7, 10) as still subsisting. More- 
over, there was no such high priest at that 
time as Joachim. Other proofs fatal to the 
authority of the book might be produced ; 
but these are sTiflicient. 

It at present exists in Greek and in some 
translations from it. But it -has been main- 
tained that the original language was He- 
brew. Among the reasons alleged for this 
opinion is the fact that (i. 14) we find a 
direction that the book should be read in 
the temple ; and it is scarcely conceivable 
that any one writing in Greek would have 
introduced such an injunction. But then 
there are linguistic differences between the 
former and latter poJ'tions of the work. It 
is not improbable, therefore, that the ori- 
ginal of i. 1— iii. 8 was Hebrew, and that 
another writer, perhaps the Septuaginl 


translator of Jeremiah (the same peculiari- 
ties of language found in both being hardly 
otherwise to be accounted for), took up this 
fragment, turned it into Greek, and com- 
pleted the book as we have it in that tongue. 
For that in its present shape it proceeded 
from one hand cannot reasonably be 
doubted. The date of this production can 
only be conjectured : it has been thought 
that the Hebrew portion was composed to- 
wards the end of the period of the Persian 
rule, and that the last author rendered and 
completed it in the time of the Maccabean 
wars, about 160 B.C. Chap, vi., or 'The 
Epistle of Jeremy,' is a separate later piece. 
The Jews have never esteemed the book of 
Baruch : there are no references to it in any 
of the apostolic fathers ; but Irenasus and 
subsequent writers occasionally quote it 
(including the Epistle of Jeremy) ; and it is 
foimd in some of the early catalogues of 
canonical books. According to bishop Cosin, 
however, ' the book of Baruch ' does not 
necessarily intend this apocryphal work, 
but ' those passages of him which are com- 
prehended in the book of Jeremy' (Hist, of 
Canon, chap. vi. No. Ixi.). It was placed 
in the Romish canon by the council of 
Trent ; but protestants justly deny its ca- 
nonical authority. There are Syriac and 
Arabic versions of Baruch, a Syro-hexaplaric 
text from the celebrated MS. in the Ambro- 
sian library at Milan, and two Latin trans- 
lations : that of the Vulgate is very literal. 

This book consists of two portions:— I. 
i. 1— iii. 8, comprising introduction (i. 1-14), 
confession and prayer (15— iii. 8) ; IL iii. 9 
—V. 9, containing an address to Israel (iii. 9 
— iv. 8), Jerusalem's lament (9-29), and a re- 
sponse of consolatory exhortation to her 
30_v. 9). Chap. vi. is entitled ' The Epistle 
of Jeremy.' There is no reason why it 
should be appended to Baruch. It seems to 
have been written in Greek, perhaps in the 
first century before Christ ; though some 
respectable critics would place it much 
earlier. It is a declamation against idolatry, 
i In the Paris and London polyglotts there is 
a first epistle of Baruch to the nine and half 
tribes printed in Syriac and Latin. This is 
supposed to be the production of a Syrian 
monk. 

1 BAB'ZELAI (1 Esdr. v. 38, marg.). 

I BARZIL'LAI (o/irow). 1. Arich Gileadite 
who supported David in the rebellion of 
Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 27, xix. 31-39).— 2. A 
Meholathite, whose son Adriel married 
Saul's daughter Merab (1 Sara, xviii. 19; 
2 Sam. xxi. 8).— 3. A man whose children 
returned from Babylon and claimed the 
priesthood. He had married one of the 
daughters of Barzillai the Gileadite, and was 

1 called Ijy their name (Ezra ii. 61, 62 ; Neh. 
vii. 63, 64). 

BAS'ALOTH (1 Esdr. v. 31). A corrupted 
form of Bazluth (Ezra ii. 52). 

BAS'GAMA. A place in Gilead where 
Jonathan Maccabeus was killed by Tryphou 

BA'SHAN (light sandy, or plain, or rich 
soil). A district east of the Jordan. The 
name has generally the definite article prc- 
llxed to it in the original : it is sometimes 
called ' the land of Bashan ' (1 Chron. v. 1]). 




i 

1 

1 
1 





bashan-hayoth-jair] Cije Ercas'urg of 



94 



Bashan was the kingdom of Og, and was 
subdued T)y the Israelites in the last year of 
their wanderings after their conquest of 
Sihon the Amoritish king (Numh. xxi. 33-35 ; 
Deut. iii. I-IO). The decisive "battle was 
fought at Edrei; and the destruction of Og 
and his people was complete. This district 
(together with a part of Gilead) was assigned 
by Moses to the half tribe of Manasseh 
(Numb, xxxii. 33 ; Deut. iii. 13 ; Josh. xiii. 
29-31) ; but it must also have been at least 
partially occupied by Gadites (1 Chron. v. 
11-16). Bashan appears soon after to have 
been comprehended under the general name 
Gilead (Josh. xxii. 9 ; Judges xx. 1) ; it is 
mentioned, however, as one of Solomon's 
districts, over which an officer was ap- 
pointed (1 Kings iv. 13), and as overrun by 
Hazael king of Syria (2 Kings x. 32, 33). It 
is, no doubt, included in the country con- 
quered by Tiglath-pileser (xv. 29) : it had 
remained therefore in the possession of the 
Manassites about 710 years, from 1450 to 
740 B.C. The early inhabitants were Amor- 
ites ; some of whom were meu of gigan- 
tic stature (Deut. iii. 11-13, iv. 47). 

The limits of Bashan are defined as Gilead 
on the south (the Hieromax or Tarmuk sepa- 
rating the two regions), and mount Hermon 
on the north : the Jordan valley was on the 
west ; and the district extended to Salcahor 
Salchah and the border of the Geshurites 
and the Maachathites on the east (10, 13, 
14; Josh. xii. 4, 5, xiii. 11, 12; 1 Chron. 
V. 23). The principal cities were Golan, 
Ashtaroth or Beeshterah, Edrei, and Salcah 
(Josh. xii. 4, 5, xxi. 27 ; 1 Chron. vi. 71). 
Bashaii was in later times divided into four 
provinces : Gaulaiiitis, the modern Jcnilan ; 
Trachonitis, the ancient Argob, now the 
Lejdh ; Auranitis, the Hauran ; and Batanrea, 
Ard-el-Bathanijeh. The examination of this 
region bears, we are informed, remarkable 
' testimony to the faithfulness and minute 
accuracy of bible narrative and description. 
The vast ruins scattered over its surface 
tell of its former populousness, and are the 
present memorials of its celebrated cities, 
whose numbers, except to him who has 
wandered among its mountains and across 
its plains, would seem almost incredible. 
Its rich pasture-lands (Psal. xxii. 12) and 
wide champaigns of waving corn still pro- 
claim its wondrous fertility. The oak 
forests core? its mountain-sides, as in days 
of old (Isai. ii. 13 ; Ezek. xxvii. 6), Avith a 
garment ever fresh and green. The ancient 
names, too, cling to it still : we have Ba- 
tangea, and Golan, and Kenath, and Salcah, 
and Hauran, and Edrei, but little changed 
by the lapse of long centuries. Thus does 
it appear that, the more extensive our re- 
search and the more minute our enquiries, 
the more full and accurate will be our illus- 
trations of the sacred scriptures' (Rev. J. L. 
Porter in Journ. of Sacr. Lit. July, 1854, p. 
313 : comp. Graham, Cambridge Ussays, 1858, 
pp. 155-164). 

BA'SHAN-H A'VOTH-JA'IR (Bashan of the 
villages of Jair) (Deut. iii. 14). See Havoth- 
Jair and Jaib. 

BASH'EMATH {fragrant). One of the 
wives of Esau (Gen. xxvi. 34, xxxvi. 3, 10, 13, 
17). But there is a difficulty. For, while 



Bashemath is in the first-named place said 
to be the daughter of Elon, she is called in 
the last the daughter of Ishraael, who is 
elsewhere (xxviii. 9) named Mahalath. Va- 
rious solutions have been proposed, as that 
Esau married more than three wives, fcnat 
their names were changed, &c. Or, pos- 
sibly, there may have been soine mistake of 
transcription. See AHOLiBiiiiAH. 

BASIN. The word in our translation most 
frequently denotes vessels for the taber- 
nacle or the temple, e.g. to hold the blood 
of a victim (Exod. xii. 22, xxiv. 6) : these 
seem generally to have been of metal (1 
Kings vii. 40. 45 ; 1 Chron. xxviii. 17 ; 2 
Cliron. iv. 8, li ; Jer. Iii. 19). It is used also 
of vessels for domestic or culinary purposes 
(2 Sam. xvii. 23). There are several words 
in the original which are rendered basins, 
bowls, &c. ; and it is not possible now to 
distinguish the exact shapes of these, or to 
explain with any precision in what they 
differed. The basin in which our Lord 
washed the disciples' feet (John xiii. 5) 
must have been a large and deep vessel, 
doubtless the one usually at hand for such 
purposes. 

BASKET. There are various Hebrew 
words rendered in our version ' basket.' 
The baskets in which the heads of Ahab's 
sons were put (2 Kings x. 7) were, of course, 
of large size. The same word is translated 
' pots' in Psal. Ixxxi. 6 : it means probably 
those baskets in which heavy burdens were 
carried by two men on a pole resting on 
their shoulders. A word is elsewhere used 
(Deut. xxvi. 2, 4, xxviii. 5, 7) which possibly 
designated a smaller basket, and, being 
coupled with 'kneading-trough' (marg.), 
we may suppose it something serviceable 
for domestic purposes. Another word oc- 
curs but once (Jer. vi. 9) : it appears to have 
been a grape-basket. The fruit-basket 
of Amos viii. 1, 2 was probably of wicker- 
work with a lid ; for in Jer. v. 27 it is put for 
a bird-cage. Another basket is mentioned 
in Gen. xl. 16, 17 : from the derivation of the 
original term, we might believe it con- 
structed of twigs or osiers ; but, as it was 
also used (Judges vi. 19) for holding cooked 
meat, it must, occasionally at least, have 
been of some other material, possibly metal. 
In the New Testament we have the large 
basket, made of rope, in which St. Paul 
escaped from Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 33). An- 
other word is used, in Acts ix. 25, for the 
same, and also for the seven baskets ol 
fragments taken up after one of our Lord's 
miracles (Matt. xv. 37 ; Mark viii. 8). It is 
Vv'orthy of remark that, after the other 
similar miracle, twelve 'baskets' (a dif- 
ferent word) were carried away (INIatt. xiv. 
20 ; Mark vi. 43 ; Luke ix. 17 ; John vi. 13). 
And in Matt. xvi. 9, 10 ; Mark viii. 19, 20 the 
difference is remarkably exhibited. The 
uniform application of one term to the 
' basket ' of one mii-acle, and of another to 
the ' basket ' of the other, is a strong proof 
of the credibility of the narratives : ' Such 
uniformity,' says Prof. Blunt, 'marking 
very clearly the two miracles to be dis- 
tinctly impressed on the minds of the evan 
gelists as real events ; the circumstantial 
' peculiarities of each present to them, even 



05 



1_eeaj:.i^ 



to tlie shape of the baskets, as though they 
were themselves actual eye-witnesses, or at 
least had received their report from those 
who were so ' (Undesigned Coincidences, part 
iv. 12, p. 277, edit. 1856). 

BAS'MATH {fragrant). A daughter of 
Solomon (1 Kings iv. 15j. This uame is the 
same with Bashemath. 

BAS'SA (1 Esdr. v. 16). A corrupted form 
of Bezai (Ezra ii. 17). 

BAS'TAI (1 Esdr. v. 31). A corruptea 
form of Besai (Ezra ii. 49). 

BASTARD. A bastard was not to enter 
nto the congregation of the Lord to his 
tenth generation (Deut. xxiii. 2). Tliis regu- 
lation did not apply to the children of con- 
cubines. See Concubine. 

BAT. An animal pronounced unclean 
rLev. xi. 19; Deut. xlv. 18): it is also 
mentioned in Isai. ii. 20. The Hebrew 
name is very descriptive of the habits of 
the bat, signifying that Avhich flies in 
the dark. Bats are common in the East, 
clustering in caverns, or among ruins, or 
in the dense foliage of large trees. Many 
travellers have given graphic accounts of 
the annoyance they have experienced from 
them. Bats (of which there are many spe- 
cies) belong to the class of mammals ; but 
thev are natnrally placed in the Mosaic 
lists with fowls, in consequence of their 
being able to fly. 

BATH {defined, a measure). (1 Kings vu. 
26, 38 ; Isai. v. 10 ; Ezek. xlv. 10, 11, 14 : comp. 
Luke xvi. 6, marg.). See Measures. 

BATHE. Bathing was frequently pre- 
scribed by the Mosaic law, as a part of the 
purification from every kind of uncleanness 
(e. g. Lev. xiv. 8. xv. 5, xvii. 15) ; it w^as used 
after mourning (2 Sam. xii. 20) ; and we 
often find anointing joined with it (Ruth 
iii. 3 : Matt. vi. 17). Regulations were made 
for the bathing or washing of the high 
priest and the other priests (Exod. xxix. 4 ; 
Lev. xvi. 4, 24) ; which Jewish writers, after 
their manner, have exaggerated. A laver 
was provided in the tabernacle for the 
priests' use (Exod. xxx. 18-21), and a molten 
sea iu the temple (2 Chron. iv. 2-6), which 
held water iu readiness for their ablutions. 
The houses of the wealthy were, no doubt, 
supplied with baths, often, perhaps, placed 
In gardens (2 Sam. xi. 2) ; and it is likely 
that some of the pools mentioned as pro- 
vided with arcades were fitted for public 
bathing (John v. 2). Besides its religious 
signification indicating purity, the practice 
of bathing was peculiarly necessary for 
health in the climate of Palestine. 
BATH-KOL {daughter-voice). See Piio- 

PHECY. 

BATH-RAB'BIM {daughter of many). A 
gate of the city Heshbon, near to which 
were pools or tanks (Sol. Song vii. 4). But 
this is probably not a proper name, and 
may simply mean ' the populous gate,' i.e. 
that through which multitudes pass. 

BATH'-SHEBA {daughter of the oath). 
The daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. xi. 3), other- 
wise called Amraiel (1 Chron. iii. 5), Ahi- 
tophel's son (2 Sara, xxiii. 34). She was the 
wife of Uriah the Hittite. She was defiled 
by David: her husband was treacherously 
murdered ; and after his death she was 



taken into the king's harem (xi.). The 
cliild of this adulterous intercourse died. 
But subsequently Bath-sheba became 
the mother of Solomon (xii. 24), and of 
three other sons (1 Chron. iii. 5). When 
Adouijah desired to secure his succession 
to the crown, the prophet Nathan employed 
Bath-sheba to apprise David (1 Kings i. 
11-31) ; and in Solomon's reign it was 
through her interference that Adonijah 
fatally for himself, sought to obtain Abi- 
shag (ii. 13-25). According to Jewish tradi- 
tion, Bath-sheba composed Pro v. xxxi. She 
is also called Bath-shua. 

BATH'-SHUA {daughter of wealth).— \. Ju- 
dah's wife, termed in our version 'the 
daughter of Shua,' or ' Shuah ' (Gen. xxxviii. 
2, 12 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3).— 2. A variation of 
Bath-sheba (iii. 5). ^ , 

BATHZACHABFAS. A place where Judas 
Maccabeus encamped (1 Mace. vi. 32, 33). 
The modern name is Beit Sakdrieh, about 
nine miles north of Beit Sfir, that is, Beth- 
zur. 

BATTERING-RAM (Ezek. iv. 2, xxi. 22) 
See Engines. 

BATTLE. See Army, War. 

BATTLE-AXE. See Arms. 

BATTLEMENT (Deut. xxii. 8 ; Jer. v. 10) 
See HOUSE. 

BA'TUS (Luke xvi. 6, marg.). See Mea- 
sures. , . , „ 

BA'VAI {son of ivishing, i. e. the wisher? 
or possibly the name is of Persian origin). 
One who helped to repair the w^ll of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. iii. 18). . 

BAY-TREE (Psal. xxxvii. 35). This has 
been supposed a laurel, or a cedar. But it 
is properly a 'native' tree, i.e. one that has 
grown in its own soil, and has never been 
transplanted; prosperous, therefore, and 
un decaying. .... 

BAZ'LITH, BAZ'LUTH (a stripping). A 
man whose children were among the Ne- 
thinim that returned from Babylon (Ezra 
ii. 52; Neh. vii. 54). 

BDEL'LIUM. A substance said to be 
found in the land of Havilah (Gen. ii. 12). 
Yf e have very little information in scrip- 
ture as to its nature. It is only said that 
the manna, like the hoar-frost (Exod. xvi. 
14), or coriander-seed in size, was like bdel- 
lium in colour (Numb. xi. 7). There are 
several opinions as to the substance meant. 
Some would have this bdellium a precious 
stone : some give it a vegetable origin, a 
kind of gum exuding from a tree. And 
this, indeed, is the ordinary meaning of that 
which ancient writers commonly call bdel- 
lium. But the Hebrew original may intend 
something else. Gesenius denies that it -is 
a stone : if it were, he thinks that, as tc 
onyx, so to it the word 'stone' would be 
added. He does not believe it to be a gum , 
which is not valuable enough to be ranked 
with gold and gems. He supposes, then, 
that the pearls found in abundance on the 
shores of the Persian gulf will answer the 
conditions of the sacred text. There is 
much probability in this opinion ; but it 
cannot be said to be distinctly proved. 

BEACON (Isai. xxx. 17). The meaning of 
the word is a mast, or signal-pole. 

BEALI'AII (whose lord is Jehovah). A 



bealoth] 



96 



Benjamite cliief who joined David at Zik- 
lag (.1 Cliron. xii. 5). 

BEA'LOTH {corpoi-ations, citizens'). A 
town in tlie extreme south of Judah (Josh 
XV. 24) ; probably identical with Baalath- 
BEEB, (xix, 8), which see. 

BE'AN, THE CHILDREN OF. A pre- 
datory tribe, destroyed by Judas Maccabeus 
(1 Mace. V. 4, 5). 

BEANS. This vegetable was among the 
provisions furnished to David's troops 
while he 1 ly at Mahanaim (2 Sam. xvii. 28), 
and was to be a material for Ezekiel's 
bread (Ezek. iv. 9). Beans are a common 
article of food in the East at the present 
day. The kinds most common in Syria are 
the white horse-bean and the kidney-bean. 

BEAR. This animal, TJrsus Syriacus, is 
nearly allied to the common brown bear, 
being only somewhat lower and longer, with 
the head and tail more prolonged, the colour 
a dull buff or light bay clouded sometimes 
with darker brown. It has a ridge of long 
hairs semi-erect, running from the neck to 
the tail. It is said still to be found in some 
parts of the Lebanon. The habits of this 
animal are often alluded to in scripture 
(1 Sam. xvii. 34, 36, 37 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 8 ; 
2 Kings ii. 24; Prov. xvii. 12, xxviii. 15; 
Isai. xi. 7, lix. 11 ; Lam. iii. 10 ; Hos. xiii. 8 ; 
Amos V. 19 ; Rev. xiii. 2). The bear was the 
symbol of the second kingdom of Daniel's 
vision (Dan. vii. 5). 

BEARD. The nations of western Asia 
paid great attention to the beard. In this 
respect they differed from the Egyptians, 
who shaved, except when mourning i;Gen. 
xli. 14) ; though they had the custom of 
wearing false beards, made of plaited hair, 
and graduated according to rank. For pri- 
vate persons these Avere small, about two 
inches long ; for kings, much longer and 
square at the bottom ; while gods had beards 
of which the lower part curled up. The He- 
brews probably preserved their beards 
when in Egypt ; and we find in their subse- 
quent history that neglect of them was a 
proof of slovenliness, and allowable only 
in seasons of distress (2 Sam. xix. 24). They 
were carefullvtrimmed-and perfumed (Psal. 
cxxxiii. 2). They were not to be touched 
bv'others, except by intimate friends, with 
the right hand, in a way of affectionate re- 
verence, to be respectfully kissed (2 Sam. 
XX. 9) ; and any indignity offered to them 
by pulling, spitting, or the like, was highly 
resented. Hence there could have been no 
greater insult than that sho^m by Hanun 
to David's ambassadors (x. 4). Shaving the 
beard, or cutting it off, was a sign of the 
deepest degradation (Isai. xv.2 ; Jer. xli. 5) : 
hence the threatening in Isai. vii. 20 was 
full of significance. There are some no- 
tices of the beard in the Heljrew ritual. 
Tims, the recovered leper was to shave off 
his beard on the last day of his cleansing 
(Lev. xiv. 9) ; and generally the corners of 
the beard were not to be marred (xix. 27, 
xi. 5). This prohibition is supposed to be 



BEASTS. The following names of beasts 
or (almost all) land animals occur in scrip- j 
ture : an account of each distinct kind is i 
given under their respective names. Some 
references are subjoined here to the places 
in which the animals are mentioned. 
Ape (1 Kings x. 22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21). 
Ass (Gen. xii. 16). 

wild (Job xxxix. 5\ 

Badger (Exod. xxv. 5)— seal ? 
Bat (Lev. xi. 19 ; Deut. xiv. 18). 
Bear (1 Sam. xvii. 34, 36, 37). 
Behemoth (Job. xl. 15-24)— hippopotamus ? 
Bison (Deut. xiv. 5, marg.). 
Boar (Psal. Ixxx. 13). 
Bull, bullock (Lev. i. 5 ; Psal. xxii. 12). 

wild (Isai. li. 20). 

Calf (Gen. xviii. 7). 
Camel (Gen. xii. 16 ; Lev. xi. 4). 
Cat (Bar. vi. 22). 
Chameleon (Lev. xi. 30). 
Chamois (Deut. xiv. 5). 
Colt (Gen. xxxii. 15 ; Matt. xxi. 5). 
Coney (Lev. xi. 5 ; Deut. xiv. 7). 
Cow (Lev. xxii. 28). 

Dog (1 Kings xxi. 23, 24; 2 Kings ix. 

35,36). ... ^ 

Dromedary (1 Kings iv. 28 ; Esth. viu. 10 ; 

Jer.ii. 23). 
Elephant a Kings x. 22, marg.). 
Ewe (Gen. xxxii. 14). 
Fallow-deer (Deut. xiv. 5). 
Ferret (Lev. xi. 30)— gecko ? 
Foal (Gen. xxii. 15 ; Matt. xxi. 5). 
Fox (Judges XV. 4)— jackal. 
Goat (Deut. xiv. 4). 

wild (Deut. xiv. 5\ 

Greyhound (Prov. xxx. 31). 
Hare (Lev. xi. 6 ; Deut. xiv. 7). 
Hart (Deut. xiv. 5). 
Heifer (Gen. xv. 9). 
Hind (Job xxxix. 1 ; Prov. v. 19). 
Horse (Exod. xv, 1). 
Kid (Gen, xxxviii. 17). 
Laml) (Gen. xxii. 7, 8). 
Leopard (Sol. Song iv. 8). 
Leviathan (Job xli.)— crocodile ? 
Lion (Gen. xlix. 9 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 34, 36, 37). 
Lizard (Lev, xi. 30), 
Mole (Lev. xi. 30)— chameleon ? 
Mouse (Lev. xi. 29). 
Mule (2 Sam. xviii, 9). 
Ox (Deut. xiv. 4). 
— wild (Deut. xiv. 5), 
Pygarg (Deut. xiv. 5)— a kind of ante- 
lope. 

Ram (Gen. xxii. 13). 
Roe (2 Sam. ii. 18). 
Roe-buck (Deut. xiv. 5). 
Sheep (Gen. xii. 16"). 
Sow (2 Pet. it 22). 
Swine (Lev, xi. 7). 
Tortoise (Lev, xi. 29) 
Unicorn (Numb, xxiii, 22)— rhinoceros ? 
Weasel (Lev, xi, 29). 
Wolf (Jer. V. 6). 

From the earliest times we find a distinc- 
tion between clean and unclean beasts ; the 
distribution being made first according as 



dSct^d L^a^ s^v ng ihr^eai^ where they m^giit be sacrificed or not (Gen. vii. 2 
ft foi^us the hair. Some Arabian tribes, viii 20), afterwards with ref^^^ 
it, RPPins. did this in demoting themselves food (Lev. xi, 2-11, 27-31, Deut. xiv. 4-8). 



It seems, did this' in demoting themselves } food (Lev. ^^-^ 
to au idol-god (see Jer. ix, 26, xxv, 23, See Clean a^'d U^^lean.^ 
xlix. 32). 1 



Beasts are used symbolically in prophecy 



97 



to design:ite kingdoms or powers (Dan. vii. 
?,-28 ; Rev. xiii.). 

The word rendered ' iDeasts ' in Rev. iv. 6-9, 
V. 6, 8, 11, 14, vi. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, sliould be 
translated 'living ones.' 

BE'BAI (paternal). One whose descend- 
ants returned from captivity with Zei^ub 
babel (Ezra ii. 11 ; Neh. vii. 16). At a later 
period others of them, headed byZechariah, 
specially called Bebai's son, accompanied 
Ezra (viii. 11). Four of his clan had mar- 
ried foreign wives (X. 28) ; and the name of 
iheirfamily or representative was attached 
to the covenant (Neh. x. 15). 

BE'BAI. A place mentioned in Judith 
XV. 4L 

BE'CHER (first-born, or youvg camel).— 
1. One of the sons of Benjamin (Gen. xlvi. 
21 ; 1 Chron. vii. 6, 8). It is, however, some- 
vvdiat remarkable that, when the families 
of Benjamin are enumerated, Becher is 
altogether omitted (Numb. xxvi. 38-41). So 
afterwards (1 Chron. viii. 1) Becher does 
not appear. — 2. A son or grandson of 
Ephraim (Numb. xxvi. 35). He is also 
called Bered (1 Chron. vii. 20). 

Lord A. C. Hervev (Dr. Smith's DM. of the 
BiUe,Y0\. i. pix 175, 176) has proposed a very 
ingenious conjecture respecting Becher. 
Many of Ephraim's family had been slain 
by the men of Gath, to the bitter grief of 
Ephraim their father (1 Chron. vii. 21, 22). 
It might be that the daughters of his house 
would consequently become heiresses ; so 
that a man of another tribe marrying such 
a daughter would be ranked as the son of 
her father. Examples of this are not 
wanting. Jair was lineally of Judah 
ii. 21, 22), but he was reckoned among the 
tril^e of Manasseh (Numb, xxxii. 41). Now, 
if Becher, the son of Benjamin, married a 
daughter of Ephraim, and so became vir- 
tually an Ephraimite, we have a reason 
why no family of Bach rites appears in the 
tribe of Benjamin, while there is such a 
family in Ephraim (xxvi. 35). But no posi- 
tive proof can be given for this supposition. 

BECHO'RATH (first-birth, first-born). An 
ancestor of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1). 

BEG'TILETH. The name of a plain lying 
between Nineveh and Cilicia (Judith ii. 21). 

BED. That there were chambers spe- 
cially reserved for sleeping, and that these 
were a most private part of a house, is evi- 
dent (Exod. viii. 3 ; 2 Kings vi. 12 ; Eccles. 
X. 20). And in those used by the master of 
the house and the family some kind of low 
frame or bedstead was placed (1 Sam. xix. 
15 ; 2 Kings iv. 10). In Arabia and Egypt 
such a frame is rudely made of pahn-sticks, 
and in Palestine of boards. Og's bedstead 
was of iron (Deut. iii. 11). The frame is 
sometimes carried to the flat top of the 
house during the season when persons 
sleep there. But accommxOdation for the 
night is much more simply provided in a 
large reception-room. The divan or plat- 
form at the end or side of the apartment 
serves the purpose of a bedstead. On this 
a mat or padded quilt is laid, and then a 
quilt of finer material ; or perhaps, in sum- 
mer, a thin blanket forms the coverlet. 
Poorer persons use their ordinary clothing, 
sometimes wrapping it round their bodies 



[bee ' 



'Avithout any kind of mattress beneath. 
Hence the prohibition against detaining a 
garment in pledge after sunset (Exod. xxii. 
26, 27 ; Deut. xxiv. 13). Indeed, generally 
the Orientals do not change their dress in 
going to bed. They are satisfied Avith tak- 
ing off the upper garment and loosening 
the girdle. It will easily be understocjd, 
from what has been said, how Christ could 
command those he healed to 'take up' 
their bed and walk (IMatt. ix. 6). 

Occasionally we find beds of an orna- 
mental character spoken of ; the bedstead 
being very probably a light couch carved 
or inlaid (Pro v. vii. 16, 17 ; Amos vi. 4). So- 
lomon's magnificent ' bed ' (Sol. Song iii. 9, 
10, raarg.) was a litter or palanquin. 

"We read of the use of pillows. Jacob is 
said to have placed the stones at Beth-el for 
pillows, covered, doubtless, with some of 
his garments (Gen. xxviii. 11). That put by 
Michal in David's bed was made of goat's 
hair (1 Sam. xix. 13). Similar pillov/s are 
still common — skins stuffed with cotton or 
other soft substance. Our Lord was sleep- 
ing on a pillow in a storm (Mark iv. 38) : 
this was probably a rower's cushion. 

The ' bolster,' several times mentioned 
(1 Sam. xxvi. 7, 11, 12, 16 ; 1 Kings xix. 6, 
marg.), may also be regarded as a pillow : 
the original word implies a place for the 
head; And very likely Saul and Elijah used 
their skin water-bottles, ' a cruse of water,' 
for the purpose. 

BE'DAD (separation, part). The father of 
Hadad, a king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 
Chron. i. 46). 

BE'DAN (perhaps servile). 1. A judge of 
Israel referred to by Samuel (1 Sam. xii. 11), , 
but of whom nothing is said in the book of 
Judges. There have been various conjec- 
tures about him ; some supposing tliat 
Bai-ak, others that Samson is meant. But 
many eminent persons, no doubt, lived in i 
Israel whose names are not recorded in the \ 
compendious history preserved to us. Be- i 
dan may have been one of these. Or, if ho j 
necessarily must be some one mentioned I 
before, he is most likely identical with 
Abdon (Judges xii. 13-15). There are se- 
veral examples of a similar abbreviation of \ 
names.— 2. A descendant of Manasseh (1 1 
Chron. vii. 17). 

BEDEI'AH (in the protedtion of Jehovah, or 
servant of Jehovah). A man who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife (Ezra x. 35). 

BEE. A well-known insect of the liyme- 
nopterous order, gregarious in its habits, 
living under a queen. There are many 
species : the Apis meUiflca, or honey-bee, 
is common among us. Bees must have j 
abounded in Palestine, since it is called a j 
land ' flowing with milk and honey.' And j 
they aboimd still : see Dr. Tliomson, The \ 
Land and the Book, p. 299. Reference is f re- 1 
quently made in scripture to the way in i 
which bees swarm for the attack of any ! 
hostile object (Deut. i. 44 ; Psal. cxviii. 12 ; 
Isai. vii. 18). Wild bees are noted as d^^po- 
siting their honey in hollow places, clefts 
of rock, &c. (Judges xiv. 8 ; Psal. Ixxxi. 16) 
Tlie lion's carcase in the first-named place 
was, no doubt, quite dried up, maybe thi 
mere skclcto)i left. 



^rccisury of 



merely l\aliai-E.ui in 



BESLT'ADA (whom the Lord knoicsX One i ^vards mentioned 
nfDqviri'ss 'snrm a Cliron \iv. 7). He is also our version (y XIV. 62, XXV. 11). 
cf,i?ed Eliada (2 Sam. ie ; 1 Chron, iii. 8^. BEER'-SHEBA Ml of the occtT^., or of .even). 

BEEL'SARUS a Esdr. V. 8). A corrupt | A place in^the south of Palestine, first men- 
form of Bilshan (Ezra ii. 2\ 



BEELTETR'2IUS (1 Esdr. iii. 16, 25\ Tlie 
name, or rather official title, of one of the 
officers (Ratbumus or Rehum) of king Arta- 
xerxes. It is a corrupted form of the 
Cha'dee words rendered ' chancellor ' in Ezra 

BEEL'ZEBUB. A name npplied by the 
Jews to the prince of the devils : hy whose 
aid thev chose to say our Lord cast out 
devils (Matt. x. 25, xii. 24, 27 ; Mark iii. 22 ; 
Luke xi. 15, IS, 19\ Eossihly this name is 
borrowed from that of Baal-zehuh, the god 
of Ekron (2 Kings i. 2\ But then the cor- 
rect reading in the Gospels is Beelzehul; 
and various reasons have been suggested 
for the chanse of b into I. It may have 
been for euphony, or it may have been to 
infix a name of reproach upon a false god or 
demon. For Beelzehul probably signifies 
lord of dung, dung-god. It uiight, however, 
mean lord of the house; and this would be 
specially appropriate in Matt. x. 25. But if, 
as it has been thought, the 'fly ' of which the 
god of Ekron was lord was a dung-beetle, 
Scarabceiis pillularius, then the connection 
between the '«v-god' and the 'dung-god' 
i- evident. See Winer, BM. BWB., art. 
'Beelzebub;' Alford, Greek Test., note on 
Matt. X. 25. It is questioned why the Jew- 



tioned in the history of Abraham. He must 
have been dwelling there when Hagar finally 
left his tents (Gen. xxi. 14\ The name, 
however, was subseo.uently imposed. Abi- 
melech, kiuc: of Gerar, came to make 8 
covenant with Abraham ; and, either from 
the oath sworn by the two, or from the 
Beven lambs which he desired Abimelech to 
receive in token that he (the patriarch) had 
dug a well, the possession of which was 
disputed, the place was called Beer-sheba 1 
(22-34^ and for some time Abraham con- 
tinued to reside there (xxii. 19), where he 
had planted a tamarisk and worshipped ' the 
Lord, the everlasting God.' Many years 
later Isaac sojourned in Gerar, and was 
obliged to leave it in consequence of the 
jealousy of the Philistines, who strove witli 
him for the wells which both his father and 
himself had digged. The then Abimelech, 
however, followed him to Beer-sheba, think- 
in? it politic to bind down so great a chief 
as'"lsaac had become by an oath of friend- 
ship. Isaac entertained him hospitably : 
the covenant was made : the oath was 
sworn : and, just after the king's departure 
Isaac's' servants informed him of the dis- 
covery of a fresh well. With the solemn 
oath lie had sworn fresh in his mind, the 
patriarch called it ' the oath-well,' Beer- 



called'Beelzebui^^^^ or Beelzebul, the chief of iheba. The name had existed before ; but 
the de^ls; aid'no sufficient answer l^as ; there;.^s^an addJtionaUn 



and elsewhere. 



and the town, of which nothing was pre- 
vious! v said, from this (perhaps gradually) 
took the appellation which it ever after- 
wards retained (xxvi. 12-33). Whether the 
well discovered by Isaac's servants Avas the 
one used bv Abraham is questioned— pro- 
bably not ; the expressions in the text seem 
It was =0 called^'bec^'uTe of ^the well which • to designate a fresh source of water. And 
Uie princes dug th?re according to God's i it is observable that in the modern Wady 
rommand and promise (Xumb. xxi. 16-18). 



vet been ^iven. The solution by a wnter 
in Dr. Smtth's Diet of the Bible, art. 'Beel- 
zehul,' is not satisfactory. 

BEEL'ZEBUL (:!tlatt. x. 
marg,). 

i BE'ER (n- icelD. 1. A hnltincr-place of the 
I Israelites after they had crossed the Arnon 



command and promise (X _ 
This place was probably identical with 
BEER-ELnr, which see.— 2. A town to which 
Jotham the son of Gideon fled from his bro- 
ther Abimelech (Judges ix. 21). Its posi- 
tion is quite uncertain : possibly it may be 
Identical with Beeroth. 

BEER-E'LIM (iceU of heroes). A place on 
the Moabitish border mentioned by Isaiah 
(XV. 8). If identical with Beer, 1, it must 
have been on the northern frontier of 
Moab. . 

BEER-LAHAI'-ROI (icell of the hvw.g one 
that sees me; or of seeing God and living). 



es-Seb'a there are two large wells, besides 
five smaller ones, still existing; while the 
ruins of a town, Btr es-Seb'a, appear on some 
low hills to the north of the larger wells. 
Beer-sheba is again mentioned in the patri- 
archal history (xxviii.lO, xlvi. 1, 5). On the 
apportionment of Canaan, it was assigned 
first to Judah, afterwards to Simeon (Josh. 
XV. 28, xix. 2) . and it is frequently men- 
tioned afterwai ds in proverbial expressions, 
♦ from Ban even to Beer-sheba,' to describe 
the whole extent of Canaan (Judges xx. 1, 
and elsewhere), and 'from Geba to Beer- 
=heba,' to denote the extent of the separate 
kinsdom of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 8). In 



The fountain where the angel of the Lord: ^m^^s-v'" ^^."■^ r T""":x o -^oi- nf 

appeared to Ha^^ar, who had fted from her later times it seems to .ha e l^^eeii a ^eat of 
mi^^t?e^s Sarai, ^and promised her a large idolatry (Amos v. 5, viii. 14) but it wa. m- 
mutre.:, , . i .^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ habited after the captivity (^ eh xi. 2. , 30). 

- - ' The district round must have borne the 
name of the place ; thus, ' wilderness of 



posterity (Gen. XV-. . . _ , ^ ^ 
countrv, between Kadesh and Bered, and 
has been supposed to be at 2Ioildhi, on the 
road from Gaza to Suez. Some have ob- 
jected that the etymology of Beer-Lahni- 
Roi, as 2:iven by the sacred writer, does 
not accord with the fonnation of thename ; 
but the objection is of little weight. Ka- 
lisch translates : ' For she said. Do I even 
still see [live] after seeing [God]? There- 
fore the well was called Beer-Lahai-Roi [the 
well of seeing God and living].' It is after- 



Bcer-sheba' (Get), xxi. 14\ 

BEE'RA (2ceU, fountain). A descendant 
of Asher a Chron. vii. 37\ 

BEE'RAH (id.'). A prince of Reuben,^ 
carried into captivity by Tiglaon-pileser a 
Chron. v. 6). ^, ^ -i * 

BEE'RI (the 7vcll-via.n). 1. The father ot 
Judith or Aholibamah, one of Esau's wives 
(Gen. xxvi. 34). He wa.^ identical with Anab, 



99 



[bEI.TL0T\'9 



who found the warm springs in the wilder- 
ness (for this is the true translation of 
xxxA-i. 24), and was thence designated Beeri. 
There is an apparent discrepancy in his 
being termed here a Hittite, and afterwards 
(xxxvi 2) aHivite. But Hittite often stands 
(see Jo^h. i. 4 ; 1 Kings x. 29 ; 2 Kings vii. 6 : 
comp. also C4en. xxvii. 46 with xxviii. 1) m 
a more general sense for an inhabitant of 
Canaan. As to the term Horite (xxxvi. 20), 
that designates persons, not according to 
their race, hut according to their mode of 
life,— 2. The father of the prophet Hosea 
(Hos. i. 1). , ^. 

BEE'ROTH (icells). One of the Hivite 
cities that made peace with the Israelites 
(Josh. ix. 17). It was afterwards allotted to 
Benjamin (xviii. 25 ; 2 Sam. iv. 2) ; and soma 
of its inhabitants returned from the cap- 
tivity (Ezra ii. 25; iN'eh. vii. 29). It has 
been identified with el-Bireh, about ten 
miles north of Jerusalem on the road to 
Nablous. According to tradition, it was at 
this place that Jesus w^as missed when re- 
turning from Jerusalem (Luke ii. 44). To 
the present day travellers going northward 
often halt after the first day's journey from 
Jerusalem at this spot. 

BEE'ROTH-BE^^E-JA'AKA:?^ (tl?e luells of 
the sons of Jaakaii). One of the stations of 
the Israelites in the desert (Deut. x. 6). It 
is called also Bene-Jaakan (Numb, xxxiii. 
31 32). 

BEE'ROTHITES. The inhabitants of 
Beeroth. The original residents, i.e. those 
who had made a treaty with Israel, or their 
posteritv, had quitted the city for Gittaim ; 
and the Benjamites occupied it (2 Sam. iv. 2, 
3, 5, 9, xxiii. 37). It is Berothite in 1 Chron. 

^^B^EESH'TERAH (house of Astarte). A city 
of Bashan, allotted from the district of the 
half-tribe of Manasseh to the Gershonite 
Levites. It is also caUed Ashtaroth (1 Chron. 
vi. 71). 

BEETLE. The original word so trans- 
lated (Lev. xi. 22) signifies a leaper. The Is- 
raelites were permitted to eat this creature ; 
but beetles do not appear to have ever been 
an article ot food. The probability is thac 
some winged and edible species of locust 
was meant. 

BEGGARS. See Alms, POOR. 

BEGINNING OF THE CREATION OF 
GOD. An appellation assumed by Christ 
(Rev. iii. 14). He was the beginner or the 
origin of all created things : comp. Col. i. 15. 

BEHEADING. See Punishments. 

BEHE'MOTH (the great beast ; or, if it be 
supposed an Egyptian word, it may mean 
the water-ox). A stupendous animal, de- 
scribed in Job xl. 15-24. The identification 
of behemoth has puzzled innumerable 
critics, and the strangest conjectures have 
been propounded. It will be enough to say 
thPt the mammoth or other extinct quad- 
ruped has been thought behemoth by 
some ; while others maintain it is the ele- 
phant ; and some would take the word as 
having a symbolical meaning. Perhaps the 
weight of evidence is in favour of the hip- 
popotamus. As leviathan is most likely tlie 
crocodile, it is not unreasonable to suppose 
that behemoth is, like the ^crocodile, an 



inhabitant of the Nile ; and that, as levia- 
than is amphibious, behemoth must be am- 
phibious too, a conclusion which is strength- 
ened by the comparison of 15, 21, 22 with 
24. Mr. Carey {The Book of Job translated, 
&G., Notes on Job xl. pp. 402-406) considers 
the description in detail, and points out 
various particulars in which the animal 
intended differs from the elephant and cor- 
responds with the hippopotamus. See HiP- 

POPOTAMrS. 

BE'KAH {apart, half). See Weights. 
BEL (contracted from Baal) (Isai. xlvi. 1 
Jer. 1. 2, li. 44). See B.-^l, Babel. 

BEL AND BE AGON. See Daniel, Apocrp' 
vhal Additions to. 

BE'LA (a sicaUoicing up, destruction). 1. 
An early king who reigned in Edom (Gen. 
xxxvi. 32, 33 ; 1 Chron. i. 43, 44).— 2. The 
eldest son of Benjamin (Numb. xxvi. 38, 40, 
1 Chron. vii. 6, 7, viii. l, 3). He is also called 
Belah (Gen. xlvi. 21).-3. A Reubenite 0 
Chron. v. 8). ^ , 

BE'LA {id.). One of the five cities of the 
plain, spared, at the intercession of Lot, 
from the destruction which befel Sodom 
and the others. It was called Zoar as being 
a small place (Gen. xiv. 2, 8). See Zoar. 

BE'LAH (id.). A son of Benjamin (Gen. 
xlvi. 21), identical with Bela, 2, which see. 

BE'LAITES. A family of Benjamin de- 
scended from Bela (Numb. xxvi. 38). 

BE'LEMUS (1 Esdr. ii. 16\ Probably a 
corrupt form of Bishlam (Ezra iv. 7). 

BE'LIAL (without usefulness, good for 
nothing). Our version very frequently 
treats this word as a proper name (e.g. Deut 
xiii. 13 ; Judges xix. 22 ; 1 Sara. ii. 12, xxv. 
17), but incorrectly. 'Sons of Belial' 
are worthless, vile, and profligate persons. 
Belial, or Beliar, has been adopted in the 
New Testament as an appellation of Satan 
or Antichrist (2 Cor. vi. 15). 

BELL, BELLS. Small golden bells (ac- 
cording to the rabbins, 72 in number) were 
attached, alternating with pomegranate- 
shaped knobs or tassels, to the hem of the 
high priest's robe, the robe of the ephod 
(Exod. xxviii. 33-35, xxxix. 25, 26). These 
would sound as the high priest entered the 
holy place, announcing, so to speak, his 
approach to the palace of the great King, 
and they would notify to the people without 
that he was performing his sacred func- 
tions. They were to be worn under pain of 
death. In Zech. xiv. 20, another word is 
used. It has been supposed that, instead of 
actual bells, these last were rather pieces of 
metal (comp. Judges viii. 21), attached for 
ornament to the necks of the horses ; they 
would tinkle as the animals moved. 

BELLOWS. The word does not occur 
till somewhat late in the sacred volume 
(Jer. vi. 29) ; but the iustrument must have 
been in use in much earlier times. Wilkin- 
son describes bellows from an ancient 
Egyptian picture, of the age of Thothines 
III., probably contemporary with Moses. 
' They consisted of a leather bag, secured 
and fitted into a frame, from which a long 
pipe extended, for carrying the wind into 
the fire. They were worked by the feet ; 
the operator standing upon them, with one 
under each foot, and pressing tluMU alr-^r- 



belmatk] 



100 



natelv, while he pulled up each exhausted 
skin with a string which he held in his 
hand' {Ancient Egypt, vol. iii. p. 333). See 
Fuller ACE. 

BEL' MAUI, and BEL' MEN (Judith iv. 4, 
vii. 3). These two places have not heen 
identified. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR {BeVs -prince). This mon- 
arch has been supposed to he the last king 
of Bahylon, identical -with Lahynetus, other- 
wise called Kahonnedus, IS'ahonidus, or Na- 
honadius. But, according to Berosus, Xa- 
bonnedus had retired to the neighbouring 
citv of Borsippa, and was blockaded there ; 
and, at length surrendering to Cyrus, he 
had his life spared, and a principality in 
Carmania bestowed on hira, where he died. 
The scripture narrative is very different. 
It tells of a sumptuous feast made by Bel- 
shazzar in the city of Babylon, when in 
the midst of revelry ahand supernaturally 
appeared and wrote the doom of the king- 
dom, which Daniel only could interpret, 
and which was accomplished that very 
niffht, Belshazzar being slain. If this was 
atlhe conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the 
account given by Xenophon {Cyrop. lib. vii. 
cap. V.) to a great extent agrees with the 
biblical record. For he speaks of the cap- 
ture of the city during a night of feasting, 
and of the death of the king, whom, how- 
ever, he does not name. But, in spite of 
this corroboration, modern writers have 
chosen to stigmatize the sacred story as 
false, and to deny that a king called Bel- 
shazzar ever existed. 

Two replies have been made to such ob- 
jections. It has been observed that the 
scripture nowhere calls Belshazzar the last 
king of Babylon ; further, that it is not 
necessarilv to be understood that the 
taking of' the kingdom by Darius imme- 
diately followed Belshazzar's death ; and, 
besides, that the expression 'took the king- 
dom ' (Dan. vi. 31) reads more like a peace- 
able succession than the fresh rule of a con- 
queror just after a night of confusion and 
blood. It is, moreover, remarked that Evil- 
Merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's sou, perished 
just as Belshazzar -did, coming to a violent 
death after a reign as long as that ascribed 
to Belshazzar. Ziindel, therefore, argues 
with great force that, as we know a single 
individual often bore two names, Evil- 
Merodach (so called very probably not till 
after his miserable end) must have been 
the Belshazzar who was slain in the night 
of his impious revelry {Krit. Untersuch. 
liber die Abfassirngzeit des B. Daniel, pp. 
26-34). But, in 1854, a remarkable discovery 
was made by Sir H. Rawlinson at Muglieir, 
or Mugeyer, the ancient Ur. Documents 
were brought to light which prove that 
Kabonnedus, during the last years of his 
reign, associated his son Bil-shar-uzur with 
himself in the government, and allowed him 
the roval title. He, then, may have con- 
ducted the defence of B;ibylon within the 
walls; while the father couimauded with- 
out. Bil-shar-uzur was very young at the 
time ; but princes as young as he have held 
high command in the east. Thus Herod 
the Great was governor of Galilee at 15, 
And the interference of the queen is some 



presumption of the king's youth. If Tsa 
bounedus married a daughter of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and if Belshazzar was the issue of 
that marriage, the expressions of Dan. v. 
11, 13, IS, 22 are accounted for. Also, as 
there were two sovereigns, it is seen why 
Daniel was proclaimed third ruler of the 
kingdom (7, 16. 29). Here is proof, then, 
from independent sources, that a Belshazzar 
reigned ; and certainly the impugners of 
scripture veracity may learn a lesson of 
modestv therefrom. See Rawlinson, B:ist. 
Evidences of Script. Bee, lect. v. pp. 168-171, 
442-444, 535-538 ; Lof tus, (Jlialdea and Baby- 
lonia, pp. 132, 133. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR. {BeTs prince, i.e. whom 
Bel favours). An Assyrio-Babylonish name 
given to Daniel at the court of Babylon 
(Dan. i. 7, ii. 26, iv. 8, 9, 18, 19, v. 12, x. 1). See 
Daniel. 

BEX {a son). A Levito porter of the 
second degree (1 Chron. xv. 18). 

This vrord is frequently used as a prefix 
in the composition of names, as the fol- 
lowing articles show. 

BEX-ABIN'ADAB (son of Abinadab). One 
of Solomon's commissariat officers, who 
married Solomons daughter Taphath (1 
Kings iv. 11, marg.). See Abixadab. 

BEX-AM'MI (son of my own kindred, or 
people). The son of Lot's younger daugh- 
ter, from whom the Ammonites were de- 
scended (Gen. xix. 38). 

BEX-DE'KAR (son of Bekar). One of 
Solomon's commissariat officers (1 Kings 
iv. 9, marg.). See Dekar. 

BEN-GE'BER (son of Geber). Also one of 
Solomon's commissariat officers (1 Kings 
iv. 13, marg.). See Geber. 

BEX-HA'DAD (son, or worshipper, ofHa- 
dad, probably the sun).— 1. The son of Ta- 
brimon, son of Eezion, king of Syria. He 
was a powerful monarch ; the smaller prin- 
cipalities around Damascus being at the 
time subject to its sovereign. His alliance 
was courted by Baasha and Asa ; and, on 
receiving a large present from the last- 
named prince, he attacked and overran the 
northern part of the Israelitish territory 
(1 Kings XV. 18-20 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 2-4 : comp. 
1 Kings XX. 34).— 2. The son of the prece- 
ding. He was generally at v^ar with Israel, 
and was once taken prisoner (xx). In 
a battle with him, three years later, Ahab 
was killed (xxii. 1, 31-37). It was he that, 
in the reign of Jehorara, sent a letter to 
that king demanding the cure of Xaaman's 
leprosy (2 Kings v. 5-7). He afterwards be- 
sieged Samaria, but broke up his army in 
consequence of a sudden panic (ri., rii.): 
He was ultimately murdered by his suc- 
cessor Hazael (viii. 7-15) ; though some 
critics doubt whether, according to the 
exact meaning of the passage, Hazael v/as 
guilty of this crime. This Ben-hadad was 
worsted in three great battles by the As- 
svrian king Siliraa-rish, or Shalmauubar, 
whose victories are recorded on the famous 
black obelisk now in the British Museum. 
—3. The son of Hazael, named Ben-hadad, 
succeeded his father. His reign was, on 
the whole, disastrous. He suffered three 
defeats from king Joash of Israel; and 
Jeroboam II. even subjected Damascus (xiii. 



[benjamin 



I 3, 24, 25, xiv. 28 ; Anios i, 4). In the last- 
I uamed passage and Jer. xlix. 27, the palaces 

of Damascus are called 'palaces of Beu- 

hadad.' 

BEN-HA'IL (son of the host, i.e. warrior). 
One of the princes of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 
xvii. 7). 

BEJST-HA'JSTAN (son of one gracious). A 
descendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20). 

BEJf-HE'SED (son of Hesed). One of So- 
lomon's commissariat officers (1 Kings iv. 
10, marg,). See Hesed. 

BEN-HUR (son of Hur). Another of Solo- 
mon's commissariat officers (1 Kings iv. 8, 
marg.). See Hur, 

BEN'-JAMIN (son of the right hand). See 
Benjamin. 

BEJs-O'jST (son of my sorroto). The name 
which Rachel gave to her second son (Gen. 
XXXV. 18), Jacob changed it into Benjamin. 

BEN-ZO'HETH (son of Zoheth). A de- 
scendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20\ 

BEJS'AI'AH Cwhom Jehovah hath built up). 
—1, The son of Jehoiada, of Kabzeel, in 
the south of Judah, called a ' chief priest ' 
(1 Chron, xxvii. 5), If the original word he 
here accurately rendered priest, Benaiah 
must he supposed of the tribe of Levi ; 
but it possibly means also a high officer ; as 
when David's sons are so described (2 Sam, 
viii. 18). Benaiah held several military 
posts under David, and, having proved his 
fidelity when Adonijah made his attempt 
upon the crown, he was by Solomon ap- 
pointed captain of the host, or commander- 
in-chief, in the place of Joab (xx, 23, 
xxiii, 20-23; 1 Kings i, 8, 10, 26, 32, 36, 
38, 44, ii, 25, 29, 30, 34, 35, 46, iv. 4 ; 
1 Chron. xi. 22-25, xviii. 17, xxvii. 5, 6). 
His son Jehoiada is said to have been 
after Ahithophel, the king's counsellor 
(34) ; it has been thought, however, that 
'Jehoiada the son of Benaiah' here is 
a transposition, by error of copying, for 
Benaiah the son of Jehoiada.— 2. A Pi- 
rathonite of Ephraim, one of David's war- 
riors (2 Sara, xxiii. 30 ; 1 Chron. xi. 31, 
xxvii. 14).— 3. One of the chiefs of the 
Simeonites (iv. 36).— 4. A Levite porter 
j appointed to play on the psaltery (xv. 
18, 20, xvi. 5).- 5. A priest who blew the 
trumpet (xv. 24, xvi. 6). — 6. A Levite of the 
family of Asaph (2 Chron. xx. 14).— 7. A 
Levite, one of the overseers of the obla- 
tions in Hezekiah's reign (xxxi, 13).— 8, 9, 
10, 11, Four persons who had married fo- 
reign wives (Ezra x. 25, 30, 35,43). 

BENE'-BERAK (sons of lightning). A 
city allotted to Dan (Josh. xix. 45), 

BENE-JA'AKAN (sons of JaaJcan). A 
nalting-place of the Israelites (Numb, 
xxxiii, 31, 32). See Beeroth-Bene- 
Jaakan, 

BENEFACTOR (Luke xxii. 25). This de- 
j signation, in Greek Euergetes, was given to 
i various kings ; e.g. to two of the Ptole- 
! mies, kings of Egypt. Our Lord's observa- 
i tion has, therefore, a special point, 

Bl -NI'NU (our son). A Levite who sealed 
tlie c ovenant (Neh. x. 13), 

BEN'JAMIN (son of the right hand).— 
1. The youngest son of Jacob, born in 
PalesUne, not far from Beth-lehem, after 
the return from Padan-aram. Rachel his 



mother died in givinghim birth, and named 
him Ben-oni, son of my sorrow. Deep was 
the sorrow of the bereaved Jacob ; but his 
affection centred more intensely on the 
nursling who survi-ved, whom he called 
Benjamin, and who became afterwards the 
still more cherished child of his old age, 
when Joseph (as he thought) was not, and 
this was the only offspring of his darling 
Rachel (Gen. xxxv. 16-20), 

Of Benjamin's personal character and 
history little is recorded. His brothers, 
touched perhaps with some sense of their 
cruel wrong to Joseph, seem to have treated 
him with tenderness. And, when they 
first went down to Egypt to buy corn, he 
was left at home (xlii. 3, 4, 13). Joseph, 
however, required that he should be 
brought, and, to ensure the return of the 
brethren, kept Simeon as a hostage (14-20, 
33, 34). Jacob was struck with dismay 
when his nine sous brought him the de- 
mand of the governor of Egypt, and at 
first determinately refused compliance 
(36-38). The subsequent history, Jacob's 
consent hardly wrested from him by Judah, 
the journey to Egypt, the presentation of 
Benjamin to Joseph, the distinction given 
him, the charge of theft, Judah's noble 
defence of him, the recognition, and the 
joyful tidings carried back to Jacob, make 
up an unrivalled narrative, most touching 
and most true to nature (xliii-xlv.). 

When the house of Israel went to so- 
journ in Goshen, Benjamin must have been 
young— we know not his exact age; still 
he was married, and had children. Ten are 
enumerated (xlvi. 21) ; but some of these, 
called ' sons,' according to a common use 
of the word, have been thought to be really 
grandsons (1 Chron. vii. 6-12, viii. 1-5) ; if 
so, they must have been born after the 
descent into Egypt. See, however, an in- 
genious mode of reconciling the different 
statements in Birks' Exodus of Israel, 
pp. 15, 16. The tribe ultimately consisted of 
seven great families, deriving their names, 
some from sons and some from grand- 
sons of the patriarch (Numb. xxvi. 38-40). 

The prophetic blessing pronounced by 
Jacob upon Benjamin (,Gen. xlix. 27) de- 
scribes most significantly the future tribe's 
indomitable courage, shrewd cunning, and 
fierce ambition, exemplified in the common 
action, or in the behaviour of individual 
chieftains. At the first census in the wil- 
derness, the Benjamite males of military 
age were 35,400 ; and their place in the 
camp was on the west of the tabernacle, 
massed with their brethren of the house 
of Joseph ; their captain being Abidan, the 
son of Gideoni (Numb. i. 36, 37, ii. 22, 23). 
In the later census they had increased to 
45,600 (xxvi. 41). The blessing of Moses 
(Deut. xxxiii. 12) was significative of the 
location of the tribe between Ephraim and 
Judah, on the hills where ' the joy of the 
whole earth,' ' the city of the great King,' 
was afterwai'ds established, a safe and 
happy dwelling-place ' between his shoul- 
ders.' The ten-itory allotted to the Bcd- 
jamites extended from the Jordan eastwatd 
to the frontier of Dan in the west. (Fur au 
explanation of the (:ibs(nu-e expression, i' 



BENJAMIN, GATE Of] €Ije KXtKiimj Ct 



102 



* compassed the corner of the sea see 
Beth-horox). Southward it ^vas separated 
from Judah hy the valley of Hiunom, and 
in the north it was contiguous to Ephrann 
riosh xviii. 11-20). It was a compact oblong 
about 26 miles in length hy 12 in hreadth : 
it is said to have heen a fertile territory , 
and it was admirably situated for the de- 
velopment of the characteristics of the 
tribe Its great distinguishing featiires 
were its passes and its heights. ' The latter 
were of considerable elevation being 2 000 
feet and upwards above the level of the 
niaritime plain ; and the former, caused m 
part bv the torrents which ran down eithei 
'side of this lofty ^^ater-shed, yi-e the only 
means of access to the land of the Phi - 
tines on the east, and to the fords of tl e 
Jordan on the west.' Various remarkable 
events occurred in some of these passeb 
during the conquest, as the battle of Ai m 
the lower part of one of them to the east, 
and the rout of Beth-horon down another 
to the west. ' And in later times they were 
the scenes of other conflicts not less im- 
portant in the general history of the land. 
Indeed, all the leading events m the fa^t- 
ne^^es of the tribe of Benjamin received a 
special character from the heights or the 
passes of the territory assigned to it ; and 
some of those events appear far more 
striking when viewed in connection with 
nie physical aspects of the localities where 
thev occurred' cSmith, Hist, of Joshua and 
his'Time^ p. 196). Two groups of cities, 
twelve and fourteen respectively m num- 
ber are mentioned as belonging to thi* 
tribe (Josh, xviii. 21-28) ; among them are 
several of note, Beth-el, Gibepn, and spe- 
cluiy Jerusalem. But the Benjamites were 
not able to subdue the fortress of the la.t- 
named city: they obtained onlj' some pa t 
of it : the Jebusites holding the rest till it 
was ultimately taken by David, and thence- 
forth was considered as belonging as much 
to Judah, whose frontier came close up to 
it, as to Benjamin (Judges ii. 21 , 2 Sam. ^ . 

The Benjamites at some periods of 
their history seem to have occupied towns 
beyond their own boundary (l Chron. vui. 

^'The' Blujamites excelled as ai'cliers (1 
Chron xii 2 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 17) ; while 
anion- the rest of Israel archery was (at 
feast ft has been so supposed) at _ one nne 
ne-lected (2 Sam. i. 18) ; and their skill in 
?liSgTng with either hand is particularly 

"°^fe ^g"e'?est"misfl;rtune that ever bef el 
the tribe occurred not very long after the 
settlinentTn Canaan. A fearful crime had 
been committed in one of their cities ; and 
they refused at the requisition of Israe to 
deliver up the culprits. A disastrous cn il 
war ensued, in which the Benjamites fewer 
rimii Avhen they crossed the Jordan, f ought 
[n unequal conflict against the other tnb^ 
After some early successes, thej A\eie en 
thel? defeated and destroyed: their cities 
were burnt ; and there survived of the 
whole tribe but 600 men, for whom the^^^ 
of the Israelites rendered it difficult to 
provide wives when the angry Passion. of 
the nation had settled down ^xix-xxi.). 



I Restored to their inheritance this rem- 
nant must have been wealthy pro- 
' prietors ; they would therefore multiply 
rapidly and gain influence in the nation, so 
that three of the families are mentioned (it 
is not quite clear at what period) as supply- 
ing 59,434 men of military age (1 Chron. vii. 
6-11). Accordingly the first monarch of 
Israel was a Benjamite ; and no doubt his 
own tribe would be specially favoured 
(1 Sam. xxii. 7). But the Benjamites never 
showed much attachment to Saul or his 
family. From the place just referred to it 
appears that they obstinately refused to 
betray David. Indeed, many of them 
joined David while yet m hold (1 Chi on. 
xii 1-7); and it seems that it was with 
soine difficulty that Abner preserved the 
allegiance of the tribe to Ish-bosheth , nor 
did he dare to fix Ish-bosheth's residence 
in Benjamin (2 Sam. ii. 8, 9) ; and it was by 
Benjamites that that ill-fated prince was 
murdered (iv. 2-8). Shimei, it is true one 
of the tribe, reviled David; and Sheba, 
also a Benjamite, after the rebellion of 
Absalom was suppressed, tried to organiza 
another (xvi. 5-8, xx. 1, 2) ; but 1,000 Ben- 
jamites went with Judali to welcome David 
back at the Jordan (xix. 16, 17), ana SheM s 
insurrection was soon suppressed, ^^e 
thus see the drawings of Benjamin towards 
Judah, which issued in the firm union of 
both the tribes when the kingdom was 
divided. Thenceforward the historj^ of the 
two is identical : both went into captivity, 
and both returned (Neh. xi. 31-3d). The 
separation of the kingdom in some respects 
diminished Benjamin's territory; thus 
Beth-el, and perhaps Jericho, belonged to 
the northern realm (1 Kings xii. 29, xvi 34) , 
but there were extensions m other direc- 
tions, in the districts of Dan and Simeon , 
and, when the militia was numbered under 
Jehoshaphat, a very large proportion were 
reckoned of Benjamin (2 Chron. xvii. 1 ^ ,18). 
Of the eminent men of the tribe, besides 
those already noticed, may be mentioned 
Ehud (Judges iii. 15) It lias been already 
said that little regard was paid to Saul, the 
Benjamite king, or his l^o^^se. His pedi- 
gree it is true, is preserved (1 Chron. vni. 
33-40 ix. 39-44) ; but his name does not recur 
in Benjamin (if that be any test) for hun- 
dreds of years, when the greatest of Ben- 
jamites, Saul of Tarsus, bore it during his 
earUer life (Rom. xi. l ; Phil in. 5). _ 

2 4. Benjamite chief (1 Chron. yii. 10).- 
3 One who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 32).-4. Benjamin is mentioned as 
taking part in the dedication of the wall of 
JerusSlem (Neh. xii. 34). It w-ould seem as 
if an individual were intended. 

BEJv'JAMIX, GATE OF. One of the 
gates of Jerusalem so called (Jer. xx. 2 
^vTvii xwviii 7; Zech. xiv. 10). It 
miSVhave been in the north wall of the 
city : and probably opposite to it was a gate 
of the tem])le, that called in the first pas- 
sage cited ' tlie high gate of Benjamin 

BEN'JAMITES. The posterity of Ben- 
jamin (Judges iii. 15, xix. 16, and ei^e- 

''^BEN'O {his son-). A Levite a Chron 
xxiv. 26,27). 



103 



[beryl 



BE'ON A contracted form of Baal- must lia^e occurred of course in Egypt ; and 

MEoy which see it seems likely that the men of Gath were 

BE'br. {torch,' lamp).— 1. The father of settled in the neighhourhood. Ephraim's 

Bela, an ancient king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. sons attacked them, why we can only con- 

32 • 1 Chron. i. 43).— 2. The father of Balaam jecture, intending to seize their cattle. But 

(Numb xxii 5, xxiv. 3, 15, xxxi. 8 ; Deut. the men of Gath resisted, and slew some 

xxiii 4 ; Josh. xiii. 22, xxiv. 9 ; Mic. vi. 5). of the assailants. What sons of Ephrarm 

He is called Bosor in 2 Pet. ii. 15. were killed does not appear from the nar- 

EWnAisonofevill). A king of Sodom, rative.— 3. A Benjamite chief: he, and his 

on whom Chedor-laomer made war (Gen. brother Shema, settled in Aijalon, and 

xiv 2) peopled it, expelling the Inhabitants of Gath 

BERA'CHAn (blessing, henediction). A (viii. 13).-4. A Levite of the family of 

Benjamite chief who joined David (1 Chron. Gershon (xxiii. 10, 11). 

xii 3). BEHI'ITES. A family of Asher, de- 

BERA'CHAH (id.). The valley in which scended from Beriah, 1 (Numb. xxvi. 44). 

Jehoshaphat assembled his people to bless BE'RITES. A people mentioned m 2 Sam 

and praise God after the victory over Moab, xx. 14 : they evidently lived m the north ol 

Ammon, and the people of mount Seir Palestine ; but it is uncertain who they 

(2 Chron. xx. 26). The place is no doubt were. Possibly they might be the inhabit- 

identical with BereikM, M'hich lies to the ants of Beer, 2. In the Vulgate translation 
A-est of Tekoa, between Beth-lehem and I the word is not taken as a proper name. 
Hebron. ! BE'RITH (a covenant) (Judges ix. 4G) 
BERACHI'AH (whom Jehovah 7? ai/i ; See Baal-Be RITH. 



blessed). The father of Asaph (1 Chron. 
vi. 39), called also Berechiah (xv. 17). 

BERAI'AH (whom Jehovah created). A 
Benjamite chief (1 Chron. viii. 21). 



BERjSI'CE or BERENI'CE. The eldest 
daughter of Herod Agrippa I , and sister 
to Herod Agrippa II. (Acts xxv. 13, 23, xxvi. 
30), married first to her uncle Herod, king 



BERE'A. A city in the third region of of Chalcis, after whose death she lived 
Macedonia, not far from Pella, at the foot under suspicious circumstances with her 



of mount Bermius. There were many 
Jews resident there, whose character the 
sacred historian commends. Paul and Silas 



brother. She then became the wife of 
Polemon, king of Cilicia. This connection 
was soon dissolved ; and she returned to 



visited Berea when driven by persecution Agrippa, and was subsequently the _mi, 
from Thessalonica ; but, though their ; tress, first of Vespasian, then of Titus, 
preaching was successful, as their perse- 1 See Winer, Bibl. i2ir£., art. ' Bernice.' 
cutors followed them with mischievous in- 1 BER'ODACH-BAL'ADAN {Serodach^, ioor- 
tent, it was deemed prudent to send Paul 
on to Athens (Acts xvii. 10-15). Sopater, sub- 
sequently a companion of the apostle, was 
of Berea. This city was afterwards called 
Irenopolis, and is now Kara Feria, or Ver- 
ria. The population is reckoned to amount 
to 15,000 or 20,000, 
BERE'A.— 1. (1 Mace. Ix. 4). A place not 



' shipper of Bel) (2 Kings xx. 12). See Mero- 
dach-Baladan. 
BERCE'A. See Berea. 
BE' ROTH (1 Esdr. v. 19). A form of 
Beeroth (Ezra ii. 25). 

BE'ROTHAH {mil tcells, according to 
gome, a species of fir). ■ A place mentioned 

as the northern border of the Holy Land 

far from Jerusalem.— 2. (2 Mace. xiii. 4). | (Ezek. xlvii. 16). We can decide nothing 
This is said to be the modern Aleppo. | certainly respecting it. It is not impro- 

BERECHI'AH (whom Jehovah hath \ bable that it was identical with 
5Zessed).—l. A descendant of David (1 Chron. I BE'ROTHAI {vnj icells, or, possibly, 
iii.20).— 2. A Levite (ix. 16).— 3. The father : 2>Zace of cypresses). A town from which 
of Asaph (XV. 17). He is also called Berachiah ; David took much brass (2 Sam, vm. 8), 
(vi.39).— 4. A door-keeper for the ark (XV. 23). • called also Chun (1 Chron. xviii. 8). Some 
5. A chief of Ephraim in the reign of Ahaz , have imagined it the modern Beirut ; but 
(2 Chron. xxviii. 12).— 6. The father of one , that must lie too much to the west, 
who assisted in repairing the wall of Jeru- BE'ROTHITE. An inhabitant of Beeroth 
salem (Neh, iii. 4, 30, vi. 18).— 7. The father (1 Chron. xi. 39). See Beeroth, Beeroth- 
of Zechariah the prophet (Zech. i. 1, 7), ites. 

l)rinted in some copies Barachiah. } BERYL. A precious stone, one of the 

BE'RED (/itdZ). A son or descendant of, gems in the high priest's breast-plate (Exod. 
Ephraim (l Chron. vii. 20) ; perhans iden- [ xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13). Mention is elsewhere 
tical with Becher (Numb, xxvi, 35), I made of this stone : thus the hands of the 

BE'RED (id.). A place in the south of ' spouse are likened to 'gold rings set with 
Palestine (Gen. xiv. 14). Beer-Lahai-Roi i the beryl' (Sol. Song v. 14) : 'the wheels 
lay between it and Kadesh. Some have; and their work' in Ezekiel's vision were in 



supposed it the modern el-Khulasah : this, 
however, is more probably Chesil or BetheL 
BERENI'CE. See Bernice. 



colour like beryl (Ezek. i. 16, x, 9) : this, 
too, was one of the gems in the covering of 
the king of Tyre (xxviii. 13 ; wdiere ' chry- 



BE'RI {tcell-man^. A chieftain of Asher , solite,' marg.) : the body of the lieavenly 



being Daniel saw was like the beryl (Dan. 
X.6) ; ard this was one of the foundations of 



(1 Chron. vii. 36). 

BERI'AH {in evil, son of evil, or, accord- , 
ing to some, a gift).— 1. A son of Asher ^ the new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20), 
(Gen. xlvi. 17 ; Numb. xxvi. 44, 45 ; 1 Chron. 
vii. 30, 31).— 2, A son of Ephraim, so named 



brew name of the stone in question is tar- 
shish ; and Gesenius imagines it to be so 



because just before a great calamity had, called because it Avas brought from Tar- 
befallen the patriarcli's family (20-23). This shish. i.e. Tartessus in Spain. He is nicline;^ 



BEBZELUS] 



104 



therefore to believe it the topaz, still foiTud 
In Spain. Some would prefer interpreting 
it chrysolite ; hut chrysolite is mentioned 
additionally in llev. xxi. 20. Perhaps after 
all Avhat we call beryl is intended ; which is 
described as a gem of the genus emerald, 
hut not equal in value to the emerald pro- 
perly so called. It is greyish green, or blue, 
sometimes yellow or almost white. 

BERZE'LUS (1 Esdr. v. 38). A corrupted 
form of Barzillai (Ezra ii. 61). 

BE'SAI (perhaps sit'orff, ovvlctorij). Anian 
w^iose descendants w^ere among the Nethi- 
nim that returned from Babylon (Ezraii. 
49 ; Neh. yU. 52). 

BESIEGIXG TOWXS. See Army, Ex- 
GiNES, Fenced Cities, War. 

BESODEI'AH (m the secret of Jelwvah^. 
The father of Meshullam who repaired part 
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6). 

BE'SOR {cool). A torrent flowing into 
the Mediterranean near Gaza. (1 Sam. xxx. 
9, 10, 21). 

BESTEAD (Isai. viii. 21). Distressed. 

BE'TAH {confidence). A Syrian city from 
which David took much brass (2 Sani. 
viii. 8). In 1 Chron. xviii. 8, it is called 
Tibhath. 

BET' AXE. The name of a place, perhaps 
south of Jerusalem (Judith i. 9). 

BE'TEN (&eZ?2/, perhaps raZZe^/). A border 
town of Asher (Josh. xix. 25). 

BETH {Jiouse). This word signifies gene- 
rally a habitation, both a fixed abode, and 
also occasionally a tent or tabernacle, a 
home, then tropically the household, fa- 
mily, and so the descendants : it also im- 
plies a house of worship. The reader will 
hence easilv understand the force it has in 
combination with other words. Such com- 
binations are frequently used to form the 
names of places; as in the following ar- 
ticles. 

BETH-AB'ARA {jjlace of passage, the 
ferry). A place beyond, that is, on the east 
of the Jordan, where John the Baptist was 
baptizing (John i. 28). It would be reason- 
able to believe that it was identical with 
Beth-barah (Judges vii. 24), if there were 
not doul)ts as to the accuracy of the ordi- 
nary reading of the text. Some of the most 
ancient manuscripts for Bethabara have 
Bethanv ; so that it is at least probable Xhat 
this last is the true name of the place. But, 
if so, it must be carefully distinguished 
from the Bethany by Jerusalem. 

BETH'- AN AT H {house of response, or 
echo). A town of Naphtali (Josh, xix. 38 ; 
Judges i. 33). 

BETH'-AKOTH {id.). A town among the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 59), probably 
the modern Beit-'ainun. 

BETH'AlSnr {house or place of dates). A 
well-knovur village about two miles from 
Jerusalem, on the eastern slope of the 
mount of Olives in a hollow near the place 
where the road to Jericho begins to de- 
scend more steeply to the Jordan valley. 
Fruit, and other trees grow around, olive, 
almond and oak, giving the spot an air of 
seclusion and renose. Pew places are more 
endeared to the Christian's heart than 
Bethany : it was here that his Lord lived 
in social intercourse with the family he 



loved : here he manifested the tenderest 
sympathies of (mr nature : here he per- 
formed the stupendous miracle of raising 
the dead L,azarus ; and from some neigh- 
bouring spot on the slopes of Olivet he 
a:loriouslv ascended, a cloud receiving him 
from the wondering gaze of his assembled 
disciDles (Matt. xxi. 17, xxvi. 6-13 ; Mark xi. 
1, 11, 12, xiv. 3-9 ; Luke xix. 29, xxi v. 50, 51 ; 
John xi. 1-46. xii. 1-8). Bethany is now 
called el-Azariyeh, a mean village contain- 
ing about twenty families. The people 
pretend to show the house of Lazarus, with 
his tomb, also the house of Simon the leper ; 
))ut these traditions are very unsatisfac- 
tory. 

BETH-ARA'BAH {house of the desert). 
One of the six cities enumerated as belong 
ing to Judah in the wilderness (Josh, xv 
6, 01). But it is elsewhere assigned to Ben- 
jamin (xviii. 22). It was on the border of 
the two tribes. 

BETH-A'RAM {house of the height, moun- 
tain-house). A city in the territory of Gad, 
east of the Jordan (Josh. xiii. 27), called 
also Beth-haran (.Numb, xxxii. 36). In later 
times it was named Libias in honour of the 
empress Livia. 

BETH-APv-'BEL {house of God's amlmsh) 
A place destroyed by Shalman, orShalman- 
eser (Hos. x. 14). It is probably identical 
with Arbela, Irhid, in Galilee ; there are, 
however, other opinions in regard to it. 

BETH-A'VEN {house of nothingness, i.e. 
of idols). A town of Benjamin to the east 
of Beth-el (Josh. vii. 2, xviii. 12, where ' the 
wilderness,' possibly moor or pasture-land 
about it, is spoken of (1 Sam. xiii. 5, xiv. 23). 
Hosea in sarcasm playing upon the name 
transfers it to tlie neighbouring town of 
Beth -el (iv. 15, v. 8, x. 5, 8). 

BETH-AZMA'VETH {lioiise strong as 
death). A town probably in Benjamin (Neh. 
vii. 29). See Azmaveth. 

BETH-BA'AL-ME'ON (house of Baal- 
Meon). A city of the Reubenites (Josh, 
xiii. 17), caUed also Baal-Meox, which 
see. 

BETH-BA'RAH (place of passage). A 
place near the Jordan to the west, where 
the Ephraimites took 'the waters,' the 
streams perhaps from the uplands, to inter- 
cept the Midianites (Judges vii. 24). Some 
have identified this place with Beth- 
abara, which see. 

BETH-BA'SI (1 Mace. ix. 62, 64). A place 
repaired by Jonathan and Simon Macca- 
beus. 

BETH-BIR'EI {house of my creation). A 
town of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 31). It is 
probably the same with Beth-lebaoth (Josh, 
xix. 6), and Lebaoth (xv. 32). 

BETH'-CAR {house of pasture). A place 
to which Israel pursued the Philistines 
after the victory of Mizpeh, to the west of 
wniich it must have been (1 Sam. vii. 11). 

BETH-DA'GON {house or temple ofDagon). 
—1. A tov,-n in the plain country of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 41).— 2. A border town of Asher 
xix. 27). There are several places which 
still bear this name, Beit JDejan, probably 
built or consecrated by the Philistines 
when thev overran the country. 

BETH-DA'GON (1 Mace. x. 83). This is 



" 105 Mihlt miTOtUlC^S^^ [BETK-EZEi 


not a place but a building, as in 1 Sam. 

V 2. 

'bETH-DIBLATHA'IM (house of the Uum 
cakes). A town of Moab, probably the 
same with Almon-diblathaim (Jer. xlviii. 22). 

BETH-E'DEN {house of pleasantness). 
This name appears in Amos i. 5, marg. : in 
the text of our version it is rendered ' the 
house of Eden.' It was either the seat of 
a petty prince, or more probably an occa- 
sional residence of the Icings of Syria. 
Perhaps it was the Paradisus of Ptolemy 
(Geograph. lib. v. cap. 15). 

BETH-E'KED-HARO'IM (hoitse of the 
shepherds' hamlet). This is translated ni 
our version of 2 Kings x. 12, 14 'the 
shearing-house.' It must have been be- 
tween Jezreel and Samaria. 

BETH'-EL (house of God).— I. The place 
where Abraham pitched his tent (Gen. 
xii 8, xiii. 3). The name, however, was 
first actually given by Jacob to the spot 
1 close bv the city of Luz, where he had his 
i marvellous vision, and where he set up a 

I stone pillar, pouring oil upon it (xxviii. 
11-22) On his return from Padan-aram, 

! Jacol) again visited the spot, built an altar 
there, and again consecrated a pillar, re- 
newing and confirming the name he had 
before given it (xxxv. 6-15). It has been 
objected that the name Beth-el was given 
twice ; but there is nothing but what is 
natural in the whole of this account. 
Jacob, when there first, was a fugitive, and 
in fear : when he returned to it he was a 
powerful chief. The remembrance of the 
blessing ho had asked, and which God had 
given him, would come in full tide upon 
his mind ; and it was to be expected that he 
would dedicate that spot afresh, and afresh 
devote himself to the Lord, who a second 
time, it would seem, appeared to hnn here. 
And the name would be treasured m the 
hearts of Jacob's descendants ; so that it is 
no wonder that Moses, noting Abraham s 
history, describes his encampments by 
using, as we have seen, the Avord sacred 
already to Israel, rather than the Canaan- 
itishname of a city, which, besides, did not 
stand upon the exact spot designated. 
•When Jacob,' says Kalisch, 'had conse- 
crated the altar in Bethel, God not only 
repeated the material promises before 
made to himself and to his ancestors, but 
chiefly confirmed the spiritual dominion 
which his seed shoiUd exercise ; therefore 
the significant change of Jacob's name 
into Israel is repeated ; and this constitutes 

I I the principal " blessing." To commemorate 
1 this new vision Jacob erected a monument 

of stone, sanctified it by a libation of wine 
and an ointment of oil (comp. xxviu. 18 ; 
Exod x\iv. 4; Josh. xxiv. 27), and called 
the piace Beth-r-l, just as he had before, on 
a similar occasion, givi.n the same appella- 
tion to a spot equally remarkable {Comm 
on Old Test. Gen., pp. 587, 585). In Joshua 
of course we find the hallowed name (Josh 
vii 2 viii 9 12, 17, xii. 9) ; but the distinc 
tionl)etween Be'th-el, as afterwards settled 
and Luz, is marked (xvi. 1, 2) ; and, \vlien 
the place was assigned to the tribe of Ben 
iamin (xviii. 18, 22), no doubt the new 
j buildings collected round the sacred spot 


and whereas there had been 'Luz, there now 
was Beth-el, occupying virtually the posi- 
tion of the old city, and yet not precisely on 
the original site. The capture of Lviz is 
recorded in Judges i. 22, 23. Thenceforth 
Beth-el was a holy city. Possibly the taber- 
nacle might for a while be here (xx. 18, 
26, 31, xxi. 2, 19, where the word Beth-el, 
generally in our version 'the house of 
God,' is perhaps a proper name). It was one 
of the places where Samuel went on cir- 
cuit (1 Sam. vii. 16), and is repeatedly men- 
tioned in the subsequent history. 

Though Beth-el belonged to Benjamin, it 
was occupied by Ephraimites (1 Chron. vii. 
28) ; and Jeroboam set up here one of his 
idolatrous calves (1 Kings xii. 29-33, xiii.). 
It seems to have been recovered by Abijah 
(2 Chron. xiii. 19) ; but the possession of it 
by Judah was evidently but temporary. 
Perhaps, however, it belonged to the 
southern kingdom when a school of the 
prophets was at Beth-el; but the people 
were depraved, as is clear from the insult 
olTered to Elisha (2 Kings ii. 2, 3, 23-25). 
The calf-worship is still mentioned (x. 29) ; 
and probably even yet more sinful rites 
were practised here (Amos iii. 14, iv. 4, v. 
5, 6, vii. 10, 13), when the city seems to have 
become an Israelitish royal residence. In 
Beth-el one of the priests was stationed, 
who taught the ignorant Samaritans (2 
Kings xvii. 28) ; here, too, Josiah, who evi- 
dently had authority over the district, ful- 
filled prophecy by polluting the idolatrous 
altars (xxiii. 15-18). Men of Beth-el re- 
turned from the Babylonish captivity (Ezra 
ii. 28 ; Neh. vii. 32, xi. 31). 

Beth-el is now Beitln, twelve miles north 
of Jerusalem, a mass of ruins : the hill, it 
is said, is yet distinguishable where Abra- 
ham built his altar, and where he probably 
stood with Lot when they agreed to sepa- 
rate. Various legends have been told of 
the stone which was Jacob's iMllar. 

2 A town in the south of Judah or 
Simeon (Josh. xii. 16 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 27), per- 
haps identical with Bethul, which see. 

BETH'ELITE. An inhabitant of Beth-el 
(1 Kings xvi. 34). 

BETH-E'MEK {house of the valley). A 
border town of Asher (Josh. xix. 27). 

BETH-ES'D A {house of mercy). A pool or 
tank at Jerusalem, descril)ed as being in or 
by the sheep-market, or sheep-gate, with fivo 
porches, a kind of colonnade, where infirm 
people lay waiting for the supernatural 
' troubling of the water,' Whoever then 
first stepped in was cured of his infirmity. 
This was the scene of a remarkable miracle 
performed by our Lord, ai d objected to by 
the Jews, as if the sabbath had been 
broken (John v. 2-16). Bcthesda is gene- 
rally supposed to be the pool now called 
Birket Israil, within the walls of the city, 
close by St. Stephen's gate, to the north- 
east of the area of the great mosque. Dr. 
Robinson, however, is inclined to identify 
it with the fountain of the Virgin, some 
distance above the pool of Siloam. 

BETH-E'ZEL (house of firm rout, or fixed 
dwelling). A place, according to Ephraem 
Svrus, near Samaria, but more probably U' 
Philistia (Mic. i. 11). 



106 



BETH-GA'DER (house of the tcaU). A 
place in Judah (1 Chron. ii. 51). Possibly 
the same Avith Geder (Josh. xv. 36). 

BETH-GA'MUL {house of the weaned). A 
Moahite town (Jer. xlviii. 23), now Um el- 
Jemai. See Graham's very interesting ac- 
count of it in Cambridge L'ssai's, 1S5S, 
p. 162. It is a large place, the ancient 
houses still very perfect. 

BETH-GIL'GAL {house of GilgaT). 'The 
house of Gilgal,' or Beth-gilgal, occurs in 
Keh. xii. 29. See Gilgal, 3. 

BETH-HAC'CEREM (house of the vine- 
yard). A town on a hill between Jerusalem 
and Tekoa, where was a beacon-station 
(Jer. vi. 1). The word ' part ' prefixed to it 
(Iseh. iii. 14) probably means district. 

BETH-HAG'GAX (the garden-house). The 
place by the way of Miiich Ahaziah, king of 
Judah,' fled from Jehu. In the English 
version it is translated as if it was not a 
proper name (2 Kings ix. 27), but in the 
Septuagint it is Baithem. It is the mo- 
dern Jenin. See Ahaziah, 2, Ex-Gax- 
NIM, 2. 

BETH-HA'XAX (house of grace). See 
Elox-Beth-Haxax. 

BETH-HA'BAX (house of the height). A 
city of Gad (X'umb. xxxii. 'SG). See Beth- 

AUA^I. 

BETH-HOG'LA or HOG'LAH (partridge- 
house). A citT of Benjamin on the brnxler 
of Judah (Josh. xv. 6, xviii. 19, 21). There 
are a ruin and a spring to the south-east of 
Jericho, called Kasr-hajla and 'Ain-hajla, 
which probably mark the site. 

BETH-HO'RON (house of the hollow). The 
name of two places, the upper and the 
nether, said to have been built by Sherah, 
a daughter or descendant of Ephraim 
(1 Chro'n. vii. 21). It was along the road of 
Beth-horou that the pursuit and slaughter 
of the Amorites took place in the great 
dav of Gibeon. The road from Gibeon, 
about four miles to the upper Beth-lioroii, 
is mainly an ascent, just answering to the 
account given (Josh. x. 10) ; from thence 
the rugged descent commences, mostly 
along a kind of ridge, f(n' three miles to 
the nether village on a lower eminence ; 
and this was 'the going do^vn to Beth- 
horon' (11) ; whence there is a short steep 
fall to the plain country. Beth-horon was 
on the boundary between Benjamin and 
Ephraim (xvi. 3, 5, xviii. 13, 14) ; •' the corner 
of the sea southward ' (14), being supposed 
1-y Dr. Thomson (The Land and the Boole, 
r.p. 669, 670) to refer not to the Mediterra- 
nean, to which we cannot Avell imagine 
that the territory of Benjamin extended, 
but to the pool or small lake just below 
Gibeon ; for the term ' sea' is often applied 
to an inconsiderable body of water. Beth- 
horon, belonging locally to Ephraim, was 
a-signedtotheKohathiteLewitesCJosh.xxi. 
22 ; 1 Chron. vi. 6S\ We fln.d it afterwards 
occasionally mentioned (one or other of 
the tATO places) in the sacred history. It 
was fortified by Solomon, as commanding 
an important road a Sam. xiii. IS ; 1 Kings 
ix. 17 ; 2 Cliron. viii. 5, xxv. 13). It was 
the scene of a victory by Judas Maccabeus 
a Mace. iii. 13-24), and, in the last Jewish 
war, of the defeat of the Roman general 



Cestius Gallus. The raodern villages i?cif- 
'ur el'Foka and et-Tahta occupy the sites ol 
Beth-horon, the upper and the nethei 
respectively. 

BETH-JESHI'MOTH (honse of desola- 
tions). A town east of the Jordan, in the 
downs or plain country, allotted to Reuben 
(Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20). It afterwards be- 
longed to Moab (Ezek. xxv. 9). It is also 
found as 

BETH-JESI'MOTH (Xumb. xxxiii. 49\ 
BETH-LEBA'OTH (house of lionesses). A 
town, called also simply Lebaoth, origin- 
ally allotted to Judah, but afterwards 
transferred to Simeon 'Josh. xv. 32, xix. 6). ! 
See Beth-birei. Its site was perhaps at 
the ruin called el-Beyudh. 

BETH'-LEHEM {house of bread).— 1. The 
original name of this place was Ephrath, or 
Ephratah (Gen. xxxv. 16-20, xlviii. 7,^ an 
appellation which we find afterwards as 
that of a female in connection with the 
family who settled atBeth-lehem (1 Chron. 
ii. 19, 50, iv. 4). The first mention of Beth- 
lehem is on a melancholy occasion. It was 
just when Jacob and his household were 
journeying on towards Hebron that Rachel 
travailed with her last son. Tet a little 
space, and they would have reached Beth- 
lehem, when Benjamin was born, and 
Rachel died; and there in the way did 
Jacob bury her, and set a pillar on her 
grave ; nor did he ever forget that sad 
, sad day, but, even when his own heart and 
i fiesh were failing, and he too must pass I 
from the land of the living, when he looked [ 
on Joseph's sons, his thoughts went back 
to her he had lost, whom he should soon 
follow i]ito the world of spirits. 

There is little note of Beth-lehera in the 
early Israelitish history: it is not even 
numbered in the list of the toAvns belong- 
ing to Judah. But Salma or Salmon, and 
Hur, both of the tribe of Judah, are said j: 
to have been each ' the father of Beth- 
lehem' ii. 51, iv. 4), that is, to have co- 
! Ionized it. 2seither do we know when, or 
I on what account, the name Betli-lehem-was 
first given : it may have existed early in 
conjunction with Ephrath ; as we occasion- 
ally find afterwards the two names con- 
' joined, as well as another compound appel- : 
lation given it, Beth-lehera-Judah. It is 
] mentioned in Judges as connected with 
! two fearful stories, the idolatry of Micah . 
i and of the northern Dan, and the murder j 
I of the Levite's concubine (Judges xvii. 7-9, | 
xix. 1, 2). But soon after it appears in a | 
moi e pleasing history. It was the town of I 
Elimelech, whither his widow returned i 
with the noble-hearted Moabitish damsel, 
where the liberal Boaz lived, and where the ; 
line was settled which produced the royal | i' 
David (Ruth i., ii., iii., iv.). Thenceforth 1 ; 
Beth-lehem was a place of note, the cradle | ' 
of the kingly house, the destined birth- i > 
place of him who, David's Son and David's i \ 
Lord, was to extend his dominion over the ! ; 
universal world (Mic. v. 2). Many interest- | \ 
ing events in David's life are of course con- ! ! 
nected with Beth-leliem. On the neighbour- i 
ing hills he fed his flocks: from the wild 
gt)rges near came up the savage beasts that 
i he slew : here in his father's house he was 



107 



[beth-palet 



And, ^v-lien lie Decame a man 

S brought H.A'\™; j^"Vh?-on xl 

some have^^^^^^^^^^^ tl^^^ I^^^'^^ 
make BeCh-lehem his capital instead o± He- 
bron or Jerusalem. But, tbougli it might 
he a' °trong position, yet it never ^^as 

iud others And so are the Beth-lehemites 
ft i said to the present day, hardy and 
awless noted for tirbulence and rehellion 
S-leheni Avas fortified by Rehoboam 
79 rhron xi 6^ ; and it Avas the last restmg- 
Sace of the rebellious remnant that after 
the destruction of Jerusalem ^^ould go 
do^ into Egypt (Jer. xli. 173 ; ^^^J tlieO d 
Testament history of it closes with the 
nn?icrtl at some of its ' children ' returned 
fTom the captivity .vith Zerubbabel(Ezra 

'SV' wasNn'"few Testament times that 
BetUSmhadLhighesthonour Thit^^^^^^ 

Joseph and Mary, according to tliedecrte 
of the Roman emperor, had to repair as 
descendants of . thP anSl c 

There, in the ad oinmg fields, the angel c 
host announced the glad tidings of a Sa- 
v om4 M?th ; and there ^vas that wonderful 
e St consummated, the taking of human 
fle^h into union with the Godhead when 
he child Jesus was born of a morta mo- 
ther Thither also came the eastern ^age* 
to present their offerings ; and there was the 
criel slaughter of tlielittle ones^by Herod 
awakening, as it. were again . Racl, el . la 
mentation (Matt. ii. 1-18 j Lu\e a. 1-20). 

■Reth-lehem lies a little east of the roaa 
f rSu Jer saTem to Hebron about six miles 
f^omtlie first-named city. There is a l^ng 
imestone-hilJ running east and ^vest, with 
deeD valleys to the north and south. The 
eS end of this hill is bold ; on the west 
f'^lopes gradually to the ^J^^y. f tbe 
sides of theliiU are terraced gaidens, iMth 
olive-trees, fig-trees, and vines ; and on the 
? i to the ealt and north-east les the vil- 
fSe. now called Beit-lahm, ^^nlh a popu a 
tion of about 3,000. In the most ea=.ceil> 
par is the celebrated church of the na- 
tfvitv which owes its foundation to the 
erapi-e==s Helena, mother of Constantme 
?he Great It is enclosed within the walls 
of the convent, which is now parcelled out 
amon° the Greek, Latin, and Armenian 
nZte TWO spiral staircases lead down to 
the cave or gritto of the nativity twenty 
felt below the floor of the church. Tins 
cave s lined with Italian marble ; and m a 
small semi circular niche, the exact spot 
marked by a star inlaid in ?naii^f^^^^^^^^ 
resDonding to the point m the lieaAen= 
whS-efifstar appeared t o /he magi, i s^a 
Latin inscription stating tl^at Je=u^ a as 
born here. A row of lamps aie alwajs 



a b oc'k Of white marble being hollowed 

puicnie UL Tevome lived and studied, 
a?d chaSdedifateS ?^ and other 

Tahiti The r^olmbility of our Lord's being 
born in a cave need not here be discussed. 
A ion - cmTent of tradition is in favour of it ; 
aud io diubt it is possible that the place 
wh^eJe Mary took^ shelter, there being ' no 
room in the inn,' might be one of tne 
fflverns in the limestone-rock. But cer- 
t'a'inly the place where the eas ern sages 

^wth of the town ; hut, according to Di 
Robtsoi,thereis;nowellofU^^ 
near The associations of Beth-lehem aie 
wen illustrated by Dr. Thomson, TJie Land 

'^'f'l'^^^^ritorj.t Zebulun 
rJoVh xixTs). This was probal,ly the Beth 
Sien to which Ibzan belonged (Judges 
xii 8 10) It still exists as a poor village 
Jalied ieiAa/rm, about six miles west of 

""b'eTH'LEHEMITE. An ifabitant of 
Beth-lehein (1 Sam. xvi. 1, 18, xvii. 5» , 
2 Sam. XXi. 19). ^ , ^ ^'r^ a rnr- 

BETH-LO'MON (1 Esdr. v 17) A cor 
ruptedform of Beth-lehem (Ezra ii. 21). 

BETH-MA' ACHAH (house oj oppression). 
A^face or district near to or in which was 
the citv of Abel (2 Sam. xx. 14. lo). See 

riots). A town of Simeon (Josh. xix. o, 

' BEra-Sllo^ m'.se of l^i^^tcalo^^^^^ 
Moabite town (Jer. xlviu. 23). See Baal 

^ BETH-MIL'LO (house of MiUo) (2 Kings 
xii 20 marg.^i. See Millo. 

BETH-NlM'Rx\H ^houseor place of hmpid 
and sweet water). A town on the east of 
the Jordan, allotted to the tribe of Gad, 
'4ho iS or fortified it It i^s also c^l ed 
TsMmrah (Kumb. xxxii. 3, 36 ; Jobh. xiu. 2, .) 
T il P ace is s..id to have l^fen situa ed 
about five miles to the north of L h.as^ 
There are some rums south of e>. SaU, at 
ti e mouth of Wady Shoaib, which still bear 
t e Siclent name, the stream discharging 
self in 0 the Jordan. Some have con- 
nected the waters of Nimnm (Isai. xy. 6 , 
xlvUi.34) with Beth-nimrah ; but these 
iatm-s were probably more to the soutlu 
BETH-O'BON (Judith iv. 4). liobamj 

^BETH-PA'LET {house of relet, or escape). 
A t™ In the south of J^dah (Josh.xv 
27, called Beth-phelet in .^^^V; 2? -^^fir. 
Wilton is disposed to attribu e t. founda 
tion to releth (1 Chron. ii. .33), and to men 
t!fy it with the ruin Jerrah {Negeb, pp. 134- 
137). 



bEXn-PAZZEZ] 



108, 



BETH-PAZ'ZEZ (hozise of dispersion). A reasons seem conclusive for the fact of 
^^^'^UlTci^^i^ '^'?'^^^\ . , ' "^e^e ^^eing two Bethsaidas. Dr. Thomson, 
BEiH -PEOR (fe7npje of Fear). A place however, imagines there was hut one Beth' 
where the worship of Baal-peor had pre-; saida-Julias ; that it was huilt on both sides 
_Baal-peor), in the disirict i the Jordan, and therefore partly in Galilee 



allotted to Pv,euben (Deut. iii. 29, iv. 46 , 
Josh. xiii. 20). It was in a ravine over 
against Beth-peor that Moses was huried 
(Deut. xxxiv. G). 

BETH'-PHAGE {liouse of unripe figs). A 
village on the road between Jericho and 



that, the desert place being at some little 
distance, our Lord might well send his disci- 
ples thither by boat ; that the storm which 
arose prevented them from making Beth- 
saida, or even Capernaum ; and that there- 
fore, though they had set out for Bethsaida, 



ueiusalem,upon a shoulaer of the mount j they were carried to the land of Gennesaret 
of Ohves and evidently very near to | (The Land and the Book, pp. 372-374: comp 
Bethany (IMatt. xxi. 1 ; Mark xi. 1; Luke xix. Ellicott's note. Hist. Lect d "07). 
29). But its precise position has not been 



ascertained ; and it is an undecided question 
whether Bethphage was east or west of 
Bethany. Mr. Porter is inclined to believe 
them different quarters of the same village 
{Handb. for Snria and Palest., p. 188). 

BETH-PHE'LET. The same with Beth- 
pal et (Neh. xi. 26). 

BETH-BA'PHA (house of the giant). A 
descendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 12). 

BETH'-REHOB (house, or region of the 
street, or streets). A place near which was 
the valley in which Laish or Dan was si- 
tuated (Judges xviii. 28). It was a consi- 
derable distance from Zidon, and formed 
probably one of the smaller principalities 
of Aram or Syria ; for the children of 
Amnion are said to have hired the Syrians 
of Beth-rehob (2 Sam. x. 6). It is some- 
times called Behob (Numb. xiii. 21 ; 2 Sam, 
X. 8), and has been supposed to be the 
modern Huntn, overlooking the plain of 
the Hfdeh; but Dr. Thomson doubts. 

BETH-SA'IDA (house or place of fish ing). 
—1. A town of Galilee, not far from Caper- 
naum, on the western shore of the lake of 
Gennesaret (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 13). It 
was the city of the apostles Philip, Andrew, 
and Peter (John i. 44, xii. 21), By compar- 
ing Mark vi. 45 with 53 we may infer that 
it stood in the land or plain of Gennesaret ; 
but its exact position has not yet been sa- 
tisfactorili' ascertained. Mi\ Porter, how- 
ever, identifies it with et-Tabighah (Handb. 
for Syria and Palest., pp. 428, 429).— 2. An- 
other to^\Tl at no great distance, at the 
north-eastern extremity of the lake, just 
upon the point Avhere the Jordan enters it. 
This was in Gaulanitis, and, being re-built 
and enlarged by the tetrarch Philip, was by 
him called Julias, in honour of the daugh- 
ter of Augustus. Here Philip was buried. 
We may conclude thatthere were two places 
of the same name, for the following reasons. 
The scene of the miracle of multiplying 
the five loaves was in a desert place belong- 
ing to Bethsaida (Luke ix. 10), This place, 
according to Dr, Thomson, can be exactly 
identified. There is a bold headland, Ba- 
taiha, running into the lake. Close by is a 
little cove, and at the foot of the rocky 
mountain a piece of level greensward. 
From this spot, near and belonging to 
Bethsaida-Julias, our Lord, we are told, 
sent off his disciples by ship to the other 
side to Bethsaida (Mark vi. 45). And, 
again, Dalmanutha was on the western 
side of the lake. But, after being at this 
place, Jesus crosse^l to the other side, and 
came to Bethsaida (viii. 10, 13, 22). These 



note. Hist. Lect., p. 207). 
BETH'-SAMOS (1 Esdr. v. 18). Probably 
a corrupted form of Azmavcth (Ezra ii. 24). 

BETH'-SAN (1 Mace. v. 52, xii. 40, 41). A 
form of 

BETH'-SHAN (house of quiet) (1 Sam. 
xxxi. 10, 12 ; 2 Sara. xxi. 12) : identical 
with 

BETH'-SHEAN (id.). A city allotted to 
Manasseh, though locally within the terri- 
tory of Issachar; the Manassites, however, 
were not at first able to subdue it (Josh, 
xvii, 11, 16 ; Judges i. 27 ; 1 Chron. vii. 29). 
To the wall of this place the Philistines 
fastened the body of Saul after the disas- 
trous battle on Gilboa. Beth-shean was 
included with the neighbourhood, 'all Beth- 
shean,' in one of Solomon's commissariat 
districts (1 Kings iv. 12). It was subse- 
quently called Scythopolis (2 Mace. xii. 29) ; 
a colony being left here from the great 
Scythian irruption. It is now Beis&n, with 
extensive remains, situated just where the 
great plain of Esdraelon begins to descend 
to the Jordan valley. Its natural position 
is very strong, and it is well watered. Dr, 
Thomson describes it, and remarks on the 
exploit of the men of Jabesh-giJead : ' Ja- 
besh-gilead was on the mountain east of 
the Jordan, in full view of Beth-shan ; and 
these brave men could creep up to the Tell, 
along Wadij Jalful, without being seen, 
while the deafening roar of the brook 
would render it impossible for them to be 
heard. I have often been delighted with 
this achievement' (The Land and the Book, 
pp, 453-457), 

BETH-SHE'MESH (house of the sun).—\. 
A city on the frontier line of Judah (Josh. 
XV, 10), afterwards allotted to the priests 
(xxi. 16 ; 1 Chron. vi. 59). Beth-shemesh, 
being not far from Ekron, was the place to 
which the ark of God was first brought 
when sent away by the Philistines. It was 
received with joy ; but because of the irre- 
verent curiosity of the people a terrible 
judgment was inflicted.. Opinions have 
varied in respect to the number slain ; for 
a copyist's error has been supposed. But, 
however this may be, the deaths were 
many enough to strike an awful terror on 
the survivors ; and that hill-side which had 
lately resounded with songs of gladness, 
echoed now but lamentation and woe (1 
Sam. vi.). Beth-shemesh is mentioned in 
the arrangement of Solomon's commis- 
sariat districts (1 Kings iv. 9). It was again 
the scene of sad disaster when the power 
of Judah under Ajviaziah went down be- 
neath the conquerif g arm of Israel under 
Joash (2 Kings xi -. 11-13; 2 Chron. xxv. 



109 



[eible 



21-23) ; and the last we hear of it in scrip- 
ture is in the unhappy reign of Ahaz, 
wJien this, with other neighbouring places, 
n'as occnpied hy the Philistines (xxviii. 
18). But it still survives: it is the modern 
'Ain Shems, on the north-west slopes of the 
hills of Judah, two miles from the Philis- 
tine plain, and seven from Ekron. It has 
been thought identical with Ir-shemesh 
(Josh. xix. 41). But Ir-sheraesh belonged 
to Ban. Still, if not the same, they must 
have been very close. Also mount Heres 
(Judges i. 35) may have been another name, 
or the appellation of some neighbouring 
eminence where there was the worship of 
the sun.— 2. A city on the border of Issa- 
char (Josh. xix. 22).— 3. A town of Naphtali, 
from which the original inhabitants were 
not at first expelled (xix. 38 ; Judges i. 33). 
—4. A place in Egypt, probably identical 
with Heliopolis or On (Jer. xliii. 13). See 
On. 

BETH'-SHEMITE. An inhabitant of 
Beth-shemesh, 1 (1 Sam. vi. 14, 18). 

BETH-SHIT'TAH (acacia-place). A place 
to which the Midianites fled from Gideon 
(Judges Yii. 22). It must have been near 
the Jordan ; Porter suggests at Shutta, 
Eandb. for Syria and Palest, p. 648. 

BETH-SU'RA (1 Mace. iv. 29, 61, and 
elsewhere). A town freiiuently mentioned 
In the Maccabean history : it was no doubt 
Beth-zur. 

BETH-TAP'PUAH {apple or citro7i-pIace). 
A town in the mountain country of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 53). It is identical with the 
modern TeffiVi, about five miles west of 
Hebron, where olive-groves and vineyards 
abound. 

BETH'-ZTJR (house of the rock). A town 
in the mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 58 ; 
1 Chron, ii. 45) ; fortifled by Rehoboam 
(2 Chron. xi. 7). Its ruler is mentioned as 
helping to repair the wall of Jerusalem 
after the captivity (Neh. iii. 16). It was 
known in the Maccabean times as Beth- 
sura, and is now Beit S&r. 

BE'THEPv, (section or separation). We 
have no certain information respecting 
' the mountains of Bother ' (Sol. Song, 
ii. 17) : perhaps they were mountains di- 
vided by valleys, or mountains that sepa- 
ratee^ the tAvo persons implied in the text ; 
. the word * Bether' not being a proper name. 
There was, however, a Bether celebrated in 
later Jewish history; and Dr. Thomson 
(TJie Land and the Book, p. 665) thinks the 
reference is to the hills in its neighbour- 
hood. 'The allusion,' he says, 'is natural 
enough ; for I myself have seen beautiful 
roes leaping upon those mountains, skip- 
ping upon the hills.' 

BETHU'EL (perhaps vian of God ?\ The 
son of Abraham's brother ivalior, and fa- 
ther of Laban and Rebekah (Gen. xxii. 
22, 23, xxiv. 15, 24, 47, 50, xxv. 20, xxviii. 
2, 5). On the insignificant part Bethuel 
appears to play in his own family, see Prof. 
Blunt (Undesigned Coincidences, part i. 4, 
pp. 35-37, edit. 1856). 

BETHU'EL (id.). A town of Simeon 
(1 Chron. iv. 30) ; called also 



the Chesil of Josh. xv. 30; it may be th* 
ruin now called el-Khulasah. See Chesil. 

BBTHU'LIA. The chief scene of the 
events described in the book of Judith 
(Judith iv. 6, &c.). Attempts have been 
made to identify the site: it was 'over 
against Esdraelon, near to Dothaim;' but 
no certain result has been a-ttained. 

BETO'LIVS (1 Esdr. v. 21). Perhaps cor- 
rupted from Beth-el (Ezra ii. 28). 

BETOMAS'THEM or BETOMES'TEAM 
(Judith iv. 6, XA^ 4). 

BETO'J^IM (vistacio-nuts). A boundary- 
tOAvn of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26). 

BETROTHIInG. See Marriage. 

BEU'LAH (married). A name symboli- 
cally applied to the land of Israel, when, 
desolate no more, it shall again be the 
Lord's delight (Isai. Ixii. 4). 

BE'ZAI (victory 1). One whose chil- 
dren returned from the captivitv (Ezra 
li. 17 ; Neh. vii. 23). This name, perhaps 
being that of their representative, occurs 
among those who sealed the covenant 
(X. 18). 

BEZAL'EEL (in the shadow, i.e. protec 
tion, of God).—l. A person, son of Uri and 
grandson of Hur, of the tribe Judah, to 
whom was confided the execution of the 
v/orks for the tabernacle in the wilderness 
(Exod. xxxi. 2 ; l Chron. ii. 20). He was 
specially skilled in working in metals, and 
in carving stone and wood, and he had an 
associate, Aholiab, whose department it 
was to engrave and embroider (Exod. xxxv. 
30-35) ; but Bezaleel appears to have had 
the general superintendence, and is always 
mentioned first (xxxvi. 1, 2, xxxvii. 1, 
xxxviii. 22, 23 ; 2 Chron. i. 5).— 2. One who 
had m.arried a foreign wife (Ezra x. 30). 

BE'ZEK (lightning).—!. A city in the al 
lotment of Judah, where Adoni-bezek 
lived, whom the Israelites, having de- 
feated the Canaanites and Perizzites, took 
prisoner (Judges i. 3-5).— 2. A place where 
Saul reviewed his troops previously to the 
relief of Jabesh-gilead (1 Sam. xi. 8): it 
was within a day's march of Jabesh (9). 

BE'ZER (ore of precious metal). A de- 
scendant of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 37). 

BE'ZER (id.). A city in the plain country 
of Reuben, allotted to the Levites of the 
family of Merari, and made one of the 
three cities of refuge east of the Jordan 
(Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 36 ; 1 Chron. 



BE'ZETH a Marc. vii. 19). A place pro- 
bal)ly near Jerusalem. 
Br AT AS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). 
BIBLE. The term by which we ordi- 
narily understand the collected canonical 
writings of the Old and Noav Testaments. 
It is proposed to give in the present article 
some account of the name, and of the ar- 
rangement and divisions of the various 
parts of the bible. 

This word, emphatically signifying ' the 
book,' does not occur in the holy volume 
itself. Separate books had of course se- 
parate titles ; but the whole that was com- , 
prised in the Jewish canon was termed j 
I by our Lord and the apostles 'the scrip- I 



BETHUL' (perhaps a contracted form of i ture,' or ' the holy scriptures,' with slight 
bethuelj fJosh. xix. 4). This appears to be i variation of phrase (Matt. xxii. 29 ; Luke 



bible] 



110 



xxiv. 27 ; John v. 39 ; Acts xrii. 11 : Gal. iii. xxir. 44), intending by the psalms the 
■ 2 Tlni lii 15, and elsewhere). The title ' whole of the khethuiim., popularly cited by 
"old Testament' or ' Covenant,' is applied i the name of the hook that stood first in the 
to the hook of the law (2 Cor. iii. 14) ; and, class. This same threefold division is 
the 'Xew Te'^tament' or 'Covenant' (6) found m the second prologue to Ecclesias- 
being contrasted with the Old, these two ticus above quoted and Jj^^^^J^^^^^ 
distinctive terms came soon, as we shal! see, ; {Contr. Apum., lib. i. § S).-l. The law com- 
todesignatethecollectionsof respectively prised the Pentatench or five .l^ooks of 
the Jewish and the Christian scriptures. | Moses, ^^^^ther these were original y 
Among the later Jews, a term signifying connected volume, or five, as we at Pi e=,ent 
•r^adilg' or 'that which was read,' i.e. 'the 1 have them, is a matter on which scholars 
relding-book; was applied to their entire disagree. The names by winch they are 
sacred book ; just as 'the Koran' with the now respectively known are evidently of 
ItSe signification has been made the name ^^eek origin, and p^-haps we^^^^^ 
of the Mohammedan authoritative volume the Septuagmt Greek tiansla.ors. llie 
?Bleek ^twfirir. p. 30). The plural Jews usually designate them by their initial 
word ' bool^^sT rkt^^ e^ used by i words.- 2. The prophets included besides 

DaJieUDan ix 2\indicating there, it would those strictly prophetical, several historical 
.im all tiie sacred writings down to his , books; the annals of the Hebrew common- 
time ' Ind n the second prologue to Eccle- wealth being frequently compUed^by pro- 



siasticus we find 'the law itself, and the 
prophets, and the rest of the books: But 
in neither of these cases has the word 
'books' any peculiar distinctive meaning. 
The earlv Christian writers naturally 
adopted the expressions of Christ and the 
apostles ; and ' the scripture,' ' the divme 
and 'the holy scripture,' are the terms 
constantlv occurring in their works. The 
inspiration of the 2sew Testament writers 
beinff acknowledged, their books m time 
bcs-an to occupv the same position in the 
- church with those of the 



phetical men (l Chrf)n. xxix. 
"^Q xTvi. 22. xxxii. 32). a 



Tew?.hcaiVon 'iuVnotVnrended t^o di^sculs I Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Pai 
hS-e the marnier in which the canon hi ; Lamentations of Jeremiah, ^^^^^^ 



, 2 Chron, 

29, xxvi. 22, xxxii. 32), and intended 
... teach bv history as the prophets did 
bv word of mouth. And these pro- 
phets were divided into former and latter 
(with a reference, it has been believed, to 
Zech. i. 4): the former comprised Joshua, 
Juda-es, 1 and 2 Samuel (one book) 1 and 2 
Kin^s (also one book) ; the latter, three 
grea^ter prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
twelve minor (one book).— 3. The kheth ubim, 
called also from the Greek hacjiographa, or 
! holv writings, comprehended the Psalms, 
" ~ ' Paul], 
tea, 



connected whole, equally entitled to the , (also one book) 
appellation of scripture. ^ ^ ' ^"^'^^•'^^^ 

Thus the expression of the apostle (2 Pet, 



In all, according to this 

ode of reckoning, the sacred books were 
twentv. Various reasons have been con- 



15 16) is verv remarkable.^ And the ! jectured why Daniel should be placed not 
lo, lb) 1=, vei> ^re ^-viters, i among the prophets, but in the third divi- 



earliest post-apost( 

without defining what books were or were 



Some have chosen to regard it as £ 



not inspiTedrevidentTyllace those which j proof of the later date and inferior autho- 
-.-__-„!.,i ^^c^-r.^-,-c.A omM-no- ' thp ritv of tlio book ; but 



they 



received as inipfred among ' the ' rity of the book; but such an inference 
scriptures.' ?hese appeartohavebe?n very I cannot be justly drawn The Psa^^^^^^^^ 
p/r V rppd like the law and the prophets, i in the same class; and their authoritj is 
find a not thereby depreciated. A more reasonable 
supposition is that Daniel did not exercise 



in reli2-iou3 assemblies ; and so we find a 
bodv ot Xew Testament writings recog- 
nized, and these with the Old regarded and 
called ' the two Testaments,' ' the whole 
scripture' (see TertulL, Adv. Prax. capp. 15, 
20; and other and yet earlier authorities 
miffht be given). Ere long the phrase, ta \ 
biblia, ' the books,' was used. Chrysostom, 1 
for example, frequently saying 'holy scrip- 
ture,' uses also the words above mentioned, 
' the holy books' ^Tn Cap. i. Gen., Hom. x. 8. 
Op Ed. Ben. tom. iv. p. 81). And then 
biblia, a plural form, being transfused into 
Latin, and made singular, was adopted 
with shght modification in modern Euro- 
pean languages. With us it did not appear 
till after ^he Norman conquest. 

The arrangement of the various books of 
the bible is not chronological ; but a certain 
kind of classification has been adopted 
in both Testaments. The Jews divided 
their scriptures into three parts, the Law, 
the Prophets, and the KJiethubim or holy 
writings. This division existed in the time 
of our" Saviour, who speaks of ' the law, 
the prophets,' and 'the psalms' (Luke 



effher ca.e V formed see Ca^on of Es^^er the five last-named bein.g termed 

Ic i^T?uE^ b It s?m^^^ the fact the five megfZZof/i or rolls), Daniel Ezra aud A 

?hat tl^e two collect^^ grew into one : Nehemiah (one book) 1 and 2 Chronicles i 

tnac Lue LNNu toiiccL „,,p Knnk^. In all. according to this ^ 



his ^prophetic office in the restricted and 
proper sense of the term 'prophecy;' he 
was not professionally a prophet; besides, 
there is a marked difference in character 
between his writings and those of the pro- 
phets generally : see Da:siel, Book of. _ 

The order of the various books differs in | 
Hebrew manuscripts, according as they are 
Talmudical or Masorttic. The following i 
the Talmudical arrangement : The law 
the prophets, viz., Joshua, Judges, 1 and 
Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekie 
I=aiah, the twelve minor prophets ; th 
khetlmbim, Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverb^, 
Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentah 
tions Daniel, Esther, Ezra with ^'ehemiah, 
1 and 2 Chronicles. By the Masoretes in 
the prophets Isaiah is made to precede 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; and the khethubim 
are thus arranged ; Psalms, ProA'erbs, Job, 
the five megilloth, viz. Song of Solomon, 
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, 
then Daniel, Ezra with Nehemiah, 1 and 2 
Chronicles. The Talmudic order is gene- 



Ill 



rally adopted by the German and French 
Jews ; the Masoretic hy the Spanish. But, 
according to Keil, the Masoretic arrange- 
ment of the khetJuibivi is in use among the 
Germans {Einleit. § 159, pp. 551, 552). De 
Wette gives another Masoretic order in 
manuscripts of the khethubim, viz. Chroni- 
cles, Psalms, Joh, Proverhs, Ruth, Song of 
Solomon, Ecciesiastes, Lameutations, Es- 
ther, Daniel, Ezra {Einleit. § 110. p. 141 : 
comp, Keil, Einleit. § 175_, p. 592). The 
order in the Septuagint varies considerably 
from that of the Hebrew. The books 
which we term the Apocrypha are not 
classed by themselves, but interspersed 
with those that are canonical ; and the 
lesser prophets precede the greater. The 
Latin Yulgate follows nearly the same 
order, making, however, the greater pro- 
phets come before the lesser. Protestant 
versions put the Apocrypha separately : 
consequently the arrangement of our bibles 
is fourfold : the Pentateuch ; the historical 
books, Joshua to Esther inclusive ; the 
doctrinal or poetical books of Job, Psalms, 
Proverbs, Ecciesiastes, Song of Solomon ; 
the prophetical books, Isaiah, Jeremiah 
with his Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and 
the twelve minor prophets. 

The books of the New Testament may be 
classed as historical, doctrinal, and prophe- 
tical. The historical, viz. the four Gospels, 
and the Acts of the Apostles, always stand 
first. Of the doctrinal class, some leading 
manuscripts (including the Alexandrine 
and Vatican) make the catholic epistles 
precede those of St. Paul ; the Hebrews 
following 2 Thessalonians. The western 
church has generally placed the Pauline 
epistles first, viz. those to churches in the 
order of their relative importance, then 
those to individuals, with the Hebrews 
last as being anonymous, and the author, 
according to many, uncertain. The prophe- 
tical book, the Revelation, always closes 
the sacred volume. 

It is probable that the Hebrews did not 
at first divide one word from another in 
their writing. And, when the separation of 
words came into use, it would seem to have 
been in some degree arbitrary. For it is 
obvious that the authors of the Septuagint 
version divided many words in a way dif- 
ferent from the modern custom. In the 
Talmud, however, directions are given for 
spaces between words in synagogue rolls. 
Paragraphs began to be marked in early 
times. In the Pentateuch there were 669 
called perashioth. They are certainly prior 
in date to the Talmud, and by some scholars 
are supposed to have originated with the 
sacred writers themselves. They were 
divided into open, where a fresh line was 
begun, and a greater break of the sense 
perceptible; and closed, vfhere there was 
only a small blank space within the line, 
and the sense was more continued. These 
different kinds of sections were denoted by 
two Hebrew letters, Pe and Samecli, placed 
respectively at the beginnings of each. 
There were, further, other divisions, larger 
perashioth, .54 in number, mentioned for the 
first time in the Masorah : one of these was 
to be read every sabbath-day. But ther 



[bi^le 



are traces of some such divisions even in 
New Testament times. For the chapter of 
' the bush' is referred to (Markxii.26; Luke 
XX. 37); and that of ' Elias' (Rom. xi. 2); a sec- 
tion or period is also mentioned (Acts viii.32, 
33); and there are indications of a calendar 
or cycle of lessons (Luke iv. 17-19 ; Acts xiii. 
15, 27, XV. 21). When the divisions of the 
larger perashioth correspond with those of 
the smaller, the Hebrew letters above-men- 
tioned are tripled. Besides these sections 
of the Pentateuch there were haphtaroth, pa- 
ragraphs or reading-lessons taken from the 
prophets. They were most probably intro- 
duced with the intention of Improving the 
public services by adding the instruction 
of the prophets to that of the law. Long 
afterwards there were sedarim, divisions 
like our chapters, adopted in Jacob Ben 
Chayira's edition of the bible (the second 
Bomberg). They are 447 in number for 
the whole of the Old Testament. There were 
also much more minute divisions. These 
must, many of them (e. g. in the alphabeti- 
cal poems), have existed from the begin- 
ning. And generally in the poetry of the Old 
Testament we find pesukim, rhythmical 
members marked off into separate lines. A 
division into periods with the same name 
was introduced also into the prose. And, 
though possibly no marks were at first em- 
ployed to distinguish these periods, yet 
their existence is noted in the Mishna ; and 
they appear to have been nearly coincident 
with modern versos. 

There have also been different kinds oj 
divisions in the New Testament. Chapters, 
kephalaia, are early spoken of. But per- 
haps the oldest mode of division of which 
we know anything is that peculiar and good 
one adopted in the Vatican manuscript. 
This is a distribution into sections of very 
unequal length ; thebreaks being regulated 
by the sense. St. Matthew has 170 of them, 
St. Mark 61, St. Luke 152, and St. John 80. 
In the second century Tatian formed a 
harmony of the Gospels ; and a century 
later Ammonius of Alexandria carried the 
same plan farther, dividing each Gospel 
into such sections as would answer to cer- 
tain other portions in one or more of the 
other Gospels. These are called the Avi- 
monian sections. In the early part of the 
fourth century, Eusebius of Ccesarea made 
them the basis of his harmonizing tables, 
known as the Eusebian canons ; according 
to which the facts narrated in the Gospels 
are classed as they are found in all the four 
evangelists, in three, in two, or in a single 
one. Tables of this kind were chiefiy for 
students who desired to compare the nar- 
ratives. Other sections therefore were 
also formed ; such as some called titloi, 
which were probably portions for public 
reading. Of these there were 68 in St. 
Matthew, 48 in St. Mark, 83 in St. Luke, and 
in St. John 19. Each of these sections, 
except the first, with which of course the 
book began, had a title from one of the 
first or principal subjects mentioned in it ; 
while the beginnnig of the book had a ge- 
neralinscription. The Acts and the Epistles 
were similarly divided into kephalaia, the 
Acts by Pamphilus the martyr, and th€ 



CICIIRI 



epistles of St. Paul by some unknown per- 1 
son : tbe divisions in the catholic epistles | 
have been ascribed, but perhaps Avithout | 
sufficient reason, to Euthalius the deacon ; 
of Alexandria, afterwards bishop of Sulca. : 
The Revelation was divided into 24 portions ' 
called logoi, and into 72 smaller ones, ke- ; 
pkalaia ; iDOth being atti-ibuted to Andreas of 
Csesarea in Cappadocia. The Greeks adhered ' 
to these ancient divisions till after the 
taking of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. ; sub- 
seauently the Latin chapters were adopted. 
Something like verses, also, were anciently 
introduced. It is true that in Greek manu- 
scripts, as in Hebrew, the words were not at 
first sepai-ated ; but in the fifth century the 
use of a dot to divide sentences had become 
general. In 458 a.d. Euthalius, mentioned 
above, put forth St. Paul's epistles divided 
into stichoi or lines, each comprising a 
member of a sentence : in 490 a.d. he also 
put out the Acts and catholic epistles 
similarly divided. But it is not certain that 
he was the real author of the sfstem. And 
indeed it would seem that the same kind of 
division had been previously made in the 
Gospels. 

With regard to our modern divisions of 
chapters and verses, the following appears 
to be briefly the history. About the middle 
of the thirteenth century cardinal Hugo de 
Sancto Caro, or Hugh de St. Cher, having 
projected a concordance to the Latin Vul- 
gate, distributed the Old and New Testa- 
ments into chapters : they are those we now 
have. He also distinguished smaller sec- 
tions or verses (following in the Old Testa- 
ment the Masoretic divisions), placing the 
letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G in the margin, 
for facility of reference. A Hebrew con- 
cordance on the same plan was compiled 
by rabbi Mordecai Nathan, a celebrated 
Jewish teacher, in the fifteenth century, 
who retained the cardinal's divisions, sub- 
stituting Hebrew numeral figures for the 
marginal Roman letters. The Latin version 
of the bible published by Xantes Pagninus 
at Lyons, in 1528, is the first in which verses 
are throughout marked by Arabic numerals. 
In the Hebrev/ Pentateuch, Megilloth, and 
Haphtaroth, printed at Sabionetta in 1557, 
every fifth verse was distinguished by a 
Hebrew numeral. Each verse of the He- 
brew text in the Antwerp polyglott of 
1569-1573 has an Arabic numeral. In the 
New Testament, however, there were no 
Masoretic verses ; and therefore Robert 
Stephen undertook the minuter subdivi- 
feion, which he accomplished while on a 
joiu-ney from Paris to Lyons. He printed 
the first Greek Testament with his verses 
at Geneva in 1551. The English New Tes- 
tament divided into both chapters and 
verses appeared at Geneva in 1557 ; and 
the first whole English bible so divided is 
tbat executed at the same place by William 
Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, and Thomas 
Sampson, published in 1560; and the same 
divisions have been adopted generally ever 
since. 

It cannot be denied that the divisions in 
our ordinary bibles are sometimes unskilful 
and erroneous. But it is more easy to 
pouit out the fiult than to amend it. 



Hi 



Attempts haA^e been made to construct 
paragraph bibles, so as to exhibit more 
clearly the connection and the sense oi 
scripture. The motive deserves all praise ; 
but the success of the attempts hitherto 
made is more than doubtful. And there is 
but too much reason for the grave censure 
of Dr. McCaul : ' The sacred text has been 
either cut up into shreds with a separate 
heading, or a number of chapters welded 
togetlier into one unmanageable mass, so 
as to perplex and weary the reader ; espe- 
cially as, from want of verses, these portions 
present one dull and disheartening mass of 
type, unpleasant to look at.' (Reasons for 
holding fast the authorized English version oj 
the Bible, p. 13). 

BICH'RI {youthful, or possibly descendant 
of Becher). A Benjamite, the father of the 
rebel Sheba (2 Sam. xx. 1). 

BID'KAR {son of stabbing, i.e. stabber). 
A captain (one of those called shalishim, 
see Army), or chariot-officer of Jehu or 
Jehoram ; who had before served under 
Ahab (2 Kings ix. 25). 

BIEPv,. See Burial. 

BIG'THA {gardener, or possibly given hi/ 
fortitne). One of the seven chamberlains or 
eunuchs of the court of Ahasuerus (Esth. 
i. 10). 

BIG'THAN, BIGTHA'NA {gift of fortune). 
A chamberlain or eunuch of Ahasuerus who 
with Teresh conspired against his sove- 
reign's life (Esth. ii. 21, vi. 2). The con- 
spiracy was detected by Mordecai. 

BIG'VAI {husbandman, or, perhaps, 
happy').—!. A person who returned with 
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 2 ; Neh. 
vii. 7). — 2. One whose descendants returned 
(Ezra ii. 14 ; Neh. vii.l9). It was probably 
the representative of this family who sealed 
the covenant (x. 16). 

BI'KATH-A'VEN {j)lain of Aven) (Amos 
1. 5, marg.) See Ayej^. 

BIL'DAD {son of contention , i.e. quarreller). 
One of Job's friends, called the Shuhite 
(Job ii. 11, viii. 1, xviii. 1, xxv. 1, xlii. 9). 
He is abrupt, almost unfeeling in the part 
he takes in the discussion with Job ; and his 
arguments are not always to the point. See 
Job. 

BIL'EAM {foreign). A city of the half- 
tribe of Manasseh, west of tlie Jordan, al- 
lotted to the Levites (1 Chron. vi. 70). It is 
probably identical with Ibleam (Josh. xvii. 
17) ; but inxxi. 25 Gath-rimmon is substi- 
tuted. 

BTL'GAH {cheerfulness).—!. The head of 
the fifteenth course of the priests (1 Chron. 
xxiv. 14).— 2 A priest who returned from 
captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 5, 18.) 

BIL'GAI {id.) A priest who sealed the 
covenant (Neh. x. 8) ; probably identical 
with the preceding, or the representative 
of his family. 

BIL'HAH {bashfulness). Rachel's hand- 
maid (Gen. xxix. 29). She bore Jacob two 
sons, Dan and Naphtali (xxx. 3-8, xxxv. 22, 
25, xlvi. 25 ; 1 Chron. vii. 13). 

BIL'HAH {id.) A town of Simeon (1 QJiron. 
iv. 29). It is identical with Baalah (Josh. 
XV. 29) and Balah (xix. 3). See Bizjoth- 

JAH. 

BIL'HAN {bashful).—!. A descendant o/ 



113 



[bibzavith 



Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 27 ; 1 Ohron. 

i. 42\— 2. A Benjamite chief (vii. 10). 
BIL'SHAN (son of the tongue, i.e. elo- 
quent). One who returned with Zerubhabel 
from captivity (Ezra ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7). 

BIM'HAL (son of circumcision, i.e. cir- 
cumcised) A descendant of Asher (1 
Chron. vii. 33). 

BIND AND LOOSE (Matt. xvi. 19). ' This 
same promise is repeated (xviii. 18) to all 
the disciples generally. . . It was first, how- 
ever, verified, and in a remarkable and 
prominent way, to Peter. Of the binding, 
the case of Ananias and Sapphira may 
serve as an eminent example ; of the loosing, 
" such as I have give I thee," to the lame 
man at the Beautiful gate of the temple. 
But, strictly considered, the binding and 
loosing belong to the power of legislation 
in the church committed to the apostles.' 
(Alf ord, 2Tie (h-eek Test, note on Matt. xvi. 
19.) 

BIN'EA (a gushing forth, fountain). A 
descendant of Saul (1 Chron. viii. 37, ix. 43). 

BIN'NUI (ahuilding). 1. A Levite (Ezra 
viii. 33).— 2, 3. Two persons who had married 
foreign wives (x. 30, 38).— 4. A Levite who 
assisted in repairing the walls of Jerusalem, 
the same perhaps who sealed the covenant 
(Neh. ill. 24, X. 9). He may be the person 
mentioned in xii. 8.-5. One whose de- 
scendants returned from captivity with 
Zerubbabel (vii. 15), called also Bani (Ezra 

ii. 10). 

BIRDS. The following is a list of the 
birds mentioned in scripture. Notices of 
each will be found under their respective 
names. Attempts at identification are, 
generally, reserved to such articles. 

Bittern (Isai. xiv. 23). 

Cock (Matt. xxvi. 34). 

Cormorant (Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut. xiv. 17). 

Crane (Isai. xxxviii. 14 ; Jer. yiii. 7)— 
swallow. 

Cuckoo (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15)— gull. 
Dove (Gen. ix. 8-12). 
Eagle (Lev. xi. 13 ; Deut. xiv. 12). 
Gier Eagle (Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut. xiv. 17). 
Glede (Deut. xiv. 13). 
Hawk (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). 
Hen (Matt, xxiii. 37) 
Heron (Lev. xi, 19 ; Deut. xiv. 18). 
Kite (Lev. xi. 14 ; Deut. xiv. 13). 
Lapwing (Lev. xi. 19 ; Deut. xiv. 18.)— 
hoopoe. 

Night Hawk (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). 
Ospray (Lev. xi. 13 ; Deut. xiv. 12). 
Ossifrage (Lev. xi. 13 ; Deut. xiv. 12). 
Ostrich (Job xxxix. 13). 
Owl (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). 

— great (Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut. xiv. 16). 

— little (Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut. xiv. 16). 

— screech (Isai. xxxiv. 14). 
Partridge (1 Sam. xxvi. 20). 
Peacock (I Kings x. 22). 

Pelican (Lev. xi, 18 ; Deut. xiv. 17). 
Pigeon (Lev. i. 14). 

Quail (Exod. xiv. 13 ; Numb. xi. 31, 32). 
Haven (Lev. xi. 15 ; Deut. xiv. 14). 
Sparrow (Psal. Ixxxiv. 3, cii. 7). 
Stork (Lev. xi. 19 ; Deut. xiv. 18). 
Swallow (Isai. xxxviii. 14 ; Jer. viii. 7)— 
crane. 

Swan (Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut. xiv. 16). 



Turtle Dove (Lev. i. 14). 

Vulture (Lev. xi. 14 ; Deut. xiv. 13). 

Birds were occasionally to be offered in 
sacrifice when any one was too poor to 
bring a more costly victim (Lev. v. 7 ; Luke 
ii. 22-24). In the cleansing of the leper 
birds were used (Lev. xiv. 1-7). Tbe art of 
snaring birds is occasionally referred to 
(Psal. cxxiv. 7 ; Pro v. i. 17). There is a very 
humane regulation in regard to birds' nests 
in Deut. xxii. 6, 7. See Fowl, Fowling. 

BIRD-CAGE. See Cage. 

BIR'SHA (S071 of tumult, or wickedness). 
A king of Gomorrah (Gen. xiv. 2). 

BIRTH. The customary treatment of a 
child at its birth is described in Ezek. xvi. 4 
At the birth of a boy, the mother was un- 
clean for seven days ; and thirty-three more 
must elapse before she was purified. If 
the child was a girl, these times were 
doubled. She must then bring a lamb for 
a burnt-offering, and a turtle-dove or young 
pigeon for a sin-offering. If she was poor, 
a pigeon or turtle-dove might be substi- 
tuted for the lamb (Lev. xii.). We see this 
law obeyed at the birth of our Lord, and may 
mark the poverty of Mary, who brought 
two doves, or pigeons (Luke ii. 22-24). 

BIPlTH-DAT. It was an ancient custom 
to celebrate birth-days ; and there are 
many examples of the usage to be found 
in scripture (Gen, xl. 20 ; Job i. 4). ' The 
day of our king' (Hos. vii. 5) was probably 
his birth-day ; and so there can be little 
doubt was that translated ' Herod's birth- 
day,' though some have on small grounds 
imagined it the day of his accession. Such 
days were observed as times of festivity 
and banqueting. 

BIRTH-RIGHT. The eldest son of a 
family had in several respects special 
preeminence. It has been said that the 
priesthood descended to him ; but this is 
doubtful : scripture is silent on the point. 
Great respect was certainly paid him ; 
and, when the family had multiplied the 
first-born by lineal descent had large au- 
thority over the tribe. By the Mosaic law 
he was to have a double portion of the 
father's substance (Deut. xxi. 15-17) ; and of 
this caprice could not deprive him. Still 
the birth-right might be transferred, as 
Esau's was to Jacob, by sale and purchase 
(Gen. XXV. 29-34), or forfeited, as Reuben's 
was for his incest, being assigned to Joseph, 
whose posterity had a double portion by 
forming two tribes in Israel (1 Chron. v. 
1, 2). The double portion of Elijah's spirit 
which Elisha asked seems thus explained 
(2 Kings ii. 9, 10). It is sometimes asserte(i 
that the birth-right extended to the king- 
dom ; but this is questionable. It is true 
that Jehoshaphat is said to have left his 
kingdom to Jehoram, because he was the 
first-born (2 Chron. xxi. 3) ; and very natu- 
rally the eldest son would have superior 
opportunities for obtaining the crown. 
But, so far as scripture shows, a younger 
son frequently succeeded. Solomoa, for 
example, was a younger son. So it is to be 
presumed was Alujah (xi. 18-22). So cer- 
tainly was Jehoahaz (2 Kings xxiii. 31, 36). 

BIR'ZAVITH (perhaps tvell of olives). A 
descendant of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 31). 



bisklam] 



114 



BISH'LAM (son of peace). A Persian 
officer in Palestine (Ezra iv. 7). 

BISHOP. Tlie translation of a Greek 
word signifying ' inspector ' or ' overseer.' 
We find tlie name in Greek history given 
to certain officers or commissioners : it 
was also introduced among tlie Romans. 
Being employed by tlie Septuagint transla- 
tors to designate persons exercising au- 
thority, or charged with some function in 
the Israelitish church or polity, it was 
adopted for certain officers in the Christian 
church. In our version, the word is once 
rendered ' overseer' (Acts xx. 28). St. Paul 
uses it in addressing the Philippians (Phil, 
i. 1), and elsewhere describes the befitting 
character and conduct of those who are to 
hold the office (1 Tim. iii. 1-7 ; Tit. i. 7-9). 

St Peter applies the title to our Lord, , - - . „ 

(l"Pet ii 25) But it cannot be doubted I the river Parthenius from Paphlagonia, and 
that the" same persons were in the New bordered on Phrygia and Mysia on the 
Testament called also ' presbyters' or ' el- j south, and on the west on the Thracian 
ders ' For we do not find bishops and i Bosphorus, the Propontis, and Mysia The 
elders spoken of as distinct ministers of j hills of this region were weU wooded ; and 
the church, as we do bishops and deacons, i its valleys were productive and afforded 
And besides, those who are called 'bishops' ; rich pasturage. The principal cities were 
in one place are termed ' elders' in another | Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Heraclea, Nicea, 
comp. Acts XX. 17 with 28; and Tit. i. 5 with Prusa. None of, these are mentioned m 
7) It is impossible therefore to argue, ! scripture, and Bithynia itself only mci- 
fr'om the occurrence of these two words, ' dentally (Acts xvi. 7 ; 1 Pet. 1. 1). 
that there were different orders or ranks in ! BITTER HERBS (Exod. xu. 8 ; Numb, 
the ministry. That a superior pov/er was ix. 11). See Passover. ^ 
e^erci^ed by the apostles few will be dis- 1 BITTERN. A bird or animal mentioned 
posed to question. And that the apostles ; in the threats of the desolation of Babylon 
delegated to specified persons certain fun c- , (Isai. xiv. 23), Iduraea (xxxiv. ll), and _Ni- 
tfonf, as in the cases of Timothy and Titus, ' neveh (Zeph. ii.. 14). , Gesemus, following 
discharging which they had a higher au- , the Septuagint, imagines that a Jie^igehog 



purely conjectural. Some have supposed 
it before or about the time of the exodus. 

BITH'RON (section, i.e. a mountain- 
gorge). A defile in the Jordan valley, or 
Arabah, through which, after crossing the 
river to the east, Abner and his troops re- 
turned to Mahanaim (2 Sam. ii. 29). 

BITHYN'IA. A province of Asia Minor, 
formerly an independent kingdom ; the last 
sovereign of which, Nicomedes III., re- 
established in his dominions (of which Mith- 
ridates, king of Pontus, had dispossessed 
him) by Pompey, bequeathed Bithynia to 
the Romans about 74 B.C. After the death 
of Mithridates, the western part of his 
kingdom was added to Bithynia. The pro- 
vince was subsequently again increased by 
Augustus, so that on the north it reached 
the Euxine, was separated on the east by 



is intended ; but the context in all the pas- 
sages would lead us to expect a bird. The 
bittern, Botcmrus stellaHs, is a solitary 
bird, and frequents marsh lands. We may 
with reason therefore believe that it is 



thority than ordinary ministers of a church, 
is as little open to doubt. But whether the 
apostolic office was in its most important 
functions conveyed to successors, who 

were to become a standing order, and to , 

whom at length the designation of bishop meant in the passages referred to. 
was Veciall^ restricted, has been keenly ' -TVTr.^TT'T a tt nf .T.h 

disputed. Before the close of the New 
Testament canon, we find individuals ad- 
dressed as "'^ 



BIZJOTH'JAH (contempt of Jehovah). A 
town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 28). 

L-ai uii v>c ^..vx ... Mr. Wilton would unite this word to Baa- 

responsible for the condition of : lah (29) as the compound name of a city 
rebpuiibi ^ _ . _ -^vh ere that worship of Baal was practised 



T m''tomTJ.lS™\f^e\''i wiir* jehovah- contemned (see Baa.ah, 
celestial angels charged with a 



2). He supposes it the modern village Deir 



of these churches are intended. There el-Belah (Tlie Negeb, pp. 149-154) 



are grave objections against such a theory ; , . ^ ^.-^^ 

andfif this theory be not admitted,' we can chamberlains or eunuchs of the court of 



BIZ'THA (eunuch). One of the seven 



scarcely avoid the conclusion that there 
was in each church a first, a presiding 
minister. But in what his priority or pre- 
sidency consisted is another question. The 
subiect of episcopacy as a form of church- 

lovernment is not to be debated in these ' garmei^^^ when mourning (comp. 
r»a<^es The reader must be remitted to viii. 21). _ , , . . . ^.x, i • 
othir books Bingham, in his Orig.Eccles., ! BLAINS. Pustules rising m the skm. 
book ii £as gathered a mass of evidence There was first an inflamed ulcer and boil ; 
from early writers to illustrate the various and then the pustules, or b ains, broke out 
irom t^^^-y.'^'^^^'".... upon it. This was one of the most fearful 



Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10). 

BLACK. See Colours. In Mai. iii. 14, 
marg., the expression ' in black ' occurs. In 
the text it is ' mournfully.' The allusion is 
to the custom of wearing dirty or squalid 

Jer. 



ministerial orders in the primitive church 
The functions of those called ' bishops' or 
'elders' in the New Testament seem to 
have been two-fold, comprising the exer- 
cise of authority, and the duty of giving 
instruction. See Elders. 
BISON (Deut. xiv. 5, marg.). See Pygarg. _ _ 

BITHI'AH (daucjhter, i.e. worshipper, of phantiasis, 
Jehovah). A daughter of Pharaoh, wife to "'^-^^ 
Mered, a man of the tribe of Judah (1 
Chron iv. 18) The date of this alliance is 



plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians. We 
may conceive its intensity, when we find 
that it utterly disabled the magicians who 
were affected with it from meeting Moses 
(Exod. ix. 8-11). It has been thought to be 
the black leprosy, a virulent kind of ele- 
phantiasis, ♦ the botch of Egypt, ' a sore 
botch that cannot be healed' (Deut. xxviii. 
27, 35), that same disease which afflicted 
Job (Job ii. 7). 



115 



[blood 



BLASPHEMY. Irreverent or insulting 
language in regard to God (Psal. Ixxiv. 18 ; 
Rom. ii. 24 ; and elsewliere). But the ori- 
ginal words in scripture liad often a wider 
signification, and meant evil-speaking, 
slander, reviling generally (Matt. xv. 19; 
Luke xxii. 65, and elsewhere). The punish- 
ment prescribed by the Mosaic law for the 
crime of actual blasphemy was death by 
stoning. This we find executed on the son 
of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 10-16) ; and it was 
on this charge that our Lord and Stephen 
were condemned (Matt. xxvi. 65, 66 ; Acts 
vi. 11). It sometimes happens that our 
version does not accurately express the 
meaning of the original, as when, in a pas- 
sage referred to above, those that held our 
Lord are said to have spoken ' blasphe- 
mously' against him. Reviling words know- 
ingly uttered against Christ are indeed blas- 
phemous ; but, when the Jews and Roman 
soldiers reviled him, as they were not 
aware of his divine nature, such revilings, 
though highly sinful, were not blasphe- 
mous in them, because they knew not what 
they did. It may be added that, if Jesus 
had not been the Son of God, his assump- 
tion of equality with the Father would 
have been blasphemous. That assumption 
was true; but the Jews accused him of 
blasphemy because they knew not who lie 
was. 

Questions have been raised in regard to 
blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. The es- 
sence of this fearful sin seems to have been 
that the Jews, shutting their eyes to the 
grand proof of miracles which Christ gave, 
daringly attributed those good and blessed 
works to an unclean spirit (Mark iii. 28-30). 
No obstinacy could be more frightful. It 
was the resolute determination not to be 
convinced by any amount of evidence. 
Their blood was therefore upon their own 
heads. So a desperate resistance to the 
gracious motions of the Holy Spirit shuts 
up the soul to irretrievable ruin. It is not 
that the blood of Jesus Christ could not 
cleanse such a sinner, but that the man 
defeats the kind purpose that would lead 
him to it. He never applies to the fountain 
of unlimited virtue ; and so he remains 
uncleansed for ever. 

BLAS'TUS (germ, sprout). The chamber- 
lain of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 20). 

BLEMISH. Certain blemishes or imper- 
fections unfitted the sons of Aaron from 
executing the priestly office. Blemishes, 
too, were not allowed in victims for sacri- 
fice (Lev. xxi. 17-23, xxii. 19-25 ; Deut. xv. 
21). All this had a spiritual meaning. The 
purity of Christ as a sacrifice for sin was 
thus illustrated (1 Pet. i. 19), and the holy 
blamelessness which those must cultivate 
who approach the Lord (Phil. ii. 15 ; Tit. i. 7). 

BLESSING. This word is variously used. 
Sometimes God is said to bless his crea- 
tures. This is not merely the expression of 
a wish for their welfare, but the actual 
bestowal of some good, or the means 
towards a good (Gen. i. 22, xxxii. 29 ; Job 
xlii. 12 ; Acts iii. 26 ; and elsewhere). Some- 
times creatures are said to bless their 
Creator, when they acknowledge his kind- 



(Psal. ciii. 1, 2, cxxxiv. 1, 2). Sometimes 
men bless their fellow-creatures, when 
they express their gratitude for favours 
received, pray for a blessing upon them, or 
predict their prosperity (Gen. xiv. 18-20, 

xxviii. 1-4, xlvii. 8 ; Numb. xxiv. 10 ; Job 

xxix. 13). And, as thus to bless is the ex- 
pression of gratitude or kindness, so a 
token of gratitude or kindness, that is, a 
gift, is sometimes called a blessing (2 Kings 

V. 15). 

BLINDING. See Punishments. 
BLINDNESS. The prevalence of blind- 
ness in the east impresses every traveller. 
Particles of sand, through the dryness of 
the climate, getting into the eye, the glare 
of light, the multitude of insects, the neg- 
lect and filth in which the people live, the 
ravages of small-pox, are among the rea- 
sons why ophthalmia is endemic in Egypt, 
extending also into neighbouring coun- 
tries. Blind persons are frequently men- 
tioned in the New Testament (Matt. ix. 27, 
31, xii. 22, XX. 80-34, xxi. 14 ; Mark viii. 22- 
26 ; John V. 3) ; and our Lord's wonderful 
power and beneficence in opening their 
eyes was one great proof that he was the 
Messiah (Matt. xi. 5). The gradual way in 
which the miracle was sometimes wrought, 
and the process which Christ sometimes 
saw fit to use, cannot in the slightest degree 
detract from the miraculous character of 
the cures. Occasionally blindness was pen- 
ally inflicted (Gen. xix. 11 ; 2 Kings vi. 18- 
20; Acts ix. 8, xiii. 11). In some of these 
cases, possibly, it was not total blindness 
but rather confused vision. And occasion- 
ally it is threatened as a judgment (Deut 
xxviii. 28). Kindness to the blind was 
commanded by the Mosaic law (Lev. xix. 14 ; 
Deut. xxvii. 18). Blindness, moreover, is 
sometimes used figuratively for ignorance, 
specially of spiritual things (Isai. vi 10 
xlii. 18 ; Matt. xv. 14 : 2 Cor. iv. 3 4 : Rev 
iii. 17, 18). 

BLOOD. The blood of an animal is de- 
clared to be ' the life ' of it (Gen. ix. 4 ; Lev. 
xvii. 11). And hence God may be said to 
have reserved it to himself : it was not to be 
eaten: it was that by which sacrificial 
atonement was made ; all the cleansings of 
the law being by the shedding and sprink- 
ling of blood (Heb. ix. 18-22). In this re- 
spect it had a typical meaning. The blood- 
shedding of the Mosaic victims prefigured 
that greater and more efficacious blood-shed- 
dmg, when Christ gave his life for mankind 
(Matt. XX. 28 ; 1 John iii. 16); so that his 
blood • cleanseth from all sin ' (l John i. 7) 
Further, when blood was shed wantonly, a 
curse was incurred. The blood of a bird or 
animal was to be poured upon the ground 
and covered up (Lev. xvii. 13); and the 
blood of a man cried for vengeance against 
the murderer (Gen. iv. 10, 11). Hence the 
command to Noah that a murderer must be 
put to death (ix. 6), a command sanctioned 
in the Mosaic legislation (Numb. xxxv. 30, 
31, 33), a command which it would be hard 
to prove not intended to be binding as an 
universal law upon the world. And, if any 
one was slain, and the slayer could not be 
found, the nearest city was to make an 



nesses, and seek to show forth his praise atonement (Deut. xxi. i-9). 



blood] 



116 



BLOOD, AYEXGEE. OF. See Avexger 
OF Blood, Cities of Refuge. 

BLOOD, ISSUE OF (Lev. xr. 19-30 ; Matt, 
ix. 20 ; Mark v. 25 ; Luke viii. 43). Menstrua- 
tion, or fliixus uteri. So long as it continued 
tliere ^vas ceremonial uncleanness. The 
case mentioned in Acts xxviii. 8 was dy- 
sentery. 

BLUE (Exod. xxT. 4, xxyi. 1, 31, 36, xxYii. 
16 ; Numb. xv. 38 ; 2 Cliron. ii. 7, 14 ; Esth. 
i. 6, viii. 15 ; Ezek. xxiii. 6, and elsewhere). 
See Colours. 

BOANER'GES (sons of thunder). A sur- 
name given bv our Lord to James and John, 
tlie sons of Zebedee (Markiii. 17) ; probably 
on account of their zealous temper (comp. 
Matt. XX. 20-22 ; Mark ix. 38 ; Luke ix. 53, 
54). 

BOAR. This animal is named but once 
in our version (Psal. Ixxx. 13) ; elsewhere 
the original word is rendered ' swine.' The 
wild boar of the east is commonly smaller 
than the old breeds of domestic swine, 
though occasionally it grows to a large 
size. It is very ferocious when roused, and 
commits great ravages in the vineyards. 
Boars are said to abound about the sources 
of the Jordan, and near its mouth ; they 
are also common on Carmel and elsewhere 
in Palestine. 

BOAT (John vi. 22, 23 ; Acts xxvii. 16, 30, 
32). See Ship, 

BO'AZ {alacrity). A wealthy inhabitant 
of Beth-lehem who according to the princi- 
ples of the Levirate law married Ruth the 
widow of his kinsman Mahlon ; a nearer 
relative having yielded up his right, Boaz 
was considerably older than Rutb ; but he 
had by her a son, Obed, the ancestor of 
David (Ruth ii., iii., iv. ; 1 Chron. ii. 11, 12), 
In the Kew Testament he is called Booz 
(Matt. i. 5 ; Luke iii. 32). 

BO'AZ (id., or in him, i.e. the Lord, is 
strength). One of the brazen pillars set up be- 
fore the portico of the temple. Its height is 
variouslv stated Q. Kings vii. 15-22 ; 2 Kings 
XXV. 13, 16, 17 ; 2 Chron. iii. 15-17 ; Jer. Iii. 
17, 20-23) ; most probably because sometimes 
the capital and the ornamental work unit- 
ing it to the shaft are included ; sometimes 
the height of the shaft alone is given. Boaz 
stood on the left, perhaps the north side 
of the entrance. Besides their purpose as 
architectural ornaments, these pillars had, 
it is likely, a symbolical meaning. See 
Jachin. 

BOC'CAS (1 Esdr. viii. 2). A form of 
Bukki (Ezra vii. 4). 

BO'CHERU (the first-born is he). A son of 
Azel (1 Chron. viii. 38, ix. 44). The Septua- 
gint translators have not considered this a 
proper name. 

BO'CHIM (weepers). A place, probably 
not far from Gilgal, where the Israelites 
wept when rebuked by an angel (Judges 
ii. 1, 5). 

BO'HA^s^ (thumb). A Reubemte. A me- 
morial stone was called after him : it was 
on the borders of Judah and Benjamin 
(Josh. XV. 6, xviii. 17), 

BOILS (Exod. ix. 9-11 ; Lev. xiii. 18-23). 
See Blaixs, Leprosy. 

BOLLED (Exod. ix. 31). The proper 
meaning of the original word so translated 



here is the calyx or corolla of flowers : the 
flax was in the calyx, i.e. in flower. 
BOLSTER. See Bed. 
BOTs'DAGE, BOXDMAN. See SERYA2fT. 
BOXNET. See Dress, Head-dress. 
BOOK. See WritiivG, 
BOOK OF LIFE, This is a figurative 
expression. As the names of men were in- 
serted in books or rolls of genealogy, sc 
there is a register, as it were, kept of those 
who are to live for ever— God's book which 
he keeps of his chosen (Phil. iv. 3 ; Rev, 
iii. 5). Similarly books of remembrance 
and of judgment are spoken of (Mai. in. 16 ; 
Rev. XX. 12). 
BOOTHS. See Tabernacles, Feast of, 
BOOTY. Wlien the Israelites entered 
Canaan, they were commanded utterly to 
exterminate Jericho, the first city attacked, 
and to touch none of the booty or spoil : 
all was to be destroyed ; metallic articles 
only being reserved for the treasury of the 
Lord (Josh. vi. 17-19). With respect to 
other cities, as at Ai, the domestic spoil 
and the cattle might be taken as a prey 
(viii. 2). In the conquest of Canaan all the 
inhabitants were to be extirpated; but in 
wars elsewhere, if a city resisted, the males 
only might be killed ; and then the women 
and children might be appropriated, to- 
gether with whatever property the city 
should contain (Deut. xx. 12-18). Occasion- 
ally, however, as in the expedition against 
Amalek, an exception was made (1 Sam. 
XV. 3). As to the division of the booty, the 
half was to go to the combatants, one-fifth 
per cent, of it being consecrated to God, 
and given to the priests ; the other half to 
the people, two per cent, being consecrated 
to God (Xumb. xxxi. 26-47). An additional 
regulation was established by David, that 
in an armv those who guarded the baggage 
should share equally with those who were 
actually in the battle (1 Sara. xxx. 22-25). 

BO'OZ (Matt. i. 5; Luke iii, 32). See 
Boaz. ^ . , 

BO'BITE (2 Esdr. i. 2). A corrupt form 
of Bukki (Ezra vii. 4). 

BORROW. Thiswordis improperly used 
in Exod. iii, 21, 22, xi, 2, 3, xii. 35, 36. The 
hard service of Israel demanded a recom- 
pence from their Egyptian masters : this 
the Israelites required ; and by God's over- 
ruling providence the demand was rea.dily 
and arenerally complied with. See LoAif. 

BOS'CATH (stony region, height). A town 
in the plain country of Judah, the native 
place of Josiah's mother (2 Kings xxii. 1). 
In Josh, XV. 39, it is Bozkath. 

BOSOM. A fold in the bosom of the 
robe, which was wide above the girdle, was 
used to hold any precious thing (Isai. xl. ll : 
Luke vi. 38). In some cases the word is 
used when reference is made to the custom 
of reclining at meals ; the head of one 
being thus almost upon the breast of the 
person immediately above him (xvi. 22, 23 
John i. 18, xiii. 23, 25). _ ^ , ^ . 

BO'SOR (2 Pet, ii. 15). The Greek form ol 
Beor, which see. . . •, 

BO'SOR (1 Mace. V, 26, 36). A place in 
Gilead. , „ , 

BOS'OBA a Mace. v. 26, 28). Perhaps 
1 Bozrah. 



117 



BOSS (Job XV. 26). The exterior convex 
part of a shield. See Arms. 

BOTCH (Deut. xxviii. 27, 35). ProbaiJly 
the black leprosy, endemic in Egypt, or 
elephantiasis. See Leprosy. 

BOTTLE. Several words are used in 
scripture which our translators have ren- 
dered 'bottle.' The skins of kids and 




Ancient Skin Bottles. Museo Borbonico. 



goatSj and sometimes of oxen, are used for 
the purpose of holding liquids. When the 




Woman giving a child drink from a slsin-bottle. 
IJineveh Marbles. 



[bottlb 

further incision. The skin is tanned with 
acac-iabark : the legs then serve-for handles, 
and the neck as the mouth of the 'bottle,' 
being tied up when the wine or water, as 
trhe case may be, has been poured in. The 
hairy side is outward. These bottles are 
still in constant use in Syria and the adjs,- 
cent countries, and are very common also 
in Spain. We may easily hence understand 
the wine-bottles of the Gibeonites ' old and 
rent and bound up ' (Josh, ix, 4), and also 
comprehend the allusion of our Lord to 
the danger of putting new wine, brisk and 
fermenting, into old bottles, which it was 
likely would then burst (Matt. ix. 17). And 
so the single ' bottle ' of wine brought by 
Ziba (2 Sam. xvi. 1), instead of being out of 
proportion to the bread and fruits, con- 
tained very probably a large quantity. The 
compai-ison, moreover, of ' a bottle in the 
smoke ' (Psal. cxix. 83), shrivelled and dried 
up, is very intelligible. Besides these skin- 




Agsyrian Bottles, from originals, Brit. Mus. 



bottles, others of glass, metal, and earthen- 
ware were also in use. Some of these have 




Egyptian Bottles. Brit. Mus. 



been discovered in Egypt and Assyria. And 
there were tear-bottles, in which the tears 
of mourners were collected. Many of these 
have been dug up, thin glass or jplain pot* 



BOTTOiTLESS FIT] 



118 



terv, ^th a bulbous body, a long slender 
neck, and a funnel-sbaped mouth. Hence 
the allusion of the psalmist (Psal. Ivi. 8i. 

BOTTOMLESS PIT 'Rev. ix. I, 2, 11, xi. 7, 
2vll. 8, XX. 1, 3). See Hell. \ 

BOAT. See Arms. ' 

BOWELS. Bovrels are sometimes put 
for the internal parts, expressing figura- 
tivelv the inner man, just as the heart does 
vrith'us. Hence the bovrels are considered 
as the seat of compassion or affection (Gen. 
xliii. 30; IsaL Ixiii. 15 ; 2 Cor. vi. 12, vii. 15, 
mare. : Phil. i. 8, ii. 1 ; Col. iii. 12 ; Philem. 
7, 12, 20. and elsewhere). Sometimes, too, 
the invrard parts are made the seat of wis- 
dom, as in Job xxxviii. 35. 

BOWING. An act of courtesy (Gen. xxiil. 
7, 12 ; 1 Kines ii. 19), which, when paid to a 
superior, sometimes became prostration 
(Gen. xxxiii. 3 ; 2 .Sam. xiv. 22). It is occa- 
sionallT spoken of as an act of worship to 
God CPsal. xcv. 6 ; Eph. iii. U ; Phil. ii. 10). 
See Salutation. 

BOWL. Several Hebrew words are thus 
translated. That in Eccles. xii. 6 ; Zech. iv. 3 
signifies a vessel of a gloljular shape. Tlie 
same word is used to describe the orna- 
ment', verv likelv spherical, on the top of 
columns (1 Kingrs vii. 41 ; 2 Chron. iv. 12, 13 , 
translated 'bowls' and 'pommels.' Ti.e 
word occurring in Judges vi. 38 denote- a 
shallow dish or basin. It is rendered ' disn ' 
in V. 25, and is found nowhere else. Another 
word translated ' bowls ' conveys the idea 
of purification ; it must therefore mean 
sacrificial dishes or bowis for libation 
(Exod. xxxvii. 16 ; Xumb. iv. 7). There is 
al-o a word derived from a root signifying 
to sprinkle ; we may suppose that it meant 
ba=in= from which the blood of victims was 
sprinkled (rii. 13j : it is sometimes rendered 
' ba=in' (iv. 14- ; and occasionally it means 
wine-bowls rAmosvi.6;. The 'bowls' of 1 
Kins- vii. 50 are the same with the ' basin' 
of Exnd. xii. 22, and the ' cup ' in Zech. xii. 2. 
See Basts. For the 'bowls' (Exod. xxv. 
31, 33, 34) in the sacred candlestick, see 

CA>rDLESTICK. . . , ^ 

BOX (2 Kings ix. 1, 3). The original word 
is that translated ' vial' in 1 Sam. x. 1. It 
signifies flask or bottle. The box m Matt, 
xxvl. 7 was a cruse with a long narrow 
neck, sealed at the top. . 

BO'X-TPtEE. The word so rendered sig- 
nifies erectness, tallness, hence a tall tree 
(Isai. xii. 19, Ix. 13; : it has been thought 
to be a species of cedar growing in Lebanon, 
' called sherb'-a, distinguished by the small- 
i nc5 of its cones, and the upward direction 
; of it= branches. Henderson, belie^'ing that 
i this tree is intended in Ezek. xx^^i. 6, by a 

■ slisrht alteration in the text, translates, 
' • Thv deck thev made of ivory imaid m 
s cedar=' (see Tlie Book of Ezekie'., p.l34r. 'the 

A=hurite3' of our version being unmtelli- 
' gible. But, after a'.l, it is not improbable 
; that the box, Biuus sempervu-ens, is rea^^y 

the tree meant. -u 
i BO'ZEZ (shining). A rock near Gibeali 

(1 Sam. xiv. 4,\ . , . , ,^ ,t^-i. 

■■ BOZ'K--VTH (stony region, lie-igTd) (Josh. 

XV 39'. Sf^e BOSCATH. 

BOZ'R ( fortress, sheep-fold A city 

■ ri Edom. first mentioned as the residence 



of one of the early kings (Gen. xxxrl. 33 ; 
1 Cliron. i. 4A\ We find it again in conneo 
tion with Edom (Isai. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. 1 ; Jer. 
xlix. 13. 22 ; Amos i. 12 ; Micah ii. 12). It is 
the modern el-Busaireh, a small place with 
about fifty houses, but with ruins around 
indicatins the site of a large city. It stands 
on a height to the south-east of the Dead 
sea, about half-way between that sea and 
Petra.— 2. A town of this name is mentioned 
amonsr the cities of the plain country of . 
Moab''(Jer. xlviii. 24). It is not likely to be U 
the Edomitish Bozrah,but it is not noticed 
in scripture elsewhere. See Winer, Bibl. 
RVTB., art. ' Bozra.' Porter believes it to 
be the modern Busrah, which has still a very 
imposing appearance at a distance; but 
other authorities are not satisfied with this 
identification. 

BRACELET. The 'bracelets' which we 
flndmentionedin scripture were sometimes 
properly armlets (Xumb. xxxi. 50 ; 2 Sara. i. 
10~i, still common m the east, worn by 
princes and distinguished men, as well as 




Bracelet?. Brit. Xns. 
1. Gold Egyptian bracelets. 2. Silver do. 5. 
Bronze, vrith^bell attached, taken from mum 
a RirL 4. Iron, -srith. cornelian setting. 5, E 
let of cowries. 



of 




Assyrian bracelets. Nineveh marbles, 
bv females. They were of gold and other 
c6=^^v materials, enriched with jewels ac- 
cording to the wearer's ability ; while the 



119 mhu mwMtHQf^. 



very poor now have them of glass or even 
earthenware. See Armlet. But, besides the 
armlets on the arm, bracelets were worn hy- 
men also, as well as women, on the wrists. 
One of the words so rendered means a 
fastening (Gen. xxiv. 22, 30, 47 ; Numb. xxxi. 
50; Ezek. xvi. ll,xxiii, 42). The 'bracelets' 
In the catalogue of Isai. iii. 19, are wreathen 
or twisted chains. In Exod. xxxv. 22 hooks, 
or clasps, or brooches, probably to fasten the 
garments, are meant rather than bracelets ; 
while the • bracelets ' in Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25 
would seem to be the cord by which the 
signet was commonly suspended in the 
bosom. 

BRAMBLE. See Thistle, Thorn. 

BRANCH. This word is often used figu- 
ratively. A branch is a descendant from a 
tree the parent (Isai. xi. 1) ; or it signifies 
one united to or dependent upon another. 
Thus, Christ is the vine ; and his disciples 
are the branches (John xv. 5). Hence St. 
Paul's metaphor (Rom. xi. 17-24) is easily 
understood. Beside the more general sym- 
bolical meaning, the term ' branch ' is 
sometimes specifically applied to the Mes- 
siah, as in Jer. xxiii. 5, xxxiii. 15 ; where the 
promise runs that, from David's royal stock, 
a branch of righteousness, a righteous de- 
scendant, shall spring. And the same ex- 
alted personage is again predicted (Zech. 
iii. 8, vi. 12), the Branch that shall grow and 
flourish, and become glorious, and endure 
for ever. 

BR,ASS. It Is very evident that the 
'brass' frequently spoken of in scripture 
cannot be that compound metal to which 
we give the name of brass; for it is de- 
scribed as dug from the mine (Deut. viii. 9 ; 
Job xxviii. 2). Very frequently copper is 
meant : see Copper ; and, no doubt, also 
bronze, which is a composition of copper 
and tin, while brass is copper and zinc. 
Napier, in his Ancient Workers mid Artificers 
in Metal, gives some interesting informa- 
tion : see particularly, for copper, pp. 53-70, 
for brass, pp. 84-122. Copper can be tough- 
ened ; and an ancient spear-head was found 
on analysis to be almost entirely of this 
metal, containing of copper 99-71, of sulphur 
•28. An Egyptian bronze chisel contained 
of copper 94, of tin 5*9, of iron "1 ; while a 
bowl from Nimroud was composed of copper 
89-57, of tin 10-43. The ' fine brass ' in Rev. i. 
15 is probably burnished brass, glowing as 
in a furnace : see abp. Trench, Comm. on 
Epistles to Seven Churches, pp. 36, &c. The 
word is often used metaphorically, implying 
hardness, strength, roughness, and the like 
(e.g. Deut. xxviii. 23 ; Job vi. 12 ; Jer. i. 18, 
vi. 28 ; Zech. vi. 1). 

BRAZEN SEA (2 Kings xxv. 13 ; Jer. Iii. 
17). See Laver. 

BRAZEN SERPENT. See SERPENT. 

BRAYING IN A MORTAR (Prov. xxvii. 
22). See Punishments. 

BREAD. This word is often used In a 
comprehensive sense to signify food in 
general (Gen. iii. 19, xxviii. 20) ; hence ' to 
eat bread' is to partake of a meal (xliii. 25). 
In some respects this wider application of 
the term is familiar to ourselves ; for we 
commonly speak of a man's ' earning his 
bread,' i.e. his subsistence. 



[bread 



Bread in its proper sense was generally of 
wheat ; but barley and other species of 
grain were also used ; and sometimes there 
was a mixture (Ezek. iv. 9). It has been said 
that barley bread was eaten only by the very 
poor, or in time of scarcity. To a certain 
extent this may be true (John vi. 9) : the 
luxurious Solomon, we read, gave barley to 
his horses (1 Kings iv. 29). But, when we 
find also that Boaz, a man of wealth, in a 
time of plenty, presented barley to Ruth, 
whom he was intending to marry (Ruth iii. 
15 : comp. i. 6), we cannot suppose that 
barley was the food of only mean people. 

After the wheat had been ground in the 
mill, the flour was made into dough or paste 
in a small wooden bowl or trough : an ephah, 
or three measures, is the quantity often spe- 
cified (Gen. xviii. 6 ; Judges vi. 19 ; 1 Sam.'i. 
24; Matt. xiii. 33), probably enough for what 
we might call a fair family-baking, or for 
the capacity of an ordinary oven. A leathern 
bag is now often used for the same purpose 
by the Bedouin Arabs. Leaven was added 
afterwards ; and then the mass stood to 
ferment (Luke xiii. 21) ; consequently, if 
any sudden necessity of removal occurred, 
cakes would be hastily baked, or the dough 
carried off in its unfermented state (Exod. 
xii. 34). In towns it would seem likely that 
there were public ovens ; for a bakers' street 
in Jerusalem is mentioned (Jer. xxxvii. 21 : 
comp. Hos. vii. 4). And it is a custom at 
the present day in the east for bakers by 
trade not only to dispose of the bread they 
have themselves prepared, but also to re- 
ceive and bake the dough entrusted by 
others to them. A portion of this is retained 
for their remuneration. These public ovens, 
and such as are in large private houses, re- 
semble those among ourselves. But smaller 
portable ones are common. They are of 
stone, earthenware, or copper, like large 
jars open at the top ; heated inside with 
wood (1 Kings xvii. 12 ; Isai. xliv. 15 ; Jer. 
vii. 18), or grass (Matt. vi. 30). When the 
fire has burnt out, small loaves are placed 
inside, or else thin cakes or biscuits are 
baked by being applied outside. There is 
another mode of baking, common enough in 
rural districts. A kind of pit is formed in 
the floor of the principal room of a house, a 
yard wide, and four or five feet deep. Its 
sides are lined with cement ; and, when 
they have been heated by a fire kindled at 
the bottom, pieces of dough are thrown 
against them, and soon baked there. So 
also the dough is laid on heated stones ; or a 
fire is kindled on a smooth spot, the embers 
afterwards raked aside, the dough laid down, 
and the embers heaped over it ; or it is 
placed between layers of dried dung (Ezek. 
iv. 15). Great care is necessary in turning 
such cakes (Hos. vii. 8). A pan, too, Avas 
used (2 Sam. xiii. 8, 9), very probably similar 
to that now called tajen by the Arabs, flat, 
or slightly convex, usually of metal, placed 
upon a slow flre. Thin flaps of dough are 
soon baked upon it. Sometimes a metal- 
plate is put over a cavity in which are burn- 
ing embers ; and on this the bread is baked. 
By these or the like methods, now practised, 
the bakings of the brcnd of which we read in 
several instances (Gen. xviii. 6; 1 Kings 



bread] 



120 



XTii, 13, xix. 6) were no doubt customarily 
performed among the ancient inhabitants of 
Palestine. The cakes used in the offerings, 
whether baked in an oven or on a pan, ap- 
pear to have been prepared with oil (Lev. ii. 
4, 5, vi. 20, 21, vii. 9), sometimes perhaps 
only dipped in oil (Exod. xxix. 2). Oil, too, 
was occasionally used for ordinary bread 
(1 Kings xvii. 12-14), Bread was sometimes 
round, a finger's breadth thick ; sometimes 
in other shapes, as Egyptian monuments 
show. Some cakes were punctured, and 
probably had seeds sprinkled on them ; and 
some, as the caiies which Tamar made (as 



of open-work ; and these were carried 
in a tray by the baker on his head (Gen. xl. 
16, 17). Most of the kinds of bread in use 
must have been crisp : hence we read so 
continually of the breaking of bread. 

BREAD, SHEW. See Shett-bread. 

BREAST-PLATE.— 1. (Exod. xxviii. 15-30), 
See High Priest.— 2. See Arms. 

BRETHREN, See Brother. 

BRICK. "We have very early mention 
of bricks in scripture, and of the material 
with which they were cemented (Gen.xi. 3). 
Both the 'slime' or bitumen, and the clay 
of which the bricks were formed, wers 





Brickmaking. From Rosellini. 



the original word would imply), were of 
special delicacy. , , . ^.-u^^. 

It has been inferred (Luke xi. 5) that 
three common loaves were sufficient for a 
man's ordinary meal: the inference is but 
fanciful. David required five, and had at- 
tendants a little way off, for whom also he 
wished provision (1 Sam. xxi. 2, 3 ; Mark ii. 
26) He took ten for his three brethren 
(1 Sam xvii. 17). Two hundred loaves was 
a fair quantity for a body of troops (xxv. 
18 : 2 Sam. xvi. 1). Women seem to have 
been geuerallv emoloyed in making bread 
(1 Sam. viii. 13 ; Jer. vii. IS) ; but the baKcrs 
by trade were men (Hos. vii. 4, 6). Loaves 
in Eixypt were placed in baskets, probably 



abundant in the Mesopotamian plain. 
Bricks appear to have been, in Egypt and 
at Is'ineveh, very generally sun-dried : for 
the Babylonian buildings they were more 
commonly burnt In kilns. The clay was 
sometimes mixed with chopped straw to 
increase the tenacity and compactness of 
the bricks ; and this was the more needful 
when the material was the Nile mud (Exod. 
i. 14, V. 6-19). Egyptian bricks, with dates 
upon them, are still preserved as fit for 
use as when they were first made. They 
are of a large size, varjing from 14i to 20 
inches in length ; 6i to 8| inches in breadth ; 
and in thickness 4f to 7 inches. The burnt 



121 



[bbother 



bricks employed in buildings exposea to 
water were smaller than those merely sun- 
dried. In the Necropolis at western Thebes 
there is a remarkable palntmg m the tomb 
of Rekshare, architect in the reign ot 
Thothmes III., about 1400 years b c, which 
represents the process of brick-makmg. 
Some of the labourers are digging and 
preparing the clay, others moulding, carry- 
ing piling the bricks, while taskmasters 
are' superintending the work. They are 
captives who are employed : possibly He- 
brews may be intended (Wilkinson, ^wc. 
Enypt, vol. ii. p. 197). Babylonian bricks are 
more like tiles, 12 or 13 inches square, and 
3i thick. Some of them are glazed or 
enamelled, and various-coloured patterns 
are impressed upon them. Many of these 
have been found bearing the name of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. In the Assyrian rums there 
are also bricks both kiln-burnt and sun- 
dried. Inscriptions are on many of them. 




Esrvptian brick, stamped with tlae oval of 
Thothmes III. Brit. Mus. 




Assyrian brick from Nimroud, inscribed with the 
name and title of Shalmaneser. 



Brick-kilns are mentioned in 2 Sam. xii. 30 ; 
Jer. xliii. 9. There is an allusion to the 
severity of the labour in them in Nah. iii. 

^%RIDE, BRIDEGROOM. See MARRIAGE. 

BRIDGE. There is no mention of a bridge 
m the scriptures. But in the Apocrypha 
we read of a bridge connected with a town 
situated near a lake, which Judas Macca- 
beus besieged (2 Mace. xii. 13-16). Fords are 
frequently spoken of (Gen. xxxii. 22 ; Josh, 
ii. 7 ; Judges iii. 28, vii. 24, xii. 5 ; Isai. 
xvi. 2) ; and it was by fords that the He- 
brews appear generally to have crossed 



their rivers. But it is remarkable that a 
district of Syria is called by a name signi- 
fying 'bridge;' and this district, Geshur, 
lay in a quarter not far from which there is 
now existing a bridge called ' the bridge of 
the sons of Jacob.' The Romans made 
bridges over the Jordan and other Syrian 
rivers, of which there are some remains. 

BRIER (Judges viii. 7, 16 ; Isai. v. 6, vu. 
23, 24, 25, ix. 18, X. 17, xxvii. 4, xxxii. 13, Iv. 
13; Ezek. ii. 6, xxviii. 24; Mic. vii. 4; Heb. 
vi. 8). See Thorns. 

BRIGANDINE. A coat of mail (Jer. xlvi. 
4, li. 3). See Arms. 

BRIMSTONE. The Hebrew word for 
brimstone properly means resin or pitch, 
but comes to signify other combustible 
substances, especially sulphur or brimstone. 
It was employed in the destruction of the 
cities of the plain ; the soil of that district 
abounding in sulphur and bituminous mat- 
ter (Gen. xix. 24 ; Deut. xxix. 23). Hence the 
use of the term figuratively to describe the 
divine vengeance (Job xviii. 15 ; Psal. xi. 6 ; 
Isai. xxxiv. 9 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 22 ; Rev. xix. 
20, XX. 10, xxi. 8). 

BROIDED, BROIDERED. In 1 Tim. ii. 
9 the older rendering is ' broided,' explained 
in the Geneva translation ' to plat, to crisp, 
to broid, to fold, to bush, to curl, or to lay 
it curiously.' See Embroidery. 

BROOK. There are several Hebrew words 
so rendered. That in Psal. xlii. 1, is a rush- 
ing torrent. Another often used (e.g. 
Judges xvi. 4 : comp. marg.) implies both 
the stream and its dry bed, just equivalent 
to the modern Wacly. Most of the brooks 
of Palestine are torrents fiowing only in 
the winter or after rains. Thus in Job vi. 
15 the allusion is to a stream which dries 
up at once, and disappoints the traveller. 
See River. The ' brooks' in Isai. xix. 6, 7, 
8, are the canals of Egypt. _ 

BROTH. It is a common practice m the 
east to dip bread into the gravy of meat ; 
which is therefore sometimes served up in a 
separate vessel (Judges vi. 19, 20 ; Isai. Ixv. 
4), or placed in the middle of the meat-dish. 
See Food. , , 

BROTHER. A term frequently used, like 
others expressive of relationship (e.g.f ather, 
son, &c.), in an extended sense. Gesenius 
enumerates the following meanings of the 
word in the Old Testament.— 1. A brother 
literally, either by the whole blood, or a 
half-brother (Judges viii. 19, ix. 21).— 2. A 
kinsman in any degree (Gen. xiv. 16) : Lot 
was really Abraham's nephew.— 3. One of 
the same tribe (Numb. viii. 26 ; 2 Sam. xix 
12)._4. A fellow-countryman, applied also 
to kindred tribes (Gen. xvi. 12 ; Exod. ii. 11 ; 
Numb. XX. 14; Judges xiv. 3^—5. Anally, 
spoken of ccmfederate nations, or those of 
the same religion (Isai. Ixvi. 20 ; Amos i. 9). 
-6. A friend (1 Kings ix. 13 ; Job vi. 15).- 
7. Any one of the same nature, a fellow-man 
(Lev. xix. 17).— 8. Metaphorically, as express- 
ing likeness of disposition or habits ; as ' I 
am a brother to jackals,' i.e. I cry or howl 
like them (Job xxx. 29 : comp. Prov. xvni. 9). 

The usage of the word in the New Testa- 
ment is very similar, including kinsmen, 
countrymen, those of the same faith, &c., 
&c. (Matt. xii. 46-50; Acts xi. 12, xvu. C, 10,' 



bucexer] 



Cm^urii at 



Rom. ix. 3, xii.l ; Heb.iii. 1, and elsewhere). 
It is employed also as a term of endearment 
(2 Cor. li. 13 ; Pliilem. 20). The relationship 
is moreover held up as an incentive and 
rule for kindness and consideration to others 
(Heb. xiii. 1 ; 1 Pet, iii. 8). The modern 
custom among ourselves differs hut little 
from that we find in tlie scriptures. We 
use the term 'brother' in various senses, 
as indicating different kinds of relation- 
ship, e.g. a brother Englishman, a brother 
clergyman, a brother of the craft, &c. &c. 

BUCKLER. See Arms. 

BUILD. See Architectijre. The word 
is also used figuratively (e.g. 2 Sam. vii. 27 ; 
1 Cor. iii. 9-12). 

BUK'KI (loasting).— !. The chieftain of 
Dan selected to superintend the division of 
Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 22).— 2. A descendant 
of Aaron in the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. vi. 
5, ,51 ; Ezra vii. 4). It is very uncertain 
Avhethcr Bukki was ever actually high 
priest. 

BUKKI'AH (toasting from Jehovah). The 
chief of the sixth division of singers 
(1 Chron. xxv. 4, 13). 

BUL (ram). See Months. 

BULL, BULLOCK. Several different 
Hebrew words were employed to indicate 
this well-known animal. Bak&r is a generic 
word implying the notion of ploughing, 
comprising male and female, ox and cow. 
It is generally used collectively for oxen, 
cattle, a herd (Gen. xii. 16 ; Lev. i. 2, 3, 5). 
Shor, also significant of ploughing, denotes 
an animal of the ox kind, without refer- 
ence to age or sex, and usually (though 
not always) an individual as opposed to 
hcikdr, a herd (Numb. xviii,17 ; Deut, xxxiii. 
17 ; Hos. xii, 11). The Chaldee form of this 
word is tor (Ezra, vi. 9,17). Par, implying 
to bear the yoke, generally signifies a 
young bullock (Exod. xxix. 1), but once a 
bullock seven years old (Judges vi. 25) : it 
is used metaphorically of princes (Jer. 1. 27). 
'Ugel, 'eglah (fem.), are words descriptive of 
a young bullock, a steer (Jer. xxxi. 18), and 
a heifer (Deut. xxi. 4, 6 ; Isai, vii. 21). 
Abbtrim, implying strong ones, is occasion- 
ally introduced to denote bulls (Psal. xxii. 
12). These words are used of cattle domes- 
ticated, which naturally formed a large part 
of the possessions of an agricultural people. 
' Wild bull' occurs Isai. li, 20. See Ox. 

BULRUSH. 'Bulrush' and 'rush' are 
used interchangeably in our version, A 
Hebrew word derived from ' marsh,' because 
the plant grows in marshy places, is ren- 
dered ' rush ' (Isai. ix. 14, xix. 15) ; the 
phrase 'branch and rush ' signifying ' high 
and low;' Bat this same word is ' bulrush' 
in Iviii. 5. Then there is another word, 
expressive of a porous character, which 
denotes properly the Egyptian papyrus, 
■Papyrus Nilotica. It was serviceable for 
many purposes. The Egyptians made clotii- 
ing, shoes, baskets, various utensils, and 
specially boats or skiffs of it. Of this was 
formed the ark in which Moses was exposed 
(Exod. ii. 3 : comp. Isai. xviii. 2). But it 
is also sometimes translated 'rush' (Job 
viii. 11 ; Isai. xxxv. 7). 

BU'NAH {discretion). One of Judah's 
descendants (1 Chron, ii. 25). 



BUN'NI (huim.—l. A Levite (Neh. ix, 4). 
— 2. One who sealed the covenant (x. 15).— 
3, A Levite probably of earlier date than 
No, 1 (xi, 15). 

BURDEN. The word generally rendered 
' burden* in our version at the head of a 
prophecy signifies both 'burden' and 
' oracle.' It thus denotes sometimes a 
message of judgment (Isai. xiii. 1 ; Nah. 1. 
1), sometimes an annunciation of good 
(Zecb. xii. 1 ; Mai. i. 1). These two meanings 
give occasion to the rebuke (Jer. xxiii. 33- 
40). The people chose to represent the 
Lord's message as always prognosticating 
evil. 

BURIAL. We have in the earlier scrip- 
ture several records of the calm and hopeful 
deaths of the holy patriarchs, a proof that 
they • died in faith ' (Heb, xi. 13), looking for 
a better country. * Let us,' says Hooker, 
' beg of God that, when the hour of our rest 
is come, the patterns of our dissolution 
may be Jacob, Moses, Joshua, David ; who, 
leisurably ending their lives in peace, 
prayed for the mercies of God to come upon 
their posterity, replenished the hearts of 
the nearest unto them with words of me- 
morable consolation, strengthened men in 
the fear of God, gave them wholesome in- 
structions of life, and confirmed them in 
true religion, in sum, taught the world no 
less virtuously how to die than they had 
done before how to live' {Eccles. Pol, book 
V. 46). 

When the spirit had retm-ned to God, the 
first duty to the departed was to close the 
eyes ; an office usually performed by a child 
or other near and dear kinsman (Gen. xlvi. 
4). The natural sorrow evinced itself in 
tears (1. l), in the rending of the clothes, 
and putting on of sackcloth (2 Sam. iii. 31, 
35), and various other modes of outward 
expression (xiii. 31 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17). Hea- 
then practices, however, were forbidden 
(Lev. xix. 28; Deut. xiv. 1). The time of 
special mourning for a relative appears to 
have been seven days. This, indeed, is 
expressly stated by an apocryphal writer 
(Ecclus. xxii. 12); and we find these seven 
days observed at the funei'al of Jacob (Gen. 
1. 10) ; even though there had previously 
been a general mourning in Egypt for 
seventy days (3). So the people of Jabesh- 
gilead fasted and mourned for Saul seven 
days (1 Sam. xxxi. 13). And this was the 
space of time that uncleanness fi'om the 
touching of a corpse lasted (Numb. xix. 11, 
14). For Moses and Aaron the mourning 
was thirty days (xx. 29 ; Deut. xxxiv. 8) ; 
and doubtless for near relations, and in 
particular cases, the period was much pro- 
longed. The priests were exempt from the 
ordinary practice, since it involved cere- 
monial defilement. The high priest was not 
to mourn for any one, the inferior priests 
only for their nearest relatives (Lev. xxi. 
1-3, 11). Friends were in the habit of visit- 
ing the bereaved to condole with them (Job 
ii. 11 ; John xi. 11) ; and this is still custo- 
mary. But it would seem that it was not 
till later days that hired mourners were 
employed. We find them mentioned by the 
prophets (Jer. ix. 17, 18 ; Amos v. 16) ; and in 
our Lord's time minstrels had been intr> 



123 



[burial 



, duced (Matt. ix. 23 ; Mark v. 38). Dr. Thom- 
son describes the practice as still existing 
i in Palestine : ' There are in every city and 
j community women exceeding cunning in 
I this business: These are always sent for 
and kept in readiness. When a fresh com- 
pany of sympathizers comes in, these 
! women " make haste " to take up a wailing, 
i that the newly-come may the more easily 
! unite their tears with the mourners. They 
; know the domestic history of every person, 

■ and immediately strike up an impromptu 
lamentation, in which they introduce the 

i names of their relatives who have recently 
; I died, touching some tender chord in every 
heart ; and thus each one weeps for his oivn 
i dead ; and the performance, which would 
otherwise he difficult or impossible, comes 
easy and natural ; and even this extempora- 
: neous artificial sorrow is thereby redeemed 

■ from half its hoUow-heartedness and hypo- 
crisy ' (The Land and the Book, p. 103). There 
is some allusion in scripture to the custom 
of collecting the tears of the mourners in 
bottles (Psal. Ivi. 8). Such bottles or lachry- 
matories are of ten found on opening ancient 
tombs. They are of thin glass or simple 
pottery, not always baked or glazed : they 

; have a slender body, with a broad flat 
bottom and funnel-shaped top. They do 
not now contain anything but dust. 

The funeral preparations were made at 
once among the Hebrews, to bury their dead 
out of their sight (Gen. xxiii. 4). It was a 
e-reat dishonour and calamity to be deprived 
of burial, threatened sometimes against 
enemies and the wicked (1 Sam. xvii. 44 ; 1 
i- Kings xiv. 11, xxi. 24 ; Psal, Ixxix 2 ; Jer. 
xiv. 16, xxii. 19, xxxvi. 30). Of washing and 
swathing the corpse we read nothing in the 
Old Testament : both are noticed, however, 
in the New (Acts ix. 37). The grave-clothes 
were probably the ordinary garments, or 
folds of linen wrapped round the body, with 
a separate napkin bound about the head 
(John xi. 44, XX. 5-7). Prior, however, to 
this involution, the body was anointed, and 
spices were placed between the folds of 
the linen (xix. 39, 40). But embalming, 
properly so called, was not usual. See 
Embalming. In our Lord's case it was 
necessary that the entombment should be 
hasty; and therefore additional spices and 
I : ointments were intended to be afterwards 
i i I used (Luke xxiii. 55, 56). Asa v/as laid upon 
! a bed of spices (2 Chron. xvi. 14) ; and no 
I doubt peculiar honours were paid, and addi- 
' tional cost incurred, in the funerals of 
i exalted personages. Burnings are spoken 
I of. These were of the great piles of aro- 
I matics; and probably the bed, furniture, 
! and other things belonging to the deceased. 
I If a monarch had been unpopular, this mark 
I of respect was not paid him (2 Chron. xxi. 
I 19). And it is observable that it was spe- 
i ciailv promised to Zedekiah that they should 
i burn odours for him, though dying in cap- 
I tivity, like to the burnings of his fathers 
(Jer. xxxiv. 5). It has been questioned 
whether sometimes the body was not itself 
I burnt; the aromatics being used to over- 
I power the smell of the burning flesh. There 
is one indubitable instance of this. For, 
when the men of Jabesh-gilead had re- 



covered the bodies of Saul and his sons, 
they burnt them, we are expressly told (l 
Sam. xxxi. 12), burying afterwards the 
remains. There is another passage (Amos 
vi. 10) which seems to allude to such a 
custom. It has been strangely proposed to 
interpret 'he that burneth him,' by 'the 
burner of perfumes in his honour ; ' as if in 
a time of such public calamity any such 
luxurious rite would have been indulged 
in I But the case was no doubt exceptional, 
and cannot be taken to prove that burning 
rather than burying was customary. See 
Saalschiitz, Arch, der Hebr. cap. 56, vol. ii. 
pp. 146, 147. 

The next of kin superintended the funeral 
rites ; though it is thought that in later 
times there were persons specially ap- 
po nted to the office— a body, so to speak, 
of public buriers (Acts v. 6, 10). We may 
doubt, however, whether, in the history of 
Ananias and Sapphira, any clear allusion is 
made to such persons. It was natural that, 
after an awful catastrophe, Peter should 
direct those present, the younger as most 
fitted for the office, to prepare the stricken 
dead at once for burial without the usual 
formalities. The reference to a prophetical 
description (Ezek. xxxix. 14) in proof of the 
custom is obviously inconclusive. Xoffins 
were but rarely used. The corpse was car- 
ried to the tomb on an open bier or bed by 
near relatives, attended very often by a 
large concourse of people and mourners 
(Luke vii. 11-15). 

The burial-places were in gardens, fields, 
or on the sides of mountains, in natural 
caves, or artificial excavations. And a 
point was made of interment in the fa- 
mily-sepulchre ; so that it is noted as a 
kind of disgrace when a man was not 
buried with his fathers (Gen. xlvii. 30; 

1 Kings xiii. 22 ; 2 Kings xxi. 18). Tet 
sometimes a wish was expressed to be 
buried, even if it were away from the 
family-tomb, with an honoured individual 
(Ruth i. 17 ; 1 Kings xiii. 31). Sepulchres, 
finely termed by the later Jews ' the house 
of the living,' were often of large size, con- 
taining courts with various subterranean 
chambers, corridors, and niches for the 
reception of the bodies, which could be 
closed with stones. Some of these are yet 
remaining, as the so-called 'Tombs of the 
kings,' 'Tombs of the judges,' 'Tombs of 
the prophets,' &c. near Jerusalem. These, of 
course, have been explored ; and plans of 
them have been constructed. Cupolas were 
sometimes built over sepulchres; and no 
doubt under these or in the courts of en- 
trance the demoniacs found shelter (Matt, 
viii. 28). It was considered a work of piety 
to adorn and embellish tombs (xxiii. 27, 
29) ; and it is said to have been customary 
to whiten them once a year, just before the 
passover. There were, according to Jewish 
writers, public cemeteries for those who 
possessed no private burying-place. Pos 
sibly in such cemeteries were ' the graves 
of the common people' (Jer. xxvi. 23 : comp. 

2 Kings xxiii. 6). They Avere to be not less 
than 2,000 cu])its from a Levitlcal city, and 
a considerable space, i.e. more than fifty 
cubits, from other towns. Care generally 




Plan of the Tombs of tile Kings, with vestibule, chambers, and niches for the dead. From 
M. F. de Saulcy. 



was taken to bury even criminals and 
strangers (Dent. xxi. 23 ; 2 Kings ix. 34 ; 
Matt, xxvii. 7). And it would seem that 
there were inscriptions upon tombs (2 
Kings xxiii. 17). See Kitto's Pict. Bible, 
note on 2 Chron. xxxiv. 4. 



A funeral feast succeeded Hebrew burials. 
This is alluded to in the case of Abner'h 
funeral (2 Sam. iii. 35). Of this Jeremiah 
speaks, mentioning ' the cup of consolation ' 
which men had ' to drink for their fathoi 
j or their mother,' and 'the house of feast 




Plan of the Tombs of the Pr< 



ing,' where this entertainment was made 
(Jer. xvi. 5, 7, 8). Hence the phrases * bread 
of men' (Ezek. xxiv. 17), and 'bread of 
mourners' (Hos. ix. 4). These funeral 
feasts are still kept up in Syria. ' Crowds of 
relatives, friends, and acquaintances assem- 
ble on these occasions. The largest gather- 
ings ever seen in Lebanon are on these 



n M. F. de Saulcy. 



occasions. For all these guests refresh- 
ments must be provided ; and not a few 
from a distance tarry all night, and must 
be entertained. Then these gatherings and 
feasts for the dead are repeated at stated 
times for forty days. ... On certain days 
after the funeral large quantities of com' 
and other food are cooked in a particular 



manner, and sent to all the friends, liow- 
ever numerous, in the name of the dead. . . . 
When one of their number (Bedouin Arabs; 
dies, they immediately bring his best ox or 
buffalo, and slaughter it near the body of the 
deceased. They then cook it all for a great 
feast with burgh ul (cracked wheat), rice, 
and whatever else good to eat they may pos- 
sess. The whole tribe, and neighbours also, 
assemble for t'lie funeral, and go direct from 
the grave to this sacrificial feast. The vast 
piles of provisions quickly disappear. . . . 
Every one must partake at least of a morsel. 
It is a duty to the departed, and must be 
eaten on behalf of the dead. Even strangers 
passing along are constrained to come and 
taste of the feast. . . . This custom is so 
binding that it must be observed, though 
it consume every item of property and of 
provisions the man possessed, and leave 
the wife and children to starve. It is the 
feast of the dead' ^The Land and the Book, 
p. 105). This usage remarkably illustrates 
the fidelity of him who for calls like these 
had not touched the hallowed things de- 
voted to God (Deut. xxvi. 14). 

After a person had been biiried it was 
customary for surviving friends to visit 
the sepulchre and weep there (John xi, 31). 
This custom has not ceased. Women still 
visit the cemeteries ; and tents are some- 
times pitched over the graves which are to 
be wept at. But all such persons are not 
veritable mourners : they are hired to make 
their lamentations. 

Elegies were composed in honour of dis- 
tinguished persons. Those of David for 
Saul and Jonathan, and for Abner, are pre- 
served (2 Sam. i. 19-27, iii. 33, 34) ; and it has 
been inferred (2 Chron. xxxv. 25) that there 
were collectiona of this kind of composi- 
tion. The lamentation, however, made 
by Jeremiali for king Josiah is not ex- 
tant. 

The following ceremonies are observed at 
the death and funeral of modern British 
Jews. Funerals are managed by a body 
called 'the Burial Society.' Four of this 
body watch a sick man day and night till 
he breathes his last. They are to repeat 
certain sentences when he is expiring, one 
of which is ' Hear, O Israel, the Lord our 
God is one Lord.' The closing words ' one 
Lord' must be uttered at the moment of 
death. For eight minutes the corpse must 
not be touched : then a feather is laid on 
the upper lip ; and, when it is clear that the 
breath is altogether gone, each person pre- 
sent makes a small rent in one of his gar- 
ments. After an hour, the body is placed 
on the floor with its feet towards the door. 
A small bundle of straw or a pillow is put 
under the head : the hands and feet are set 
in a straight position ; and a black cloth is 
thrown over the corpse. A pewter plate 
with salt in it is then placed on the breast, 
a basin of clean water and a towel set 
by it, and a lighted candle at the head. 
The water and towel are to remain for 
seven days, the candle for thirty. All the 
water in the house, and in the next three 
houses on each side, at the time of death, 
must be poured away. The relations are to 
abstain from meat and wine till the inter- 



ment, and must attend to some other ob- 
servances. 

The ofiicers of the synagogue fix th« 
time of burial, which must be, if possible, 
within twenty-four hours of death. The 
body is washed with lukewarm water, 
poured upon a sheet which covers it, and 
purified by cold water poured on the bare 
flesh. It is then dressed, and placed in a 
very plain deal coffin without ornament ; 
a quantity of Jerusalem earth being put 
with the dead. Before the coflin is re- 
moved, relations and friends come to pay 
their last visit. The face and feet being 
uncovered, each takes hold of the large 
toes, and asks the deceased pardon for 
every injury done to him, and his favour- 
able mention in the other world. Each 
then makes a rent, ordinarily on the right 
side, on the death of a parent on the left, 
in nearly all the garments he may -have on. 
The rent may be stitched up in seven days, 
and properly repaired in thirty ; but those 
made for the parents must not be stitched 
up for thirty days, and never thoroughly 
repaired. 

Many attend tlie body to the tomb. In 
the hall called 'the house of the living' 
the coffin is opened to adjust anything dis- 
placed ; it is then carried on a bier to the 
grave. When borne a few paces, tlie proces- 
sion stops, and all say, ' Blessed art thou, 
O Lord our God, King of the universe, who 
hast formed you (i.e. the dead) in judg- 
ment, fed and cherished you in judgment, 
and killed you in judgment, and knowest 
the number of you all in judgment, and in 
a future time wilt cause you to live again 
in judsrment. Blessed art thoa, O Lord, 
the resl;orer of life to the dead.' The grave 
lies north and south ; and, when the corpse 
is being lowered into it, all say, ' Let it 
come in peace to its appointed place.' When 
they return from the grave each plucks 
some grass, and says, ' They shall spring 
forth from the city as the grass of the 
earth.' Then, washing their hands at a 
pump, they add, ' He (Messiah) will swallow 
up death for ever; and the Lord God will 
wipe away the tears from oflc all faces; and 
the rebuke of his people will he remove 
from off all the earth ; for the mouth of 
the Lord hath spoken it.' 

After the interment, the seven days' 
mourning begins. This is very strict. No 
work must be done, or amusement engaged 
in. Friends make visits of condolence, 
for whose reception the door stands open. 
On the sabbath, the mourners may dress 
and go to the synagogue, but do not enter 
till a particular part of the service ; they 
then sit upon what is called ' the mourners' 
bench.' Then afterwards there are thirty 
days (for parents thirty-one) in which ordi- 
nary avocations may be resumed, but re- 
creations must be avoided. And, when 
these davs are ended, for twelve months 
usual pleasures must not be indulged in. 
And every son (not a daughter) must for 
eleven months after a parent's death attend 
svnasrogue morning and evening, and re- 
peat ""the kaddish, which is a form of praise 
to God. Also, the anniversary of a parent's 
death is to be kept, usually by feasting.: a 



127 



lamp, too, or candle. Is lighted, and kept 
burning all day. And, besides this, a child 
must on the three great festivals every 
year make a prayer for departed parents, 
and also present offerings. Prayers are 
similarly made for other deceased relatives. 
It may be added that females watch the 
sick Jewess, and perform the duties to the 
corpse till it is placed in the coffin (see 
Mills, British Jews, pp. 33-48). 

BURNING (Gen. xxxviii. 24 ; Lev. xx. 14, 
xxi. 9; Josh. vii. 25; Jer. xxix. 22; Dan. 
iii. 6) : see Punishments. (2 Chron. xvi. 
14, xxi. 19 ; Jer. xxxiv. 5) : see Burial. 

BURNT-OFFERING. See Offerings. 

BUSH (Mark xii. 26 ; Luke xx. 37). The 
words rendered' in the bush,' 'at the bush,' 
mean that section of scripture which com- 
prises the account of the appearing of God 
in the bush to Moses. 

BUSHEL (Matt. v. 15 ; Mark iv. 21 ; Luke 
xi. 33). See Measures. 

BUTLER (Gen. xl. 1, and elsewhere). See 
Cup-bearer. 

BUTTER. The word so rendered in our 
version very frequently means curds, cur- 
dled or sour milk {leben), which has in this 
state an inebriating power (Gen. xviii. 8 ; 
Judges V. 25 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29 ; Isai. vii. 22). 
In some places it is put for milk in general 
(Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Job xx. 17, xxix. 6 ; Psal. 



Iv. 21). In Prov. XXX. 33 Gesenius would 
render cheese. Butter, indeed, as we un- 
derstand and use it, is not known in Syria ; 
it would soon become rancid and unfit for 
food. But there Is a process of churning 
which Dr. Thomson describes. A bottle is 
made by stripping off entire the skin of a 
young buffalo. This is filled with milk, 
kneaded, wrung, and shaken, till, such as it 
is, the butter comes. This butter is then 
taken out, boiled or melted, and put into 
bottles made of goats' skins. In winter it 
resembles candied honey ; in summer it is 
mere oil (The Land and the Book, pp. 255, 
256). Probably it is this substance, and 
this mode of churning, that is alluded to 
in Prov. xxx. 33. 

BUZ (contempt).—!. A son of Abraham's 
brother Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21).— 2. A Gadite 
(1 Chron. v. 14). 

BUZ (id.). A territory, it is not unlikely 
so denominated from Nahor's son (Jer. xxv. 
23). It was perhaps in the northern part of 
Arabia Deserta. 

BU'ZI (sprung from Buz, a Buzite). A priest, 
the father of Ezekiel the prophet (Ezek. i. 3). 

BU'ZITE. Elihu is so designated (Job 
xxxii. 2, 6) ; the descendant probably of 
Buz, the son of Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21). 

BYS'SUS. A term used in the Septuagint 
version for fine linen. See Linen. 



C 



CAB (hollow) (2 Kings vi. 25). See Mea- 
sures. 

CAB'BON (cake, according to some, bond). 
A town in Judah (Josh. xv. 40). 

CA'BUL (limit, boundary, or perhaps as 
nothing).—!. A place on the boundary of the 
tribe of Asher (Josh. xix. 27). The name is 
still retained by a village 8 or 9 miles east 
of Acre.— 2. A district containing twenty 
towns which Solomon gave to Hiram king 
of Tyre, but which Hiram did not like 
(1 Kings ix. 10-13). Some have connected this 
district with No. 1, and have supposed that 
it was one of the cities in question. It may 
have been so ; but then a part of the land 
of Israel would have been yielded to the 
stranger, which must have been unlawful. 
Possibly these might be foreign cities con- 
quered by Solomon ; for we find that, after 
being restored by Hiram, the Hebrew king, 
when he built or fortified them, had to colo- 
nize them with Israelites (2 Chron. viii. 2). 

CAD'DIS (1 Mace. ii. 2). The surname of 
Joannan, one of the five sons of Mattathias, 
father of the Maccabean family. 

CA'DES (1 Mace. xi. 63, 73). A form of 
Kedesh in Naphtali. 

CA'DES-BAB'NE (Judith v. 14). Kadesh- 
barnea. 

CAD'MIEL a Esdr. v. 26, 58). Kadmiel 
(Ezraii. 40, iii. 9). 

C^'SAR. The appellation of a noble 
Roman family, the most distinguished of 



whom, Caius Julius Co3sar, obtained supreme 
power as dictator. This power was consoli- 
dated by his grand-nephew Caius Octavius 
(who assumed the name or title of Au- 
gustus) and transmitted to successors at 
first of his own family. By Csesar in the 
New Testament is always understood the 
Pboman emperor, as the actual sovereign of 
the country (John xix. 15). To him tribute 
was paid : to him Ptoman citizens had the 
right of appeal. So far as the historical 
part of the New Testament reaches, the 
events fall within the reigns of Augustus, 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero (Luke 
ii. 1, iii. 1 ; Acts xi. 28, xxv. 11 ; Phil. iv. 
22). In the two places last referred to Nero 
is intended. Caligula is not mentioned at 
all in scripture. 

C^SARE'A. A celebrated city of Pales- 
tine lying on the Mediterranean sea-coast, 
on the great road from Tyre to Egypt, about 
70 miles north-west of Jerusalem. It is 
usually said that it was first inhabited un- 
der the name of Strato's tower ; Dr. Thom- 
son, however (The Land and the Book, pp. 
491-496), finding most extensive quarryings 
of the limestone-rock in the neighbourhood, 
is persuaded that there must have been an 
important town here at a much earlier date, 
a frontier town probably of the Phoeni- 
cians. But all memorial of it has perished. 
Cajsarea was built in ten years by Herod the I 
Great, who named it in honour of the em- | 



C2ESAIIEA] 



^f)t ^vt^iuvv at 



128 



peror Augustus : it Tvas sometimes called ^ 
Ciesarea Stratonis, or Csssarea Palestinse, to I 
distinguish it from Csesarea Pliilippi. Jo- 
sephus describes it as a magnificeut city, 
and speaks of an artificial harbour formed 
by a noble pier or breakwater, •with conve- 
nient landing-wharves (Aiitig., lib. xvii. 
5, § 1). But Dr. Thomson is convinced that 
the historian has greatly exaggerated, and : 
says that the whole extent of the harbour 
can now be traced, and that such a pier as 
Josephus speaks of was simply impossible 
for want of room. There can, however, be 
uo doubt that Ctesarea was large and popu- 
lous, and many of its buildings imposing. 
There was a temple conspicuous from the 
sea, dedicated to Cassar and to Rome, an 
amphitheatre, and a theatre ; the latter 
the scene of Herod Agrippa's fatal stroke 
(Acts xii. 20-23). This city was the official 
residence of the kings of the Herodian 
family, and the Roman metropolis of Ju- 
dea, where the procurators generally lived : 
it was the militaiT head-quarters, and was 
made a Roman colony by Vespasian, who was 
flrstproclaimed emperor here. He gave it the 
}us Italicuvi, Italian privileges. Cissarea is 
frequently mentioned in the apostolic his- 
very (viii. 40, ix. 30, x. 1, 24, xi. 11, xii. 19, 
xviii. 22, xxi. 8, 16, xxiii. 23, 33, xxv. 1, 4, 
6 13). Here the door of the gospel was 
first opened to a Gentile : an outbreak be- 
tween the Jews and Greeks here was one of 
the first events in the last Jewish war : here 
was the scene of Origen's labours ; so that 
it must ever be regarded as a place of the 
highest interest. But it has perished. The 
site is still called Kaisariyeh, and it is 
desolate. 

CJESARE'A PHILIPTI. It is very pro- 
bable that this town was originally Baal- 
gad fJosh. xi. 17). It was afterwards 
known' as Panium, where the heathen god 
Pan had a sanctuary, as testified by yet-re- 
maining inscriptions. Herod the Great 
beautified it, and built a temple here to 
Augustus. It then became a portion of the 
dominion of Philip tetrarch of Iturea and 
Trachonitis : he further embellished it and 
called it partly after the emperor, partly 
after himself ,Ca3sarea Philippi ; while, later, 
Asrrippa II. termed it Xeronias. The older 
name, however, survived, as coins on which 
Csesarea Paneas appears sufficiently prove, 
audit is even now called Banias, being but 
a village. This appears to have been the 
northemmost limit of our Lord's journey- 
ings (Matt. xvi. 13 ; Mark viii. 27) ; and it was 
probably on some spur of the neighbouring 
Eermon that he was transfigured. 'The 
situation,' says Dr. Robinson {Bib. Res., vol. 
iii. pp. 404, 405), ' is unique, combining in an 
unusual degree the elements of grandeur 
and beauty. It nestles in its recess at the 
southern base at the mighty Hermon, which 
towers in majesty to an elevation of 7,000 or 
8,000feet above . . . The abundant waters of 
the glorious fountain spread over the ter- 
race luxuriant fertility and the graceful 
interchange of copse, lawn, and waving 
fields.' About an hour's ride from Banias, 
and 1,000 feet above it, is a magnificent castle 
called Subeibah, famous in the wars of 
the crusaders. It is thought to be of ex- 



treme a,utiquity, possibly of the Phoenician 
times. 

CAGE (Jer. v. 27), or COOP (marg.). A 
trap-cage, in which a bird is caught. In 
Rev. xviii. 2, a hold or cage considered as a 
place of confinement. 

CAI'APHAS (depression). This person, | 
called also Joseph, was son-in-law of Annas { 
and was appointed high priest by the Ro- i 
man procurator Valerius Gratus, about 27 | 
or 28 A.D., in succession to Simon, the sou 
of Camithus. He held the office during | 
the whole administration of Pilate, but ! 
was deposed by Vitellius the proconsul, i 
36 A.D., and succeeded by Jonathan, the son j 
of Ananus or Annas. Dr. Alford gives the | 
dates of his appointment and deposition ae i 
25 and 37 A.D. Caiaphas it was who coun- j 
selled our Lord's being put to death (John | 
xi. 49, 50), and presided at his trial (Matt, j 
xxvi. 57 ; John xviii. 24\ It was before ; 
him, too, that Peter and John were carried 
after the miracle of healing at the Beau- 
tiful gate of the temple (Acts iv. 6). Iso- 
thing is known of Caiaphas subsequent to 
his deposition. The stories that he was 
identical with Josephus the historian, aiid 
that he became a Christian, ai-e mere fan- 
cies. 

CAIN (possession, acquisition : some pre- 
fer a lance, a smith). The first-born of Adam 
and Eve. He was so named because at his i 
birth Eve said, ' I have acquired a man ■ 
from Jehovah,' or 'even Jehovah.' It is | 
not easy to explain these words satisfac- 
torily. Some, in view of the meaning of 
the word Jehovah, ' He who shall be,' sup- 
pose that Eve considered her son as the 
promised one who should be the deliverer 
from the curse, with no idea of that deli- 
verer's being the Lord, or intention of 
using Jehovah as a divine name (See Tyler, 
• Jehovah the Redeemer God; pp. 19-23). The \ 
more general opinion is that Eve regarded , 
the child as obtained from or by the help | 
of the Deity, and but an earnest of a future , 
greater Seed. Cain was a tiller of the I 
ground, and, jealous that his brother Abel's | 
burnt-oflcering was accepted, while his own : 
oblation of fruits, a mere thank-offering, \ 
was rejected, he murdered Abel, for which 
he became an exile, and settled in the land 
of Nod, where he built a city. His de- ; 
scendants are noted as herdmen, artificers, i 
and musicians (Gen. iv.). The ' mark "set i 
upon' Cain was probably no more than the j 
1 promise given him, a guarantee that the | 
life of the first murderer would be un- ; 
i touched bv the hand of man. Cain is re- ; 
' peatedlv alluded to in the New Testament ; 
: (Heb. xi. 4 ; 1 John iii. 12 ; Jude 11). i 
I CAIN (perhaps ?2e.«0. This word has the | 
I article prefixed. It was a city, named pos- 
sibly from its position, and appears to 
have been in the hill-country of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 57). 
j CAI'NAN (possession-, but, according to 
some, lancer, or smiths.— 1. An ante-diluvian 
patriarch, the son of-Enos ; he lived 910 
v&ars (Gen. v. 9-14 ; Luke iii. 37). He is also 
called Kenan (Gen. v. 9, marg. : 1 Chron. i. 2). 
—2. A son of Arphaxad placed in the line 
of patriarchs between Abraham and Noah 
(Luke iii. 36). This name is with much pro 



129 



[CALEB 



bability regarded as an interpolation. It 
does not appear in any Hebrew copy of tlie 
genealogies (Gen. x., xi. ; ICliron. i.) ; it is, 
however, in the present copies of the Sep- 
tuagint (except in 1 Chron. i. 24), One an- 
cient MS. of St. Luke omits it. We must 
suppose either that it by some means 
slipped out of the Hebrew text, or that there 
is a corruption in the Septuagint. Perhaps 
the latter is the more likely supposition. 
St. Luke then gave the genealogy as he 
found it in the Greek bible ; or, according to 
the belief of some, the word crept into the 
Gospel, and was introduced into the Sep- 
tuagint at a later date. 
CAKE. See Bread. 

CA'LAH (old age). A city of Assyria, 
founded by Asshur, or rather Nimrod (Gen. 
X. 11). Sir H; Rawlinson believes that its 
site was among the Nimroud ruins, and 
that for long it was the royal Assyrian resi- 
dence, till Sargon built a new city where 
Khorsabad now stands. Dr. Layard, on the 
other hand, is disposed to find Calah at 
Kalah ShergJiat, a vast ruin (4685 yards 
round) on the Tigris, about fifty miles below 
its junction with the Zab, but does not ven- 
ture to speak with certainty. He discovered 
tombs there, and a sitting figure mutilated, 
which is now in the British Museum. 

CALAMO'LALUS (1 Esdr. v. 22). 

CAL'AMUS. One of the ingredients of 
the holy anointing oil (Exod. xxx. 23) ; it is 
also mentioned among perfumes (Sol. Song, 
iv. 14), and said to be one of the articles of 
Tyrian commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 19). The 
' sweet cane' of Isai. xliii. 24; Jer. vi. 20 is 
the same substance. It is the Andropogon 
aromaticus, fragrant beard- grass, also called 
Calamus odoratus ; a plant growing in India 
and Arabia ; and either this, or at least a 
similar scented cane, has been found in a 
valley of Lebanon. The root, the stem, and 
the leaves, when bruised, are very fra- 
grant ; and an aromatic oil is distilled from 
them. 

CAL'COL (sustenance). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 6). He is probably the 
same with Chalcol (1 Kings iv. 31). See 
Chalcol. 

CALDRON (1 Sam. ii. 14; 2 Chron. xxxv. 
13; Jobxli. 20; Jer. lii. 18, 19; Ezek. xi. 3, 
7, 11 ; Mic. iii. 3). Several words in the 
original are thus rendered in our version ; 
the general meaning being a vessel for do- 
mestic or ceremonial purposes, used to boil 
flesh in. 

CA'LEB(cZogr).— 1. The son of Hezron, of 
the tribe of Judah, and father of Hur(l 
Chron. ii. 9, where Chelubai, 18, 19, 42, 46, 48). 
-2. The son of Jephunneh, a chief selected 
from Judah, with oneof every other tribe, to 
search the land of Canaan. He is also called 
the Kenezite (Numb, xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 
6, 14). No further trace of the genealogy of 
his father Jephunneh is given; and from 
tliis circumstance Lord A. C. Hervey 
(Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 242) sup- 
poses that the family were Gentiles, incor- 
porated into Israel as proselytes. Kenaz is 
certainly an Edomite name (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 
15^ ; and some other things might seem to 
favour the idea. But we have to set against 
rt the great improbability that the year 



after the exodus an adopted stranger would 
be selected as a chief of Judah. Be this, 
however, as it may, Caleb and Joshua Avere 
the only two spies who on their return did 
not discourage the people by representing 
the inhabitants of the land as too strong to 
be overcome. It was for the rebellion of 
Israel on this occasion that the forty years' 
wandering in the wilderness was denoun- 
ced ; and the ten unfaithful spies died soon 
after. Caleb and Joshua were the ouly per- 
sons of that generation who should live to 
enter Canaan (Numb, xiii., xiv. ; Deut. i. 
22-46). Caleb had thus the promise that the 
land his feet had trodden should be his and 
his children's after him, because he had 
'wholly followed the Lord.' And he held 
that promise in faith through the weary 
years that succeeded ; and, when at last 
Canaan was entered and well-nigh subdued, 
he, that old man, twenty years older than 
the rest of the nation (save Joshua), still 
strong, as in the day when he first explored 
the country, stood before Joshua to claim 
his inheritance. ' Give me this mountain,' 
he said, 'whereof the Lord spake in that 
day.' The Anakim were still there ; but, 
the Lord helping him, he knew he could 
drive them out. And he did drive them out 
and possessed their habitation. It was He- 
bron he thus conquered ; and, though the 
city was assigned to the priests, yet the 
fields, and the villages, and the district 
round became according to promise his 
whom God had thus kept alive, to prove in 
him his faithfulness to his word. Caleb's 
posterity long preserved his inheritance 
(Josh. xiv. 6-15, xvi. 13-15, xxi. 10-12 ; 1 Sam. 
XXV. 2, 3, xxx, 14). This inheritance, specially 
that part of it which Caleb settled on his 
daughter Achsah (Josh, xv, 13-19) may yet 
be traced. Mr. "Wilton refers to Dr. Robin- 
son's account of Kurmul, the ancient Car- 
mel of Judah : ' The ruins of the town lie 
around the head and along the two sides of 
a valley of some width and depth ; the head 
of which forms a semi-circular amphitheatre 
shut in by rocks. . . . The bottom of the 
amphitheatre is a beautiful grass-plat, with 
an artificial reservoir in the middle, mea- 
suring 117 feet long by 74 feet broad. The 
spring from which it is supplied is in the 
rocks on the NW., where a chamber has 
been excavated. The water is brought out 
by an underground channel, first to a small 
basin near the rocks, and then five or six 
rods further to the reservoir. It is only 
necessary to add . . . that there is no living 
water within the territory of the Jehalin (an 
Arab tribe) except at Kurmul ... in order 
to complete the chain of evidence which 
goes to prove that this rich plain ... is the 
very "field" desired by Achsah ; and that 
the fountain of Kurmul, with its excavated 
chamber and basin high up among the rocks, 
and its capacious reservoir in the grassy 
amphitheatre below, is identical with those 
" upper and nether springs" which so richly 
supplemented the dowry of Othniel's bride' 
(The Negeb, pp. 16-18 : comp. Bib. Bes., vol. i. 
p. 496).— 3. A Caleb is mentioned (1 Chron. 
ii. 50) as son of Hur. If we are to take 
* son' here literally, he was the grand-son 
of No, 1. Or, if 'son' merely mean dc- 
K 



caleb-epkratah] ^f)t Crtasurt) qI 



130 



Bcendant, it is possible lie may te identical 
with the spy. 

CA'LEB-EPHRA'TAH. A place once 
mentioned (1 Chron. ii. 24), and otherwise 
unknown. Hezron is said to have died 
there. But he most probably diedm Egypt. 
The LXX seem to have read the text dif- 
ferently. And the addition of a letter or 
two in the Hebrew Avould make the mean- 
ing to be-that it was after Hezron's death 
that Caleb (comp. 19) married Ephrath or 
Ephratah. ^ ^ „ 

CALF. The yoiing of oxen, often stall- 
fed, regarded as choice food (Gen. xyiii. 7 ; 
1 Sam. xxviii. 24; Amos vi. 4; Luke xy. 
23, 27, 30). , . , . , 

Some of the Egyptian deities, as Apis and 
Mnevis, were honoured under the simili- 
tude of a calf. And there were two notable 
occasions on which calf-like images were 




Apis, Calf idol. From bronze, Brit. Mus. 



pet up by the Israelites for worship. The 
first was when Aaron, at the demand of the 
people, made of their golden ear-rmgs a 
molten calf, hollow probably, or of gold plat- 
ing upon wood. After the metal was cast it 
was fashioned, finished or ornamented,with 
a graving tool. Moses, when he saw ic, 
burnt and reduced this image to powder 
(by means of natron very likely), cast it into 
the water, and made the Hebrews drink it 
(Exod. xxxii.). Some centuries later Jero- 
boam set^ up golden calves at Dan and 
Bethel, which thus became, and long con- 
tinued centres of unhallowed worsnip 
(1 Kings xii. 28-30). It is questioned ^yhether 
in these cases there was the actual adora- 
tion of Egyptian idols, or whether it was 
not rather intended to honour Jehovah by 
visible symbols. Tliere are reasons why we 
should believe this last the real mea^nmg of 
' the service. Aaron proclaimed a feast to 
\ the Lord' (Exod. xxxii. 5); and Jeroboam, 
i we may fairly believe, never hoped to keep 
, his subjects from resorting to Jerusalem 
i hv at once setting up a god m downright 
i opposition to Jehovah. His object was te 
! persuade them that their worship won d be 
' as acceptable by means of his symbols as 
In the ceremonial of the temple. 

There are some places in which calves 
tire mentioned which require a word of ex- 
planation. The passing between the divided 



parts of a caU (Jer. xxxiv. 18, 19) has refe- 
rence to an ancient mode of ratifying a 
covenant : comp. Gen. xv. 10, 17. Again, 
the ' calves of lips' is a symbolical expres- 
sion (Hos. xiv. 2), indicating a sacrifice (as 
animals are sacrificed) of praise (Heb. xiii. 
15) 

CALFTAS (1 Esdr. ix. 23, 48). A form of 
Kelita (Ezra x. 23 ; Js'eh. viii. 7). . 

CALLK^G. A word frequently used m 
different forms to imply the gospel mvita- 
tation (1 Cor. i. 9, 24, 26 ; Eph. iv. 1, 4). It 
is illustrated by our Lord's parable of the 
marriage-supper (Matt. xxii. 2-14). The in- 
vitation is general ; but the reception it 
meets with is various. There are those who 
by their perverseness and to their ruin dis- 
regard it : some accept it only so far aa 
outward profession goes ; others, however, 
by God's grace, really avail themselves ol 
the mercy offered. It is not all, therefore, 
who receive the calling that obey it. Yet, 
as men are often described as being what 
they ought to be, and as doing what they 
are bound to do, so by ' calling, ' ' the called, 
a compliance with the invitation is some- 
times to be understood, and ' the called 
are those who have accepted the call (Heb 
iii. 1, ix. 15). Of the question of effectual 
calling, on which theologians have disputed 
so much, nothing can be here said: it is 
enough to remind the reader of our Lords 
warning : ' Many are called, but few chosen, 
and of the apostle's admonition : ' Give 
diligence to make your calling and election 
sure ' (2 Pet. i. 10). 
CALLIS'THI:NES (2 Mace. viii. 33). 
CAL'KEH (fortified dicelling, or fort o/the 
god Ana, or Anu). One of the original cities 
of Nimrod's empire (Gen. x. 10 ; Amos vi. 2), 
apparently the same with Calno (Isai. x. 9) 
and Canneh (Ezek. xxvii. 23). It is probably 
the modern Niffer, about 60 miles SSE. ol 
Babylon, on the eastern bank of the Eu- 
phrates. 

CAL'NO (Isai. x. 9). See CAL^^EH. 
CAL'PHI (1 Mace. xi. 70). 
CAL'VARY. This word occurs but once 
(Luke xxiii. 33), to indicate the place of our 
Lord's execution. It is the adoption into 
English of the Latin w^ord for • skull,' 
answering to the Greek kranion, which is 
itself the translation of the Hebrew Gol- 
gotha. The appellation has been supposed 
to be taken from the fact that, executions 
being performed there, skulls very likely lay 
about. It is more probable that it was a 
bare round spot, something in shape like a 
skull; hence, perhaps, the notion that it 
wa:s a hill, being ordinarily called 'Mount 
Calvarv.' The tradition that Adam was 
buried' here, and that his skull gave name 
to Golgotha, is hardly worth the mention. 
There is no topographical question more 
keenly disputed than whether the spot now 
venerated as the site of the holy sepulchre 
is really the ancient Golgotha or Cairary ; 
and it is not to be imagined that it will ever 
be satisfactorily settled. The notices in 
scripture are merely these. The places of 
the crucifixion and of the burial were con- 
tiguous. Golgotha was outside the city- 
gate (]SIatt. xxvii. 32 ; Heb. xiii. 12) ; yet it 
was near to the city (Jolm xix. 20) : it was 



131 



[CANA 



also close to a public road ; for the crowd 
met Simon the Cyrenian passing on as he 
came out of the country (Mark xv. 21 ; Luke 
xxiii. 26) ; and there was a garden just by 
(John xix. 41). These are the indications 
serving to identify the locality. They can 
be only just mentioned here ; a probable 
conclusion from them will be afterwards 
presented. See Jerusalem. 

CAMEL. A well-known most useful ani- 
mal, belonging to the order of ruminants, 
that is, those which chew the cud. There 
are two species of the camel. One is the 
Camelus Bactrianus, or Bactrian camel, 
which has two humps on its back and is 
found spread through central Asia to China. 
The other is the Camehts Arabicus or drome- 
darius, common in North Africa, Arabia, 
Syria, and elswhere. This was the species 
used by the Israelites and neighbouring 
nations, both for riding and for carrying 
loads, as at present (Gen. xxiv. 64; 2 Kings 
viii. 9). Camel's furniture is mentioned 
(Gen. xxxi. 34), perhaps a kind of Jitter or 
canopied seat ; and it is not improbable 
that the panniers or baskets which are sus- 
pended on both sides of the animal were 
employed anciently as now. The dromedary 
(Isai. Ix. 6) was the same species, but of a 
finer breed. 

The camel has been called by the Arabs 
'the ship of the desert.' Its organization is 
wonderfully adapted to the service it has 
to render to man, just fitted to the arid 
deserts over which it travels. ' The pads or 
sole-cushions of the spreading feet, divided 
into two toes without being externally se- 
parated, which buoy up, as it were, the 
whole bulk with their expansive elasticity 
from sinking in the sand on which the ani- 
mal advances with silent step, the nostrils 
so formed that the animal can close them 
at will, so as to exclude the drift sand and 
the parching simoom, the beetling brow and 
long lashes which fringe the upper lid, so 
as to screen the eyes from the glare of the 
sun, the cleft prehensile upper lip, and the 
powerful upper incisor teeth for browsing 
on the dry tough prickly shrubs of the 
desert, the hunch acting as a reservoir of 
nutriment against a time of long abstinence, 
and the assemblage of water tanks in the 
stomach— these are all proofs of design' 
{Nat. Cyclop.}. And it is thus that Dr. 
Robinson speaks: 'The longest trial to 
which we subjected our camels in respect 
to water was from Cairo to Suez, four days 
(they had been fed in Cairo with green 
clover, and had not drank, it was said, for 
twelve days before our departure) ; yet 
some of them did not drink even then, 
although they had only the driest fodder. 
But at all times the camel eats and drinks 
little, and secretes little : he is a cold- 
blooded, heavy, sullen animal, having little 
feeling, and little susceptibility for pain. 
: Thistles, and briers, and thorns he crops 
and chews with more avidity than the 
I softest green fodder; nor does he seem to 
I feel pain from blows or pricks, unless thev 
[ are very violent . . . I was surprised to find 
! them travelling with so much ease and 
safety, up and down the most rugged 
j mountain-passes. They do not choose their 



way with the like sagacity as the mule, or 
even as the horse ; but they tread much 
more surely and safely, and never either 
slip or stumble. In all our long journeys 
with them, I do not recollect a single in- 
stance ; and yet no roads can be worse than 
the passes in going and returning between 
Hebron and Wady Musa ' (Bibl Bes., vol. ii. 
p. 210). 

The camel is ill-tempered, vindictive, and 
obstinate ; but its value to man may be esti- 
mated by what has been said. The ordinary 
strong working animal will go 24 miles 
a day, while the higher-bred and better- 
trained, or dromedary, will, it is said, tra- 
verse 200 miles in 24 hours. This quadru- 
ped was forbidden as food to the Hebrews 
(Lev. xi. 4 ; Deut. xiv. 7) : the flesh, however, 
especially the hump, is now liked by the 
Arabs : the milk is considered a cooling 
nutritious drink ; and the dung is much 
used for fuel. The camel was well known in 
early ages (Gen. xii. 16, xxiv. 64, xxxvii. 25). 
It was used in war, at least by predatory 
bands (Judges vi. 5 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 17) ; and 
coarse garments were made of its hair 
(Matt. iii. 4 ; Mark i. 6). 

The word occurs in various proverbial 
expressions, as in Matt. xix. 24; similar to 
which are some used in the Talmud ; also in 
xxiii. 24, where the early English versions 
have very properly ♦ strain out.' 

CAMEL'S HAIR (Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 6). 
See Camel, Dress. 

CA'MON (full of stalks or grain). The 
place where Jair the judge was buried 
(Judges X. 5). It was most probably in 
Gilead. 

CAMP. See Encampment. 

CAMPHIRE (Sol. Song i. 14, iv. 13). There 
is every reason to believe this to be the 
henna of the Arabs, a shrub rising five or 
six feet high, with fragrant whitish flowers 
growing in clusters {Laivsonia alba). The 
powder of the leaves mixed with water and 
made into a paste is used by females to 
stain their nails a reddish colour. Ladies are 
fond, too, of placing branches of the sweet- 
smelling flowers of this shrub in their 
bosom. Dr. Thomson imagines that a very 
fragrant species of grape that flourished 
in the vineyards of En-gedi is intended 
(TJie Land and the Book, pp. 602, 603). 

CA'NA (reedy). A village or town of 
Galilee. Shortly after our Lord's baptism 
he was returning with five disciples into 
Galilee. His mother w^as not at Nazareth, 
but a guest at a marriage in Cana. Thither 
Jesus directed his steps, either previously 
invited, or 'called' with his disciples as 
soon as his coming was known. At this 
marriage-feast he performed his first mi- 
racle of changing water into wine; the 
propriety of which is illustrated by the fact 
that it was not uncommon for guests on 
such occasions to make presents of wine, if 
there was likely to be a deficiency (John 
i. 43, ii. 1-11). Christ subsequently per- 
formed another miracle when at Cana (iv 
40-54); and to this place Nathanael belonged 
(xxi. 2). According to tradition tlie mo- 
dern village Kefr Kenna, ^ miles north- 
west of Nazareth, is on the site of Cana, 
but it is more probably identified with i 



CANAAN] 



Kdnd el-JeliJ, now deserted, about 9 miles 
from ]S"azareth. •>^ 
C \'X \Ay (loic renion, mercliant, sei lant 0 
One of the sons of Ham (Gen. ix. 18 ; 1 Chron. 
1 8). On occasion of his irreverent conduct, 
a nrnphetic ciu'se was denounced hy Jsoah 
on Ham's posterity through Janaan (Gen 
ix '>o-^7) We know not how far this took 
effe'ct on Canaan personally : it had its ful- 
filment in his descendants only l^ecau.e it 
was deferred and drawn down upon them 
by their sins (See Bush, Notes on Genesis, 
pp 107, 108 ; and, for a discussion on its 
accomplishment, Kalisch Comm. on Otd 
Te^t Gen.,' pp. 225-230). Canaan was the 
pro-enitor of the nations ^jho peopled 
Palestine, west of the Jordan (Gen. x. 6, lo- 
18: 1 Chron. i. 13-161. 

CVXAAN, LAND OF. The territory so 
called extended fi-ora the boundary of Syria 
in the north to Gaza in the south, and from 
the Jordan eastward to the Mediterranean 
on the west (Gen. x. 19). It has been ques- 
tioned whether it included Phoenicia and 
the Philistine plain aloiig the southern 
coast But the Phoenicians appear to hare 
u^ed 'the name on their coins, and their 
descendants the Carthaginians to have re- 
?ained it (August. Op., Fpist Rom. Exp 
Inch. 13, tom. iii. pars n. col. 932, edit. 
Bened.) And so in scripture the Phcenician 
territory is called Canaan (Isai xxui. 11 , 
where in our translation 'merchant-city : 
Smp: Henderson, Isaiah, p. 209). The Philis- 
tine country also-at a late period, it i. 
triie-is termed Canaan (Zeph. ii. o). 

The word implies low Zand; and the 
re-ion was probably so denominated to 
distinguish it from the high table land on 
Fhe east of the Jordan. And, though a 
-reat deal of it is really eleyated, yet it, 
ueyer eiyes, so trayellers assure us, the 
idea of ^elevation. For the eye looks_ con- 
tinually oyer the wide maritime plain on 
the one side, and down into the Jordan 
yalley on the other ; and, besides, there is 
almost always in yiew the high mountain 
line of the country beyond the Jordan, m 
comparison of which the hills of Canaan 
are dwarfed : see Mr. Groye, m Dr. Smith _s 
met of the Bible, yoL i. p, 246. The terri- 
tory of the trans- Jordanic tribes, it will 
hence be seen, was no part of Canaan ; and 
it is generally named in opposition to it 
,Xumb. xxxiii. 51, xxxy. 10 ; Dent, xxxii. 
49 ; Josh. xxii. 11 ; Judges xxi. 12). 

By the Greeks, tb^ appellation aina was 
anciently eiver*. to the entire region be- 
tween the Jordan and the Mediterranean 
UD to Sidon, afterwards termed by them 
Phoenicia, a name which by degrees came 
to be confined to the northern coast dis- 
trict or Phosnicia Proper. 

InVeneral parlance, the land of Canaan 
is re-arded as eguiyalent to the land of 
Israef, or Palesti>-e, which see. 

The couduest of Canaan by Israel hab 
sometimes been denounced as unjustifiable 
and cimel Objectors haye chosen to forgat 
?Sat God taught thereby the great mora 
esson that depravity deserves and mu=t 
suffer punishment. As well might every 
other procedure of his providence be cen- 
6ured-the famine, the pestilence, the 



death which prevail in the world. Sin m- 
1 troduced these evils : sin rendered the m- 
' habitants of Canaan liable to punishment; 
and God was not unrighteous in taking 
i vengeance and employing human mstru- 
I nients as his executioners._ To assert this 
would be to strip him of his authority oa er 
the world he made. The question is well 
argued by Dr. Fairbairn, Tijpol. of Script., 
book iii. chap. iv. sect. i. voL ii. pp. 428- 

^^CA'XAAXITE, THE (Matt. x. 4; Mark 

iii 18) The designation of one of the 
apostles. See Zelotes. . ^ ^.^ , , „ 

CVW^X'ITES. The inhabitants of Ca- 
naan.^ In the largest sense they may be 
considered as comprising the various tribes 
enumerated as descended fi'om Canaan, the 
son of Ham (Gen. x. 15-18). But, more pre- 
cisely they were a leading people among 
the early (thoush not the original) inhabit- 
ants of' Palestine. They were the low- 
landers, and are described as dwelling by 
the sea and bv the coast of Jordan' (^umb. 
xiii ''9^ ^ ^vhile later the Canaanites are 
said to be 'on the east and on the west, 
ie alone the sea-coast and in the Jordan 
valley while the Amorites and others were 
' in tii'e mountains' (Josh. xi. 3), occupying 
the central highlands. And, after the I&- 
raelites had possessed themselves of a large 
part of the country, the Canaanites yet lin- 
gered in their ancient seats, ' in the land of 
the valley' (xvii. 16), and in the plains 
of the north (Judges iv. 2). Still, tnough 
the Canaanites had their special location, 
yet, as being a leading tribe among the in- 
habitants of the land, -their name was 
sometimes generally used as including 
other tribes. Thus Hebron, called Amorite 
or Hittite when Abraham dwelt there ^Gen. 
xiii. 18, xiv. 13, xxiii. 2, 3, 5, 7), is aiterwards 
said to be Canaanite (Judges 1. 10). Th », 
however, mav be partly owing to the 
chanse of settlements by conquest or enii- 
' gration. The Canaanites were a T^arbke 
people ; and the Israelites found it diffi- 
cult to expel them (i. 27-33). Their iron 
chariots are specially mentioned a/- 2, 3). 
They had also strong and well-built cities 
fXumb. xiii. 28; Dent. vl..lO). Probably 
also thev were a commercial people ; for 
their name came to be synonjmious with 
merchant (Job xli. 6 ; Prov. xxxi. 24) ; tlie 
original word in both these cases being 
'Canaanite:' see Wmer, ^^^^^-^^^^--^J^' 
'Cananiter.' The language they spoke, 
though they were Haraites, was Hebrew , 
for the patriarchs and their descendants re- 
quired no interpreter in Canaan as they did 
in E^pt (Gen. xiii. 23). Posslbl^ tne Ca- 
naanites adopted the dialect of earlier set- 
tlers in the land. . Thia 
CAN'DA'CE {sovereign of slaves V . inia 
aro^ellation was rather the title of Ethiopian 
queens than the name of an individual 
TActs yiil ''7), like Pharaoh, as given to the 
kin-s of E'-ypt. A man of authority under 
one'of these queens, called an ' eunuch ' or 
'chamberlain," who had the charge of all 
her treasure,' just as the ' chamberlain of 
London is the city treasurer, was met on 
the road between Jerusalem and Gaza by 
Philip the evangelist, who expounded to 



i 



i 




L 



T 

i 



.1 

! 

i: 

i 



I 



I 



133 



[canon 



him the scripture he was reading. He he- 
lleved in Christ, was haptized, and went on 
his way rejoicing. He is said— and it is 
most probably the truth— to have propa- 
gated the gospel in his own country (Euseb. 
Hist Eccles., lib. ii. cap. 1). There are also 
other traditionary accounts of him. 

CAJ^DLE. The word occurs often m 
our version (Job xviii. 6 ; Fsal. xviii. 28 ; 
and elsewhere), where rather a lamp is 
meant. So also in the New Testament. But 
candles made of wax or tallow, with the 
pith of a kind of rush for a wick, are said 
to have been generally used by the Romans 
before they were acquainted with oil-lamps. 
In later times these candles were found 
only among the poor; the houses of the 
wealthy being lighted by lamps. See 
Smith's Diet, of Greek and Bom. Antiq., under 
the word. 

CANDLESTICK. The candelabrum, or 
lamp-stand, which Moses was commanded 
to construct, according to the pattern 
shown him, for the service of the sanc- 
tuary. There are two very particular de- 
scriptions of it (Bxod. XXV. 31-40, xxxvii. 
17-24). It was made of pure gold, and with 
the utensils belonging to it required a 
talent (5,475Z.) for its construction. It was 




Golden Candlestick. From phot<:i|»i"aph. 



of beaten work, wrought and not cast, and 

consisted of a base, of a straight shaft 
rising from this base, of six arras or 
branches, which were placed three on each 
side of the shaft, and of seven lamps sup- 
ported on the summits of the central shaft 
and the six arms, these summits being all 
of equal height, and disposed in a single 
row. In each branch were three kinds of 
ornaments, called by names signifying 
howls or cups, globes, and flowers, so ar- 



ranged that first came a golden cup, above 
which was a globe or knop, and above that 
a flower. The shaft was similarly orna- 
mented ; besides which, under each pair of 
branches, was a globe or knop. The height 
of the candlestick is said to have been 
about five feet, and the distance between 
the two exterior lamps 3'^ feet. It stood on 
the south side of the holy place opposite to 
the- table of shew-bread (xxvi. 35, xl. 24). 
Pure olive-oil was burnt in the lamps 
(xxvii. 20) ; but it is a question whether the 
lights were ever extinguished. The proba- 
bility is that they were, and that the burn- 
ing ' always' meant always at the apponited 
times, being lighted in the evening, and 
when they went out in the morning dressed 
with golden snuffers or tongs, the snuff 
being taken away in golden dishes (xxvii. 
21, XXX. 7, 8 ; Lev. xxiv. 3, 4 ; 1 Sam. iii. 3 ; 
2 Chron. xiii. 11). In Solomon's temple 
were ten candlesticks, five put on the right, 
five on the left of the holy place (1 Kings 
vii. 49 ; 2 Chron. iv. 7). These seem to have 
been in addition to the ancient candlestick 
made by Moses : they were all taken away 
to Babylon (Jer. lii. 19). In the second 
temple there was but one (1 Mace. i. 21, iv. 
49, 50), and but one was carried away and 
exhibited in the triumphal procession of 
Titus. It is figured, though perhaps not 
with perfect accuracy, on the existing arch 
of Titus. It is said to have been taken to 
Carthage by Genseric, 455 A.D., to have been 
recovered by Belisarius, and ultimately 
placed in the Christian church of Jeru- 
salem 533 A.D. Its subsequent fate is un- 
known. 

Symbolically a candlestick signifies a 
church (Rev. 1. 12, 20 : comp. Zech. iv. 2 ; 
Rev. xi. 4). 

CAN'DY (Acts xxvii. 7, marg.). See 

CANE (Isai. xliii. 24; Jer. vi. 20). See 

Calamus. 

CANKER-WORM (Joel i. 4, ii. 25 ; Nah. 
iii, 15, 16). The same original word is ren- 
dered ' caterpillar ' in Psal. cv. 34 ; Jer. li. 
14, 27. It may perhaps designate the locust 
just when it has quitted its caterpillar, 
and is in its pupa state. See Locust. 

CAN'NBH (a plant or shooti). A place 
mentioned only in Ezek. xxvii. 23. Pos- 
sibly Calneh is intended. 

CANON OF SCRIPTURE. By this 
phrase is to be understood that collection 
of holy writings which contains the autho- 
ritative rule of the faith and practice of 
the church. Into the origin of the word 
' canon ' (a rod or testing-rule) used in Gal. 
vi. 16, and its particular applications, it is 
not necessary to enquire here. It easily 
came to be metaphorically used; but it 
does not occur in the exact theological 
sense which is now given to it till the fifth 
century after Christ, when it is found at 
the end of Amphilochius's catalogue of the 
sacred books. Adjectives signifying ' ca- 
nonical ' and ' uncanonical,' i.e. coming up 
to, or not up to, the rule, were in use before 
the substantive. 

The settlement of the canon of scripture 
is obviously a matter of great importance. 
If God has been pleased to uuike a revela« 



canonJ 



134 



tion of Ws to men, we mnst know 
where that revelation of his vriU is to he 
found And to have a clear and exact 
knowledge of it we must he ahle to disnn- 
euish those hooks which teach it hy divme 
authority from other sources of instructioD 
The full consideration of the suh]ect woul^d 
comprise very many particular details. We 
possess a hook which is ordinarily taken to 
contain a message from God : we should 
have to examine its general contents, and 
the arraneement and distrihution of its 
various parts. For such an account, see 
Bible Then, as these parts hear the 
names of, or are ascrihed to, trustworthy 
authors, we must enquire whether such 
assumptions are well-grounded For prooxs 
of the authority and credihility of the 
sacred hooks, see Scripture; and for a 
=;pecial examination of each see them under 
their respective titles. We should want to 
know, besides, whether the writers com- 
municated merely their own impressions, 
or whether they were divinely guided m 
what thev said. For this the reader must 
he referred to Isspiratiox. But then, 
presuming these points settled, we must 
al^o know whether our hible contains more 
or less than the hody of writings intended 
a'' the church's standard. Books in our 
hihle are said to have been placed there in 
error. For other hooks the same rank is 
claimed as for those we deem canonical. 
It is necessarv, therefore, to investigate 
the reasons we have for believing that we 
admit none that has no right to he ad- 
mitted, and that we exclude none that has. 
Thi^ then, must he the special subject of 
the present article, to exhibit m a com- 
pendious way the proof there is that the 
books of our ordinai-y bible, and they only, 
are canonical. • * 1 

The subject naturally divides itself into 
two branches ; and these shall be examined ; 
separately. We must see what grounds i 
there are for accepting the canon— 1. Of the 
Old Testament.-2. Of the New. 

On tlie Old Testament Canon— A list of the , 
books contained in it is given in the sixth 
article of the Anglican church. They are 
the books which we find in our ordinary 
bibles • the verv books that the Jews have 
alwavs exclusively recognized as sacred. 
It i5 a patent fact that their most learned 
writers aaree in this ; and the exceptions 
which have been found or fancied to their 
te=timonv appear when examined of but 
little consequence (see Keil, Etnleit % 217, 
on 687-689). The Palestinian Jews held fast 
the settled book, nor did they ever allow 
even works of acknowledged merit pro- 
duced from time to time among them after- 
wards to be added to the sacred canon. 
This is matter of unquestionable history. 
\nd thoueh it might be thought that the 
\lex'andriSn Jews, apart in some respects 
from their brethren in Judea, were not at 
one with them in their limitation of the 
scripture canon, since certam other pieces 
were appended to the Septuagint or Alex- 
andrian Greek translation, yet it will he 
?oimd that, if with less definite apprecia- 
tion, certainly in substantial agreement the 
same rule was held. Thus the granason of 



the author of Ecclesiasticus.inhis prologue 
to that book, implies the identity; aud 
Philo, the eminent Alexandrian, evidently 
acquainted with apocryphal works, from 
which he has occasionaUy borrowed ideas, 
nowhere cites them, as he does almost 
everv book of canonical scripture (see the 
evidence drawn out in Havernick, Einleit. 
edit. Keil, § 13, vol. i. 1. PP. 80-S3). 

It is very evident, from the expressions 
we continually meet in the Isew Testament, 
that a certain body of writings was at tliat 
time considered to be ' scripture._ The 
various terms employed— ' the scripture, 
' the scriptures,' ' the holy scriptures,' the 
holv writings' (2 Tim. iii. 15, Gr.), &c.— pre- 
suppose this. And sometimes various parts 
of a whole are spoken of—' the law and the 
prophets,' ' the law of Moses, the prophets, 
and the psalms'— showing the distribution 
of the several writings Into well-kno^-n 
classes (comu. Matt. v. 17, xv. 3-9 ; Mark xii. 
'>4 ; Luke xxiv. 27, 44, 45 ; John v. 39, x. 34, 
35 • Rom. iii. 2 ; 2 Tim. iii. 16 ; 1 Pet. i. 10-12 ; 
2 Pet i 19-21). There is also contemporarj- 
secular evidence as to the several books 
which made up the collection of the scrip- 
tures. Josephus lived at the tune of the 
apostles, and declares that the Jews ' had 
onlv twentv-two books of scripture, which 
might justly challenge credit and belief 
among them ; whereof five were the books 
of Moses, containing little less than 3,000 
years ; and thirteen the books of the pro- 
phet's wherein thev wrote the acts of their 
time*' from the death of Moses to the reign 
of Artaxerxes, king of Persia; and four 
more, containing both hymns to God, and 
i admonitions to men for the amendment of 
their lives; but, from the time of Artaxerxes, 
1 that, though certain books had been writ-- 
I ten vet thev deserved not the same credit 
' and belief which the former had, because 
there was no certain succession of prophets 
amonffthem : in the meanwhile, what behef 
thev had of the true scriptures which they 
onlv acknowledged, and how faithful they 
were towards them, was from hence most 
manifest, that, though they were written 
so long time before, yet durst never any 
man presume either to add or dimmish, or 
alter ousht at all in them, it being a maxim 
engrafted into every one of that nation from 
their vouth, and in a manner born with 
them, 'to hold these writings for the oracles 
of God, and remaining constant to them, if 
need were, willingly to die for them (Contr. 
Apion. lib. i. § 8). The translation above 
given is that of Bishop Cosm, ScnoL Hist, 
of Canon, chap. ii. 24. The twenty-two 
books of which Josephus speaks are thus 
made up : — 

Books of Moses; 

Genesis 
Exodus 
Leviticus 
2vumbers 

Deuteronomy ° 



The Prophets : 

Joshua 

Judges, with Ruth 

1 and 2 Samuel i reckoned as one DOOX.) 

1 and 2 Kings (on« book) 



135 



[canon 



Jemniah, with Lamentations 
Ezekiel , , . 

The twelve minor prophets (,one oook) 

Daniel 

Ezra and ISTehemiah (one book) 
Esther 

1 and 2 Chronicles (one hook) 

Hymns and Admonitions : 
The Psalter 
Proverhs 
Ecclesiastes 
Song of Solomon 



22 



There is therefore, it may fairly be said, 
the strongest proof which the nature of the 
case admits, that the Old Testament (as we 
call it) was, at the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era, revered as the rule of faith con- 
taining the communications of God to man, 
and, further, that it was composed of the 
same books or parts which compose it 
now. 

We can trace it higher. It is clear, from 
books of the Apocrypha written before our 
Lord's advent, that there was at an earlier 
date a collection recognized as the sacred 
code of the Jewish church. Some proof of 
this has been already given in the reference 
made to the prologue to Ecclesiasticus. 
But the following passages may also be 
consulted : Ecclus. xxiv. 23 ; Bar. iv, 1 ; 1 
Mace. i. 5G, 57, ii. 50-68, xii. 9 ; 2 Mace. vi. 23. 
The holy books of scripture are expressly 
named as in the hands of the people in tne 
time of Jonathan Maccabeus ; and for these 
books the Jews contended as earnestly then 
as at any period of their history. Many 
other passages there are more or less di- 
rectly referring to the contents of those 
books, and leading us to the conclusion that 
those which were ' the scriptures' of those 
times are identical with 'the scriptures' of 
a later date. 

The Septuagint or Alexandrian Greek 
version of the scriptures is another testi- 
mony. This version, comprising all the 
I lOoks of the Jewish canon, was in existence 
and credit before the Christian era. It 
is true that the complete translation was 
not made at once ; that the Pentateuch was 
first rendered into Greek, about 286 or 285 
years B.C., and that the versions of other 
books succeeded at intervals, perhaps for a 
century ; also tliat there are certain ad- 
ditions of things not in the Hebrew text, 
tending afterwards to complicate the ques- 
tion ; yet, as before observed, we have no 
reason to believe that originally the Alex- 
andrian canon differed from that of Pales- 
tine. And the great fact is proved that 
some centuries before Christianity arose 
there was a body of sacred writings held to 
be the authoritative standard of the Jewish 
faith. 

The Old Testament gives evidence that its 
contents were preserved with care. We are 
told that the book of the law was delivered 
to the Levites to be placed beside the ark 
of the covenant (Deut. xxxi. 9, 25, 26). The 
diligent writing by Joshua of other ' words' 



is noted (Josh. xxiv. 26). And collections 
seem from time to time to have been made, 
as of proverbs (Prov. xxv. 1), of Jeremiah's 
writings (Jer. xxxvl. 2-4, 32 : see also xv. 16). 
Then, again, ' the book of the Lord' is spo- 
ken of (Isai. xxxiv. 16 : com p. xxx. 8). So 
Daniel had 'the books' (Dan. ix. 2; the 
article being in the original) ; and after the 
return from Babylon 'the law' and 'the 
former prophets' are referred to as if they 
wereaknoAvn collection eZech. vii. 12 : comp. 
i. 4). Very remarkable, too, are the expres- 
sions in the Psalms. David could hardly 
have penned that commendation of 'the 
law of the Lord' (Psal. xix. 7-11), had that 
law not Ijeen in a written form ; and later 
psalm-writers have spoken of loving the 
law, and the testimonies, and the word of 
God, taking them as a guide, meditating 
upon them day and night (cxix. 97, 99, 105, 
149 : comp. cxxxviii. 2, cxlvii. 19). Surely 
there must have been at the time some 
well-understood body of divine writings to 
justify language like this. 

It was not to be expected that the sacred 
books themselves could give a definite ac- 
count of the settlement of the canon. In- 
dications such as have been exliibited are 
all that could be looked for in them. But 
other testimony points to the times of Ezra 
and Kehemiah, the life-time of the last 
prophets of the Jewish church, as the pe- 
riod when the holy wiitings were definitely 
gathered and recognized as the completed 
standard of God's teaching. Traditions of 
this kind are mentioned in two of the 
apocryphal books (2 Esdr. xiv. ; 2 Mace. ii. 
13). These testimonies certainly are not 
intrinsically of much value ; but they show 
the prevailing impression of men of those 
davs that Ezra and Nehemiah revised, and, 
so 'to speak, edited the holy book. There is 
an extraordinary statement of this kind 
(though of later date) in the Talmud. It is 
to the following effect. The CLuestion is 
first put, Who wrote these books ? And to 
this the answer is given : ' Moses wrote the 
Pentateuch and Job ; Joshua his book and 
eight verses in Deuteronomy; Samuel the 
books of Samuel, Judges, and Huth ; David 
the book of Psalms by ten men ; Jeremiah 
his book. Lamentations, and the books of 
Kings; Hezekiah and his college Isaiah, 
Proverbs, Solomon's Song, and Ecclesiastes; 
the men of the great synagogue Ezekiel, the 
twelve minor prophets, Daniel, and Esther ; 
Ezra his book, and the genealogies of 
Clironicles; and Nehemiah completed the 
Chronicles ' {Baba Bathra, f ol. 13.2, in Hiiver- 
nick's Einleit. § 9. vol. i. 1. pp. 40, 41). It is 
questioned what is the precise meaning of 
'wrote' in this place. It cannot well be 
interpreted in the sense of original compo- 
sition ; for no one imagines that Hezekiah, 
with those he employed, composed the pro- 
phecies of Isaiah. It must rather be un- 
derstood (comp. Prov. xxv. 1) to imply 
transcription or collection, the preparing 
and placing the several books in the con- 
dition in which they were to go authorita- 
tivelv forth. 

If the testimonies produced r.re thought 
faint and uncertain, it must l;e remembered 
that the books of the Old Testament are oi 



danon] 



136 



extreme antiauitv, that no contempora- 1 the scripture and tlie ApociTrlia,_ so far as 
neous Hebrew literature exists, nay, that we can make them, confirm this judgment, 
these verv books constitute the entire re- 1 Details of this kind, however, cannot he 
mains o± the Hebrew language. Such proof j given in this place. . ^ ^ 

as mi^ht be properly demanded under j But it is necessaiy to enquire how far the 
other circumstances, in another age, cannot ! Christian church has accepted the Jewish 
for the reasons assigned be produced here. ! canon. Something has been already said on 
And yet. with everv disadvantage, most re- the sanction given to it by our Lord. Still 



markable is the chain of evidence— indica- 
tions in the writings themselves, that when 
produced they were committed to the care 
of a specially-commissioned body of men, 
presumptions in the later parts that those 
previouslv written were recognized and re- 
garded Avith reverence, all of them claiming 
to be not posterior to the latest prophets, 
the collection acknowledged and described 
in works written anterior to Christ, the 



it is urged that the apostles occasionally 
cited those books which are called apocry- 
phal, giving proof thereby that the canon 
had In their view a wider range. But the 
argument tells the other way. Mere citation 
of "an author does not prove that that author 
was regarded as canonical. If there are 
references in the apostolical writings to 
the Apocrypha, it shows indeed that those 
writings were known to the sacred penmen, 



various books in it distinctly named just as ; but, as they are never cited as scripture, in 
they are in our lists, by an author contempo- 1 the mode and with the f ormuloB used lu 
rary with the apostles, with the addition f citing scripture, it shows too that the Xew 
that no part was composed after the cessa- \ Testament penmen knowingly and delibe- 
tion of prophecv, the practice of our Lord ' rately made a distinction between these 
and of his disciples of citing the collection j writings and those they considered ca- 
as well known, noting sometimes its three i nonical. ^ . . 

great constituent parts, the singular uuani- It is gi*anted that some of the airistian 
mitv in res-ard to this canon of the two i fathers cited as scripture books not belong 
in some re'spects rival branches of the ing to the canon. They generally used the 
Jewish cburch, and lastly the venerable ; Septuagint version of scripture, to which 
tradition which assigns to the times of I other compositions, as stated above, had 
Ezra and Xeheraiah the completion of the i been annexed. Justin Martyr is an excep- 
book of God, neither needing nor accepting ' tion. He was conversant with Palestine 
any further addition; surelv there is here a i And nowhere in his works does he use any 
ma«s of proof not easilv to be set aside. It of the apocryphal writings (Cosin, Schol. 
is to this conclusion substantially that Mst of Can., chap. iv. 48). There are early 
Zundel in his elaborate enquiry into the i Christian catalogues extant of the books 
time when the book of Daniel was composed, I of the Old Testament. And these exactly, 
comes He places no srreat reliance on the | or with an exception not difficult to be ac- 
tradition: he carefullv sifts all the evidence ' counted for, coincide with the Jewish ca- 
that can be produced, but expresses himself i non. Jerome, the most important witness, 
convinced that the canon was closed, that ; agrees exactly. Mehto of Sardis, in the 
the various books as we have them were , second century, took special pains to obtain 
gathered and recognized by the end of the an accurate list (Euseb. Hist Eccles., lib.iv. 
fourth century before Christ {Krit. Uiiter- cap. 26) ; and his list is identical with that 



such, ilher die Ahfass. Daniel, pp. 226-: 
comp.Westcott, Introd. to Gospels, note, pp. 



of the Jews, save that he does not sepa- 
rately mention Esther, which, however, 



51 52 It is not meant that any man or set i was probably as weR as Nehemiah included 
of'men (the ' great synagogue ' they have ; under Ezra (See Bp. Marsh's Comp. View oj 
been called) admitted'to or^excluded from i Clmr dies of England and Borne, chap. v. pp. 
the canon at their will, judsriug what was ! 106, 107, 2nd edit.). Origen makes an addi- 
or what was not inspired, but that they laid j tion : he enumerates Jeremiah with the 
apart tho^e which had always been known i Lamentations and tlw Epistle (Euseb. Hist 
to be so authenticated from the very time ! Eccles., lib. vi. cap. 25). This epistle has 
of composition as parts of the message and , been taken to be that appended to the apo- 
the memorial of God to his people. The cryphal book of Baruch. It may be with a1 
work of such men was declaratoiw, that the i least equal probabiUty regarded as that 
canon mieht be guarded against gromidless genuine letter found in Jer.xxix. These 
claims ft was acknowledged as an ascer- 1 are the only discrepancies fi-om the Hebrew 
t?ined"fact among the Jews that the last I canon which early catalogues present. Mr. 
"Strains of prophecv died out with Malachi : I Westcott, therefore, well says (Smith's 
no inspired man arose after his days ; and Diet of the Bible, voL i. p. 255) : 'During the 
therefore no book could be added to those first four centuries, this Hebrew canon is 



alrea'dv venerated. The precise time when 
the final gathering and recognition oc- 



the only one which is distinctly recognized, 
and it is supported by the combined au- 



curred"iuoTlier words, when the canon was i thority of those fathers whose critica] 
closed'mav be uncertain— some may deem jjudgment is entitled to the greatest weight, 
it earlier and some later : but the conclusion In the meantime, however ... the common 
seems irresistible that from about the times usage of the early fathers was influenced 
of the later prophets, not long after the re- - by the position which the apocryi^al books 
turn from captivitv, the Jews have had a col- ' occupied in the cuiTent versions ; and they 
ipoted bodv of holy books which they retain ' quoted them frequently as scripture, when 
without addition or diminution to the they were not led to refer to the judgment 
nresent dav. Investigations into the date of antiquity.' _ 
and^uthority of each separate book of both It was not till the time of AugustniP 



137 



that any real divergence manifested itself. 
The Septuagint was the parent of the Latin 
version ; and thus uncanonical hooks were 
found in the Latin bibles. It was with the 
Latin version that Augustine was conver- 
sant ; and hence his catalogue includes 
apocryphal books. Still, though not always 
consistent with himself, it would seem 
that he intended to make a distinction 
(See Cosin, uM supr. chap. vii. 79-81) : and, 
while Augustine's influence had great 
weight in leading the mind of the western 
church, there were always, down to the 
very spring of the reformation, many of 
the most learned divines who adhered to 
the Integrity of the Jewish canon. Lists 
of such men may be found in Bleek's Ein- 
leit, vol. i. p. 697, and elsewhere. 

It was reserved for the council of Trent 
to decree that the Hebrew canon must be 
enlarged, and that other books must be ac- 
cepted as equal in authority with the in- 
spired writings (JDecret. de Canon. Script., 
Sess. iv. Apr. 8, 1546). Here, then, there is 
a fundamental difference as to the basis of 
faith between the Roman-catholics and 
ourselves. 

On the New Testament Canon. The writ- 
ings of the New Testament are circum- 
scribed by a narrow period of time. They 
were not, like the sacred books of the He- 
brews, spread over many ages : they were 
composed by men who were contempora- ! 
ries, who were more or less known to each 
other; some of whom were close and inti- 
mate friends and colleagues. And yet they 
were not the result of counsel and agree- 
ment. At first the body of Christian doc- 
trine was to be found in the oral teaching 
of the apostles, and of those instructed by 
them, received and further propagated by 
the various communities of the faithful 
whom they taught. But circumstances 
showed by-and-bye the expediency and ne- 
cessity of committing certain truths to 
writing ; and exigencies arose requiring 
communications from the apostles by let- 
ters to the churches to which they could 
not personally speak. These churches were 
in difiierent parts of the Roman world. 
And, as a history written specially for one 
class would not immediately pass into the 
hands of others, and an epistle directed to 
a church in the east would not from the 
nature of the case be at once known to a 
church in the west, so, though composed 
almost contemporaneously, it could only be 
by a gradual process that the books of the 
New Testament would be brought together, 
and acknov/ledged to be not an incon- 
gruous collection of writings of the age, 
but, as Mr. Westcott well calls them, ' the 
sum of the treasures of apostolic teaching 
stored up in various places. The same cir- 
cumstances,' he proceeds, 'at first retarded 
the formation, and then confirmed the 
claims of the catholic church and of the 
canon of scripture ' {Hist, of the Canon of the 
N. T., Introd., p. 6). 

There are some indications in different 
parts of the New Testament that the wri- 
ters were aware of the position their pro- 
ductions were to occupy. They speak with 
authority (1 Cor. vii. 7, xiv. 37 ; 2 Thess. 



iii. 6; 1 Tim. iv. 1) ; they require their writ- 
ings to be publicly read (Col. iv. 16 ; l 
Thess. V. 27) ; they deliver truth only to be 
divinely known for the instruction of the 
faithful, pronouncing a blessing on those 
who shall read and obey, and a curse on 
those v/ho shaU add to or subtract from 
what they have said (Rev. i. 1, 3, xxii. 18, 
19) ; they refer to the writings of their fel- 
lows under the significant name of scrip- 
ture (2 Tim. V. 17; 2 Pet. iii. 15, 16; to 
which Gaussen would add Rom. xvi. 26 
(Canon of the Holy Script., part i. book 
ii. chap. 11, pp. 279, 280, Engl. TransL). No 
great stress, perhaps, is to be laid on these 
passages ; and exception may be taken to 
some of them ; nevertheless they are valu- 
able for showing (as similarly with the Old 
Testament) the first foreshadowings of the 
establishment of a New Testament canon. 

It is freely acknowledged that no parti- 
cular time can be specified when the books 
of the New Testament were collected and 
formally recognized. We have, rather, 
to feel our way along the course of Chris- 
tian history and literature. But, as Mr. 
Westcott says, ' if it can be shown that the 
epistles were first recognized exactly in 
those districts in which they would natu- 
rally be first known, that from the ear- 
liest mention of them they are assumed 
to be received by churches, and not re- 
! commended only by private authority, 
that the canon as we receive it now was 
fixed in a period of strife and controversy, 
that it was generally received on all sides, 
that even those who separated from the 
church, and cast aside the authority of the 
New Testament scriptures, did not deny 
their authenticity ; if it can be shown that 
the first references are perfectly accordant 
with the express decision of a later period, 
and that there is no trace of the general re- 
ception of any other books ; if it can be 
shown that the earliest forms of Christian 
doctrine and phraseology exactly corre- 
spond with the different elements preserved 
in the canonical epistles, it wiU surely fol- 
low that a belief so widely spread through- 
out the Christian body, so deeply rooted in 
the inmost consciousness of the Christian 
church, so perfectly accordant with all the 
facts which we do know, can onlj' be ex- 
plained by admitting that the books of tlie 
New Testament are genuine and apostolic, 
a written rule of Christian faith and life' 
(j.ibi supr. pp. 17, 18). Anything like a full 
investigation or proof of all these parti- 
culars would, it is manifest, require a vo- 
lume. Here there can be given only a brief 
outline, with a few of the more prominent 
illustrations. 

We possess writings of Clement, Ignatius, 
Polycarp, and others, men who had some of 
them conversed with the first disciples, and 
who flourished in the Christian church but 
a little later than the apostles. These wri- 
ters make frequent references to portions 
of the New Testament, and quotations from 
it. And, if they do not at once cite tbc New 
Testament exactly as they do the Old, the 
reason is to be found in the ronsidcraiions 
already suggested. But indisputably they 
recognize a distinction between ilRMUi-elvcs 



canticles] - — ^ ^ . 

as of far Wgber autliority. . ,-„^c tup stream of eyidence cannot here be 

Thxts Clement, writing to th^^ tiS.^ It must suffice to sa^^^ tbat 

alludes to James iv. l; Epb. iv. 4 , itom. iui l^eginning of the fourth 

Sl5, quotes Matt, xviii. 6, ™- f 'J^f^f^ , as ° acknowledged hy aU 

reminds those he addresses how St Paul , ^^^^^'i'^/gQ^peis, the Acts, the Pauline 
'divinely inspired ' had sent them an ep stle ; the four ^o^Pe it would seem 

(Epist. ad Cor. 46, 47). ^g^^^'^l^^^/^t^^^.^f^*^ Sfe Revel at?on He then enumerates as 
iii 15 (Epist. ad Smijrn. 1), Matt. ^- \6 5,o?nied h^^^ James, Jude, 2 Peter, 

Po/,aU. 2), and tells f omans tha^ fand I John f and afterwards names many 
does not lay injunctions o^l,^^ ^m Uke P^^^^^ ,^^-itings, confessedly spurious {mst. Eccles 
f Pef i'st'Eph.^ t U'says ! Uh. iii.'cap,25). ^ The special evidence^^^jr 

Acts 11. ' , • ^^^^ ...^ 1,4 



^i^i^Je^l^ nor ally ^eh^n can attain 
to the wisdom of St. Paul ("^^ ^^J- 1' 
And these are hut specimens of the man j 
d?attois and allusions, to he found m the 

^'^^I^lfeShnonTofT^^^^^^^^ Martyr, horn 
ahoiu the close of the first century (89 a.d.) 
??y«w important. Some of the spurious 
Gospels were probably extant in his time; 
hSf his references are not to them, but to 
?hose of Mark, and Luke certainly 

and it cin hardly be doubted to that of 
John He speaks also of the memonals o 



those books' thus' noted" as doubtful 
must be sought in the articles particularly 
dedicated to^hem. It is sufficient to ob- 
serve here that the very hesitation with 
wh ch some churches received them is a 
nroof of the watchful care taken, lest any 
SitSorized writing should he accepted 

"A^lXof' other catalogues will be found 
collected in Mr. Westcotfs Appendix, pp. 
565-584 ; exhibiting the general consent of 

"^^^ISnS^n therefore is that 



jonu. XX. =v.<..v. -y - read seeing the books of the New Testament 

memoranda of the apostles Jjemg read seem ^^^^^^ scripture 

with the writings of the P^'oP^^et^s m public ^e-^u > e y .^^^^ apostolic fathers : see 
Christian asseniblies f or worshiM^^^ ^oiycarp? act Phaip. 12), and were i:eve- 
67). Heretics were rismg at this t me in t^^^ fenced as possessing an authority which 
church ; but they appealed to the sacie^ belon-ed to no other compositions, that 
books. Of two of these some not ce must oeion ea religious assem- 

be itlen. Basilides (al^^^^ ^^'Iririn 's t\ In b ielTha'tC weVe appealed toby here^^^^^^^ 
he certainly used some other wiitin^s t^^^^^^ that commentaries were ^^^'ittfu on them 
those of our canon, yet treated the gen^^^^^ tna ^ ^^^^ g^gpei, that versions 

scriptures with the utmost reverence, ana , of them, and catalogues 

Ippears to have been the first who dis- 7^^re eaiiy maae^ ^ ^^.^^^ 

thfcU^cited them in the same inann^^^^^^^^ SlS^nc^es^^^^^^^^^^ to account for, 

those of the Old Testament (see Westcx)^^^^^ surely wl are justified in regarding these 
l/HSupr.chap.iy. PP.322,323) He^^^^^^^ S the authentic records, the canonical 
a Gnostic, about the same date y rote Standard of the Christian religion, 

mentaries on the ^^o^Pels, and won d see^^ ' K is.as noted above, a mere outline ox 
to have been the first commentatoi^ this |r eat subject tlmt can by possibility 

New Testament {ibid. pp. ^33, 334) iwo j^g^g. Bat the student will have 

i-nnre important Avitnesses of the secona 'p*^ ^ ^.^ „ p,^^ observations refer- 

Tntury mustbe referred to, one repi^esen^^^ fnefto various'caily°^ works on 

ing the eastern, the other the \v estern ^fj^^ i ^^^e canon which may be consulted 
church The Peshito Syriac version com- tii® scripu^^^^^^ Cosin's Scholas- 

p^ffes allihe books of the New ^ ffi for^^f i/'^^^^^^^^^ 
pxcept2Peter, 2and3 John, Jude, and tne ^ ^ aioTiearing first two centuries ago, 
fevSation: the Muratorian fi;aginent as ^^^ich appe^^^^ superseded ; Gaussen's 
it is called, of Roman origin (about 1-0 a.d.) ^J;^ ^e^ scripture ; Westcotfs ffistori/ 

ncludes a 1 but Hebrews, James, and 2 ^'f.^'^'^^^^^^^ Test, 1855. To these 

Peter :?t notices also the Partial i^^^^^^^^^^ S^a'y beTddef Moses Stuart On tUe Old Tes- 

T^ir""'"^^^^ '^h^^:^^ SeeSo.ao.SoLO.OK. 

?otf fA'ppendix,pp. -8-563 The wo taken g^^^^ICLLS-^^Se .^^^^ consolationn A 
together comprise every boo., b^u 2 Fetei. ^^^.^^^ ^1 ^^^^f^^^! 

Later authorities are, as mi^ht be ex_ g^^^^^ ^^^Naphtall (Matt, i v. 13), by the 
nected, still more explicit. I^enceus to ^euu ^ ^ (jonn vi. 17), not far 

ward the close of the second ce^^^ Jordan into it. 

speaks of the scriptures colleccivelyC^^^^^^ .e^^^s to have lain on the 

New Testament as w^el as the Old as per ] ^JP^jna ^^i^.^^ ^^^^^ Damascus to 
feet, being delivered by the ^rd °t and it has been sug- 

and his Spirit' (Adv. ^^'^ thV ^nme uSted 

Clement of Alexandria neariy at the same Ff ^tea tn.. , ^^^^ 

UilS describes the ^^f'fZ'^f.^'V'i^^^^ the commodities carried 

the law and the prophets ratified bj t e oei « Capernaum was_ a town 

authorization of Almighty power OS o^^^^^^ of i^iTportance : it had a synagogue m which 
lib. iv. 1). And Tertullian distmctb men "^^™P^^ ^joHn vi. 59) ; and it was for 
t ons the New Testament (AcZ^. P^^^^^^^ Lord's ordinary residence 

"^"^vT^^^ ^ ^^^-^ ^^^^"^"^ ^^^^^^^^^ " ' 



139 



[CAPPADOCLA 



Iv. 30, Kl) ; SD that it was called Lis ' own 
city' (Matt. ix. 1 ; Mark ii. 1, where ' in the 
house' means at home). Here, therefore, 
many of his miracles were wrought (Matt, 
viii. 5-17, ix. 1-8; Mark i. 23-27): here, by 
the lake-side, he called Simon and Andrew, 
James and John (16-21) : here, too, he called 
Matthew (Matt. ix. 9) : here, indeed, so many 
wonders were performed, and so much 
divine teaching was delivered, that Caper- 
naum incurred more guilt by the impeni- 
tence and unbelief it manifested than even 
Sodom ; and fearful was the doom which the 
Lord denounced againsc it (xi. 23, 24). 
That sentence was executed. The once- 
flourishing and favoured Capernaum has 
been so brought down that the site of it 
cannot be perfectly ascertained. 

Travellers, however, have done their best 
to identify the spot ; and it would seem 
that Capernaum must have stood either at 
Kfian Minyeh, or at Tell Hiim. At the for- 
mer place is a mound, showing that build- 
ings once existed there. It is at the north- 
ern extremity of the plain of Gennesaret, 
and hard by a fountain called 'Ain et-Tin, 
' fount of the flg-tree,' which is just upon 
the lake. Dr. Robinson believes Khan 
Minyeh to have been Capernaum mainly be- 
cause Josephus speaks of a fountain there, 
which the doctor identifies with 'Ain et-Tin. 
See his proofs, at length, Bibl. Res., vol. iii. 
pp. 348-358. They are, questionless, weighty ; 
but some travellers pVonounce for Tell 
Hum, and with perhaps a greater show of 
probability. The ruins there are more ex- 
tensive ; and the tradition of both the 
Arabs and the Jews is in favour of that 
place. Dr. Thomson argues strongly for it. 
The very name may seem to be a fragment 
of Capernaum, which, in the language of 
the country Kefr na Mtm, would, when the 
place fell into ruin, change Kefr, ' village,' 
into Tell, a term usually applied to a de- 
serted site : hence it would be natural to 
call it simply Tell Hum. And, while Tell 
Hum is close upon the north end of the 
lake, there are a little way below it springs 
at Tabighah, which maybe supposed to cor- 
respond with the fountain Josephus men- 
tions. ' I v/as delighted,' says Dr. Thomson, 
• to find small creeks or inlets between this 
and Tell Hum, where the ship could ride in 
safety only a few feet from the shore, and 
where the multitudes, seated on both sides, 
and before the boat, could listen without 
distraction or fatigue. As if on purpose to 
furnish seats, the shore on both sides of 
these narrowinlets is piled up with smooth 
boulders of basalt. Somewhere hereabouts, 
also, Andrew and Peter were casting their 
nets into the sea, when our Lord, passing 
by, called them to follow him, and become 
fishers of men. And, in one of these iden- 
tical inlets, James the son of Zebedee, and 
John his brother, were mending their nets, 
when they, being also called, immediately 
left the ship and their father Zebedee, and 
followed Jesus (Matt. iv. 18-22). Here— yes, 
right here— began that organization, which 
has spread over the earth, and revolu- 
tionized the world. Viewed in this relation, 
is there a spot on earth that can rival this in 
interest ? ' {The Land and the Book, p. 356). 



CA'PHAR (a covering, shelter). This word 
is used to signify a village or hamlet. It is 
not found alone as designating any par- 
ticular place, and therefore does not appear 
as a proper name in the authorized version ; 
but it occurs in composition (see the next 
article), being used like the modern Arabic 
Kefr. 

CA'PHAR-SAL'AMA (1 Mace. vii. 31). 

Perhaps a place not far from Jerusalem. 

CAPHEN'ATHA (1 Mace. xii. 37). 

CAP HI' B A (1 Esdr. v. 19). A form of 
Chephirah (Ezra ii. 25). 

CAPHTHO'RIM (1 Chron. 1. 12). See 
Caphtorim. 

CAPH'TOR (chaplet, knop; but probably 
the word is of Egyptian origin). A region 
which appears to have been the original 
seat of the Philistines (Deut. ii. 23 ; Jer. 
xlvii. 4 ; Amos ix. 7). The inhabitants were 
the Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14). Various opinions 
have been advanced as to the locality of 
Caphtor. Dismissing unsatisfactory con- 
jectures, we may most reasonably suppose 
it to have been in Upper Egypt. The simi- 
larity of name seems to point to the Coptite 
nome ; and there still subsists a place called 
Kouft or Keft, the ancient Coptos, a few 
miles north of Thebes. This city was of 
great antiquity: it flourished long, being 
admirably situated for the purposes of 
commerce, and through the Roman period 
maintained its importance. Some- of its 
people may be believed at a very early 
period to have joined the Casluhim in emi- 
grating to the southern part of Palestine: 
they expelled or extirpated the ancient in- 
habitants, and settled down under the name 
of Philistines, strangers or emigrants (see 
Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. G^ew.,pp. 267, 208). 
The evidence of Egyptian monuments 
tends to confirm this view. Miss Corbaux, 
however,would regard the Caphtorim rather 
as a family settled in the Delta, who, by 
their migration into southern Palestine and 
junction with the Philistines, rendered that 
people more powerful to extend their pos- 
sessions northward. The later Philistines, 
therefore, augmented by the new comers, 
differed considerably from those so called 
in the time of Abraham {Journ. of Sacr, Lit. 
Oct. 1851, pp. 161, 162, July 1852, pp. 324-326). 
It may be noted that, though the term 
'isle' is applied to Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4, 
marg.), the word by no means implies 
necessarily an island : it designates gene- 
rally maritime countries, insular or conti- 
nental. 

CAPHTO'RIM. Descendants of Mizraim 
(Gen. X. 14) ; called also Caphthorim (1 
Chron. i. 12), and Caphtorims (Deut. ii. 23). 
See CxVPHTOR. 

CAPPADO'CIA. The most easterly region 
of Asia Minor, bounded by the lesser Ar- 
menia on the east, Phrygiaand Paphlagonia 
on the west, the Euxine on the north, and 
separated on the south by the chain of 
Taurus from Cilicia. The northern part of 
this district was a distinct satrapy under 
the Persian dominion, and became after- 
wards the independent kingdom of Pontus; 
the south part, also constituted a kingdom, 
was then alone called Cappadocia. In New 
Testament times, by Cappadocia was to be 



captain] 



140 



nnderstood a Roman province (so made in 17 
A D ), comprising also the lesser Armenia 
Cappadocia ^vas .vell-^atered, was not 
a particularly fruitful country. The li gli- 
lands ^vere cold, and tlie plams cliiefly pas- 
ture ; but. Having good grazing land it wa. 
celebrated for its breed of boisOs. ine 
Cappadocians are tbougbt to be of Syrian 
origin : tbev had the character of being 
faithless and indolent. Cappadocian Jews 
were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost 
(\cts ii. 9) ; and St. Peter directed his flr.t 
epistle to the Christians there and m the 
neighbouring regions (1 Pet. i. 1). 

cIptaIX The rendering of a Hebrew 
word generally signifying a military officer 
There were various ranks, from the captams 
of fifty to the captain of the host (or com- 
3nandJr-in-chief (1 Sam.xvii.18 ; 2 Sam xix 
13- 2 Kinss i. 9, xi. 15). Captams of the 
guard are also mentioned (Gen. xxxvn.36 ; 2 
Kin-s XXV. 8\ These were great fimction- 
frie? charged, it would seem, with the 
defence of^the royal person, and with the 
execution of sentences pronounced b^ the 
ISgfcomp. 1 Kings ii. 29-34, 46. The officer 
so cliUed in Acts xxviii. 16 was probably the 
commander of the prnstorian troops at 
Rome. There is another Hebrew word 
translated sometimes / captain (Jo^^ • ^• 
24), sometimes 'ruler' (Isai. m.. 6-) which 
denotes both a military and a civil officer. 
The captain of the temple (Luke xxii. 4 , 
Acts iv 1 v. 24) was not a military man, 
but the' chief of the priests and Levites , 
that watched in the temple at ^igbt (com^ 
i Psal cxxxiv.l). The word 'captain applied , 
' fo our Lord (Heb. ii. 10) has not a military ! 

^^C\P?IYE ■ Prisoners taken in war were 
severely treated in ancient times. Some- 
times they were mutilated (Judges i 6, J, 
or blinded (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; 2 Kings xxv. 7 see 
muitration in article Eye). Genera ly a 
conquered peoi^^^ was reduced to servitude 
(S. xxviii. 68), or transplanted into other 
comitries (2 Kings xvii. 6, 24). Cruelties 
were practised also upon women and chi - 
dren (viii. 12, xv. 16 ; Psal. cxxxvii. 9). 
ft fi a remarkable fact that, though the 
Israelites dealt in many instances harshly 
wUh those they captured, yet their conduct 
rtood out in contrast to that of heathen 
nations rso that the humanity of even some 
their'worst kings was reckoned upon by 
their conquered enemies (1 Kings xx. 

^"""rtpTITITT This word is frequently 
used in a wide sense for subjection and 
di?treS, not only by enemies, but through 
d Sate, destitution, or other kind of trouble 
TTob xl i 10 ; Psal.xiv. 7, this psalm being 
S«iSd: aAd with great probability, to 
mvid Judees xviii. 30?). In a more special 
Sfie it implies the being conquered by a 
foreign foe. And such conquests and con- 
seauent servitude the Hebrews frequently 
undl?went-as by the ^loal^i^tes, Midianite , 
Philistines— from almost the Aeiy oe^m 
ni^i- of their possession of Palestine. But 
U ese were partial and temporary calami- 
t es On account of repeated trans- 
gressions and impenitence there weie 
severer judgments in store. Moses had 



predicted them (Ley. xxvi. 31-39 ; Deut iv 
93-03 xxviii. 63-68) ; and to the full were 
these threatenings accomplished. The J ews 
are accustomed to reckon four great cap- 
Jf^ities-the Babylonian, the Median, the 
Grecian, and the Roman ; tliese four empires 
ruling over them in turn. Understanding, 
then, by the term captivity the depor- 
tation of the People ^from their native 
country, we may gather the following 
notices as we find them in the scripture 

i ^^It°ls^verv likely that the Assyrian power 
! was earlY felt in Palestine. Inscriptions 
: which have been deciphered go to show 
that the northern kingdom was tributarj 
to the Assyrian monarch in the time of 
Jehu. But it is not till a later period 
' ^hat we have any record of the Israelites 
heing carried away from their own lana. 
Of com-se the blow fell first upon the ten 
tribes. There were Assyrian invasions, 
first by Pul (2 Kings xv. 19, 20^, in the reigu 
of Alenahern ; and afterwards by Tiglath- 
pileser, in the days of Pekah. Then it was 
that the northern and north-eastern pro- 
vinces were overrun : and their population, 
Galilee and the trans-Jordanic tribes, were 
deported into Assyria (xv. 29; 1 Chron. y 
96^ Later, Shalmaneser twice invaded Is 
rael- the kins Hoshea pacified him the first 
time by submission and the payment ol 
tiibute, but afterwards treacherously re- 
belled : and, in consequence, Samaria wa: 
tesieged and taken, and the inhabitants oi 
1 the kingdom generaUy were removed into 
I liyria (2 Kings xvii. 3-23). It T^■ould seem 
iiluft, hough certainly not all, yet a large 
:n ass of the people were thus deported 
f or vanous tribes were brought from the 
ea.t to colonize the country, and even then 
the population was not large enough to 
keep down the wild beasts,which as a judg- 
ment from God molested them. See Sama- 
A' Vanous kinds of idolatry prevailed 
among the-- mixed peoples ; and, though 
lomelort of reverence was paid to Jehovah, 
fefhis worship was debased and polluted by 
the conjoint worship of false gods. Samaria 
was never again inhabited by the Israelitish 

""""The^southern kingdom of Judah was not 
left unmolested. In Hezekiah's reign Senna- 
chertS se zed all the fortified cities and 
forced the Jewish monarch to pay a large 
! .um as the price of sparing Jerusalem 
I fx^ii 13-16). The scripture does not state 
' thS the Assvrian then carried otE any cap- 
tives it is probable that he did (see Sir H. 
plwlinson, OutZine of Assyrian Histonj, pp. 
! 94^5) But the fatal blow supernaturally 
' biflfcted on Sennacherib's army checked any 
Sr herpurposeoi Judean conquest (2 Kings 
xix 35-37) And then Judah had a respite. 
AlJnasseL^Vas carried to Babylon, and was 
restored, on his repentance, to his throne 
[9 Chron xxxiii. 10-13). But, as the people 
-enerailv, in spite of partial reformations, 
cSuedrebellioiis against God they were 
ultimatelv eiven up. ^^ebuchadnezzar re- 
pea iilvnvaded the kingdom, deporting 
I each time many of the inhabitants In tl^^e 
' third vear of Jehoiakim, Daniel and othei . 
^s-ere sent to Babylon iDan. 1. 1.. Je 



141 



[CAKIA 



hoiachin's short reign was ended hj his 
being carried away with a great numher of 
the people (2 Kings xxiv. 8-16 ; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 9, 10). Ezekiel went then, and the 
ancestor of Mordecai (Ezek. i. 1, 2 ; Esth. 
ii. 5, 6). There were other deportations 
When Jerusalem was burnt, at the end of 
Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings xxv. 8-12; 2 
Chron. xxxvi. 17-20 ; Jer. lii. 15, 16) ; and the 
numbers taken at three different times 
are afterwards given (28-30), showing that 
the process of deportation went on as op- 
portunity served. But the desolation of 
Judah was hardly so en^re as that of Israel. 
The principal persons were removed ; but 
very many of the inferior classes remained, 
and might have lived peaceably under a 
governor of their own nation, Gedaliah, 
had he not been treacherously murdered. 
This caused a fresh migration into Egypt 
(Jer. xl., xli.). Of the condition of Judah 
during the years that followed, till the de- 
cree of Cyrus, we have no account. The 
ten tribes when carried away were strongly 
leavened with idolatry ; and they very pro- 
bably, in exile (according to the prediction 
of Moses before referred to), lapsed almost 
entirely, and mingled with their heathen 
masters. When Judah was afterwards de- 
ported, the few faithful Israelites would 
naturally become incorporated with them. 
Hence, perhaps, the difficulty of identifying 
the descendants of Israel. But something 
more will be hereafter said respecting 
them. 

The Jews seem to have been on the 
whole treated with consideration. Accord- 
ing to their tradition, one of their own 
chiefs held authority over them as ' captain 
of the people,' or prince of the captivity 
(2 Esdr. V. 16). Be this as it may, they had 
their elders (Ezek. xx. 1) : they often rose to 
posts of dignity (Neh. i. 11; Esth. viii. 2; 
Dan. ii. 48, 49) ; and the generality of them 
were quite able to enjoy domestic comforts 
(Jer. xxix. 5, 6). Still they naturally longed 
for their own land, consecrated by so many 
recollections and hopes, and assured by 
divine promise as their lasting inheritance 
(Psal. cxxxvii.), more especially as, though 
they preserved many of their rites, they 
could not sacrifice out of Judea. 

And at length deliverance came. The 
decree of Cyrus allowed the return of those 
that chose. And the chief of Judah and 
Benjamin with the Levites returned (Ezra 
i. 1-6), 42,360, as they are reckoned (ii. 64; 
Neh. vii. 66), besides their servants. The 
families of about 30,000 of these are specified; 
the rest were perhaps Israelites of the ten 
tribes (Ezra vi, 17), Another caravan was 
led by Ezra (viii.) ; and thus the cities 
of Judea were again inhabited hy their own 
people, but the race was not so purely 
Jewish as before, Galilee was also, though 
with greater intermixture of Gentiles, re- 
occupied by the sons of Jacob ; but Sa- 
maria remained in the hands of strangers. 
Many Jews, however, chose to continue in 
Assyria and Babylonia; and colonies of 
them were diffused through various coun- 
tries. They retained their faith, and their 
tie to their own country, which many of 
them visited at the feasts, and were known 



afterwards as 'the dispersed,' or dispersion 
(John vii. 35). The fate of the ten tribes is 
involved in greater uncertainty. A multi- 
tude of guesses have been propounded con^ 
corning them. Some maintain that the Aff- 
ghans are descended from them : some fix 
on the Nestorians ; while others have in- 
geniously argued that they are the North 
American Indians. Wilder conjectures, and 
such there have been, need not be men- 
tioned here. A writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, 
of the Bible (vol. i. p. 277), supposes that some 
returned and mixed with the Jews (Luke 
ii. 36) ; some were left in Samaria ; many re- 
maining in the east were fused with the 
Jews there, and recognized as an integral 
part of the dispersion (Acts xxvi. 7) ; while 
most apostatized and were swallowed by the 
nations around. This is nearly the view 
suggested above. 

A more fatal captivity yet awaited the 
Jews. They rejected Messiah ; and the Ro- 
mans came and took away their place and 
nation. At the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Titus, 70 A.D., multitudes perished, and 
many captives were made ; and at a subse- 
quent overthrow by A-drian, 135 a.d., thou- 
sands were sold or transported, besides 
vast numbers that were slain. Since then 
the Jews have been scattered through all 
lands, as we see them, a standing wonder 
to the world, not so much in the fact itself 
as in the correspondence of that fact to 
predictions known to have been delivered 
centuries before. 

CARABA'SION (1 Esdr. ix. 34). 

CARBUNCLE. One of the gems in the 
high priest's breast-plate (Exod. xxviii, 17, 
xxxix. 10) ; it is also mentioned in Ezek. 
xxviii. 13. It must, from the derivation of 
the Hebrew word, have been a bright flash- 
ing gem. Some have supposed it the eme- 
rald. Carbuncle occurs again as the ren- 
dering of another term in Isai. liv. 12. The 
original words here may mean ' sparkling 
stones;' perhaps the Oriental garnet is 
intended. But Duns imagines that the 
jewel in the priest's breast-plate was garnet 
{Bihl. Nat. Science, vol. ii. p, 56), 

CAR'CAS {severe). One of the seven eu- 
nuchs or chamberlains of Ahasuerus (Esth. 
i, 10), 

CAR'CBAMTS (1 Esdr. i. 25). A form of 

CAR'CHEMISH (fortress of Chemosli). A 
city on the Euphrates, commanding the 
passage of that river ; the possession of 
which was therefore of great moment to 
the neighbouring powers. Pharaoh would 
seem to have occupied it after the battle of 
Megiddo, and Nebuchadnezzar to have pos- 
sessed himself of it about three years af- 
terwards (2 Chron. xxxv. 20, where in some 
copies Charchemish ; Jer. xlvi. 2), It has 
generally been supposed identical with 
Oircesium ; but Rawlinson places it higher 
up the Euphrates, close to Hierapolis, or 
Mabug : comp. Dr. Hincks in Journ. of Sac r. 
Lit, July, 1854, note, pp. 408, 409, 

CARE'AH (bald-head). The father of Jo- 
hanan (2 Kings xxv. 23). Elsewhere the 
name is spelt Kareah. 

CA'RTA. A district in the south-western 
part of Asia Minor, not itself named in 
scripture. Some of the cities, however, 



142 



mentioned in the ^^\:^^f,^'^.flYil^,f 
Caria, as Cnidus, and etTis (Arts xx.^^^^^^ 
xxvli 7). Caria is descril)ed 1^^^/^!^,^ 
^ean Wstory as tlie residence of Jews a 

^IaBmI'NIANS (2 Esdr. xv. 30^. Inlia- 

hitants of an Asiatic region. 

CAB'ME a Esdr. Y. 25). A corruption of 
Harira (Ezra ii. 39). a ri.T^p 

CAR'MEL (garden, or P^^^l'^f^.J^l^l 
of hills, the highest point of ^1 ^h is 1, -8 
EeetahoVe the sea, extending ten or t^^ el^^e 
miles nearly north and south, it com 
niences'SIh a hold ^1-^ l^^" ^^oTe- 
ten miles to the south of Acie, or t'coie 
mais forming the south boundary of the 
My of A^ref and, diTiding the plain of 
sSrSn ffom Esdraelon, presents also ahold 
bufmuch lower height at its south-eastern 
extremity, with an abrupt descent to tne 
hflls of Samaria. The ridge of Carmel is 
for the mis? part composed of limestone, 
£ which are nodules of flint, and it is per- 
forlted with almost-innumerable caves. In 
SmSonof tl- land these hill^j;^^ 
eluded in the territory of ^^^^^^r ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
are told extended to them and still farther 
south to Dor (Josh. xvi. ^\.^^^-;^J- ! 

rarrael stands prominently out m sacrea , 
st™connecte'd with the prophet Elijah 
The Ti=libite was returning at God & com 
mand aJong the road f/^m Zarephath 
ATeciddo when he met Obadiah seeding 
?rals to keep the beasts ahve in the marshy 
Ir'ounds at Sie bottom of Esdraeloi^ Ahab^ 
iliou^h he had gone m another Girectiou, 
wa. evidentlT not far off ; and the prophet 
Tnd the king stood face to face near the 
toot o fcarmll. And then the ^^fi^-^^^'^^ 
Riven that the multitudinous P^^t^ of Ba^l 
lid Ishtaroth should con±ronted ^Mth 
riTP cniitarv servant of the Lora, tnat ettuu 
sSouTd uroB their God, and that he that 
Ins^^red by fire should acknowledged 
before the assembled thousands of Israel 
the alone supreme. Ahab dared BOt refuse 
the demand. The priests were gatlierea , 

thSe is little doubt, be identified. ItT^ears, 
name of eZ-lfufe/zra/caJ., the place oi | 
Iw-ninQ. There is a natural plat.orm of 
I Sed rock, surrounded by a low wall : the 
i Je^behind is just visible : the gi-eat plain 
ffor^t fat the south-eastern extremity of 
Srmel) lies in front, with Jezreel m the 
dfSnce Sd Kishon just at the mountain 
i foot ^OTe is a well of water near; and 
I Ai5 ft bqs b^^en supposed that the 



he is the God ! The Lord, he is the God ! ' 
Bv the prophet's command, the idolatrous 
priesti weri seized, hurried down the track 
Jtill visible to the Kishon by a knoll now 
called ' TdlKussis: 'hill of the priests,' and 
there, according to the law were put to 
death Then Aliab and Elijah most likely 
Returned to the Mlikhrakah,; Ahab to par- 
take of the feast prepared, and spread 
simewbere near at hand which alway. 
formed part of these sacrifices and Elijah 1 
to pray for rain. This is implied by the 
^ords of the prophet to tbe ' GeJ 

me up, eat and drmk," and again Get thee 
down, that the ram stop thee not. From 
this spot Elijah's servant would have but 
a little way to go to command a full view 
of till sea Ad, when the cloud, like a 
man's hand was seen, Ahab ^^as iDidden to 
ascend his chariot, and the Prophet tightly 
girded preceded him as a runner to Jezreel, 
twelve miles distant (1 Kings xviii.). Tbis 
pTa^J has always been deeply venerated. 
Pvthaeoras is said to have visited it : \ e^- 
na'iin offered sacrifice there ; and to this 
div tt is held sacred by Jews and Christians 
S Moslems alike. There can be no rea- 
sonable question of the identity of the 
^not It has been thought-and it is not 
1 gSfi-ely-that it was on Carmel that Elijah 
c?ied do-^ fire upon tl^e two fifties s^^^^ 
bv Ahaziah to apprehend him (2 Kings i.). 
Elisha repeatedly visited it, _sometimc=per- 
hans residing there (ii. 25, iv. 2o-27). Sub- 
' sejuentlv it Sccurs frequently in the illus- 
Sions used by the Hebrewprophrts (Isai^ 
xxxiii. 9, XXXV. 2, xxxvu. 24, and else- 

There is a convent now on Carmel; and 
the mount is still wooded and variegated 
TV ith flowers. Dr. Thomson describes it as 
veS difficult in some parts to force a way 
thSueh the almost^mpenetrable Dungle^ 
Bu?, when the summit is reached the view 
commanded is most impressive. ' In front 
sTs Dr Kitto, 'it extends to the distant 
horizon o^er the dark-blue waters of the 
Sten-anean : behind stretches the great 
i^ain of ETdraelon, and the niountams of 
the Jordan and of Judea: below on the 
ri-ht hand lies the city of Acre, lessened 
fo a me?e speck; while in the far distance 
bevond the eve rests upon the high sum- 
?nTts of Lebanon' {Daily Bible Illust.,y^eek 
xlvi dav 4). Carmel is now generally 

t'&f fn'he hill-country of Judah 
(Josh iv 55). Here Saul, after his expedi- 
g?fag"alnst Amalek, erected a monunien^ 

i^'^ffZ^\f^r fkf •4oTMt was'fJom 
tlT'Xce Sre', that Abigail was 
called the Carmelitess (xxvii. 3). And it 
was most likely in this Carmel that Uzziah 
had his husbandmen and vir.e-dressers 
r2 Chrin. xxvi. 10). There are extensive 
ruins of it, with a conspicuous fort, at 
E^mnul, ten miles south-east of Hebron. 

^af^MELITE, CAR'^IELITESS (1 
^-rii q XXX 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 2, in. 3 1 Chrou. 
m ij^aS 'these places a resident at 
(Darmel 2, is meant ; and perhaps also m 
2 Sam. xxiii. 35 ; 1 Chron. xi. 37. 



143 MMt mxXQtxilt^Qt. 



CAR'Mr (vine-dresser) —1 . A son of Reu- 
Den (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Exod. vi. 14), the head of 
one of the families of the trihe (Numb, 
xxvi. 6).— 2. A descendant of Judah, and 
father of Achan (Josh. vii. 1, 18). The per- 
son mentioned in 1 Chron. iv. l may be the 
same. 

CAR'MITES. A family of Reuben (Numb, 
xxvi. 6), descended from Carmi. 

CAllNA'IM (1 Mace. v. 26, 43, 44). Pro- 
bably Ashteroth-Karnaim. 

CARNAL. Having reference to the flesh, 
or body ; hence worldly property as needful 
for the support of the body (Rom. xv. 27 ; 
1 Cor. ix. 11). So the word is applied to 
the ceremonial law as reaching only to the 
purification of tlie flesh (Heb. ix. 10). It 
also describes tlie natural state of man as 
distinguished from and opposed to the spi- 
ritual mind of the true believer (Rom. 
viii. 7) ; likewise the condition of those in 
wliom the old corruption yet has power 
(1 Cor. iii. 3). It must be observed that a 
substantive is sometimes found in the ori- 
ginal where our translation gives the adjec- 
tive • carnal.' 

CABNFON (2 Mace. xii. 21, 26). The same 
place with Carnaim. 

CARPENTER (Matt.xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. 3). 

See HAJfDICRAFT. 

CAR'PUS (Jruit). A person with whom 
St, Paul left a cloke at Troas (2 Tim. iv. 13). 

CARRIAGE. Various words in the ori- 
ginal are thus rendered in our version. In 
Numb. iv. 24, marg., the clause may be ren- 
dered 'for serving and for bearing.' In 
Judges xviii. 21 the word used implies 
'wealth,' i.e. what they had acquired. In 
1 Sam. xvii. 20, marg., xxvi. 5, 7, the mean- 
ing is ' a waggon-rampart,' that is, a bul- 
wark formed of the vehicles of the army. 
In 1 Sam. xvii. 22 ; Isai. x. 28, ' baggage ' is 
intended. In xlvi. 1 we may translate 
' the things borne by you are loads.' And 
in the New Testament (Acts xxi. 15), where 
there are various readings, the sense is 
(according as one or other is preferred) 
either 'having opened out,' or 'having 
packed or prepared our baggage.' 

CAR'SHENA {spoiler, illustrious, accord- 
ing to some, black). A prince of highest 
rank in the court of Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 14). 

CART. A wheel-carriage drawn by oxen 



[CAET 



(1 Sam. vi. 7-14 ; 2 Sara. vi. 3 ; 1 Chron,, xiii. 
7 ; Isai. xxviii. 28 ; Amos ii. 13) for the con- 
veyance of persons, burdens, or produce. 




Egyptian Carts. ' Description de I'Egypt.' 

It was either covered or open. At present 
wheel-carriages are all-but unknown in 




Assyrian carts. Nineveh marbles, Brit. Mus. 



Syria ; and the only carts used in western 
Asia have two wheels of solid wood, such a? 
maybe seen in Spain ; but ancient carts are 
figured in the Egyptian monuments with 
two or four wheels with spokes. See Wag- 
gon, Threshing. 




Crca^uvy of 



CARTIXG (Exod. xxxi. 5, xxxy. 51 
Ha:;^dicraft. 
CASIPH'IA dsilver I'). A place. 



meiitioued in the holy scriptures, but only 
in the Apocrypha, 
it would CATERPILLAE- (Joel 1. 4, and elsewnere). 



seem, on the route between Babylon and SeeLocrsT 

" """i ^^i^^^^A over the liv.r 
'TivAT^l Mace. 1. 54, iv. 52). Identical (Exod. xxix 13, 22 • Lev iiL 4, 10, 15. -^ 9^ 
with rhisleu See'MoxTHS vii. 4, viii. 16. 2o, ix. 10, 19). bee I^IVEB, 

CASLr'HiSi (foS^^^ people de- But in Hos. xiii. 8 the parts around the 

scSnded f ™IizralS^^^^^ Ham , heart, the pericai;dium In Isai. m. 18, an 

-Gen X 14: iChron. i. 12). They have gen- , article of dress. See Dress. . ., ^ 

erauV been supposed to be the Colchians, 1 CAUSEY (Prov. xv. 19, marg. ; Isai. vn. 3. 
whoiVS^k writers call a colony fi'om , marg.). An ancient form of the word cause- 
Fo^-DC • but there is little to support this . way. * 
co^iecm-e The? were more probably set- 1 CAVE. Palestine is a rocky country : it 
tied souTewhere in Egypt. A difficulty has ; therefore abounds in natura caverns used 
been felt the sacred text seems to repre- sometimes as habitations (Gen. xix 30) 
S the Casluhim as progenitors of tne sometimes as places of refuge from invaders 
PhiLtines, who are believed to tare 1 (Judges vi. 2 ;1 Sam^.^xiv.^ll), or from e^^^^^ 
sprung from Caphtor. Kalisch sui'gests 



the Es-vptian to^vn Chemnis, later called 
Panopoiis, as the seat of the Casluhim, and 
says we may ' suppose that the earliest 
colonizers of'Philistia emigrated from the 
same once-powerful and populous district ; 
but, as thev are in some passages repre- 
sented as settlers from the Caphtorim, they 
mav' have been increased from that source ; 
and Caphtor may for some time have been 
the abode of Casluhim also, vrbo later joined 
their kindred in Philistia, when the latter 
had here acquired territory and power, 
(Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 266, 267). See 
Caphtor. 

CAS'PSOX a Mace. v. 36). 
CAS'PHOB a Mace. v. 26). 
CAS'PIS (2 Mace. xii. 13). 
CASSIA. Two Hebrew words arc trans- 
lated cassia: one, implying to ' split,' is a 
name given to the substance in question, 
because its rolls are split (Exod. xxx. 2-i ; 
Ezek. xxvii. 19) : the other has the sense of 
peeline, because the bark is stripped off 
(Psal. "xlY. 8). Most probably these two 
words refer to the same thing, the rind or 
bark of an aromatic plant not so fine or 
frasrant as cinnamon, but much resembling 
it "Thi> mav be the Cinnamomum cassia, a 
native of India and China: see T)uns,Bibl. 
Nat. Science, vol. li. pp. 63, 64. Cassia was 
one of the ingredients in the holy anointing 
oil: it was used to perfume garments ; and 
it was an article of merchandize at Tyre. 

CASTLE (Acts xxi. 34, 37, xxii. 24, xxm. 
10, 16, 32). A fortress at the north-west 
corner of the temple in Jerusalem. It was 
called by Herod the tower of Antonia, in 
I honour of his patron, Mark Antony. The 
' temple was a kind of citadel tliat guarded 
Jerusalem; and so the tower of Antonia 
was a fortress that commanded the temple. 
See also Fe^'CED Cities. 

CIS'TOP. A>-D POL'LrX. These, m 
heathen mvthology the sons of Jupiter and 
Leda were regarded as the tutelar deities 
of sailors. A^ncient ships had at the prow a 



quakes (Isai. ii. 19, 21) ; also as tombs (John 
xi. 3S). Various words are found in Hebrew 
desiguatins: these caverns, or dens, or holes, 
accord] no: to one or other of the prominent 
ideas implied, as expressing the use, posi- 
tion, mode of construction, &c. From seve- 
ral of these words places or people have 
taken their names. Thus Hauran is cave- 
land ; and Horites are dwellers in caves : see 
Haura^', Horite. Some of these natural 
caverns are very large. David and his nume- 
rous bodvof foUowers were not merely con- 
tained in one of them, but able so to conceal 
themselves in its recesses that Saul, when 
he entered it, could not perceive that any 
one was there (1 Sam. xxi v. 3). Occasionally 
caves were enlarged and fashioned by art, 
to make them more serviceable for different 
uses, as cisterns for water, receptacles 
where goods might be stored, places of 
confinement, <5cc. &c.; for all which purposes 
we find mention made of them (Josh. x. 16- 
18 ; Isai. xxiv. 22 ; Jer. xl. 8, 9 ; Zech. ix. 11). 
Verv manv caves are specially named in 
scripture, as those of AduUam, Machpelah, 
&c. Szc. ; of which notices will be found un- 
der their respective names. Some of these 
can vet be identified. Caverns, however, are 
now shov^Ti as the places where remark- 
able events occurred, such as those of 
Alarv at Nazareth, of the nativity at Betk- 
lehem, &c. Little credit can be attached 
to the traditionary accounts of many of 
these. 

CEDAR. A tree frequently mentioned m 
scriptui-e. It derives its Hebrew name, 
erez, from a word signifying to be compact 
or compressed, expressive therefore of the 
firmness of its roots. We learn that it was 
loftv (Ezek. xxxi. 3-5) with large and spread- 
ing branches (Psal. Ixxx. 10, xcii. 12 ; Ezek. 
xxxi. 6-9), durable, and therefore fit for 
iDeams, boards, pillars, ceilings (1 Kings 
vi 9, 10, vii. 2 ; Jer. xxii. 14), for masts 
(Ezek. xxvii. 5\ for carved images (IsaL 
xliv. 14\ fragrant also for purifications 
(Lev. xiv. 4 ; ^Tumb. xix. 6). Cedars were 



abundant in Palestine a 



their tutelar deity._ These were somet^imes, 



as used by the early Hebrew kings (2 Sam. 



«^^}'woulT."eVn^^^the^^ H 5 1 C^ron. xiv. 1 ; 2 Chron ii. 8), also 

ve-eruie lame" (Acfs xxviii. 11). See i by the Jews of later times , (Ezra m..v)- 
Alford, The Greek T^st., note on Acts xxviii. 



CAT (Baruch vi. 



22\ The cat is not 



and, as we learn from secular histories, ^ 
for many structures in various parts vi the , 
cast. 



145 



[censer 



The genus Cedrus belongs to the natural 
order of plants Coniferce, and comprises 
various species. It has been questioned 
whether a single kind of tree possesses all 
the qualities noted above as belonging to 
the cedar. The Cedrus Lihani and the Ce- 
drus deodara perhaps most nearly answer 
the conditions ; but the latter, plentiful in 
the Himalayan mountains, is not found in 
Syria. The Cedrus Libani, cedar of Lebanon, 
must therefore be taken generally to re- 
present the cedar of scripture. But this 
was not well adapted for masts : possibly 
the Pinus Malepensis, which is said to grow 
in Lebanon, might be the tree from which 
masts were procured. Also the use of ' ce- 
dar' for puriflcation was first enjoined in 
the wilderness, where the cedar of Lebanon 
does not occur. It has been suggested that 
some species of juniper might be intended, 
the Jimiperus sabina, savine, or the Phoeni- 
cian juniper, oosycedi- us, ^vMch is abundant in 
the desert, striking its roots in the crevices 
of the rocks : the wood of it is aromatic, 
and was therefore suitable for purifyings 
(see Smith's Diet, of tJie Bible, vol. i. p. 286). 
It is, further, worth notice that, though 
Solomon asked Hiram generally for ' ce- 
dars,' Hiram understood the request to in- 
clude firs (1 Kings v. 6, 8), and that, while 
the word 'cedar' Is thought sufficient in 
one place to describe the timber wanted, 
we find the more detailed account below 
specifying also 'fir-trees and algum-trees' 
(2 Chron. ii. 3, 8). It is therefore very likely 
that varieties of pine and yew may l)e in- 
cluded under the name. The cedar has 
wide-spreading roots, a tapering trunk, 
and branches thickest and longest nearest 
the ground. The wood is formed by the 
yearly addition of concentric rings, and is 
hardest inside. The tree is an evergreen, 
with long, narrow, and pointed leaves. The 
cones are oblong, and the wood highly resi- 
nous. 

It was on the loftier ranges of Lebanon that 
cedars flourished ; and they are said to be 
foundnow only in a single locality; though 
some moderns profess to have discovered 
them elsewhere. The well-known cedar grove 
has of course been visited and described by 
many travellers, who differ exceedingly in 
their estimate of the number of the trees ; 
some counting those only of great age, and 
others also the younger ones. Duns has 
given a curious table of those numljercd, 
from 23 ancient trees by Belon, in 1550 a.d. 
to 400 of all sorts, by Hooker in 1860 {Bibl 
Nat. Science, vol. ii. p. 269). The following 
is Dr. Thomson's description : ' They are 
situated high up on the western slope of 
Lebanon, ten hours south-east from Tripoli. 
. . In no other part of Syria are the moun- 
tains so alpine, the proportions so gigantic, 

the ravines so profound and awful 

There are several routes to them, and all 
wild, exciting, delightful. . . . The platform 
where the cedars stand is more than 6,000 
(6,172 according to Dr. Hooker) feet above 
the Mediterranean, and around are gathered 
the very tallest and greyest heads of Leba- 
non .... the space covered by them does 
not exceed half a dozen acres. . . . There is 
a singular discrepancy in the statements of 



I travellers, with regard to the number of 
j trees. Some mention 7, others 13, intending, 
doubtless, only those whose age and size 
I render them biblical, or at least historical. 
It is not easy, however, to draw any such 
line of demarcation. There is a complete 
gradation, from small and comparatively 
young to the very oldest patriarchs of the 
forest. I counted 443 ; and this cannot be 
far from the true number, . . . The wood, 
bark, cones, and even leaves of the cedar, 
are saturated, so to speak, with resin. The 
hean has the red cedar colour ; but the ex- 
terior is whitish. It is certainly a very 
durable wood, but is not fine-grained, nor 
sufficiently compact to take a high polish , 
for ordinary architectural purposes, how^- 
ever, it is perhaps the best there is in the 
country. . . . The branches are thrown out 
horizontally from the pai'ent trunk. These; 
again, part into limbs which preserve the 
same horizontal direction, and so on down 
to the minutest twigs ; and even the ar- 
rangement of the clustered leaves has the 
same general tendency. Climb into one, 
and you are delighted with a succession of 
verdant floors spread around the trunk; 
and gradually narrowing as you ascend! 
The beautiful cones seem to stand upon, or 
rise out of, this green flooring' {The Land 
and the Book, pp. 197-200). 

CE'DE-ON (John xviii. 1). A Greek form 
of KiDRO>', which see. 

CE'DRON (1 Mace. xv. 39, 41, xvi. 9). A 
place that was fortified not far from Ashdod. 

CEI'LAN (1 Esdr. v. 15). 

CEILIInG. The ceiling of the temple and 
Solomon's palace is described in 1 Kings vi 
9, 10, 15, vii. 3 ; 2 Chron. iii. 5. It was oi 
cedar or fir planks, laid on beams or rests 
in the walls. But such ceilings did not ex- 
hibit the mere w^ood : they were coloured 
and ornamented; for the prophets refer to 
them as evidencing the luxury of the people 
(Jer. xxii. 14 ; Hagg. 1. 4). The Eeryptian 
monuments furnish us with illustrations. 
They display ceilings with elegant patterns 
painted in rich colours. And still ceil- 
ings in the east are profusely ornamented, 
sometimes with curious panelling, or inlaid- 
work ; and, in localities where wood is 
scarce, we are told that they are made of 
fine plaster with tasteful mouldings, cO' 
loured and relieved with gilding. 

CELO-SYR'IA. See C(ele-syria. 

CEN'CHIIEA or CENCHRE^ (jnillet) 
The eastern harbour of Corinth, from which 
it was distant about nine miles. St. Paul 
sailed from this port when returning to 
Jerusalem and Antioch from his second 
missionary j(mrney (Acts xviii. 18) ; and 
somewhat later we gather that a church had 
been organized there (Bom. xvi. 1). The 
modern village of Kikries occupies the site 
of Cenchrea: and some remnants oi the 
moles are still visible. The millet, also, 
from which the name was derived, is said 
yet to grow in the neighbourhood. 

CENDEBE'US (1 Mace. xv. 38-xvi. 10). 

CENSER. There are two Hel)rew words 
so translated, mahhtah iind omktereih ; tlie 
latter occurring only in the later books 
(2 Chron. xxvi. J9; Ezek. viii. m. It was a 
vessel or metal fire-pan to tjike up co;ds on 



census] 



146 



wMcli the incense could be placed. It was bers being tlie same at apparently two enu- 
portable, and probably bad a long bandle. | merations made at the interval of several 
Censers are described among the f urnitm-e ; months. There are various modes m -which 
of the altar— the brazen altar, not the altar j this difficulty may be met. It has been 
of incense (iN'umb. iv. 14) ; and a special : supposed, and the supposition is not un- 
charge is given for the use of the censer on | reasonable, that the births and deaths of 
the day of atonement (Lev. xvi. 12). Pro- : the few months in question just balanced, 
bably those of the ordinarv kind were of Or the Levites, who were not included on 
bra'is or copper (comp. Exod. xxvii. 3) ; but : the last occasion, may have been numbered 
the Jews suppose that the one used by the ' on the first, so that there was an increase 
hish priest was of gold ; and this suppo- : in the total of the population, thatmcrease 
sition is to a certain extent corroborated being equal to the whole number of male 
bv the fact that Aai'on is bidden to use some Levites above twenty years of age. Or, and 
particular censer— the deBnite article being this appears the most reasonable solution, 
prefixed to the word (Lev. xvi. 12 ; Xumb. the two statements refer to a single census, 
xvi 46) Korah and his companv bad cen- \ It is remarkable that the command to 
sers (6, 17, 37, 33, 39) ; but they were | ascertain the numbers for military pur- 
doubtless of the common sort. Solomon ; poses was given on the first day of the 
made solden censers (1 Kings vii. 50 ; i second month, and that (apparently) the 
2 Chron iv 2V. A golden center is men- j numbers were declared the same day 
tioned in the ^^ew Testament (Heb. ix. 4). It ! (Xumb. i. 1-4, 17, 18). We can scarcely ima- 
i=; questioned, however, whether th£ golden | gine that the whole process was completed 
altar is not rather meant : on this difficult i in so brief a space ; it may well bebeheved, 
point see Dr. Alford's remarks {Tlie Greek 



Test, note on Heb. ix. 4). The Greek word 
rendered ' censer ' in Rev. viii. 3, 5 is derived 
from frankincense, implying that frank- 
incense was burnt therein. The 'vials' 
(V. 8) have been thought to mean similar 
vessels 

CEIsSTTS. It is frequently found desirable 
in well-ordered states to number the popu- 
lation. This was specially needful among 
the Israelites ; because God would make it 
manifest that he had fulfilled his promise 
of largely multiplying a single family cGen. 
xii. 2), and because in the division of Canaan, 
though the lot was to be cast, yet as a 
general principle the most numerous tribes 
were to have the larger inheritance (^'umb. 
xxxiii. 54). Other necessities there were, 
such as the substitution of the male Levites 
for the first-born males of all Israel (iii. 40, 
4l\ &c. &c. But yet a census was not to be 
taken merelv for vain-glorious display ; and 
it was provided that, when the people were 
numbered, half-a-shekel a-head should be 
paid by every man above twenty, redemp- 
tion or atonement money (Exod. xxx 

11-16). , ^. ^ 

The first numbering or census of which 



therefore, that on this day there was sim- 
ply the solemn promulgation by chosen 
men, one of each tribe, of the result oi 
the census previously made; about the 
various addings up of which (as we know 
is the case with ourselves) much time had 
necessarily been spent. The number of thg 
male Levites, fi'om a month old and up- 
wards, was 22,000, and these were taken as 
devoted to the Lord in lieu of 22,273, the 
first-born males of the other tribes, a com- 
position being accepted for the surplus 273 
(iii. 39-51). It will be observed that the 
numbers of the three gi-eat Levitical fa- 
milies are given separately, and that the 
sum of these separate families is 22,300 ; 
possibly, as letters were used for nume- 
rals, some error of transcription has oc- 
curred ; or, it is not unlikely that the 300 
Levites were the first-born of their tribe, 
and thus, beins: by birth devoted to God, 
thev could not be substitutes for other per- 
sons. It has been objected that the num- 
ber 22,273 of first-born is disproportionately 
smaU, when the total number of the people 
was 60 great. To meet this objection it 
has been said that, when the first-born 
males of Israel were enumerated, mani- 



we have an account was on the going down , festly only those hovu after the giving of 
of Jacob's family into Egypt. They were the command to sanctify the first-born to 
then s-aid to be in all three-score and ten 
(Gen. xlvi. 8-27). The list given probably 
contains the names of some not then born ; 



it being the object of the sacred writer to 
enumerate those who would be heads of 
families in the different tribes. 

A census was taken not long after the 
Israelites left Egj'pt for the purpose of ob- 
taining silver, by the payment of the bekah, 
or half-shekel, for the erection of the ta- 
bernacle. The number of the males over 



God are meant (Exod, xiii. 2, 11-15) ; the or- 
dinance being to commemorate the sparing 
of Israel when the first-born of every 
family in 'Egypt were destroyed. Perhaps 
this reply is not satisfactory. There is 
more weight in the observation that such 
first-born as were themselves heads of fa- 
milies were not reckoned as those t^ be re- 
deemed. Besides, all eldest sons are not 
first-born ; and in many a large family the 
first-born would have died in infancy. A 



twenty years of age is stated at 603,550 , son can be re-placed ; a first-born cannot 
fExod xxxviii. 25, 26). Exactly the same ' See the question fully argued m Birks 
number is recorded as the result of an enu- i £xodiis of Israel, chap. vi. pp. 64-. /. Aii- 
meiation said to be made on the first day other census was taken m the fortieth year 
of the s-cond month of the second year ! after the deliverance from bondage. The 
Ster the departm-e from Egypt. The pur- j total number of males fit for military ser- 
poVe of thii census was the mustering of vic^ was then 601,730 ; wlule the 
the men capable of military service : it ex- males from a month old were 2o,000. The 
eluded the tribe of Levi. Some difficulty 1 following table will show the increase or 
has ]yeen felt in consequence of the nuni- ! decrease of the respective tribes. 



147 



[census 





1st 


2n(i 


In- 


De- 




Census 


Census, 




crease. 


Reuben 


46,500 


43,730 




2,770 


Simeon 


59,300 


22,200 




37,100 


Gad . 


46,650 


40,500 




5,150 


Judah 


74,600 


76,500 


1,900 




Issachar . 


54,400 


64,300 


9,900 




Zebulun . 


57,400 


60,500 


3,100 




Ephraim . 


40,500 


32,500 


8,000 


Manasseli. 


32,200 


52,700 


20,500 


Benjamin. 


35,400 


45,600 


10,200 




Dan . 


62,700 


64,400 


1,700 




Asher 


41,500 


53,400 


11,900 




l?aplitali . 


53,400 


45,400 


8,000 


Total . 


603,550 


601,730 


59,200 


61,020 








59,200 






Decrease 


1,820 


Levites 


22,000 


23,000 


1.000 






(Numb, i., iii,. 


xxvi.) 



Objection has been made to the state- 
ment of the enormous increase of Israel 
during the sojourn in Egypt. It has been 
thought that the time of that sojourn, ge- 
nerally reckoned at 215 years, was too short 
for such a multiplication, and therefore that 
a longer period must have elapsed ; hence 
some have interpreted Exod. xii. 40, 41, as 
if the 430 years there mentioned were the 
time of the residence in Egypt, instead of 
commencing from the divine communica- 
tion to Abraham (Gen. xv. 13), or from his 
departure from Haran (comp. Acts vii. 6 ; 
Gal. iii. 17). This is a question fairly open 
to discussion. But there have been rash 
and irreverent writers, who have thought 
fit to charge the scriptures with untruth- 
fulness. It is, therefore, necessary to show 
that it was very possible for the population 
to Increase as we are told it did, in the 
shorter term of 215 years. This matter has 
been investigated by many, but by no one 
more sensibly and satisfactorily than by 
Mr, Ashpitel (The Increase of the Israelites 
in Egypt shown to be probable from the Sta- 
tistics of Modern Populations, 1863), He 
finds that, without making allowance for 
modifying circumstances, the Israelites 
must double every 15^ years in order to 
reach the numbers of the first census. He 
then examines modern statistics, and he 
produces instances in which populations 
have doubled in 20, in 19, in 17J, in 15 years, 
&c. There were, however, causes which 
would promote a rapidity of increase 
among the Israelites, which do not exist 
among the modern nations examined. 
These are the facts that the Hebrews were 
placed among another people with whom 
they must have largely intermarried (Lev. 
xxiv. 10), that they adopted bond-servants 
and children born from them in the house 
into the number of their own people (l 
Chron. ii. 34, 35 : comp. Gen. xiv. 14, xvii 
27, XXX. 43, xlvii. 1), that the practice of 
polygamy prevailed, increasing the magni- 
tude of families, that the age of pubertv is 
early in the east, the number of genera- 
tions in a given time being thereby multi- 
plied, and that the duration of life was in 
that age greater, so that elder persons 
would not die off so quickly as in our days 



Taking all these points into consideration, 
Mr. Ashpitel's conclusion is : ' On compa- 
rison with the statistical facts, the rate of 
increase thus becomes sloioer than what 
Humboldt observed throughout the whole 
of New Spain for 50 years, allowing for ex- 
traordinary checks only, is little more than 
the mean increase of the United States for 
20 years together, and has very decidedly 
been exceeded in more favoured parts' 
(p. 21), Mr. Ashpitel deals very well with 
the objections which have been urged on 
the other side, and shows how hasty rea- 
soners have fallen into the portentous mis- 
take of inferring that, because some indi- 
viduals of the fourth generation from Jacob 
were alive at the date of the exodus, no 
more generations had existed to that time. 
Those who can be satisfied with such an in- 
ference must be credulous enough to believe 
that no children were born in the families 
of Ephraim and Manasseh for the space of 
145 years— the period from the death of 
Joseph to the departure from Egypt ; for 
'Joseph saw Ephraim's children of the third 
generation : the children also of Machir, the 
son of Manasseh, were brought up upon 
Joseph's knees' (Gen. 1. 23). The fact is that, 
while there were but few links between 
Jacob and certain of those that departed 
from Egypt, to the mass of the people there 
were many links; as we find it expressly 
stated in regard to Joshua (1 Chron. vii. 20- 
27). The same thing happens continually 
now-a-days. The great-grandfather of the 
present writer was born nearly two centu- 
ries ago ; but who would be so simple as tc 
conclude from this fact that there are only 
three or four generations in 200 years? 

The population of Israel increased largely 
after their settlement in Canaan. We have 
no account for a long time of a regular 
census of the nation. But it is clear that at 
least partial enumerations were not unfre- 
quently made. For among the lists of 
pedigrees we find the number of males in 
different tribes, at various periods (v. 18, 
vii. 1-11, 40) ; and something of the kind we 
gather from incidental notices, scattered 
here and there through the history, of the 
size of armies, and of the amount of per- 
sons killed in battle (e.g. Judges xii. 6, xx. 
2, 15, 44-47; 1 Sam, xi. 8, xv. 4). David, 
however, resolved to number his people. 
His census was unauthorized, and under- 
taken in a proud vain-glorious temper. 
Hence he was punished by a special judg- 
ment from the Lord. According to this 
census the population of Israel was 800,000 
males of military age, of Judah 500,000 
(2 Sam. xxiv, 9). The numbers are diffe- 
rently given elsewhere (1 Chron, xxi. 5), Is- 
rael 1,100,000, Judah 470,000 ; and Levi and 
Benjamin were not reckoned. The apparent 
discrepancy between the two accounts has 
been explained by the supposition that the 
troops, in monthly rotation as guards, with 
a body attendant on the princes of the tribes, 
in all 300,000 (probably the regular army), 
are in the one case omitted, in the other 
reckoned to Israel ; while a corps of obser- 
vation, 30,000, on the Philistine frontier, is 
similarly to be added to or aljstracted from 
J udah. See Home's Introd., ed, Ayre, vol. il. 





DT) 462, 463. Solomon numbered tlie stran- 
gers or remnant of the Canaanitisli nations. J 
The census of them (the males ahle-hodied 
for service as of Israel) gave 1S3,600. 
Reckoning the persons so numbered at one- 
fourth of the whole population, there would 
be of Israelites 6,280,000, and the total with 
the strangers would reach to 6,894,400. 

Similar enumerations must hare been 
made afterwards; as we find repeatedly 
statements of the numbers able to bear arms 
in Judah. Thus, Abijah had 400,000 m his 
kingdom; while Jeroboam, in Israel, had 
800 000 c2 Chron. xiii. 3). Not, we may sup- 
pose, that all these were absolutely mus- 
tered, but they were the available numbers 
from whom armies might be drami. It is true 
that, in the campaign between Abi]ah ana 
Jeroboam, 500,000 of Israel are said to have 
perished (17). Possibly there may be an 
error in this number : some versions un- 
questionably give only 50,000. Or it may be 
that bv the ravages of war Israel was so de- 
populated that, instead of 800,000, there re- 
mained but 300,000 fit for military service. 
Certain it is that subsequently the Israel- 
iti^h armies, so far as we gather from oc- 
casional statements of their numbers, seem 
to have been far less than those that could 
be raised by Judah. 

The population of Judah was greatest in 
the reign of Jehoshaphat. The number of 
men in his kingdom fit for military service 
was 1,160,000, besides some troops m garri- 
sons. It must be remembered that the 
kingdom of Judah was consolidated and 
gradually extended over the two tribes ot 
Judah and Benjamin. Multitudes flocked 
in from the northern kingdom, weakening 
it and strengthening Judah ( xi. 13, 14, 16, 
17) • and this influx continued to such 
an extent as to alarm the kings of Israel 
so that Baasha attempted, by fortifying 
Ramah, to check it. Besides, as Simeon s 
portion was in that of Judah, much of 
Simeon would be appropriated ; and we also 
find Danite towns in the hands of the south- 
ern monarch— as Zorah, Ajalon (Josh. xix. 
41 42 ; 2 Chron. xi. 10; xxviii. 18). Perhaps, 
also, Jehoshaphat's census rolls included 
Edom, which was subject to him. These 
facts wiU tend to explain the superior 
populousness of Judah. 

It has been urged, however, that the re- 
ports which show numbers so large inust 
be exasgerated. In answer to whif h it inay 
be said that the whole area of Palestine 
rKiepert, Bibel-Atlas) is reckoned at 13,620 
square miles. Some deduction might liave 
to be made for the coast territory of the 
Philistines; but this would leave the 
country as large as the sum of our six nor h- 
ern counties, Northumberland, Dm ham 
Westmorland, Cumberland, Lancashire, and 
Yorkshire, 12,965 square miles. Some oi 
these counties are but thinly populated 
vet the census of 1861 gave a total ol 
5 579,943 inhabitants in them. The increase 
ir. ten years was nearly a million ; and whc 
would be surprised if in ten years more 
another million were added to the present 
mass? There is no reason, therefore, tc 
imagine that the scriptnre account of th 
population of Palestine is incredible. 


The inhabitants of the country diminished, 
IS their sins provoked the Lord to punish 
.hem by the Incursions of neighbouring 
states. The northern kingdom was reduced 
nost rapidly, as it was continuaUyharassed 
bv Syria ; and portions of its territory were 
aid waste or appropriated by the Syrian 
kings Some writers have been led into the 
mistake of attributing to it an excessive 
decline bv confounding armies actually m 
the field with the population fit formiUtary 
service Thus the state of Israel under 
Ahab has been contrasted with that of 
Judah under Jehoshaphat, and the /, 000 of 
one (1 Kings xx. 15) set over-against the 

1 160 000 of the other. Jehoshaphat, it must 
be repeated, never actually raised an army 
of this strength ; and the 7,000 of Ahab were 
merely the garrison of a besieged town. 

It is not needful to chronicle all the 
statements of numbers which may be found 
in Israelitish history (e.g. 2 Kings xiii.< ; 

2 Chron. xxv. 5, 6, xxvi. 11-13, xxvin. 6, 8) 
The northern kingdom was destroyed ; ana 
Judah must have been greatly weakened 
before the great catastrophe of the taking 
of Jerusalem. Some lists are given of those 
who were deported at various times (2 
Kings xxiv. 14, 16, xxv. 11,12; J er. In. 28-30) 
We have the enumeration also of those 
who returned from captivity with__Zerub- 
babel and Ezra (Ezra 11. 1-67, vm. 1-20, 
Neh. vii. 6-68). 

Afterwards we do.not hear of any census : 
but the population of the country was 
doubtless large under the Persian and 
Syrian rule, and when the Jews had re- 
established their independence. In our 
Lord's time it appears to have been crowded 
with populous towns and villages ; and the 
multitude of those who perished m the last 
war with the Romans was, after all the de- 
ductions which can fairly be made for the 
exaggeration of historians, unquestionably 
verv large. And, though the Holy Land is 
now thinly peopled, and in large tracts un- 
cultivated, yet there are still evident traces 
1 of a great population in ancient times, and 
proofs that the soil was fertile enough to 
sustain very many inhabitants. 

Attempts have been made to estimate the 
number of the Jews at the present time. 
But, dispersed as they are through all coun- 
tries of the world, it is manifest that any 
calculation must be very vague. Some have 
reckoned them at four, five, or six millions. 
In En^rland they are very few. The census 
of 1851 did not give their actual numbers, 
but it showed that they had 53 synagogues, 
accommodating only 8,438 worshippers. _ 

For the census or enrolment at the time 
of our Lord's birth, see Cyre^'ius. 

CENTURION. The commander of a cen- 
turv, of which there were sixty in a Roman 
legion. At first there were, as the name 
implies, 100 men in each century; sub- 
sequently, the number varied according 
to the strength of the legion (Matt._ vm. 
5, xxvii. 36 ; Acts x. 1, xxii. 25, xxiii. 23, 

^^E'PHAS (a stone or rock). See Peter. 
) CE'RAS (1 Esdr. v. 29). A corrupted form 

3 of Keros (Ezra ii. 44). 

CESARE'A. See C-^SABEA. 



CES'IL (Job ix. 9, marg., xxxviii. 31, 
marsr.) See Orion. 

CE'TAB (1 Esdr. v. 30). 

GHA'BBIS (Judith vi. 15, viii. 10, x. 6). 

CIIA'DIAS (1 Esdr. v. 20). 

CHAFF. The husk of the wheat sepa- 
rated from the gram by winnowing, which 
was accomplished by throwing it up against 
the wind. The heavier grains of corn fell 
down : the lighter chalE was blown away. 
Hence an expressive image to describe the 
wicked as swept oflC by the breath of God's 
displeasure (Psal. i. 4, xxxv. 5). But the 
word translated chaff in Isai. v. 24, xxxiii. 11 
is rather dry grass or hay, and that in Jer. 
xxiii. 28 is straw chopped into small pieces. 
The Chaldee word (Dan. ii. 35) for chaff 
means a bit of straw or chaff which flies into 
the eye and blinds it. In Matt. iii. 12 ; Luke 
iii. 17, the straw chiefly, or the whole refuse, 
is intended. 

CHAIN. Chains were anciently worn as 
marks of dignity or official distinction, as 
they are still among ourselves. Thus Joseph 
was invested with a gold chain (Gen. xli.42). 
Egyptians of rank wore 'a gold chain re- 
sembling a string, to which generally a 
stone scarabasus was appended. The same 
ornament, the torques of the Romans, and 
the tore of the Britons and ancient Irish, 
was worn by the noble Persians and Gauls, 
by the Celtic tribes, and other Asiatic and 
European nations, even in battles ; and it 
often formed one of the chief parts of the 
spoil of the victorious army : soldiers re- 
ceived a neck-chain for their valour' 
(Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 650). 
The principal judge also, in Egypt, wore a 
chain of gold, to which was attached a 
jewelled image of Truth. So Daniel re- 
ceived a gold chain from Belshazzar when 
appointed third ruler in the kingdom (Dan. 
vi. 7, 16, 29). Chains were, moreover, used 
as ornaments both by men and women 
(Prov. i. 9 ; Sol. Song i. 10). The chain men- 
tioned in Ezek. xvi. 11 was for ornament, 
and not, as a writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible says, ' the symbol of sovereignty.' 
There were also step-chains, ornaments for 
the legs : see Anklets ; and from the neck- 
chains various trinkets were suspended, 
such as pieces of metal in a crescent shape 
(Isai. Iii. 18), which were sometimes put 
upon the necks of camels (Judges viii. 21, 
26). Often neck-chains consisted of pearls, 
pieces of coral, &c. on a string. Chains were 
employed, further, for sacred purposes, as 
in the dress of the high priest (Exod. 
xxviii. 14, 22, xxxix. 15-18). And so in the 
construction of idols (Isai. xl. 19) : ' In 
many of the Egyptian idols holes are found, 
through which chains passed for the pur- 
pose of suspending them on the wall' 
(Henderson, Isaiah^ p. 324). Chains, again, 
were used for the security of prisoners 
(Judges xvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii. 34 ; 2 Kings 
XXV. 7 ; Jer. xxxix. 7, Iii. 11). These were 
probably fetters, connected by a chain, 
upon the ankles. Handcuffs were also 
put on captives (xl. 4). The Roman cus- 
tom was to handcuff a prisoner, attaching 
hira by a chain to one or two guards 
(Acts xii. 6, 7, xxi. 33, xxviii. 10, 20 : 2 Tim. 
i. 16). 



[CHALDEA 



Chain is sometimes employed metaphori- 
cally to express tribulation (Lam. iii. 7). 

CHALCEDONY. One of the stones de- 
scribed as forming the foundation of the 
new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19). Chalcedony 
Is ordinarily understood to be a species of 
agate, milky white or pale yellow, often 
with a wavy internal structure. But opi- 
nions differ as to the exact character of the 
stone so called. Some liken it in colour 
and want of transparency to skimmed milk. 
Another description represents it as of the 
colour of a pale flame, shining out of doors, 
obscure in a house, not easily cut, and at- 
tributes to it the power of attracting light 
substances. Also it has been supposed to 
be turquoise, carbuncle, or ruby, or an in- 
ferior kind of emerald. The origin of the 
name is uncertain : see Schleusner's iea;ico9i 
sub voce. 

CHAL'COL (sustenance) (1 Kings iv. 31) : 
see Calcol. 

CHALDE'A. A celebrated eastern coun- 
try. Originally it was but a small district 
which bore this name, the southern part of 
Babylonia, lying almost entirely on the 
right bank of the Euphrates. There is some 
difficultyin determining whence Chaldeade- 
rived its appellation. The Hebrew word Clias- 
cltm is used both for the people and for the 
country which they inhabited ; though more 
frequently the latter is termed the ' land of 
the Chasdim ' or 'Chaldeans' (e.g. Jer. xxv. 
12). Some have imagined this tribe descen- 
dants of Chesed, the son of Nahor (Gen. xxii. 
22). Dr. Kalisch inclines to this opinion, 
believing them a Shemitic nomad race who 
led a predatory life, ' in the parts of Arabia 
Deserta, bordering on the southern course 
of the Euphrates almost down to the Persian 
gulf,' generally occupying part of the Baby- 
lonian territory, and possibly also districts 
in the north-east of the Euphrates. And, 
though ' Ur of the Chaldees ' is mentioned 
at an earlier period, Kalisch supposes that 
this was so called by anticipation {Comm. on 
Old Test. Gen., pp. 450, 451). It seems, how- 
ever, more probable that this people were 
of Cushite origin, and that their primitive 
seat was in that mountainous region which 
is now occupied by the Kurds (whose name 
has been thought identical with theirs; as 
Gesenius suggests that the original form of 
CJiasdi was Chardi). Under the Assyrian 
sway they may be thought to have migrated 
into Mesopotamia and Babylonia, which 
they afterwards mastered (see Isai. xxiii. 13, 
and Henderson's remarks thereon, Isaiah, 
p. 210). Rawlinson (Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. i. p. 292) would connect Chaldea with 
Kahoadha, which he thinks the Chilmad of 
Ezek. xxvii. 23. The derivation of the Chal- 
deans from Arphaxad (Gen. x. 22) is very 
fanciful. 

Chaldea, in its wider scriptural sense, 
must be taken to include the alluvial plain 
watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, 
bounded on the east by the last-named 
stream, but extending across the Euphrates 
westward to Arabia, and from tlic Persian 
gulf running northward to al)out the 34th 
degi'ee of latitude. This region was proba- 
bly 400 miles in length, with an average 
breath of 100. Early Chaldean kings are 



CHALDEANS] CIj^ CrCH^Utg Ot 


mentioned in the deciphered inscriptions ; 
but it was not till a comparatively-late 
period that this people obtained imperial 
power, under Nahopolassar, who conquered i 
Assyria, and founded the Chaldean dynasty 
of the kings of Babylon 625, B.C. Thencefor- 
ward the land of the Chaldeans comprised all 
Babylonia ; and the Chaldeo-Babylonian 
empire extended widely its sway, till ulti- 
mately it fell before the arms of Cyrus. _ 

This country was heretofore most rich 
and productive. The greatest industry was 
employed in its irrigation. Many large 
canals were constructed with smaller 
branches, draining the marshy lands, and 
conveying water wherever needed. Thus 
the natural fertility of the soil, in which 
wheat, barley, &c. are said to have grown 
wild, was abundantly augmented ; and the 
return to the sower has l)een asserted to be 
200 or 300 fold. Palm-trees were abundant, 
and various other natural productions. 
And, as the land was fertile, so the popula- 
tion was large. Here were the greatest 
cities of antiquity, the teeming hives of 
men, • Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and 
Calneh ' (Gen. x. 10\ and numerous others, 
the sites of which, many of them having 
been identified, are indicated by extensive 
heaps. But now this once-fruitful land is 
little better than a desolate waste. Parts of 
it are dry and barren for want of water ; and 
parts are dismal marshes. There is little 
cultivation ; the inhabitants subsisting 
mainly on the dates yielded by the palm- 
trees which grow near the rivers. 

A late traveller has graphically described 
the contrast. 'In former days,' says Mr. 
Lof tus, ' the vast plains of Babylon were 
nourished by a complicated system of canals 
and water-courses, which spread over the 
surface of the country like a net-work. The 
wants of a teeming population were supplied 
bv a rich soil, not less bountiful than that 
on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like 
islands rising from a golden sea of waving 
corn stood frequent groves of palm-trees 
and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler 
or traveller their grateful and highly-valued 
shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along 
the dusty roads to and from the busy city. 
The land was rich in com and wme. How 
changed is the aspect of that region at the 
present day I Long lines of mounds, it is 
true mark the courses of those mam arte- 
ries which formerly diffused life and vegeta- 
tion along their banks ; but their channels 
are now bereft of moisture and choked with 
drifted sand: the smaller offshoots are 
wholly effaced. "A drought is upon her 
waters," says the prophet ; " and they shall b€ 
dried up." All that remains of that ancient 
civilization, that " glory of kingdoms," " the 
praise of the whole earth," is recognizable m 
the numerous mouldering heaps of brick 
and rubbish which overspread the surf ace oi 
the plain. Instead of the luxuriant fields 
the groves, and gardens, nothing now meets 
the eye but an arid waste : the dense popu 
lation of former times is vanished ; and nc 
man dwells there ' {Clialdea, PP- 14, lo). 

CHALDE'ANS (Isai. xxiii 13. and else 
where) The inhabitants of Chaldea, and sc 
for the most part to be understood m scrip 


.ure. It would seem (see the preceding ar- 
ticle) that the Cushite tribe, originally so 
iesignated, were located in the southern 
region of Babylonia, and that the name came 
by degrees to include other neighbouring 
tribes till it was commensurate with what 
was ultimately called Chaldea. Still the 
whole of the ancient Cushite language was 
retained as a literary and sacred tongue. So 
that those who acquired thelearnmg of the 
Chaldeans studied it in this language (Dan. 
i 4). Hence, by a very natural mode of 
speaking, persons w^ho were proficients m 
such studies came to be specially termed 
Chaldeans ; and in this sense we find the 
name continually used in the book of 
Daniel (e.g. ii. 2, 4, 10) as synonymous with 
Magi, or astrologers ; and Daniel himself is 
called the 'master of the Chaldeans' (v. 11). 
The studies they pursued were probably at 
first astronomy and the kindred sciences, 
which afterwards degenerated into mere 
sorcery or soothsaying, so that the name of 
Chaldean was used by way of reproach. 
They appear to have been gathered into 
schools or academies, of which the principal 
seats were Babylon, Ur, Borsippa, &c. 

CHALDEES (Gen. xi. 28, and elsewhere). 
See Chaldeans. . 

CHALK STONES (Isai. xxvu. 9). Stones 

°*Ch2mBER, CHAMBERS OF IMAGERY. 
In one of the visions of Ezekiel we find 
that the prophet, having seen various idola,- 
tries committed at Jerusalem, was directed 
to break through a wall in the court of the 
temple. He then discovered a door into a 
secret chamber, which he found on entering 
was closed against the sun-light, but no 
doubt illumined by lamps. On the walls of 
this he found portrayed beasts and reptiles 
of every kind ; and before them were seven- 
ty elders of Israel, each man with a censer 
in his hand burning incense to the honour 
of these abominable things. No wonder 
that the wrath of God was kindled against 
those who worshipped in such * chambers 
of imagery '(Ezek.viii. M2). 

The descriotion applies exactly to the 
inner chambers and sanctuaries of the 
Egyptian cells and tombs and temples. 
' The walls,' says Dr. Kitto, ' are covered 
with representations, sculptured or painted 
in vivid colours, of sacred animals, and of 
gods represented in the human form, and | 
under various circumstances, or in various 
monstrous combinations of the animal and 
human forms.' And, in illustration of the 
prophet's narrative, he quotes, from Mad- 
den's Travels in Turkey, Egypt, &c., an ac- 
count of the exploration of the great 
temple at Edfou, over which, it seems, a 
village has been built. An old man, who 
hadreceivedmedicalhelpfrom the traveUer, 
showed him, in return, a secret passage. 
♦Considerably below the surface of the ad- 
joining buildings, he pointed out to me a 
phink in an old wall, which he told me i 
Should creep through on my hands and feet . 
) the aperture was not two feet and a halt 
high, and scarcely three feet and a half 
- broad • my companion had the courage^ to 
) enter first, thrusting in a lamp before hira. 
■ I foUowed. . . After proceeding about ten 



[chariot 



yards in Titter darkness, the heat "became 
excessive: hreathing was lahorious: the 
perspiration poured down my face ; and I 
would have given the world to have got 
out ; but my companion, whose person I 
could not distinguish, though his voice was 
audible, called out to rae to crawl a few feet 
farther, and that I should find plenty of 
space. I joined him at length, and had the 
inexpressible satisfaction of standing once 
more on my feet. We found ourselves in a 
splendid apartment of great magnitude, 
adorned with sacred paintings and hiero- 
glyphics' iPict. Bible, note on Ezek. viii. 10). 

CHAMBERLAIN. The word so trans- 
lated in Esth. i. 10, 15, ii. 3, 14, 15, 21, iv. 5, 
vi. 2, vii. 9 properly signifies an eunuch, 
and it is sometimes thus rendered in the 
margin. Eunuchs were employed in various 
offices in oriental courts; and it may be, 
that the word came occasionally to signify 
an officer, without reference to its original 
meaning. The * chamberlain' of Acts xii. 20 
corresponds in some degree to a lord of 
the bed-chamber with us ; while Erastus, 
* the chamberlain of the city' (Rom. xvi. 23), 
was the public treasurer. 

CHAMELEON. One of the animals, the 
flesh of which was not to be eaten (Lev. xi. 
30). The original word signifies strength : 
this, therefore, is probably the large strong 
lizard, Lacerta Nilotica, sometimes found in 

CHAMOIS (Deut. xiv. 5). An animal, the 
flesh of which might be eaten. It is gene- 
rally supposed to be a species of deer or ante- 
lope. But Kitto (Pict. Bible, note on Deut. 
xiv. 5) is inclined to identify it with the wild 
sheep, or sheep-like goat, Ovis tragelaphus, 
well known in Arabia, Egypt, and through- 
out northern Africa, where it bears the 
name of kebsck. This is often represented 
in the Egyptian monuments. It is not 
more bulky than a sheep, but it stands 
higher, and is covered with fine rufous hair, 
while the throat, breast, and upper part of 
the fore-legs, are enveloped in a mass of the 
same kind of hair, so long as to give the 
animal the appearance of being bearded. 

CHA'NAAN (Acts vii. 11, xiii. 19). See 
Cana^vn. 

CHA'NAANITE, for Canaanite (Judith 
V. 16). 

CHANCE (1 Sam. vi. 9). Awordusedby 
the Philistine priests and diviners, igno- 
rant of the guiding providence of God. Pro- 
perly speaking, nothing occurs by chance ; 
but the expression sometimes occurs in a 
popular and unobjectionable sense (Eccles. 
ix. 11 ; Luke x. 31). 

CHANCELLOR. A title given to the 
Persian governor in Samaria (Ezra iv. 8, 9, 
17). The literal meaning of it is ' lord of 
judgment.' 

CHANEL-BONE (Job xxxi. 22, marg.). 
This is in the text simply ' the bone :' that 
bone of the upper arm which is above the 
elbow is intended. 

CHA'NOOH (Gen. iv, 17, marg.). See 
Enoch. 

CRANNTJNE'VS (1 Esdr. viii. 48). 

CHANT (Amos vi. 5). See Music. But 
the word here rendered • chant ' means 
rather chatter, spoken contemptuously. 



CHAPEL. Beth-el is called 'the king's 
chapel ' in Amos vii. 13. It was one of the 
seats of the idolatrous worship of the 
calves (1 Kings xii. 28, 29). 

CHAPITER. There are three Hebrew 
words translated * chapiter,' the first signi- 
fying something which surrounds; the 
second an ornament : the third is the 
ordinary word for head or top. It is the 
upper part of a pillar, answering to what is 
now called the capital, or a kind of moulding 
round the top of a column or utensil, pro- 
bably carved into the representation of 
flowers or fruits (Exod. xxxvi. 38, xxxviii. 
17, 19, 28 ; 1 Kings vii. 16-20 ; 2 Kings xxv. 
17 ; 2 Chron. iii. 15, iv. 12, 13). The ' pommels' 
of the chapiters were convex projections or 
mouldings. 

CHABAATH'ALAB a Esdr. V. 36). 

CHAB'AGA (2 Mace. xii. 17). 

CHARA'SHIM {craftsmen). A valley so 
called (1 Chron. iv. 14). In Neh. xi. 35 the 
word is translated. It would seem to be 
near Lod (Lydda), to the east of Jaffa. 

GHAB'GHAMIS (1 Esdr. i. 25). 

CHAR'CHEMISH (2 Chron. xxxv. 20). See 
Carchemish. 

CHAB'CUS a Esdr. v. 32). A corruption 
of Barkos (Ezra ii. 53). 

G HA' BE A (1 Esdr. v. 32). 

CHARGER. The Hebrew word so trans- 
lated in Numb. vii. 13, &c., is derived from 
a root signifying depth. These chargers, 
therefore, must have been deep vessels. 
The same word is also rendered 'dishes' 
(Exod. xxv. 29, xxxvii. 18). A different 
word is used in Ezra i. 9 : the chargers here 
were perhaps more shallow, slaughter-ves- 
sels, to receive the blood of victims. The 
charger in which John Baptist's head was 
placed (Matt. xiv. 8, 11 ; Mark vi. 25, 28) wa*j 
probably a dish or trencher. 

CHARIOT. Several Hebrew words occur 
which are rendered * chariots ' in our ver- 
sion : some may be taken to include the 
horses. Chariots were used both for war, and 
also on occasions of state, and for ordinary 
conveyance from one place to another. The 
following supply examples of the latter uses 
(1 Sam. viii. 11 ; 2 Sam. xv. 1 ; 1 Kings 
xii. 18, xviii. 44, 45 ; Isai. xxii. 18). Chariots, 
too, there were in idol-worship ; since we 
read that Josiah removed the horses and 
burnt the chariots of the sun — the super- 
stition having probably been derived from 
the Assyrians (2 Kings xxiii. 11), among 
whom, as among other nations, it was prac- 
tised (see Keil, Comm. on Kings, transl. vol. 
ii. p. 148). The use of chariots among the 
Egyptians, Syrians, and Ethiopians, for 
peaceful purposes, is noted in several places 
(Gen. xii. 43, xlvi, 29, 1. 9 ; 2 Kings v. 9 ; Acts 
viii. 28). They were war-chariots with w^hich 
the Egyptians pursued the Israelites (Exod. 
xiT. 6-26 ; and we read of the Canaanitish 
nations similarly possessing war-chariots, 
perhaps armed with scythes ; of the Philis- 
tines also, the Syrians, Ethiopians, As- 
syrians, and Persians (Josh. xvii. 16, 18 ; 
Judges 1. 19, iv. 3 ; 1 Sam. xiii. 5 ; 2 Sam. 
X. 18 ; 1 Kings xx. 21, xxii. 31 ; 2 Kings 
xix. 23 ; 2 Chron. xii. 3, xiv. 9 ; Isai. xxii. 6 ; 
Ezek. xxiii. 24). The Israelites had no w^ar- 
chariots till the time of David (2 Sam. 




Egyptian chariot. Rosellini. 



viii 4). Solomon increased the numbers of 
them (1 Kings x. 26) ; and .ve find them 
afterwards in general iise (xxii._24, 2 
Kind's ix 16, 21, 27, 28, xin. 7, xxni. 30). 
See^ARMY. In Solomon's reign chariots 
were imported from Egypt ; the price of 
one being 600 shekels of silver (l Kings 
X 29), to which there possibly ma} be a 
reference in Isai. xxxi. 1. An Isi-aebtish 
chariot, therefore, no donbt, resembled 
one of Egypt ; which is described as an 



almost semi-circnlar wooden frame with 
straightened sides, resting posteriorly on 
the axle of a pair of wheels ; a rail of wood 
or ivory being attached to the frame by 
leathern thongs, and a wooden upright in 
front. The back of the car was open, ana 
the sides were strengthened and embellished 
with leather and metal binding: the floor was 
of rope network, to give a springy footing 
to the occupants. On the off-side were the 
bow-case, sometimes the ciuiYer, and spear- 



153 



case, crossing diagonally, ttie last-named in- 
clined backwards. If two warriors were in 
tlie cliariot, there was a second bow-case. Tbe 
wheels had usually six spokes, fastened to 
the axle by a linch-pin, secured by a thong. 
The horses had a breast-band and girths 
attached to the saddle, but were without 
traces. They wore head-furniture, often or- 
namented, with a bearing-rein. The driving- 
reins passed through rings on each side of 
both horses. Two persons generally were 
in a chariot ; but there was sometimes a 
third, holding the umbrella of state (Wil- 
kinson, Anc. Egypt, vol. i. pp. 335-359, vol. iii. 
pp. 178, 179). The Assyrian war-chariots were 
nearly similar: sometimes a third horse 
was attached ; but In later times this was 
laid aside ; the chariot was made higher, 
and the quiver placed in front instead of on 
the side (Layard, Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 350, 352). 

CHARITY. This word has come popu- 
larly to signify almsgiving. But, though 
this is a duty frequently inculcated in 
scripture, the term ' charity ' in such pas- 
sages as 1 Cor. xiii. signifies something 
more. In the elder English versions it was 
'love.' And love, indeed, is meant, that 
high Christian love, of which the love of 
God in Christ is the source and pattern, 
and which is exhibited in beautiful and 
tender concern for the welfare of those 
around us (1 John iii. 16, iv. 11, 16, 20, 21). 

CHARMER (Deut. xviii. 11). See Divi- 
nation. 

CHAB'MIS (Judith v. 15, viii. 10, x. 6). 

CHAR'RAN (Acts vii. 2, 4). See Haran. 

CHAS'EBA (1 Esdr. v. 31). 

CHA'VAH (Gen. iii. 20,marg.). A form of 
Eve, which see. 

CHE'BAR (length). A river in Babylonia, 
on the banks of which some of the Jewish 
captives were located (Ezek. i. l, 3, iii. 15, 
23, X. 15, 20, 22, xliii. 3). This is by many 
supposed to be the Chaboras, now the 
Khabour, which flowed into the Euphrates at 
Circesium. But it has been also thought, 
and perhaps with more reason, that the 
Chebar was the Nahr Malcha, or royal canal 
of Nebuchadnezzar, in the cutting of which 
the exiles were, it is likely, employed, 

CHE'BEL. A Hebrew word, signifying 
ordinarily a rope or cord (Josh. ii. 15) ; hence 
a band or string of men (1 Sam. x. 5, 10) : 
see Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 298. It 
is also used for the line of sea-coast, and is 
the term always applied to the region of 
Argob, surrounded or girt, as it were, with 
a definite boundary like the coast-line. See 

APvGOB. 

CHEDOR-LA'OMER (handful of sheaves). 
A king of Elam, who in the time of Abra- 
ham, uniting with other chiefs, subjected 
the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and 
neighbouring kings. After some time they 
rebelled, but were totally defeated by 
Chedor-laomer, who, having carried away 
Lot, was in turn defeated, and perhaps 
Blain by Abraham (Gen. xiv. 1-17). In the 
monumental records of Babylonia mention 
has been found of a king, apparently of 
Elamitic origin, who was paramount in that 
country about the time of Abraham, and 
whose name seems identical with at least 
the first part of Chedor-laomer. He bears, 



[CHENAAIS 



too, the significant title of Apda Martu, 
'Ravager of the West.' See Rawlinson, 
Hist. Evid. of the truth of the Scriptura 
Records, lect. ii. pp. 56, 57, and note. Later 
researches, however, would seem to render 
the identification questionable. 

CHEEK. Smiting upon the cheek was 
regarded by the Hebrews as a great indig- 
nity (1 Kings xxii. 24 ; 2 Chron. xviii. 23 ; 
Job xvi. 10 ; Lara. iii. 30 ; Mic. v. 1 ; Matt. 
V. 39 ; Luke vi, 29;. 

CHEE'NETH (Ezra iv. 10, marg.). In the 
text this word is rendered ' at such a time.! 
It is a formula probably implying ' and so- 
forth.' 

CHEESE. The cheese at present made in 
the east is of very indifferent quality : it is 
best when new and soft, as it soon becomes 
hard and dry. Cheeses are formed into small 
cakes, white in colour, and exceedingly 
salt. In scripture we find cheese mentioned 
three times, as the translation of three dif- 
ferent Hebrew^ words. The first means a 
cutting (1 Sam. xvii. 18), *ten sections of 
curds,' soft cheese. The second is derived 
from a root signifying to scrape (2 Sam. 
xvii. 29) : the cheese, if cheese it was, was 
grated and pounded fine. The third im- 
plies curdled milk (Job x. 10). Perhaps this 
cheese was coagulated buttermilk. 

CHE'LAL (perfection). A man who had 
taken a strange wife (Ezra x. 30). 

CHELd'AS. 1. (Bar. i. 1).— 2. (6) A cor- 
rupt form of Hilkiah, the high priest in 
Josiah's time.— 3. The father of Susanna 
(Hist. Sus. 2, 29, 63). 

CHEL'LIANS (Judith ii. 23). Inhabitants 
of Chellus. 

CHEL'LUH (completed, consumed). One 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra 
X. 35). 

GHEL'LUS (Judith i. 9>. A place to the 
west of the Jordan : its exact position can 
only be coniectured. 

CBE'LOD (Judith i.6). 

CHE'LTJB (a trap-cage, a basket). 1. One 
of the descendants of judah (1 Chron. i v. 11). 
—2. The father of Ezri, one of David's ofii- 
cers (1 Chron. xxvii. 26). 

CHELIJ'BAI (perhaps dog). A son of 
Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 9), identical with Caleb 
(18, 42). 

CHEMA'RIM, CHEMA'RIMS (those who 
go about in black, ascetics. But see Kcil, 
Comm. on Kings, transl. vol. ii. pp. 143, 144). 
A name which appears to be restricted to 
the priests of idol-worship (2 Kings xxiii.5, 
marg. ; Hos. x. 5, marg. ; Zeph. i. 4), the non- 
Levitical priests who sacrificed to the calves 
of Jeroboam, and on the forbidden high 
places. 

CHE'MOSH (subduer). The national god 
of the Moabites, who are sometimes called 
' the people of Chemosh' (Numb. xxi. 29; Jer. 
xlviii. 7, 13, 46). He was worshipped also 
by the Ammonites (Judges xi. 24). Solomon 
built a liigh place for Chemosh near to Je- 
rusalem (1 Kings xi. 7, 33), which was defiled 
by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 13). There are 
various conjectures concerning this false 
god ; some identifying him with Mars, 
others with Saturn. 

CHE'NAAN (Gen. ix. 18, marg.;. See 
Canaan. 



chenaa>"ah] 



Wl)t Errasuri) nt 



154 



CHENA'AIsAH Qiiverchant, a feminine 
fornix -1. The father of the false prophet 
Zedekiah a Kings xxii. 11, 24 ; 2 Chron. xnii. 
10, 23).— 2. A descendant of Benjamin (1 
Chron.Vii. 10). 

CHENA'NI (protector, or perhaps a con- 
tracted form of Chenaniah). A Lerite 

^CHENAIfl'AH (Whom Jehovah hath sef). 
A chief among the Levites a Chron. xv. 
22, 27, xxvL 29). The spelling varies m the 

^CHEMPHAB-HAAMMO'^^AI (village of the 
Ammonites). A place in the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, possihly hnilt or occupied hy the 
Ammonites in some incursion (Josh, xvul 

^^(3hEPHI'RAH (village). One of the 
Gibeonite towns (Josh. ix.. 17), which was 
afterwards assigned to Benjamin 26)- 
See Ezra ii. 25 ; Neh. Tii. 29. It is identical 
with the modem Kefir. 

CHE'RAN (lyre). A son of a Horite chief 
(Gen. xxxTi. 26 ; 1 Chron. i. 41). 
CHE'REAS (2 Mace. x. 32, 37). 
CHER'ETHIMS (Cretans'!) These are 
mentioned in connection with ^^lie Philis- 
tines (Ezek. XXV. 16). They are identical 
with the Cherethites a Sam. ' .f^^f,? ; 

ii 5) and seem to have been located m the 
south of Palestine near the sea-coast 

CHER'ETHITES and PEL^ETHITEb 
(executioners Siud couriers). The body-gnard 
! of David were called Cherethites and Pele- 
' thites, either as collected during l^s resi- 
dence in Philistia [see Chebethims], or, 
according to the derivation gLven, be- 
Snse thfy were employed .in fulhlling the 
royal mandates (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv^lS, xx. 
7 23 : 1 Kings i. 38, 44 ; l Chron. xvin. 1 /). 
They are sometimes mentioned with tne 
Gittites, who camB after David from Gath 

CHER'ITH (a cutting, separatioJi). A 
brook by which Elijah was directed to hi^^ 
himself during the first part of the thre^ 
vears' drought aKingsxvu. 3-7). Robinson 
fdentiflesTtwitUa4xeZi,behin^^^^^^^^ 
Others suppose it to the east of the Jordan. 

CHER'UB, CILW\JBIK(stroiig, awarder: 
vaiious other meanings have been pro- 
DO^ed) These beings are first mentioned 
fn the narrative of the fall of man where 
thevare said to have been placed at the 
east of the garden of Eden' (^en. ^i- 24). 
Thev are afterwards spoken of either as 
living creatures, or as sculptured or painted 
aSSIs Thus, cherubim were represented 
fn b?th the tabernacle and tje temple 
When the sacred ark was made, attached 
to the two ends of the mercy-seat or cover 
of ft, wer? cherubim of beaten gold (Exod 
S:v 17-22, xxxvii. 6-9). Whether these 
were nreserved tiU the time when the ark 
wis placed7n the temple, or whether those 
larger ones which Solomon made ' with n 
the^ oracle' of wood overlaid with go^^ 
a Tvinesvi 23-28), were intended to re-place 
tbSi IL been questioned. The prcbability 
s ?hat the c^e?ubim of Solomon were ad- 
rtitionaL Each cherub over the ark lifted 
S?w5iffs on high: his face was inwards 
?^^^4"?is'?er4, be-ding^down^o the 
•nercy-seat (Exod. xxv. 1--22, xxxvii. t^.^). 
Sence. as the symbolic presence of the 



Lord was upon the mercy-seat. He is often 
described and addressed as dwelling be- 
tween the cherubim (Nmnh. vii. 89 ; 1 Sam. 
iv 4 : 2 Sam. vi. 2 ; 2 Kings xix. lo ; PsaL 
Ixxx. 1 : Isai. xxxvii. 16 ; Heb. ix. 5). On 
the curtains, also, of the tabernacle cheru- 
bim were represented (Exod. x^. l. xxxvi. 
8) ; and on the walls and doors of the temple 
were carved figures of them a Kings vi. 
29, 32, 35 ; they appear, too, with the sym- 
bolic oxen and lions on certain articles of 
the temple furniture (vii. 29. 36). We fnr^ 



ther find an appearance of clierubim m the , 
vision vouchsafed to Ezekiel, which was m ] 
some degree a manifestation of the divine 
fflorv Four Uving creatures are described 
with a marvellous intercommunication of 
wheels and four-fold faces ; and they are re- 
peatedlv termed cherubim (Ezek. i., x., xi. 22). 
St John, too, beheld heaven opened, and 
Oiie sitting in majesty upon a throne; 
and amid his train were lour living crea- 
tures (unfortunately in our translation 
rendered ' beasts ' ). We can have no diffl- 
cuttv in identifying these with the cherubiin 
of Ezekiel, though the name is not appLed 
to them. There is the fo^r-f old face, and 
the multitude of eyes, which had marked 
the living ones of the earlier visions (Rev. 

'^Cherabim, then, appear when God's ma^ 
jesty shines forth. Theflaming sword what- 
everthat was, that kept the tree of Me, l^ad 
attendant cherubim. So, when God would 
SnsMy reveal himself, either as sitting m 
the solitude of the "^ostholy place or as 
commissioning a prophet, or disclosing the 
secrets of the ^pper sanctuary, there we 
find it recorded, are the cherubim And we 
may well suppose that the glorious creatures 
whom Isaiah saw ministering Jefore Jeho; 
vah were, though denommated ' seraphim 
rT=;ai vi 1-7), the same beings. 
^ When Moses was commanded to make the 
cherubim of gold, no minute description 
was giv^n of their shape; nor are those 
flgSrfd on the hangings of the tabernacle 
or the walls of the temple, described. It 
may be that the form was ^o well kn^ 
that description was unnecessary , or it ma^ 
Sore probably be that there was some deep 
mystery, and that human lips were not to 
utter!?or human pens to delineate the mar- 
vellous conformation of tiose exa ted be- 
ings And the expression of Ezekiel : I knew 
Sit tt?y were the cberubims ' (Ezek x. 20) 
mav be taken to indicate that, but for a 
divine illumination, he would not have re- 

"ISS'^ormswerein some measure In- 
troduTed But it is remarkable that, when 
^ie f otfr faces are mentioned, and one is said 
to be that of a man, one that of a Hon. and 
aSother that of an eagle, one is described as 
nhe face of a cherub,' the corresponding 
description being 'the face of an ox'^nd 
the likeness of 'a calf' (i. 10, 3:. 14, iier. 
Jv 7 Was there, then, any resemblance to 
those winded bulls, with which the process 
of Assyrilu excavation has made us fami- 
liar? Little can be said in reply to such a 
quL\iorsave that God is -ot Uke y t^^^^^^^^ 
borrowed the adornments of his sanctuary 
from heathens. Symbols, indeed, he does 



155 



[CHEBUB 



use, common to various nations ; but it is 
because they have been naturally fitted to 
convey certain ideas. So that, if there be a 
likeness in tbe cherubim of glory to the 
Egyptian or Assyrian sculptures, we are by 
no means to inier that these last were pat- 
terns which the former followed. Rather 
we may believe that heathen nations derived 
many of their ideas, and stories, and re- 
presentations from Hebrew sources, or from 
that ancient tradition of the original fathers 
of mankind, which was continued, though 
debased and distorted, in so many lines of 
their posterity. 

Instead of curiously speculating on the 
cherubic figures, we may better employ our- 
selves in enquiring what they were meant to 
symbolize. Most discordant have been the 
views of different critics. Laying aside 
those which would give the cherubim a 
mere mythic character, it may be remarked 
that some see in them a representation of 
the Trinity ; some the embodiment of the 
divine attributes; while others regard them 
as intended not to image the Creator, but the 
Creator's manifested glory (see Fairbairn, 
TyiwL of Script, book ii. chap. 2, vol. i. pp. 
241-247). There are objections to all these 
views. As God is said to dwell between the 
cherubim, they could hardly symbolize the 
Deity himself ; neither do we find any wor- 
ship ever paid them, so that they could by 
no means have been regarded as embodying 
the idea of the Godhead. 

We must consider what the figures, so far 
as they are described to us, would naturally 
indicate. The predominating form is that 
of man (Ezek. i. 5, 8, 10), erect in posture, 
joining intelligently in the praises of God 
(Rev. iv. 8). Besides, there were the cha- 
racteristics of certain animals, the lion, the 
ox, and the eagle. And of these the J ewish 
proverb says : ' Four are the highest in the 
world— the lion among wild beasts, the ox 
among tame cattle, the eagle among birds, 
man among all (creatures) ; but God is 
supreme over all. 'The meaning is,' says 
Dr. Fairbairn, ' that in these four kinds are 
exhibited the highest forms of creature-life 
on earth ; but that God is still infinitely ex- 
alted above these ... So that a creature 
compounded of all these— bearing in its gen- 
eral shape and structure the lineaments of 
a man, but associating with the human the 
appearance and properties also of the three 
next highest orders of animal existence- 
might seem a kind of concrete manifestation 
of created life on earth, a sort of personified 
creaturehood' (p. 225). Dr. Fairbairn con- 
cludes, from the nature of this compounded 
form, man, the centre of the whole, augment- 
ed with the highest attributes of other 
creatures, the lion, the eagle, the ox, peer- 
less strength, king-like motion, productive 
energy, that human beings in a nobler grade, 
instinct with the highest and most perfect 
life, the life of God in the soul, must have 
been symbolized by the cherubim. And he 
sees hence an admirable fitness In their 
being placed in the garden of paradise, when 
Adam and Eve had been driven thence for 
their sin, not merely by way of defence, or 
for a token of exclusion, as the fiaming 
swoi-d of terror, but more chiefly to hold, as 



it were, paradise In pledg-e, affording the 
sure hope that men, quickened and purified 
and exalted, would again be placed as deni- 
zens there, to eat of its tree of life, and drink 
of its crystal streams. In the sanctuary, too, 
God dwelt between the cherubim, so re- 
garded, as a covenant God. It was shown 
that spiritual and holy life must be the 
characteristic of those who are admitted to 
his immediate presence ; a most instructive 
lesson being thereby read as to the neces- 
sary disposition and nature of men in whom 
and among whom the glorious Lord will 
walk and dwell. Impurity he cannot abide. 
The common notion of the cherubim being 
the support of Jehovah's throne finds little 
authority in scripture. It is true that God 
is represented as riding upon a cherub (Psal. 
xviii. 10), and that (Ezek. i. 26, x. l)his 
throne is placed in or above the firmament 
over the heads of the cherubim. But for 
this there was a reason. The manifestations 
were not, as in the tabernacle and the tem- 
ple, for mercy, but for judgment : creatures 
therefore were properly then beneath the 
feet of the divine Avenger. Dr. Fairbairn 
sums up his opinion in the following words. 
' The cherubim were in their very nature 
and design artificial and temporary forme 
of being. . . They were set up for repre- 
sentations to the eye of faith of earth's 
living creaturehood, and more especially of 
its rational and immortal though fallen 
head, with reference to the better hopes and 
destiny in prospect. From the very first 
they gave promise of a restoi-ed condition to 
the fallen ; and by the use afterwards made 
of them the light became clearer and more 
distinct. By their designations, the position 
assigned them, the actions from time to 
time ascribed to them, as well as their own 
peculiar structure, it was intimated that the 
good in prospect should be secured, not at 
the expense of, but in perfect consistence 
with, the claims of God's righteousness ; that 
restoration to the holiness must precede 
restoration to the blessedness of life ; and 
that only by being made capable of dwelling 
beside the presence of the only Wise and 
Good could man hope to have his portion of 
felicity recovered. But all this, they fur- 
ther betokened, it was in God's purpose to 
have accomplished, and in the process to 
raise humanity to a higher than its original 
destination, in its standing nearer to God, 
and greatly ennobled in its powers of life 
and capacities of working' (pp. 240, 241). 

Dr. Fairbairn's views are entitled to great 
deference. But one of the proofs on which 
he relies as showing that the cherubim were 
distinct from angels must not be pressed. 
In our version, according to the received 
text, the living ones, identical with cheru- 
bim, are represented as giving thanks for 
their own redemption (Rev. v. 9, 10). Thei-e 
is great probability that the true reading 
of the passage does not include them among 
the redeemed by blood. Perhaps, therefore, 
though on a subject so mysterious it is most 
unbecoming to dogmatize, angelic crea- 
tures are symbolized. They, when man was 
expelled from Eden.lkept the way of the tree 
of life, for they are ministering spirits foi 
man's behoof (Heb.i.l4) : they bent reveren r 1 > 



cherub] 



156 



upon tlie mercy-seat, for tliey desire to 
Sik into the wondrous plans of coyei^ant 
me?cv made for man's redemption : their 
SrSonsthe I^ord made use of when 
he would commission his prophets, for ms 
df.reSions were ordained by angels m 
tie hand of a mediator (^ct^v^-.^^fj.f^J^t 
i-ii iQ- Heh ii. 2): they raise the ]uiniant 
ongofa'ifrlngpiaiseforman^^^^^^^^^^ 
for is there not ]oy among them orer every 
sinner that repente h (^l^^f ao) . i ne 
lessons of instruction thac Dr. FauDairn 
dPdS?es on his supposition are well-nigh as 
?o?cible oS this, sikce there will he one day 
but one large kssemhly, 'just men made 
perfect' with the ' innumerable company of 
an-eis' (Heb. xii. 22, 23) ; and through all 
fhat vast coiigreEration arid in every mem- 
befof it the tokens of condescending love 
ai-I seen, in that the Highest deigns to 
dwell wfth and take into his own fellowship 
^«?=abl..applicaUon 

¥1 "ii t^q!^fro^ 

tlfrcherubim of the sanctuary. They with 
thPirfar extending wings covered the ark ; 
0 he was'placed, as it were for a defence 

E Ssfe to he ' upon the holy mountain of 
God.' He was insensible to all this , ana ne 
and his nation must be cast out as pio- 

^^rHF'RUB (id). A place in Babylonia, 
fromlSYhso^me^ews^vhoc.>uld^^^^^^^^^ 
their pedigree returned with ZeruDoaoei 
^SSii^om^ceJ. Aplaceon^he 
borfer of Judah, said to be on the side or 
flank of mount Jearira (Josh. ^T; l^^' /.t^^.y^ 
is a Tillage called Kesla on the westeiu 
SounTams of Judah, al^out six mnesnm^tl^^ 
east of 'Ain-Shems : perhaps it may mari. 
^^Sd'™ A son of Kahor (Gen. 

thelxtreme south of Judah (Josh, x^^ 
It is most likely identical ^ th B^etlml (xix 
4) Mr. Wilton imagines that it ^as tne 
Sace where Abraham worshipped, and that, 
Sterwards desecrated by idolatry (astral 
wo?shiS it received in contempt the name 
of ChSk Its site is probably el-Klm- 

the Elusaof t^e Gr^f f/.f^e'ir^S 
a few miles south-west of Beer-she Da. iiie 
I ruins are extensiVe (The Negeb 

CHEST. The terra is found m 2 Km gs xi i. 
Q 1 0 2 Chron. xxiv. 8, 10, 11, to denote the 
coffer into which contributions were cast 
?n?the repair of the temple. It is observable 
niat the original word, wherever else it oc- 
^ i?s imShes the sacred ark, excerpt once 
S 1 lerwhere it is used for Joseph's 
The chests of rich apparel m Ezek. 
xxvu' 2rare treasure chests, where valu- 

^"^rHlSxNUT'-TREE (Gen. xxx. 37; Ezek. 
xxx? sf The tree intended is thought to 
bfthe^plane-tree, PZa^anns on^^^^^^^ 

Ks?^°«^tiSS:,;^f^|4a 

smooth hark, which annually falls ofi. The 



flowers are small, and come out a little be- 
?or^ the leaves.' This tree is a native of 
western Asia, but is found as far east a. 
Ca'^hmere. It is now common m EngJana, 
and ^rows here to a considerable size 

CHESUL'LOTH (/lopes). One of the towns 
of Issachar (Josh. xix. 18). Porter ima- 
gines S may be Iksdl (Eandh. for Styna, 
r/ 359); but it is as likely that this marks 
tile site of Chisloth-Tabor. 
CEET'TIIM (1 Mace. 1. 1). A lorm oi 

^^OHF^/IB (fdl^e) A town where Judah 
was^'whe'n ht t&rd son Shelah was bo^ 
(Gen. xxxyiii. 5). It is probably identical 

^^C^l'SSS^'Oavelin). The name given (1 
Chron.xiii.9) to the threshing-floor where 
Uzzah put forth his hand to prevent the 
ark from falling, and was struck dead In 
2 Sam vi 6 it is called Nachon's threshing 
floor Perbaps the spot had Passed froin 
one owner to another ; or one word might 
be the name of the place, tne other of the 

^""cHILDREK It was the earnest desire 
of every Hebrew to have children, sons 
esoecial y By them the house was built 
up^; and Siey were the honour and strength 
of their parents (Psah cxxvn. 3-o). Ac 
cordingly, we find various means resorted 
to, and a barren wife even giving a cmicu- 
bine to her husband that she might own 
the children born of such intercourse (Gen 
xvi 1-3 XXV 21, xxx. 1-8 ; 1 Sam. i.l-ll). it 
has'bee'n suggested as a reason for this de- 
sh4 that ea^h woman of Israel ^^oped s^je 
mi-ht be the mother of Messiah. See Bar- 
RENNEsr No doubt there is truth m this 
beliefTbut it is not the whole. Eastern 
womeA are to the full as anxious now for 
offJS? ni that is sons, thebirth of aaaugh- 
^er being often regarded as a calamity as 
ever they were in old time. Dr Thomson 
lives some curious details on this subject, 
how vows and pilgrimages are made m 
order to oltain children, and how, when a 
son^s bom, the parents cease to bear their 
moper iSes, and are known by their re- 
u,ti-n^ to the child, e.g. Abu-Besnarah, Em- 
Bihar ah 'father of Besharah/ ' mother of 
B"sharah ' (Tlie Land and the Book, pp. 123, 
As soon as a child was born, its um- 
biUcallordwas cut; it was then washed, 
and rubbed with salt, and put m o swad- 
dling-clothes (Ezek. XV1.4; Luke i . 0. A 
name was immediately given (Gen. xxxv. 
18) • though, in later times, the naming of 
sons appears to have been at the time of 
cJrcumcision, which was the eighth day 
rxvii 10-J2 ; Lev. xii. 3 ; Luke i. 59). Att^ei 
the circumcision the mother was unclean 
or%3 m'rdays. If the child were a gui 
the mother was not purified till the end oi 
66 days, reckoned from the close of tiie 
second week after the birth (Lev. xii. 3-d), 
Mo'tTerr ienerally nursed their chi dren 
rGen xxi 7; iSam.i. 23; Sol. Song Mii.i; , 
though sometimes we hear of a nurse (Gen 
xxiv 53 59 ; 2 Sam. iv. 4). The period of 
mirsing las ed from two to three years 
^9 Mace vii 27) ; and when a child was 
weaned It was customary to n^ake a f e^st 
(Gen xxi. 8), and according to their age chil 



167 MMt Uncisktfse* [cmiisT 



dren were called babes, sucklings, weaned 
children, little ones, youths and maidens 
(Saalschiitz, Arch, der Hebr., cap. 64, vol. ii. 
pp. 213, 214). In their earlier years children 
of both sexes were under the care of the 
mother (Prov. xxxi. 1) : after the fifth year 
the father took the hoys ; while the girls, 
till their marriage, continued with the 
mother. In rich families governors or tu- 
tors were employed, it would seem from 
early childhood (Numb. xi. 12 ; 2 Kings x. 1); 
and, at 12 oris, children were considered of 
legal age, admissible to all the rites of re- 
ligion, and competent to give testimony 
(John ix. 21). Parents had great authority 
over their children;and respect was enjoined 
to the mother even after they were taken 
from her special charge (Gen. xxxviii. 11, 24 ; 
Exod. xxi. 15, 17 ; Deut. xxi. 18-21 ; Prov. 
XV. 20). We find too, a child is bound for 
the parent's debts 2 Kings iv. 1). The first- 
born son was devoted to God, and to be re- 
deemed (Exod. xiii. 1, 13 ; Numb, xviii. 15). 
See First-born. The inheritance descend- 
ed to the sons, if there were no sons to the 
daughters, who then must not marry out of 
their own tribe (xxvii. 8, xxxvi. 8). The 
term 'children' is used sometimes meta- 
phorically to denote a certain relationship 
(Luke XX. 36). 

CHIL'EAB (perhaps like to Ms father). A 
son of David by Abigail (2 Sam. iii. 3). He 
is also called Daniel (1 Ohron. iii. 1). 

CHIL'ION (a pining). One of the sons of 
Elimelech, and husband to Orpah (Ruth i. 
2-5, iv. 9, 10). 

CHIL'MAD. A country or place men- 
tioned with Sheba and Asshur (Ezek. xxvii. 
23). Its situation and the signification of 
the name are unknown. But see Ch^ldea. 

CHIM'HAM (pining, longing). The son or 
near relative of Barzillai the Gileadite, who 
accompanied David on his return to Jeru- 
salem, after the defeat of Absalom (2 Sam. 
xix. 37-40 ; 1 Kings ii. 7). It w^ould seem that 
the king gave him some possession near 
Beth-leh€m (Jer. xli. 17). 

CHIM'HAN (2 Sam. xix. 40. marg.). 

CHIN'NERETH {lyre). A city of Naph- 
tali (Josh. xix. 35). It cannot be ascertained 
whether it gave name to the lake so called, 
or was named from it. 

CHIN'NERETH, SEA OF (Numb, xxxiv. 
11 ; Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh. xiii. 27). See Gen- 
NESARET, Sea of. It is also called 

CHIN'NEROTH (Josh. xi. 2, xii. 3). 

CHI'OS. A beautiful and fertile island in 
the ^gean sea between Samos and Lesbos, 
belonging to Ionia in Asia Minor. It was 
celebrated anciently for its wine. St. Paul 
passed it when on his voyage from Asia, 
going up to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 15). It is 
now called Scio. 

CHIS'LEU (perhaps languid). Carey 
imagines that the name is from the con- 
stellation Chesil, i.e. Orion (The Book of 
Job, p. 441). See Months. 

CHIS'LON (confidence). The father of 
Elidad, the Benjamite commissioner for the 
division of Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 21). 

CHIS'LOTH-TA'BOR (loins or flank of 
Tabor). A place on the border of ZebuUm 
/Josh. xix. 12). There is a village called 
IksAl, about two miles and a-half west of 



mount Tabor : possibly it may mark the site 
of Chisloth. See Chesulloth. 

CHIT'TIM (Cyprians ; but the primitive 
meaning is uncertain : it is thought by 
some to be equivaJent to Hittites). A son, 
or rather a race, descended from Javan, of 
the family of Japheth (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chron. 
i. 7 ; where the name is given as Kittim). 
It appears that the Phoenicians carried on 
an extensive commerce with Cyprus, which 
I)roduced timber, copper, and other mineral 
treasures, and abounded in oil, wine, and 
honey. This island, too, was a convenient 
station, intermediate between Tyre and the 
more distant ports to which Tyrian vessels 
traded. Hence Phoenician settlements were 
made in Cyprus ; one of them being Citium 
on the south-eastern coast, among the ruins 
of which Phoenician inscriptions have been 
discovered. The inhabitants of Citium 
were called Kittaei by the Greeks ; and 
therefore we may reasonably look for 
Chittim here. The name, given to this lo- 
cality, attached to the whole island and to 
the people, Grecian or Asiatic immigrants, 
who subsequently occupied settlements 
which had been Phoenician ; and these were 
properly the descendants of Javan, the 
Phoenicians being a Hamite race. Hence 
Chittim denoted manj^ of the islands and 
coasts of the Mediterranean, Greece, Italy, 
Sicily, and Macedonia (Numb. xxiv. 24 ; 
Isai. xxiii. 1, 12 ; Jer. ii. 10 ; Ezek. xxvii. 6 ; 
Dan. xi. 30). And in 1 Mace. viii. 5 we find 
Perseus called 'king of the Citims,' i.e. 
Chittim. By race, therefore, Chittim is 
connected with Greece, by locality with 
Phoenicia. 

CHI'UN (statue, image) (Amos v. 26). See 
Remphan. 

CHLO'E (green herb). A Christian female, 
from whose household St. Paul had received 
an account of the dissensions at Corinth 
(1 Cor. i. 11). 

CEO'BA (Judith iv. 4). A place possibly 
identical with 

CHO'BAI (Juditb xv. 4, 5). 

CHGE'NIX (Rev. vi. 6, marg.). See 
Measures. 

CHOR-A'SHAN (smoking furnace). One 
of the places which David and his men were 
wont to haunt (1 Sam. xxx. 30). It may be [ 
identical with Ashan (Josh. xv. 42, xix. 7). j 

CHORA'ZIN (district of Zin ? ) A town of ; 
Galilee mentioned with Bethsaida and Ca- i 
pernaura as the scene of some of our Lord's i 
mighty works (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 1.3). | 
Robinson places it at the ruins Tell Hilon ; j 
but Dr. Thomson finds it two miles to the i 
north, still bearing the name Khorazy (The \ 
Land and. the Book, p. 359). 

CJIOSAME'US (1 Esdr. ix. 32). 

CHOZE'BA (lying). Probably the same 
place with Achzib^ or Chezib, which see. 
The men of Chozeba are mentioned in 1 j 
Chron. iv. 22. ! 

CHRIST (anointed:). A word synonymous 
with the Hebrew Messiah, used generally 
of those who were officially anointed, as 
kings, priests, and, as some believe, pro- 
phets, and more specifically of the Anointed 
One, who was to be the great King, and 
Priest, and Prophet of his people. He, 
according to prophecy, was to be specially 



chbistian] 



158 



anointed with tlie Holy Spirit (Isai. Ixi. 1). 
THis prophecy Jesus of Nazareth applied to 
iSf (Luke iv. 21) ; and the d.sciples 
recognized him as really anointed, not m- 
deed^Sy external act .(unless we may sup- 
pose this in his haptism, Matt. in. 16, 17), 
but with the Holy Ghost and with owei 
rActs ir 27, x. 38) ; so that he was the ex- , 
pecSd Christ or Messiah, for w^aom those | 
that looked for redemption m Israel were , 
anxiously waiting. H^nce the great aim 
the apostles in preaching to the Je^ys A^ as 
to convince them that Jesus was "le Christ 
fii 36 ix.22); and hence their anxiety to 
show,' as Jesus himself taught them from 
the ancient scriptures (Luke xxir 26, 46) 
that the expected Christ would have to 
suffer (Acts xvii. 2, 3). From this the 
Jewish Snind recoiled: those whose ej-es 
were fixed upon a conquering king, who 
wis to he ' a light to lighten the Gentiles, 
and to he ' the glory of ' his ' people Israel, 
Refused to recognize him in the despised 
and rejected one ; and hence a notion which 
hassometimesprevailedamong them, when 
forced to acknowledge that the Prophets 
descrihed a sufferer, that there wou d he 
two a suffering and a triumphant Cbrist. 
WUh us Christ°has, through ^se hecome a 
kind of surname ordinarily attached to 
Jesus : hut it was the junction of these two 
names that formed the hard knot for the 
Jews The meaning of the word hemg kept 
ill view, it is easy to understand our Lord s 
pre^fct ion that there would be false Christs 
persons wrongfully claiming the high office 
of God's Anointed (Matt xxiv. 23, 24)- -This 
nrediction has heen abundantly fulfilled. 
Oce of these was Simeon Bar Cochba, or 
BSrcochebas, the son of the star, who occu- 
pS Jerusalem about 132 a.d., and was 
defeated and killed by the Romans in 135. 
Many other such impostors have arisen. 
See Jesus, Messiah. -u *i „ 

CHRISTIAN. The name by which the 
professed followers of Christ are distm- 
Suished. Believers at first were exclusively 
Jews ; and no peculiar appellation was ne- 
cessary. But, when they began to be a 
company gathered from Jews and Gentiles, 
separated from both by special principles 
and special worship, then a name very na- 
turally was fixed upon them, a name as na- 
turally taken from the Master whom they 
served. This name was first applied in An- 
t-ioch (-Acts xi 26). We may conclude that 
it was not assumed by believers themselves 
or imposed by divine command; else it 
would be difficult to explain why it was 
not at once in regular use among the Chris- 
tians, who throughout the whole ^e^y Tes- 
tament style themselves 'the Jrethren ' 
« disciples,' ' believers,' ' the faithful.' And 
it is impossible to suppose that the Jews 
invented it ; since they specially denied 
thlfjesus was Christ, and their common 
name for Christians was ' Nazarenes, or 
^^Galileans.' It must, therefore, have had 
a Gentile origin ; and the people of An- 
tioch we are told, were fond of imposing 
names Tor derision'or reproach Tbe word 
is used only twice more (xxvi. 28 , i i^eu 
iv 16), in each case as coming from 
those without the church. Of course it 



was ere long a name of honour; and those 
who bear it may well be reminded by it 
that they are bound obediently to_ follow 
that Master whose holy appellation is upon 

^^CHRISTIANITY. The religion prof essed 
by the followers of Jesus Christ It is 
matter of historical notoriety that the Chne- 
tian faith had its beginning upwards of 
1800 vears ago in the city of Jerusalem 
The first teachers of it were a few of the 
personal followers of Jesus. Their Master 
had been put to death on a charge of blas- 
phemy But they maintained that he rose 
from the dead, and that, after being re- 
peatedly seen by them alive he visibly as- 
cended into heaven. They taught that all 
that had happened to him was the f ulfilment 
of ancient Hebrew prophecy ; so that their 
doctrine was but the development and com- 
pletion of that held by the Jews; whose 
rites, they said, prefigured and prepared the 
way for the Christian revelation. Tbey were 
met with determined opposition, first by 
the Jews, and then through several gen^ 
rations by the heathen. The Power of the 
Roman empire was unsparingly exerted to 
crush them. But they persevered, and 
their religion spread, till it became what 
we now see it, the faith of the most civihzed 
nations of the world. And it is ohservaWe 
that we have to recur to its oldest recoids 
for the best account of its requirements 
So that Christianity presented itself at once 
as a matured and complete system. If , 
therefore, it be not truth, it is altogether a 
deliberate and planned imposture, mature 
at once, not developed gradually mto shape 
and substance, or modelled beyond the first 
idea according to circumstances, but an- 
nounced originally in its Present form, its 
principles and demands all sharply defined 
by its founders, men who lived in.a keenly- 
inquisitive age, who devised their systeni 
in a degraded country, who held even among 
their own people no position of influence 
who had to contend, with no prospect of 
worldly reward, against the most formid- 
able obstacles, and who, therefore, were 
most unUkely to palm imposture on man- 

^^if isnot intended to touch what are called 
the external evidences of Christianity m 
the present article : the observations made 
will rather be directed to the internal marks 
U has of truthfulness. And, in illustrating 
these it will be necessary to examine the 
nature and tendency of the Christian re- 
ligion, as exhibited in its authorized books : 
some notice of its effects upon the world 
mav properly be subjoined. 

I Its nature, including (1) the character of 
its Author, and (2) the complexion of its teach- 
ings.-ln investigating the nature of Chris- 
tianity, our first attention should be paid 
to the character and portrait of its Author. 
Jesus left no writings of his own ; but his 
sayings and doings are recorded m the 
gospel history. Now in this history we 
have the delineation of a perfect character. 
The behaviour of Jesus is described m a 
variety of minute details, his conduct to 
his relatives and associates, his habits of 
life, his journeys through various parts of 



159 



MMt W^mMttSQe. [Christianity 



Judea, his wisdom in the midst of snares 
for him, his kind and compassionate actions, 
his deportment on his trial and at his execu- 
tion, hi& conversations, too, and discussions 
on almost every conceivable topic, his posi- 
tion as a teacher never lost in his familiar 
Intercourse with those around him as a man 
—in all this we can detect neither presump- 
tion, nor weakness, nor mistake, nor folly. 
The portrait, too, is not a laboured one : it 
Is a simple description of words and deeds, 
with no artistic effort or parade,with scarce- 
ly even a single remark added to call the 
reader's attention to any particular feature, 
or expression, or event. Every man knows 
how hard it is to delineate a faultless cha- 
racter. The best writers of fiction have not 
succeeded. Their most happy attempts have 
always had some flaw. Besides, there is 
this peculiarity in the history of Jesus. We 
have four accounts of him, written by in- 
dependent persons, contemporaries it is 
true, but not acting in concert, with regard 
to whom, it is yet questioned by some 
critics, whether any one saw the production 
of any other before he penned his own. 
These four writers evince perceptible dif- 
ferences of style : the work of each has its 
special character and tone. With much 
that is common to all, each introduces also 
additional facts and speeches of the Per- 
sonage described. Yet no one mars the 
portrait that the rest have respectively 
drawn: no one introduces discordant fea- 
tures. Each has succeeded in producing 
a perfect exemplar ; and yet each presents 
him in a different aspect. And, though if 
we had but one or two of the accounts we 
should say that wehad the portrait complete, 
yet the four taken together present it, with- 
out redundancy, yet with higher perfection, 
a whole of marvellous consistency and en- 
tire keeping. The Jesus of Matthew is the 
Jesus of Mark, of Luke, and of John, not a 
single touch of one or other violating the 
proportions of the central figure. If it 
were a wonder that one should so succeed, 
how much more wonderful that four con- 
temporaries should be equally successful. 
Moreover, these men were not professed 
writers. They had little advantage of educa- 
tion. One was a fisherman, another a custom- 
house officer : the one of whom most might 
be expected was, it is thought, a physician. 

We do not apprehend the full force of this 
extraordinary fact, unless we note also the 
glaring failure of other similar attempts. 
Besides the works of the four evangelists, 
there are still extant other Gospels. Several 
of these are confessedly of great antiquity, 
though they can be traced neither to apostles 
nor to apostolic men. They profess to be 
histories of Jesus, and to relate his doings 
and sayings. But place one of these apo- 
cryphal books beside the Christian Gospel, 
and the most ordinary eye perceives it to 
be a vulgar daub. It has no symmetry in 
itself: it has no cohesion with the author- 
ized books. So that we have here the result 
of what imposture could do : we see how 
lamentably legendary writers, men who in- 
dulged their own fancy, failed. By the con- 
trast, the trustworthiness of the gospel 
history is the more manifestly displayed. 



For there is no reasonable account to be 
given of the success of the four evangelism 
in delineating a perfect character, except 
that they drew it according to the truth, as 
it was before their eyes. It could be no 
fancy picture : it could only be reality ac- 
curately caught and marvellously preserved. 

It would be easy to enlarge on this part 
of the subject; but only a single trait or 
two can be noticed here, Jesus is placed 
before us in a few vigorous touches as a 
perfect youth. Those who are familiar with 
the descriptions of infant prodigies will 
appreciate this aspect of the character of 
Jesus. Again, he harmonizes opposite quali- 
ties : always grave, he is never austere : in 
poverty and privation he does not lose his 
dignity : on those most nearly admitted to 
his intimacy his character grows. And this 
is just the reverse of all experience of men. 
The greatest hero, philosopher, philanthro- 
pist leaves the impression more and more 
deeply fixed in the minds of those around 
him, that after all he is but human,with very 
many mortal imperfections : the estimation 
of Jesus, on the contrary, is continually 
heightening : he is, he must be, more than 
man : there is something in him divine. 
How, it must again be asked, how could 
this be a fancy picture ? 

In estimating the claims of Christianity 
upon us, it is necessary, further to examine 
the character of its teachings. We may 
consider these, both as they are in them- 
selves, and in their adaptation to the state 
of mankind. 

Regarded merely as a theory the teachings 
of the gospel are most admirable for the 
sublimity of the doctrines they propound, 
and the excellence of the precepts they 
inculcate. The Deity is described, far dif- 
ferent from the gods of heathenism, as 
possessed of every righteous, every attrac- 
tive quality. He is not debased by the 
passions of men, he is pure and spiritual, 
and yet not cold and far away from sym- 
pathy with his creatures, but with a loving 
heart caring for their welfare, providing 
for their necessities, repairing the ruin 
which sin has caused. The mode of that 
reparation as revealed in Jesus Christ, by 
which mercy is extended to the guilty, 
while justice remains inviolate, the more 
wonderful the more it is examined, is with 
reason held to transcend human conception. 
It is philosophy of the highest cast. And 
the worship of this pure Being is spiritual, 
with none of the licentious rites which men, 
left to themselves, have delighted to prac- 
tise, none of the petty observances which 
are calculated just to amuse, none of the 
austerities which have been deemed neces- 
sary to appease resentful powers. It is the 
worship of the heart and affections which 
is prescribed ; and only this can be worship 
in spirit and in truth. For the motives 
propounded are those which alone can In- 
fluence the whole man. The fear of expected 
vengeance is repellent rather than attrac- 
tive ; and the hope of credit for superior 
sanctity, or of reverence for deeper wis- 
dom, may stimulate the devotion which is 
to be seen of men, but will never secure I 
the real allegiance of the heart. The motive j 



160 



chststianity] 



propounded iu the Christian system is lore, 
kindled by a sense of vast evils averted 
and vast benefits hestovred, and purified by 
an appreciation of the Object to be loved, 
deserving for his own sake the entire affec- 
tion of all that can approve that which is 
reallv excellent. The histcny of Christianity 
attests the superiority of the Christian roo- 
tive, under the influence of which men, 
not in the excitement of fanaticism, or 
through Stoic apathy, but calmly counting 
the cost, have loved not their lives unto 
tbe death. The destiny, too, of man as 
pictured in the gospel rises above that 
promised by every other scheme. Life and 
immortality are brought to light. And,while 
the nature of the intelligent happiness to 
be enjoyed is sufficiently revealed, every 
description of it is seen to fall below the 
grandeur of the idea it tries to embody. 
That idea was too vast for the intellect of 
the Athenian sages, who scoffed doubtingly 
at the mention of a resurrection. The 
littleness of their thoughts failed utterly 
to grasD the notion of a perfect consumma- 
tion and bliss of both body and spirit. 

Besides the greatness of its principles, 
Christianity tea^ches the most admirable 
precepts. Indeed the two are most inti- 
mately combined, so that from the one the 
other naturally flows : from the high revela- 
tion of the attributes and dealings of the 
Deity, and of the course and destiny of man, 
flow those sufficient directions which re- 
quire his obedience to God and regulate his 
intercourse with men. And, though the 
doctrine be high, yet the practical effect is 
never doubtful or unclear. So plain is the 
path prescribed that it may be truly said, 
' the wayfaring men,though fools ' need ' not 
err therein' (Isai. xxxv. 8). Let the ethics 
of the gospel as comprehended in the ser- 
mon on the mount be examined, and their 
hisrh superiority must be acknowledged. 
Placed beside other moral systems, those 
systems I mean which have not drawn some 
of their spirit from the very Christianity 
which they disavow, they wonderfully com- 
mend themselyes to the enlightened mind 
and conscience. Vice is not palliated be- 
cause it has assumed a specious name : in- 
ternal purity is insisted on, and evil tracked 
doAyn to its original seat, the heart, and 
branded as it deserves there where it is as 
open to the all-seeing Eye as if it had fully 
flaunted its rank fruit in the sight of men. 

But principles may be exalted and yet be 
inapplicable to the condition of those to 
whom they are propounded ; precepts may 
be excellent and yet impracticable, beyond 
the appreciation and ability of the men on 
whoin they are imposed. It is not so with 
chose of Christianit}'. Its doctrines have 
their exact adaptation to the state of the 
world, a world in which, by the confession 
of all whose opinion is worth listening to, 
evil is existent. The grand characteristic 
of Christian doctrine is that it propounds a 
remedy for this existing evil : it bears em- 
phatically upon the world's wants, and offers 
ample relief. It would not be needed 
amonar beings whose purity was unstained : 
it would not be fitted for those entirely- 
reprobate whose moral sense was extinct, 



and who had no faculties for better things s 
it has a marvellous suitability for creatures 
such as we are, fallen but capable of restora- 
tion, made mortal by sin but with a longing 
after immortality, with faculties and attri- 
butes which may feed for a while indeed 
upon vanity, but which sooner or later turn 
unsatisfied away and can be filled and grati- 
fied only by that which Christianity reveals. 
The constitution of the human mind and 
the promises of the gospel fit in together in 
singular correspondence. And egually suit- 
ed are its precepts to the subjects of them : 
they are just such as, if obeyed, redound to 
the'honour of God, the pure, the faithful, 
the righteous, the merciful, the holy One, 
and enlarge the capacity for true enjoyment 
of those whom they influence. It is no mean 
evidence of the truth of Christianity if we 
find that both as regards its principles and 
its practice it deals fairly with men, being 
adapted to their state in relation to God and 
in relation to each other. This must be con- 
ceded as regards both the present and the 
future existence. It has just been shown 
how Christianity conducts onwards to the ul- 
timate good of man. And this by no visiou- 
ary scheme, which careless of present things 
would deal only with anticipation : it is 
through the present, so the gospel teaches, 
that the future is to be reached : its princi- 
ples, therefore, make its precepts effective 
for the world. Had it been a contrived im- 
posture, it hardly could have helped legis- 
lating for some particular class, sacrificing 
one interest for the advantage of another. 
Whereas it comprehends the whole family 
of man ; inculcating upon all the reasonable 
service of the Creator, from which none is 
too high to be exempt, none too mean to be 
excused, and adjusting the due claims of 
each individual upon his fellows. It is 
adapted not only to a world of sinners, for 
whom it provides remission and restoration, 
but also for a world of rich and poor, of 
intellectual and ignorant, of parents and 
children, of rulers and subjects, with all 
the various intercommunications and com- 
plications which naturally arise a.nd subsist 
among beings endowed as we are. It puts 
itseUln contact with the thousand springs 
of action according to which the business 
of life goes on, and it never fails any man, 
in whatever crisis of difficulty he may be, 
with a principle for his right guidance, with 
a direction by which he may walk without 
stumbling. IS'or is it a mere record of what 
ouffht to be, or a dry detail of what must be 
done, but there is with the principle and 
precept a kind of power supplied, which, 
without overriding a man's own actings, en- 
ables him, if he will yield to it, to attain that 
which at first seems too high, and to con- 
quer that which might appear insuperable. 
A system, so mighty for its grasp on great 
thins-s, so particular for the evolution of 
the s^mallest details, and thus exactly corre- 
sponding to what we are and what we see— 
if it be a planned imposture— must be for 
thatveiT reason more marvellous than if it 
were grounded on the re ility of truth. 

Such, then, very briefly is Christianity in 
its nature as developed in the character of 
its Author, and in its teachings as admirable 



161 mtXz ^namtnqt. 



In themselves, and as suited to a world sucli 
as ours. 

II. Its tendency. — We may, still further, 
examine its tendency, which cannot hut 
bft of a salutary kind. Such views as are 
given of the Deity, as a merciful and holy 
Being, demand a worship befitting him to 
whom It is paid, aud influencing beneficially 
those who offer it. Asj^stem of false belief 
would be sure to have a degrading ten- 
dency : it would darken the understanding : 
it would con'upt the conduct ; whereas a 
religion like that which has been just de- 
lineated, elevated In itself and suited to 
man's condition, prescribing no cruel rites 
to mollify a vengeful Deity, no sensual cere- 
monies to gratify and inflame the grosser 
appetites, revealing to us the Godhead 
clothing himself with man's nature so as 
fully to sympathize with us— and yet not, as 
in the mythological stories of heathenism, 
debased with human vices, but in that 
union rather setting before men a perfect 
and intelligible pattern— such a religion, 
surely, must elevate their thoughts and 
refine their conduct. And there is no jarring 
contrast in the character represented. All 
is high, all is excellent : all his qualities com- 
bine to make the Christian's God an object of 
the loftiest and most intelligent adoration. 
One who can be reverenced and loved and 
confided in. The peculiar doctrines of the 
gospel all contribute to enhance this. There 
is not only the care evinced which a benefi- 
cent Creator might well bestow upon the 
work of his hands, not only the good order 
which a moral governor would, we might 
suppose,weH maintain among those beneath 
his sway— there is much more, the infinite 
love displayed in the recovery of lost man, 
the wisdom which, while mercy is indulged, 
would not have justice trenched on, "the 
power of that admirable purpose, which, by 
its spiritual working, avails to overcome 
eveiy difficulty and secure a blessed result- 
all the Christian doctrines are of a magni- 
tude and perfection, such that man is ele- 
vated in the scale of being by the know- 
ledge of such a Deity, and by being brought, 
in worship and holy service, into commu- 
nion with him. The tendency, therefore, 
of the Christian representation of God's 
character is to improve and purify the 
conduct of mankind. It has been acknow- 
ledged, even by those who have doubted the 
divine origin of the gospel, that its prin- 
ciples, if carried out, would be beneficial. 
For not only does it teach that an all- 
seeing eye is marking men's actions for 
future judgment, but, having supplied an 
adequate motive for the love of God, which 
IS the love of rectitude, it educes an imita- 
tion of the divine character, and bv conse- 
quence all benevolent feeling towards men. 
For, if its first cardinal precept be, ' Thou 
Shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy 
heart, and with all thy soul, and with all 
thy mind,' there is another resting on the 
same basis, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour 
as thyself (Matt. xxii. 37, 39). And this is 
to extend into all the ramifications of social 
and domestic life. So that the precepts of 
Christianity tend to make men good citizens, 
good parents, good children, good neigh- 



[CHRISTIANITt 



j hours, to check envy and discontent, to ! 

encourage charity and forbearance, and to I 
I render every virtue not a mere show but a 
I reality. It is useless to object, as some 
have done, that there are certain virtues, as 
patriotism, not specially insisted on in the 
gospel. There is the principle of every- 
thing good laid down ; and every virtue, so 
far as it is a virtue, stripped of all the 
meaner elements which human passions 
have introduced, is fully sanctioned, and 
sufficiently encouraged. 

The conclusion from all this would seem 
veiT easy : if the tendency of Christian 
teaching, so far as it defines the relation of 
man to his Maker, is pure and elevating ; if, 
so far as it would regulate the intercourse 
of man and man it is beneficent, and calcu- 
lated to cherish virtue and promote the 
general well-being, it cannot have been 
devised by impostors or evil-disposed per- 
sons. Impostors do not act without ade- 
quate motive : they would never try to build 
up a system which promised no advantage 
to themselves or to their class. And surely 
depraved men could not if they would, and 
would not if they could, propound and en- 
force principles sanctioning that which 
they disliked, and strongly condemning 
their own conduct. A thief is not likely to 
be strict in defining the law of property ; 
nor would a sensualist prescribe chastfty, 
not of mere outward behaviour, but of the 
heart. We have proof enough before our 
eyes of the tendencies of religious systems 
devised by interested men. The immorali- 
ties sanctioned by the religions of Greece 
and Rome, of Syria and Egypt, the foul 
superstitions of India and Polynesia, the j 
intolerant fierceness of Mohammedan pow- I 
er, and the follies and sensualities of Mor- ' 
monism, are sufficient evidence of what the I 
tendency will be of systems growing out of I 
worldly motives, self-indulgence, the grasp- i 
ing of power, or fatuous speculation. Ac- ' 
cording to the source so will be the stream; ' 
and the happy promise of the ripening 
grains proves certainly that genuine seed 
was sown. True it is that some men are 
worse than their principles ; and there are 
some, too, that are better than theirs. It 
is granted . that there have been devout 
heathens; but such have not taken all the 
licence which their religion would allow ; 
while certainly depraved Christians are 
condemned by the spirit and principle of 
the gospel they dishonour. 

III. Its effects —This, however, will be 
better illustrated by an examination of the 
effects which Christianity has produced in 
the world. 

Its propagation from the feeblest begin- 
nings is a great fact. And, to estitrate it 
rightly, the difficulties must be looked at 
which were in the way of its extension. 
Admirable in itself, it required an enlight- 
ened eye to appreciate its excellencies. Ic 
did not fall in with the current notions of 
the world. Its peculiar teachings— the spi- 
ritual nature of the Deity, the incarnation, 
the new birth, the resurrection of the body ; 
the graces it inculcated— humility, repen- 
tance, faith, forgiveness of injuries— were 
in broad contrast to the ruling principles 



Christianity] 



of the time. The prevailing languages had 
no words accurately to express the ideas 
which must he dominant in the Christian 
system. To erect it out of the materials at 
hand would have tasked the mightiest in- 
tellect, and have proved too long for the 
most learned leisure to elaborate. But 
Christianity was confessedly broached hy a 
company of ill-educated men, hy men who 
had heen earning their livelihood hy the 
labour of their hands till the very time 
when they came forth as teachers of the 
new faith. And then, as might be expected 
from the facts just noticed, their preten- 
sions were assailed by a storm of ridicule, 
of obloquv, and of persecution. Jews, and 
heathens stirred up by them, opposed the 
gospel. The passions of the multitude were 
inflamed against it ; and magistrates were 
nothing loth to use the sword. Yet it 
steadily won its way, won every step of 
progress by determined conflict. And the 
result of its success was that wicked men, 
depraved, sensual, licentious, became holy 
and without blame. Its march was not that 
of the worldly conqueror, devastating where 
he subdues, and leaving the track of his 
career in misery and blood. The gospel has 
spread blessing around its onward path : it 
has recruited its most gallant soldiers from 
the ranks of its foes : it has promoted the 
best interests of those whom its peaceful 
proclamations have subdued. The apostle 
Paul, himself taken from amid the bitterest 
opposers of Christianity, appealed to the 
Corinthian converts : ' such-f ornicators, 
' idolaters, adulterers, thieves, covetous, 
i drunkards, revilers, extortioners — su-ch 
i were some of you ; but ye are washed, but 
' ye are sanctified, but ye are justified m 
; the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the 
' Spirit of our God' (l Cor. vi. 9-11). Effects 
do not occur without adequate causes. And 
what would be an adequate cause for the 
! transformation here described 1 A system 
of fanaticism, of imposture, of mere pnest- 
! craft, would fail in effecting it. ^ ^ ^ 
Nor is this the coloured testimony of a hot 
I partizan. Though we cannot from the na 
• ture of things produce very strong testimo 
1 nies from contemporary heathen history, 
! vet we are not without proof that the hea- 
I thens who persecuted Christians could sub- 
i stantiate no charge of crime against them. 

They were fools, they were obstinate, they 
i were unsocial; such is the character given 
1 of them : but they were not vicious, they did 
! no harm. This is the purport of the cele- 
brated letter of Pliny to the emperor Trajan. 
And the emperor Julian, who had renounced 
Christianity, yet could n ot help commending 
their virtues to the imitation of pagans. No 
man can deny that the gospel has promoted 
social happiness. It has abolished polygamy, 
and has assigned to the female her due posi- 
tion ; it has mitigated private tyranny, has 
cherished domestic love, has given tender- 
ness to family relationships, and has pro- 
moted charity between man and man. Where 
were there to be found in ancient Rome any 
counterparts to the benevolent institutions 
of our own metropolis, called forth and 
maintained by enlightened Christian prin- 
ciple ? Look again at the pohtical state of 



the world, and see the touch of the gospel 
in the discountenancing, and in many lands 
the abolition, of slavery, in the mitigation of 
the horrors of war, especially in the treat- 
ment of prisoners, in the milder systems ol 
civil government, and the better admuus- 
tration of civil justice. 

The topic might be pursued to any extent ; 
and innumerable proofs and examples 
might be produced— of which the reclaiming 
of the South Sea islanders from cannibalism 
and other unutterable vices by the preach- 
ing of Christ's gospel is not the least im- 
pressive—facts, I say, might be collected to 
any extent, proving to demonstration the 
benign effects of Christianity wherever it 
has been fairly applied. It is futile to object 
that evils yet exist in Christian nations, and 
that vices still prevail among so-called 
Christian men. No system is responsible 
for the faults of those who do not cordially 
embrace it ; and the sins which yet stain us 
are because we have too little Christianity, 
not too much. With the increase of its in- 
fiuence experience shows that these ble- 
mishes will be diminished. It is futile also 
to allege that religious intolerance has 
frequently manifested itself, and that the 
rancour of one class of Christians against 
another has sharpened the sword of perse- 
cution. If such evils were in accordance 
with the teaching of the New Testament, 
the text-book of Christianity, doubtless the 
charge would be just. But, when the New 
Testament censures these enormities ap 
strongly as it does the vices of heathenism, 
no fair opponent can believe that the gospel 
is itself to blame. Let it obtain a wider and 
a more thorough expansion ; let the love of 
God which it inculcates be generally a ruling 
principle ; let the love of a man's neighbour 
which it prescribes be the just standard of 
human society ; let its tendencies have their 
full development, and every candid reasoner 
must admit that the condition of mankind 
would be materially ameliorated. It is the 
evil heart (for which Christianity alone pro- 
pounds a sufficient cure) from which all per- 
version of good proceeds. 'From whence, 
asks the apostle. ' come wars and fightings 
among you? come they not hence, even of 
your lusts that war in your members 
(James iv. 1) ? Christianity stands herein in 
marked contrast to heathen systems. Evil 
was the natural fruit of them. The more 
devoted their votaries, the more demoral- 
ized was their conduct. 

We have in discussions of this kind to 
deal mainly with acknowledged facts: the 
conclusion therefore may be safely reached. 
The origin, the establishment, the effects of 
Christianity are plain, they are facts. The 
portrait of the Author of it is readily to be 
studied : the tendencies of his teachings are 
embodied in an authentic document. And 
the question is, Can any satisfactory expla- 
nation be given of the whole on the suppo- 
sition that Christianity was devised by weak 
and interested men? Were weak men, we 
must ask again and again, likely to achieve 
a task in which the acutest men had failed ? 
Would impostors try to persuade the world 
into a belief which was their own condem- 
nation and ruin? Reasons have been a! '-"'^^ 



i63 



for the success of Christianity apart from 
its supernatural origin. And some of these 
have weight. Secondary causes always co- 
operate in bringing about any result. But 
the real question is not touched by such 
theories. Gibbon alleges the inflexible and 
intolerant zeal of the first Christians, the 
earnestness with which they urged the doc- 
trine of a future life, the miraculous powers 
ascribed to the primitive church, the pure 
and austere morals of the original converts, 
and the disciplined union of the Christian re- 
public, forming a kind of independent state 
in the heart of the Roman empire, as causes 
of the large diffusion of Christianity. But, 
allowing these their fair influence, it is gra- 
tuitous to suppose that they would have 
sufficed had Christianity had no true basis. 
Or, if they had sufficed, if these alone w^ere 
the reasons why a religion overspread the 
world, we may safely conclude that that re- 
ligion would not have exhibited the pure 
features of Christianity : they might perhaps 
build up Mohammedism : the Christianity 
produced by no deeper motive would have 
been but a caricature of our holy faith. 

Considering then the moral grandeur of 
its principles, and the high purity of its 
precepts, looking at the account of its ori- 
ginator, and seeing how it has prevailed 
against difficulties the most formidable, and 
triumphed over opposition the most per- 
tinacious, weighing all the benefits it tends 
to produce, and marking its actual effect 
upon mankind, the most reasonable expla- 
nation of all these phenomena is that the 
gospel is the great power of God unto man's 
salvation. Any other solution involves the 
greatest improbabilities. 

It must be carefully remembered that the 
view here taken is but a partial one. It has 
been confined to a single aspect of the ques- 
tion. When it is added that there are other 
lines of proof (see Miracles, Prophecy, 
Resurrection, Revelation, Scripture), 
and that they all concur, other arguments 
which all speak the same language, and 
supply accumulated evidence, the result 
may be confidently stated : • We have not 
followed cunningly-devised fables.' 

Very many excellent works have been 
written on this great subject: it may be 
sufficient to direct the reader to those by 
Dr. Chalmers, Cliristian Evidences, and by 
Bishop M'llvaine, The Evidences of Chris- 
tianity. 

CHRONICLES, THE TWO BOOKS OF. 
Among the ancient Jews these formed but 
one book, though they are now divided in 
Hebrew bibles, as well as in our own, into 
two. They were called Tlie Words of Days, 
i.e. Diaries or Journals. The Septuagint 
translators denominated them Paraleipo- 
mena. Things omitted; and from Jerome 
we have derived the name ' Chronicles.' 
They are an abridgement of the whole of 
the sacred history, more especially tracing 
the Hebrew nation from its origin, and de- 
tailing the principal events of the reigns 
of David and Solomon, and of the succeed- 
ing kings of Judah down to the return 
from Babylon. The writer goes over much 
of the same ground as the author of the 
books of Kings, with whose work he was 



probably acquainted. He does not, how- 
ever, merely produce a supplement, but 
works out his narrative independently after 
his own manner. The following table, taken 
from Keil, will be of service as exhibiting 
the parallels between the Chronicles and 
the books of Samuel and Kings : — 

1 Chron. x. 1-12 1 Sara. xxxi. 

xi. 1-9 2 Sam. v. 1-3, 6-10 
xi. 10-47 xxiii. 8-39 

xiii. 1-14 vi. l-ll 

xiv. 1-7, 8-17 v. 11-16, 17-25 
XV., xvi. vl. 12-23 

xvii. vii. 

xviii. viii. 

xix. X. 

XX. 1-3 xi. 1, xii. 26-31 

XX. 4-8 xxi. 18-22 

xxi. xxlv. 

2 Chron. i. 2-13 1 Kings iii. 4-15 

i. 14-17 X. 26-29 

ii. V. 15-32 

iii. 1— V. 1 vi., vii. 13-51 
V. 2— vii. 10 viii. 

vii. 11-22 ix. 1-9 

viii. Ix. 10-28 

ix. 1-12, 13-28 X. 1-13, 14-29 
X. 1— xi. 4 xii. 1-24 
Xii. 2, 3, 9-16 Xiv. 21-31 

xiii. 1, 2, 22, 23 XV. 1, 2, 6-8 

xiv. 1, 2, XV. 16-19 XV. 11-16 

xvi. 1-6, 11-14 XV. 17-22, 23, 24 

xviii. 2-34 xxii. 2-35 

XX. 31— xxi. 1 xxii. 41-51 

xxi. .5-10, 20 2 Kings viii. 17-24 

xxii. 1-6, 7-9 viii 25-29, ix. 16-23, 

X. 12-14 
xxii. 10— xxiii. 21 yi. 
xxiv. 1-14, 23-27 Xii. 1-17, 18-22 

XXV. 1-4, 11, 17-28 xiv. 1-14, 17-20 
XXVi. 1-4, 21-23 xiv. 21, 22, XV. 2-7 

xxvii. 1-3, 7-9 XV. 32-36, 38 

xxviii. 1-4, 26, 27 xvi. 2-4, 19, 20 

xxix. 1, 2 xviii. 2, 3 
xxxii. 1-21 xviii. 13— xix. 37 

xxxii. 24, 25, 32, 33 xx. 1, 2, 20, 21 

xxxiii. 1-10, 20-25 xxi. 1-9, 18-24 

xxxiv. 1, 2, 8-28, 29- xxii., xxiii. 1-3 
32 

XXXV. 1,18-24, 26, 27, xxiii. 21-23, 28, 29- 

xxxvi. 1-4 34 
xxxvi. 5, 6, 8-12 xxiii. 36, 37, xxiv 

1, 5, 6, 8-19 
xxxvi. 22, 23 Ezra i. 1, 2 

It will be seen, however, on collation, 
how much difference there is between the 
two histories. There are omissions in 
Chronicles, as, for instance, David's adul- 
tery (2 Sara. xi. 2— xii. 25) : there are facts 
added, as David's preparations for building 
the temple (1 Chron. xxii.) : there are fuller 
details of matters shortly noticed in the 
parallel history, as in the account of the 
removal of the ark from Kirjath-jeari ni 
(corap. 1 Chron. xiii. 2, xv. 2-21, xvi. 4-43, 
with 2 Sara, vi.), besides briefer additions, 
explanatory remarks, reflections, and the 
omission of a few words in a narrative, 
differences of spelling, &c., which serve to 
prove that, as before noted, the author of 
Chronicles was not a mere supplementer. 
He had, indeed, a definite object. Suppos- 
ing him to have written slK)rtIy after the 



cheonology] 



164 



return from captivity, we can easily see 
the necessity of a work which should fix 
the genealogies of the returned exiles, 
with special reference to the line from 
which Messiah was to spring, to facilitate 
the re-estahlishment of religious worship 
by detailing the pedigrees, the functions, 
and the order of the priests and Levites, 
and to describe the original apportion- 
ment of lands, that the respective fami- 
lies might be confirmed in their ancient 
inheritances Accordingly, after the early 
genealogies in the first eight chapters, 
the writer seems to mark his age and 



to the book. Some indications of the date 
are afforded by the diction; as where the 
reckoning is by darics (xxix. 7), in our 
translation 'drams.' We must place the 
composition, therefore, under the Persian 
dominion. It is not likely to have been 
later. There is a probability, it may be 
added, that the books of Chronicles and of 
Ezra were originally one work. 

Besides the differences which have been 
noted between Chronicles and the books 
of Samuel and Kings, some critics be- 
lieve that they have detected contradic- 
tions. It can only be replied generally here, 

^-Vot- /I? c-r>r-oi->Qn r-ioo in nrrhncrmih V. diCtiOU. 



the writer seems to mark his age ana tions. il can on y ue luy iicu 5 ciA.:i^.a^^y.v^^: 
dSign in ix. 1, &c. We may thus perceive \ that discrepancies m orthography, diction 
whv thrkingdom of theten ti^^^ arrangement are of little weight ; and 

mentioned IsiS?l had been removed, and that those of numbers and facts haveforthe 
tS ?S.ry occupied by an envious and most part been satisfactorily explained. It 
hostiinopulation: We may see why the was customary to express numbers by let- 
bSfldng of the temple, David's prepara- ters of the alphabet: hence many of tl^e 
tiins a! well as Solomon's accomplishment ! mistakes of transcribers. And, if no perf ex-t 
of them, are detailed, and the various re- 1 solution of every knot can now be given, the 
^ormaTons of later godly kings specially ! difficulty is Pe^Mps owing ra her to oi r 
chronicled : these accounts would serve to , want of information than to a real fault m the 
cheer those who were engaged in a similar ; composition. Besides, it must never be f or- 
l.y^ Jl^yj^L^ hPiiPx^ft that rotten that the points of exact agreement 



cueer buubt; wuu >vcic t-us«ev,v^ •.•j. 
work, and strengthen them to believe that 
their covenant God would enable them to 
re-construct their religious order, and re- 
pair their ruined civil polity, in spite of 
the vast difficulties against which they had 
to contend. The pedigrees were, no doubt, 
extracted from public registers ; a confirma- 
torv proof of which is that they are not all 
brought down to the same period. And, in 
regard to his facts, the author is careful to 
name his authorities. Thus, for the his- 
tory of David a\ lie specifies the books of 
Samuel the seer, of Nathan the prophet, 
and of Gad the seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29), 
probably the same with the Chronicles of 
king David mentioned in xxvii. 24; for 
the history of Solomon (2), the book of 
Nathan, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shi- 
lonite, and the visions of Iddo the seer 
against Jeroboam (2 Chron. ix. 29). For the 
further history of Judah (3), a book of the 
kings of Judah is referred to (xvi. 11), cited 
elsewhere with small variations of title 
(XXV. 26, xxviii. 26, xxxii. 32, xxvii. 7, xxxv. 
27, xxxvi. 8, XX. 34, xxxiii. 18, see the He- 
brew). There are also (4), the story, mid- 
rash, of the book of kings (xxiv. 27), by 
some supposed identical with (3) ; (5), the 
book of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo 
the seer concerning genealogies C^ii. 15) • 



COinpUSlblDXl. XJCSiUCD, 11/ 11JU.OI/ ^^---^^ 

gotten that the points of exact agreement 
between independent scripture writers are 
almost innumerable— those of stubborn dis- 
crepancy very few. 

The books of Chronicles have always 
had their place in the canonical writings, 
ranked among the khethubim or hagio- 
grapha, both as being later than the cap- 
tivity, and as not exhibiting that detailed 
history and teaching of prophets which 
we find in Kings (comp. Ziindel, Krit. 
Untersiich. iiher die Abfassangzeit des B.Da- 
niel, pp. 220, 221). They are not expressly 
cited in the New Testament ; but there are 
probably some indirect allusions to them : 
comp. 1 Chron. xxiii. 13 with Heb. v. 4 ; xxiv. 
10 with Luke i. 5 ; 2 Chron. ix. 1 with Matt, 
xii. 42 and Luke xi. 31 ; xxiv. 20, 21 with 
Matt, xxiii. 35 and Luke xi. 51. The books 
of Chronicles comprise, I. Genealogical lists 
from Adam downwards, including an enu- 
meration of those who returned from cap- 
tivity (1 Chron. i.-ix. 34) ; II. The histories 
of Saul and David (ix. 35— xxix. 32) ; III. 
The history of the united kingdom under 
Solomon (1 Chron. xxix. 23-30; 2 Chron. 1.— 
ix.) ; IV. The history of the kingdom of 
Judah till its termination by the Babylonian 
conquest (x.— xxxvi.). 
CHRONOLOGY. The importance of chro- 



_jalogies (xii. 15); ujtiitui^uj^uv:^!. xiic nuvu^'"^"''^"/-^"-" 
(6) the' story, vkdrash, of the prophet nology as an adjunct and interpreter of 
Iddo (xiii. 22) -, (7), the book of Jehu, the I history is sufficiently acknowledged Its 
«nn of Hanani Cxx 34) ; (8), the acts of [ business is to range events m their pro- 
flzziah wSt?en by Isaiah the prophet per order; for without such arrangement 
r^x^^ 22V (9) th e vision of Isaiah the their mutual relations cannot be understood. 
Set (x'xil : 32)1 Jnd (10), the sayings ! and the records ,of past times become 
S th?sSs xxxiii 19). Of these, the ' but an indistinguishable mass. Biit early 
Soofir words of Jeh^kud the vision of writers were little caref ul in notmg the dates 
I°a^ah are said to have been incorporated of the events they chronicled. The want 
wfth the book of the kings of Judah and of fixed eras from which to court, the habit 
SrL It is ve?y likely t^^^ the rest were I of using round numbers, the mexactness 
Sons of some onflarge historical work, j in settling the_ length of years and months 
The luthor of the Chronicles it is not ' the varying distribution of the parts of a 
^Prv Pfltv to ascertain The Jews believe ' day, the tendency of so many nations to ex- 
hfm to be Ezra ; bu? the pedigree inserted aggerate their own antiquity-these are but 
^ Chron Ui 17-24 would seem to reach I some of the causes which contribute to em- 
be vond Ezra's tim^^^ explana- i barrass chronological investigation, 
tfons however are given of it ; and some In the short space which can be allotted 
3ne tMt the pa^^^^^ is a la er addition to the subject here it is obyiously impossible 



165 



[chronology 



to give even a complete outline of it. That 
space will perhaps he most satisfactorily 
occupied, if, after an explanation of the va- 
rious divisions of time natural and artificial, ; 
of calendars and eras, an account is offered 
of some leading systems of biblical chrono- 
logy, and the grounds on which their advo- 
cates have based them, with notice also of 
tlie checks which may be applied to thein. 
The reader will at least gain clear ideas, and 
will in a degree be prepared for those fur- 
ther researches in which he must seek tlie 
aid of larger books. 

Natural divisions of time are the day, the 
month, and the year. The day, or one revolu- 
tion of the earth upon its axis, of course 
everywhere identical in its total length, had 
among different nations a different begin- 
ning. The Hebrews began it in the evening : 
the sunset was the close of one day : imme- 
diately afterwards the next began. The 
Romans commenced their day as we do 
ours, just after midnight. 

The month was a revolution of the moon. 
But one such revolution did not contain 
exactly a certain number of days. The 
months, therefore, were counted in round 
numbers either thirty days, or, to bring 
them more precisely into agreement with 
the moon, alternately thirty and twenty- 
nine days. 

The year was one revolution of the earth 
round the sun. This, however, compre- 
hended more than twelve lunations. If 
the months were alternately twenty-nine 
and thirty days, the sum of twelve such 
months would be 354 days. But a year of 
360 days seems to have been in use. In 
either case, if such years were allowed to run 
on, the month that at one time was mid- 
summer would in no very lung period fall in 
mid-winter. 

For convenience, artificial divisions of 
the day and night were made. These were 
hours and watches. Twelve hours were 
assigned to the day, from sun-rise to sun- 
set : consequently, according to the length 
of this interval at different seasons, the 
length of the hours would be different. 
See Day. At first among the Hebrews 
there were three watches : afterwards they 
counted four. See Watch. 

The week was another artificial division 
of time. The changes of the, moon are 
hardly defined enough to account for it : we 
must look for some other reason. And this 
we find in the account of the creation. Six 
separate divisions of creative activity are 
noted, a seventh of repose. And the Creator 
established a law thei-eupon that six days 
should be employed by man in labour, with 
a seventh for rest, needed, as physiologists 
testify, for the due refreshment of the 
human frame, and most rightly demanded 
for the special worship of Him who formed 
the intelligent inhabitants of the world. 
The week, therefore, though not distinctly 
marked in nature, and so far artificial, was 
the appointment of God. Most nations— 
those even without the light of divine reve- 
lation—have had the division of the week. 
See Sabbath, Week. 

It has been observed that the ends of the 
different revolutions of the moon and of the 



earth, diurnal and annual, do not tally, so 
that, without the application of some check, 
confusion in reckoning would soon ensue. To 
prevent this, calendars were devised. If the 
solar year was to be a standard, additional 
days must be thrown in ; and this was most 
conveniently done by allowing the difference 
between a lunar and a solar year to increase 
till the intercalation of a month would 
pretty nearly rectify the calculation. The 
cycle of intercalation among the ancient 
Hebrews we do not know : the modern Jews 
count thirteen months in the year seven 
times in nineteen years. See Months. As 
astronomical science became more exact, 
further modifications of the calendar were 
introduced. It is almost needless to say 
that according to our present practice one 
day is added every fourth year called leap- 
year, and one leap-year is omitted once in a 
century. 

No standard er^ is adopted in our bible. 
Many of the sacred historians and prophets 
are particular in dating events ; but these 
dates refer to late, and in different places 
different events. Thus we find occasionally 
the years reckoned from the departure of 
Israel from Egypt (Numb. i. 1, xxxiii. 38 ; 
Deut. i. 3 ; 1 Kings vi. 1) ; continually from 
the accession of kings (e. g. xv. 1, 9, 25, 33 ; 
2 Kings xviii. 13). The prophet Ezekiel 
uses two eras : the first (Ezek. i. 1) is va- 
riously explained, from the time of Josiah's 
great reformation, from the prophet's birth, 
from what is called the era of Nabopolassar, 
&c. &c. ; the second from Jehoiachin's 
captivity (i. 2, viii. 1, xx. 1). Sometimes it 
would seem that the Jews reckoned from the 
return from Babylon (Ezra iii. 8). But these 
dates were none of them employed as regular 
standards ; as the era of the Olympiads, from 
776 B.C. was by the Greeks, and that of the 
foundation of their city by the Romans, 753 
B.C. And, besides, there is a peculiarity 
observable which might draw a hasty reader 
into mistakes. The years of kings, for ex- 
ample, were reckoned not from the actual 
time of their accession, but from the ordi- 
nary commencement of the year ; so that one 
who ascended the throne in the 10th month 
would have commenced the second year of 
his reign within three months of his acces- 
sion. The era called that of the Seleucidce, 
312 B.C., is adopted in the books of Macca- 
bees (1 Mace. ii. 70) : see also a notice of the 
date used in instruments and contracts 
(xiii. 42). 

In the absence of a standing era, chrono- 
logical tables are consti'ucted for the sacred 
volume by calculating from the dates as- 
signed of the births and deaths of the patri- 
archs compared with the age as stated of 
each when a son was born, in later days 
by putting together the incidental notices 
of periods of time, as the years during which 
Israel was enslaved or tranquillity lasted, 
the length of the administrations of judges 
and of the reigns of kings. Thus, following 
the Hebrew text of Gen. v. 3-32, vii. 6, the 
simplest arithmetical calculation will show 
that 1656 years elapsed between the creation 
and the deluge. This is the computation 
; adopted l)y archbishop TJssher, and followed 
I in the chronological notes of our ordinary 



chronology] 



16() 



Englisli iDiWes. A similar process leads 
easily onwards to the death of Jacob. After 
the settlement of the Israelites In Canaan 
the calculations hecome more intricate, it 
is not clear whether the judges followed m 
consecutive order, or whether, as the autho- 
rity of some seems to have been acknow- 
ledged only in certain districts,we ought not 
to place two or more as contemporaneous 
rulers. In the times of the raouarchy dates 
were more precisely given; and alter the 
division of the kingdoms the regal chroni- 
cle of one is a check on that of the other. 
Proceeding cautiously, therefore, along the 
stream of time, archbishopUssher places the 
call of Abraham 1921 B.C. ; the exodus of 
Israel from Esrypt 1491 B.C.; the foundation 
of the temple 1012 B.C. ; the taking of Jeru- 
'^alem by Isebuchadnezzar 588 B.C. ; and the 
birth of Christ 4 B.C., or 4,000 years after the 
creation. . . , 

But when collateral testimonies have 
been considered, other chronologers have 
arrived at very diSerent conclusions. Those 
lust given are derived, as previously re- 
marked, from the Hebrew text, ^^owthe 
Pentateuch exists also in the ancient He- 
brew, or (as they are commonly called) 
Samaritan characters : see SAiiARiTAX 
Pentateuch. There is also the Septuagmt 
Greek version, of high value. And these 
two, the Samaritan Pentateuch and the 
Septuagint (without mutual accordance), 
vary widely from the Hebrew in the num- 
bers they give. The Jewish historian Jo- 
«ephus also, differing from the Hebrew text, 
agrees nearly with the Septuagint. The 
subjoined table will exhibit these difEer- 
ences in a clear form :— 



But the discrepancy is still greater when 
we descend to the period between the flood 
and the birth of Abraham. It will be suffi- 
cient to sav that, while the Hebrew text 
allows but 292 vears, the Samaritan extends 
the interval to' 942 : the Septuagint, reckon- 
ing an additional patriarch, Caman, to 10/2 ; 
and Josephus to 993 years. Admitting that 
the insertion of Cainan is an error, it must 
yet be conceded that the Hebrew computa- 
tion does not allow space for the multipli- 
cation of men, and consolidation of the 
monarchies which we find in Abrahams 

*^^There are various checks which tend to 
give precision to chronological calculations. 
Incidental notices in scripture are very 
serviceable in correcting false conclusions 
which might be drawn from the very con- 
cise way in which the sacred writers speak. 
A single example shall be produced. Ac- 
cording to Exod. xii. 40, 41, it would seem 
that the Israelites had dwelt in Egypt 
430 vears, reckoning from the time when 
Jacob went down thither. A difficulty in- 
deed would be felt, because the mother of 
Mo^es is said to have been the daughter 
of Levi. But the matter is cleared up, 
when we find St. Paul reckoning 430 years 
between the Abrahamic covenant and the 
giving of the law (Gal. iii. 17). The covenant 
referred to is obviously that mentioned lu 
Gen XV (see Browne's Ordo S(ECulorum,v^ri 
i cliap. vi. pp. 308. 309), a very little while 
posterior to Abraham's own soDOurn in 
Effvpt, from which, therefore, the Egyptian 
connection might fairly be said to begin. 
Hence we are led to the conclusion that the 
time from Jacob's descent to the exodus 



Lived before birth of son named. 



Adam . 
Seth 
Enos 
Cainan . 
Mahalaleel . 
Jared . 
Enoch . 
Methuselah . 
Lamech 

Xoah at the flood 



Heb. 


Sam. 


Sept. 


Jos. 


130 


1.30 


230 


230 


105 


105 


205 


205 


90 


90 


190 


190 


70 


70 


170 


170 


65 


65 


165 


165 


62 


62 


162 


162 


65 


65 


165 


165 


187 


67 


187 


187 


182 


53 


188 


182 


600 


600 


600 


600 



Creation to flood 1,656 1,307 2,262 2,256 



After birth of such son. 



Heb. 


Sam. 


Sept. 


Jos. 


Heb. 


800 


800 


7U0 


700 


930 


807 


807 


707 


707 


912 


815 


815 


715 


715 


905 


840 


840 


740 


740 


910 


830 


830 


730 


730 


895 


800 


785 


800 


800 


9G2 


300 


300 


200 


200 


365 


782 


653 


782 


782 


969 


595 


600 


565 


595 


777 



Total length of life. 



;. Jos. 
930 



9G2 
969 



It can hardlv be conceived that the varia- 
tions are mere mistakes. The Septuagint 
adds regularly 100 years to the age of each 
patriarch at the birth of his son, if the age 

1 in the Hebrew text be under 100, and as 
regularly subtracts 100 years from the re- 
mainder of the life. Tlie Samaritan com- 
putation cannot be relied on, because it 

' would make three of the earlier patriarchs 
die in the very year of the flood ; and the 
tital period from the creation to that time 
seems unreasonably short. The <iiiestion^^ 
then, substantially lies between theHebi ew 
and the Septuagint computations— has the 
first abridged, or has the latter extended 
the true chronology ? Great names may be 
found as supporters of each hypothesis. 



was about 215 years. Profane history and 
«till-existine monumental inscriptions will 
furni=h similar illustrations. Thus Reho- 
boam was contemporary with Shishak (or 
Sheshonk) (1 Kings xiv.,25, 26), Hezek ah 
with Tirhakah (2 Kings xix. 9), Josiah with 
Pharaoh-necho (xxiii. 29). But ascriptions 
have been found recording the dates of tLe 
accessions of these monarchs, or of the 
expeditions which they made ; and, without 
entering into particulars, it may be said 
thatthev corroborate the generally-received 
biblical chronology. For it is only m respec-t 
to the earlier ages of the world that much 
difference exists among chronologers. Ana 
this be it ever remembered, arises not from 
the untrustworthiness of the bible record. 



167 



[CHUSI 



but because it is difficult to ascertain what 
is tlie true reading of that record. 

Far different from the modest Hebrew 
statements are the claims which other na- 
tions have put forth to vast antiquity. In 
Egypt, in India, and elsewhere, mouarchs 
have heen said to reign thousands and tens 
of thousands of years ago. But such assump- 
tions will not hear the test of careful ex- 
amination ; and all research has failed in 
discovering real history anterior to the 
events chronicled in the bible. That the 
TJsserian calculations, indeed, are too con- 
tracted may well be believed ; but no proof 
has yet been produced that it is necessary 
to fix the great recorded events known to 
have occurred earlier than the period the 
larger computation allows. 

More cannot here be said : for particulars 
the student must consult other books. But 
it may be well to give a comparative view 
of the dates of a few leading events as 
fixed by some eminent chronologers. These 
shall be taken from Dr. Hales (New Analysis 
of Chronology), from Mr. Poole, who, in his 
article on chronology in Dr. Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible, has proceeded by careful com- 
parison of the biblical with foreign data, 
and from Mr. Palmer's learned work, the 
Egyptian Chronicles. To these Ussher's dates 
shall be added. 

Hales. Poole. Palmer. TJssher. 

B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. 

( 5361 ) 

Creation 5411 \ or \ 5362 4004 
( 542li 
( 3100 ) 

Flood . 3155 \ or \ 3100 2348 
( 3160 \ 

Abram leaves 

Haran . 2078 2082 2084 1921 
Exodus . 1648 1652 1654 141)1 
Foundation of 

Solomon's 

Temple . 1027 1010 1014 1012 
Destruction 

of ditto . 586 586 587 588 

Besides the works named in this article, 
the following may be advantageously con- 
sulted :— Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, Oxford, 
1834, &c. ; Ideler, Lehrbuch der Chronologie, 
Berlin, 1831, oxiCi Bandbuch der Mathem. und 
Techn. Chronologie, Berlin, 1826. 

CHRYS'OLITE (golden stone). One of the 
precious stones mentioned as a foundation 
of the wall of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 
xxi. 20). It was probably a species of topaz, 
being described as golden streaked with 
green and white. In Ezek. xxviii. 13, marg. 
'chrysolite' is given for ' beryl' in the text : 
see Beryl. 

CHRYSO'PRASIJS (golden leek). An In- 
dian gem, so called because it is said to re- 
semble in colour the juice of the leek, in- 
terspersed with golden spots. It is a kind 
of beryl, translucent, and has been thought 
to have some medical virtue in diseases of 
the eyes. It is one of the foundations of 
the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20) : comp. 
Ezek. xxvii.l6,marg., xxviii. 13, marg., and 
Bee Agate, Emerald. 

CHUB (Ezek. xxx. 5). This word must 
describe an African people, probably oijn- 



tiguous to Egypt. But it occurs nowhere 
else ; and the meaning can only be conjec- 
tured. Some critics would alter the text 
one way into Nub, for Nubia, and some an- 
other, into Lub, for Libya ; but these are 
only desperate and very improbable guesses. 

CHUN (establishment, place 1). A Syrian city 
(1 Chron. xviii. 8). In the parallel place 
(2 Sam. viii. 8) it is called Berothai ; which 
the Peshito Syriac reads in both places, and 
which possibly the LXX. translators had in 
their copies. 

CHURCH. This word occurs in our ver- 
sion only in the New Testament. The Greek 
term of which it is the translation implies 
generally ' an assembly,' civil or religious, 
and is, in some cases, properly so rendered 
(Acts xix. 32, 39, 41). In a religious sense, 
it signifies that body of persons whom God 
has gathered out to be his servants. It is 
thus applied to Israel, the Lord's peculiar 
people (vii. 38 ; Heb. ii. 12), where it cor- 
responds to the ' congregation ' so fre- 
guently mentioned in the Old Testament. 
And so the word has the general meaning 
of an assemblage or congregation of Chris- 
tians in apostolic times (1 Cor. xi. 18). This 
meaning has, of course, many modifications. 
It is sometimes a body belonging to or 
meeting in one house (Rom. xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. 
xvi. 19; Philem. 2); sometimes the Chris- 
tians of a city, as Jerusalem, where were at 
one time many thousands that believed 
(Acts XV. 4, xviii. 22, xxi. 20), or Antioch 
fxiii. 1), or Thessalonica (2 Thess. i. 1), &c. 
Sometimes it is employed in a larger sense, 
with no local or territorial designation 
(Rom. xvi. 4, 16). And it frequently com- 
prises that great body of redeemed, the 
holy catholic church, the universal com- 
pany, united in one living Head, ' the ful- 
ness of him that fllleth all in all' (Matt, 
xvi. 18 ; 1 Cor, xii. 28 ; Gal. i. 13 ; Eph. i. 22, 
23, ill. 10, V. 25-30 ; Heb. xii. 23). The foun- 
dation, and the building, and the privileges, 
and the obligations, and the final glory of 
this church are often largely described. 
Very impressive, too, is the warning against 
those who have only in name belonged to 
it, but are found to have had no real part 
therein (Matt. vii. 22, 23 ; Acts viii. 13, 18-23 ; 
Rev. iii. 16). For the visible church em- 
braces all who carry the outward signs of 
church-membership (comp. art. xix. of the 
English church) ; but not co-extensive with 
it is the Invisible church— those who are 
really justified and sanctified, known to God 
alone, whose eye is most scrutinizing to 
detect the actual character and condition 
of all his creatures. In Matt, xviii. 17 the 
ruling authorities, whatever they might be, 
of the church seem to be meant. See, for 
much valuable information, Bp. Pearson, 
On the Creed, art. ix. 

CHURN (Prov. xxx. 33). See Butter. 

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM (most wicked 
Cushite, otherwise, lord of the land of the two 
rivers). A king of Mesopotamia, of whom 
nothing more is known than that he subju- 
gated Israel shortly after the time of 
Joshua. His power was broken after eight 
years by Othniel, the son of Kenaz (Judges 
iii. 8-11). 

CMC SI (Judith vii. 18). 



! ohvza] 



168 



CHU'ZA (a seerl). The steward of Herod 
A.ntipas, wliose wife, Joanna, was one of the 
women that ministered to Jesus (Luke 
viii. 3). , ^ , 

OILIC'IA. The most south-easterly pro- 
vince of Asia Minor, divided by mount 
Amanus from Syria, with wliich it is some- 
times coupled (Acts XV. 23, 41 ; Gal. i. 21), on 
the west and north girdled by the chain of 
Taurus, through passes in which it commu- 
nicates with Isauria, Pisidia, Pamphylia, 
and Cappadocia, and washed on the south 
by the Mediterranean. The eastern part 
was a plain district, well watered and fruit- 
ful : the west was rugged, but afforded pas- 
ture for the celebrated Cilician goats. The 
inhabitants are said to have sprung from 
the Syrians and Phoenicians. Cilicia, after 
belonging partuilly to the Sj-rian kingdom 
aud to Armenia, became, in 63 B.C., when 
Porapey had subdued the noted pirates, a 
Iloman province ; and Cicero was once pro- 
consul of it. The inhabitants of the moun- 
tains, however, long maintained their inde- 
pendence. Tarsus, the capital, was the 
birth-place of the apostle Paul. Cilicia is 
frequently mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment (Acts vi. 9, xxi. 39, xxii. 3, xxiii. 34, 
xxvii. 5). 

CI'MAH (a heap, cluster) (Job ix. 9, marg., 
xxxviii. 31, marg.). See Pleiades. 

CINNAMON. One of the ingredients of 
the holy anointing oil (Exod. xxx. 23-25). 
It is the rind of the Cinnamomum Zeylani- 
ciim, a tree found in Sumatra, China, and 
especially the south-west part of Ceylon. 
It was anciently imported into Judea by 
the Phoenicians and Arabians. The stem 
and boughs of the tree have a double rind : 
it is from the inner of the two, itself con- 
sisting of two closelj^-connected rinds, that 
the fine cinnamon is obtained : it is dried 
in the sun, and rolled into the cj^linders in 
which we receive it. Prom the coarser 
pieces an oil of cinnamon is made, and a 
finer oil bv boiling the ripe fruit. It is 
spoken of as a perfume for the bed (Prov. 
vii. 17), and as one of the trees of the gar- 
den to which the spouse in Sol. Song iv. 14 
is compared. 

CIN'NEROTH (lyre). A district (1 Kings 
XV. 20), taking its name from the town 
Chinnereth, or the lake of Chisneeeth, 
which see. 

CIBA'MA a Esdr. t. 20). ^ 
CIRCUMCISION. A sacramental rite, the 
symbol of the national covenant of Israel 
with God. , ^ . 

The first mention we have of circum- 
cision in scripture is when the covenant 
was made with Abram, his name being 
changed to Abraham (Gen. xvii.). But 
it is a question whether the practice 
did not prevail among various nations 
at an earlier period. The Egyptians were 
circumcised, according to Herodotus (lib. 
ii 36 37, 104), and other writers; and 
the examination of existing mummies cor- 
roborates their testimony. It has been 
supnosed, therefore, that it was first intro- 
duced among the Ethiopians and various 
South African nations, for physical reasons, 
and that from them it spread into other 
regions. This is a matter upon which en- 



quirers are not likely to agree. But it may 
be said, even if this theory were certainly 
proved, that it presents no kind of opposi- 
tion to the scripture record. There are 
many instances (the symbol of the rainbow 
is one, Gen. ix. 12-17) in which God has 
taken up a well-known phenomenon, or an 
acknowledged custom, and has invested it 
with a new significance, to be the token of 
some blessing, or the seal of some promise, 
or the mode in which service might be paid 
him. And our Lord's words (John vii. 22) 
are simply intended to assert that 3Ioses 
was not the originator of circumcision : 
there were fathers, not necessarily of Abra- 
ham's family, who before him practised it. 
Be this, however, as it may, it was to Abra- 
ham first that it was the seal of a covenant, 
and was made a religious rite ; so that the 
sacred aspect of it was of the Abrahamic 
fathers. It was the assurance to Abraham 
that he should have a seed of Sarah, in 
whom there should rise the blessing of 
many nations. The penalty under which 
circumcision was enforced (Gen. xvii. 14) 
must not be taken as if this neglect were 
to be punished by man. Theuncircumcised, 
indeed, could not share in the offices 
of religion ; but the Lord would himself 
avenge the disregard of his command, since 
it concerned the individual only, and was 
not one of the pablic crimes amenable to 
public justice. And this is probably the ex- 
planation of a remarkable incident re- 
corded of Moses' life (Exod. iv. 24). Even 
in his favoured servant God would mark his 
sense of the neglect of a divine command. 

Abraham and the males born in his house 
and bought with his money were circum- 
cised ; and the rite was carefully practised 
in his familv. Thus the history of Jacob 
shows both that the Hebrews were circum- 
cised, and that the Hivites were not (Gen. 
xxxiv. 14-17). We may judge also, from the 
history of Moses just adverted to, that the 
Midianites did not practise circumcision ; 
just as in later times we have abundant 
proof that it was not the custom of the 
Philistines (1 Sam. xiv. 6, xvii. 26, xviii. 2.5, 
27, xxxi. 4). The Israelites were circumcised 
while resident in Egypt ; and from the 
time of Moses this rite, solemnly enjoined 
in the law (Lev. xii. 3), acquired a higher 
significance, and became the special cha 
racteristic of the chosen and sealed nation 
so that the Hebrew could use no strongei 
term to express his separation andaversion 
from a Gentile than to call him uncircum- 
cised. Possibly this came to be used as a 
general term of reproach, irrespective of 
its literal meaning, merely signifying im- 
purity. And this may be the reason why 
Egypt, a circumcised nation as we have 
seen, was ranked among the uncircnmcised 
(Jer. ix. 25, 26). For critics have been puz- 
zled to know why the prophet speaks as he 
does, and have supposed that circumcision 
had gradually gone out among the Egyptian 
people, or that the priests and those in- 
itiated in the mysteries alone practised 
it. The Israelites were not circumcised in 
tlie wilderness. Perhaps their nomad life, 
perpetually moving, may sufficiently ac- 
count for this ; though some have supposed 



169 



"^ihU WilXa^lttSQt, [CIRCUMCISIOK 



them, as it were, in a state of rejection till 
the disobedient generation had died out. 
Wlien the Jordan was crossed, the rite was 
universally performed ^Josh. v. 2-9) ; and 
the ancient reproach was 'rolled away' 
from Israel. Circumcision entitled a man 
to religious privileges: it was the standing 
symbol of the Lord's favour. But this was 
mainly as it pointed to and included the 
circumcision of the heart. The outward 
form was but a testimony against those 
who were internally unclean. And this the 
sacred writers from the time of Moses re- 
peatedly inculcated (Lev, xxvi. 41 ; Deut. 
X. 16, XXX, 6 ; Jer. iv. 4, ix, 26 ; Ezek. xliv. 7 ; 
Rom. ii, 28, 29). They must, to be Jews 
indeed, have all that circumcision signified 
and sealed. 

Our Lord, as a Jew, was circumcised, 
becoming 'obedient to the law for man' 
(Luke ii, 21), But the apostles refused to 
sanction the imposition of the rite upon 
the Gentiles, and strenuously opposed the 
doctrine that it was necessary to salvation 
(Acts XV. 1, 2, 5, 23-29 ; Gal. v. 1-6). Circum- 
cision, indeed, in itself was indifferent : it 
might be used or not according to circum- 
stances (Acts xvi. 1-3 ; Gal. ii. 3) ; but the 
dependence on it as a ground of righteous- 
ness before God overthrew the principle of 
the Christian faith. 

Circumcision was performed the eighth 
day, when generally the name was given 
(Luke i. 59), even if it fell upon the sabbath 
(John vii. 22, 23) ; with sharp knives some- 
times made of stone (Exod. iv. 25 ; Josh. 
V. 3), which were thought to prevent in- 
flammation ; and in adults it was very pain- 
ful. It was possible by another operation 
to obliterate it ; and to this St. Paul pro- 
bably alludes in 1 Cor. vii, 18. 

Circumcision is still practised by (besides 
the Jews) Mohammedan nations. According 
to Josephus, the Arabians circumcised at 
13 years of age, that being the age of 
Ishmael when he was circumcised (Gen, 
xvii, 25 ; Antiq., lib. 1. 12, § 2), It pre- 
vails also elsewhere. Thus the Abyssinian 
Christians perform the rite on both sexes ; 
and the disuse of it as recommended by 
some missionaries is said to have produced 
physical inconveniencies. See Kalisch, 
Comm. on Old Test. Oen., pp. 386-394 ; Winer, 
Bibl. BWB., art. ' Beschneidung.' 

The ceremonies at present used by the 
Jews in circumcision are thus described 
by Mr. Mills. After enumerating a few 
circumstances which may require it to be 
deferred beyond the eighth day he says, 
'The first thing to be done is to choose 
sandakin, something similar to a godfather 
and godmother in the Christian world. The 
sandakin, however, undertake no future 
responsibilities towards the child — all 
their duties are over on the day of - cir- 
cumcision. They are generally husband 
and wife. ... The parents must also give 
the child a name, that it might be men- 
tioned at its circumcision. . . . Before the 
eighth day a viohel or circumciser must be 
engaged. If the father happen to be one, 
he is bound to circumcise his own child. 
On the Friday evening ])efore the circum- 
cision, it is announced in the synagogue 



that to A. son of B. a son is born ; and after 
the service a few friends are entertained 
at the parents' house with fruit and wine, 
known by the name of zachar, i.e. male. 
When the time for performing the cere- 
mony is arrived, all things are ready in the 
appointed place. This ought to be the 
synagogue ; but, if the parents live at a 
distance from the synagogue to which 
they belong, or if the weather be inclement, 
they have it done at home. There must be 
present a minyan (congregation), among 
whom are the chazan (reader or minister), 
and secretary of the synagogue. The mohel 
also is ready, with his knife, lint, plaster, 
&c. These are given to a relative of the 
child to hold during the operation, by way 
of compliment, as it is deemed a meritorious 
thing to assist in the work. Two other 
persons hold each a glass of wine in readi- 
ness for the mohel. The child is brought 
to the door of the synagogue by the god- 
mother, and there is received by the god- 
father. As he carries the child towards the 
congregation, they say, " Blessed is he that 
cometh." In the middle is a large chair 
with two seats, one for the godfather, the 
other to be left vacant : it is the seat of 
Elijah the prophet, who is called the " angel 
of the covenant," and who, it is believed, is 
present to witness the ceremony, although 
invisible. The godfather being seated, and 
the child placed on a cushion on his lap, the 
mohel lays hold of the foreskin, and secures 
it in a silver instrument, to keep it separate 
from the sinewy part of the member, and 
that it may not slip from him during the 
operation. All now being ready, the mohel 
pronounces the following blessing," Blessed 
art thou, O Lord our God, King of the uni- 
verse, who hast sanctified us with thy com- 
mandments, and commanded us circum- 
cision," when he immediately cuts off the 
foreskin close to the instrument, and rends 
the remainder with his nails, until the 
glands are laid bare. Without this rending 
the ceremony would have no value. Then 
the father of the child says the following 
blessing, "Blessed art thou, O Lord our 
God, King of the universe, who hast sancti- 
fied us with thy commandments, and com- 
manded us to enter into the covenant of 
our father Abraham," To this the congre- 
gation present answer, "As he hath entered 
into the covenant, so may he enter into 
the law, the canopy (used in marriage), and 
good deeds," He then, with the greatest 
despatch, takes the wounded part unto his 
mouth, sucks the blood repeatedly, rinsing 
his mouth each time with the wine in one 
of the aforesaid glasses, applies to it lint 
and plaster. When properly bound up with 
bandages, the godfather leaves the chair ; 
and, holding the child in his arms, the 
mohel says as follows, " Blessed art thou, O 
Lord our God, King of the universe, the 
Creator of the fruit of the vine. Blessed 
art thou, O Lord our God, who hast sancti- 
fied his beloved (i.e. Abraham) from the 
womb, and ordained an ordinance for his 
kindred, and sealed his descendants witn 
the mark of the holy covenant ; therefore, 
for the merits of this, O living God, onv 
rock and inheritance, command the deliver 



i CIS ^?)^ Creasurji at 170 1 


Ance of tlie beloved of our kindred from 
the pit, for the sake of the coveuaut which 
he hath put In our flesh. Blessed art thou, 
0 Lord, the maker of the covenant. Our 
God, and the God of our fathers, preserve 
this child to his father and mother ; and 

his name shall he called in Israel , son of 

. Let his father rejoice in those that 

go forth from his loins ; and let his mother 
he glad in the fruit of her womh ; as it is 
written, Tliy father and thy mother shall 
rejoice, and they that hegat thee shall be 
glad. And it is further said, And I passed 
by thee, and saw thee polluted in thy blood, 
and 1 said unto thee in thy blood, thou 
Shalt live. And it is said, He hath remem- 
bered his covenant for ever, the word which 
he hath commanded to a thousand genera- 
tions ; even the covenant he made with 
Abraham, and his oath unto Isaac ; and he 
liath confirmed the same unto Jacob for a 
law, and to Israel for an everlasting cove- 
nant. And it is said. And Abraham cir- 
cumcised his son Isaac, being eight days 
old, as God commanded him. 0 give thanks 
unto the Lord, for he is good, for his mercy 
endureth for ever. A. B„ this little one, 
mav he live to be great ; and, as he hath 
entered into the covenant, so may he enter 
into the law, and the canopy, and good 
works." Whilst rehearsing this blessing, 
the onohel, at intervals, dips his little finger 
three several times in the second glass of 
wine, and afterwards puts it into the child's 
mouth, uttering certain words in allusion 
to the child's long life. The ceremony being 
carried on thus far, the father according to 
his circumstances makes an offering of 
money to the poor. The viohel, the sandak, 
and the friends of the parties, make similar 
offerings.' Certain compliments are then 
made and fees paid. If a child dies before 
he is eight days old, the operation is per- 
formed with a piece of glass on the corpse 
without prayers or blessing. 'It is also 
generally believed that a moliel, who has 
circumcised as many children as the nu- 
merical value of the letters of his name 
amount to, is thereby entitled to a peculiar 
state of felicity in the world to come.' The 
British Jews, part i. chap. 1. pp. 9-14. 

CIS (Acts xiii. 21). The Greek form of 
KiSH, which see. 

CrSAI (Rest of Esth. xi. 2). 
CISTERiSr. There is frequent mention of 
these receptacles for water in scripture. 
They are to be distinguished from the liv- 
ing springs or fountains, and from the 
wells, which are supplied by water rising 
into them from the ground. Cisterns are 
rather for the collection of rain-water. 
And, as such reserv^oirs are needful in our 
own country, and are in common use among 
ourselves, much more, we may readily con- 
ceive, would the people be dependent on 
them in a hotter climate, and in a land 
where perennial streams are few, and 
where for a considerable part of the year, 
little or no rainfalls. These cisterns in the 
country are generally large pits, or subter- 
ranean vaults, with a small mouth or 
opening, which can be closed with flat 
stones, and then concealed by sand placed 
over the stones. Such cisterns are of in 


calculable value to the shepherd for the 
watering of his flocks, and a great refresh- 
ment to the thii-sty traveller. And the dis- 
appointment of finding no water is in a 
warm climate of serious character (Isai. 
xli. 17). Many ancient cisterns still exist : 
on the road from Jericho to Beth-el, for ex- 
ample, 'broken cisterns' (Jer. ii. 13), hold- 
ing no water, are found at regular intervals. 
In cities these reservoirs were, of course, 
very numerous. They were either hewn in 
the rock, or built up with walls ; and the 
rain-water was conducted into them from 
the roofs. Those now in use are often fur- 
nished with a curb and wheel for a bucket, 
as in an ordinary well. Most houses in Je- 
rusalem are provided with them ; and there 
are said to be very large ones in the area of 
the temple. Deposits there were, of course, 
accumulating by neglect ; so that, if allowed 
to get dry, a mass of mire remained at the 
bottom. And, when they w^ere used, as 
was occasionally the case, as places of con- 
finement, the prisoner was likely to sink 
into the mire (Gen. xxxvii. 22 ; Psal. xl. 2 ; 
Jer. xxxviii. 6). Hence the word signifying 
cistern seems sometimes used simply for a 
dungeon (Gen. il. 15). . , 
CITHERN (1 Mace. iv. 54). A musical 
stringed instrument, probably resembling 
the modern guitar, for which the word ' cit- 
tern' was formerly used. Opinions differ 
as to the shape of this instrument in an- 
cient times. 

CITIES. Cities are mentioned in the very 
infancy of the world. Before the fiood, the 
building of a city is noted (Gen. iv. 17). 
And, of course, when the earth was being 
re-peopled, it was natural that men should 
live collected together, for mutual help and 
defence. Hence we read of cities in remote 
antiquity, some of which are yet existing, 
Nineveh, Babylon, Hebron, Damascus, &c. 
It may.be that, when first named, it is ra- 
ther as sites on which afterwards walls and 
habitations rose. But certainly in Abra- 
ham's days there were towns of some mag- 
nitude : Sodom, for example, is spoken of 
with a gate and streets (xix. 1, 2). In pro- 
cess of time cities multiplied, were en- 
larged, and strengthened. Thus the Israel- 
ites built treasure-cities in Egypt (Exod. 
i 11) : the spies described those of Canaan 
as ' walled and very great ' (Numb. xiii. 23) : 
Moses also speaks of them in similar terms 
(Dent. ix. 1), and uses even stronger lan- 
guage of the cities of Bashan (iii. 5), which 
remain to the present day sufficient wit- 
nesses that his narrative was truthful. 
There have always been pastoral and nomad 
tribes who have not constructed settled ha- 
bitations. Such were the Rechabites (Jer. 
XXXV. 6-10) ; but these have often been com- 
pelled in troublous times to seek the pro- 
tection of cities (11). And for this protec- 
tion we find that there were FE>fCED Cities, 
which see ; strong-holds, probably, at first, 
about which habitations gradually clus- 
tered, which afterwards were surrounded 
with walls, and which had suburbs in addi- 
tion (e.g. Josh. xxi. 2, 8\ including spaces 
appropriated for pasturage. Cities were 
often, as it were, rural capitals, with un- 
walled villages depending upon them and 



MWt ^liaMtySQt* [clean and unclean 



171 



looking to them for defence (Neli. xi. 25, 27, 
30, 31). Hence a ' land of unwalled villages,' 
requiring no such defence, was a land of 
rest, the inhabitants dwelling in peace and 
security (Ezek. xxxviii. 11). Provincial 
cities appear to have had their own muni- 
cipal government (1 Kings xxi. 8-14), ad- 
ministered by elders or magistrates : these, 
according to Josephus, (AntiqAih. iv.8, § 14), 
were seven, with two Levites to each as offi- 
cers. Sometimes we read of the ' governor' 
of a city (1 Kings xxii. 26). Ezra, after the 
captivity, is said to have appointed local 
judges (Ezra vii. 25) ; while, later, there 
were provincial councils, with presidents, 
after the fashion of the sanhedrim in Jeru- 
salem, and under its authority. 

It was very common to assign special 
cities for particular purposes ; thus there 
were Levitical cities, and cities of the 
priests : see Levites. Solomon had cities 
of store, chariot-cities, horse-cities (1 Kings 
ix. 19). 

We have little means of computing the 
population of the ancient cities of Pales- 
tine. As to their general aspect, they pro- 
bably resembled modern cities of the east, 
having narrow streets, and places of as- 
semblage at the gates (Ruth iv. 1, 2 ; 1 Kings 
xxii. 10). 

CITIES OF REFUGE. Among the va- 
rious provisions of the Hebrew law, there 
was one for the protection of any who 
might kill his neighbour without malice 
aforethought. Six cities of those assigned 
to the priests and Levites were invested 
with the right of asylum. These six were 
three on each side of the Jordan ; Hebron, 
a city of the priests, Shechem, and Kedesh 
in Galilee, Levitical cities on the west; 
Bezer, Ptamoth-gilead, and Golan in Bashan, 
Levitical cities on the east of the river 
(Deut. iv. 41-43; Josh. xx. 7, 8, xxi. 13, 21, 
27, 32, 36, 38). 

About these cities were suburbs, a thou- 
sand cubits every way, the length of each 
side of the square thus formed being two 
thousand cubits, a result which has startled 
several critics who have forgotten to carry 
the common principles of arithmetic along 
with them in their researches, and have 
hence charged the scripture record with 
mistake (Numb. xxxv. 3-5). The regulations 
for those claiming the right of refuge will 
be found in Exod. xxi. 12-14 ; Numb. xxxv. 
9-34 ; Deut. xix. 1-13. After examination 
made, if they were pronounced entitled to 
it, they had protection, but must live within 
the boundaries of the refuge-city, till the 
death of the high priest, when they might 
return in safety to their own homes. It is 
said that direction-posts were set up to 
guide the fugitive to the asylum ; and va- 
rious additions to the law were imagined 
or introduced by rabbinical writers. 

It would seem that God's altar was held to 
give some privilege of asylum (1 Kings i. 
50, ii. 28). The right of sanctuary was pos- 
sessed by certain Greek and Roman cities, 
and it was afterwards claimed to a great 
extent for Christian churches. 

CIT'IMS (1 Mace. viii. 5). See CniTTiM. 

CITIZENSHIP. The privilege of Roman 
citizenship is frequently referred to in the 



New Testament. It was acquired by birth, 
or hereditary descent, by purchase (Acts 
xxii. 28), also by manumission, and military 
service. Some of the rights enjoyed were 
freedom from bonds and scourging (xvi. 
37, 38, xxii. 25, 26, 29) ; also the power of 
appealing, or transferring a cause from a 
provincial magistrate to the emperor (xxv. 
11, 12). St. Paul alludes to the privilege of 
citizenship in Phil, iii. 20 : ' our country,' 
our home, where we have our rights as 
denizens of a noble city, ' is in heaven.* 

CITRON. See Apple-Thee. 

CITY. See Cities. 

CLAP, CLAPPING THE HANDS (Psal. 
xlvii. 1, xcviii. 8 ; Isai. Iv. 12). Antiquarian 
research illustrates this expression. The 
Egyptian tombs show that it was usual to 
beat the measure in singing, by clapping 
the hands (Osburn's Anc. Egypt, p. 238). 

CLAU'DA. An island oft the south-west 
coast of Crete, under the lee of which the 
vessel in St. Paul's voyage to Italy had to 
run (Acts xxvii. 16). It is now called Gozzo. 
See Smith's Voyage and Shipwreck of St. 
Paul, pp. 92-107, 253. 

CLAU'DIA. A Christian lady at Rome 
who joins in the saluta.tions which St. 
Paul sends to Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 21). 
There is reason to believe that Claudia was 
a Briton, and that she became the wife of 
Pudens mentioned in the same place. See 

CLAU'DIUS. Tiberius Claudius Nero Dru- 
sus Germanicus, the son of Nero Drusus, 
horn at Lyons 9 or 10 B.C., became fourth 
Roman emperor on the assassination of Caius 
Caligula, and reigned 41-54 a.d. He was a 
weak and indolent man, and was poisoned 
by his fourth wife, Agrippina. Several fa- 
mines occurred in the reign of Claudius : 
one of which extended to Palestine and 
Syria (Acts xi. 28-30). And there was an 
edict of his which, in consequence of a tu- 
mult, expelled the Jcavs from Rome (xviii. 
2). It is not agreed when this edict was 
issued. It is variously assigned to years be- 
tween 49 and 53 A.D. Winer says 50 or 51. 
See Aquila. 

CLAU'DIUS LTS'IAS. (Acts xxi. 31-40, 
xxii., xxiii.). See Lysias, Claudius. 

CLAY. For the use of clay in brick- 
making, see Brick. Clay is also employed 
for pottery : see Potter. We find the word 
occasionally signifying ordinary mire (Psal. 
xl. 2), and a mixture of spittle with dust 
(John ix. 6, 11, 15). Clay, moreover, was used 
for sealing (Job xxxviii. 14). Thus pieces of 
fine clay have been discovered in the Assy- 
rian excavations, bearing devices evidently 
made by seals. The method was to roll a cy- 
lindrical seal upon a tablet of clay, which 
was then baked, and the impression pre- 
served. Wine jars have been found in 
Egypt sealed with clay ; and it is still a not 
uncommon practice in the east to seal 
doors with clay. See Seal, Thick Clay. 

CLEAN AND UNCLEAN. A distinction, 
most probably with reference to sacrifice, 
was made between clean and unclean ani- 
mals before the flood (Gen. vii. 2, 8, viil. 20). 
Under the Mosaic law the distinction was 
extended to food. Thus in Lev. xi. and 
Deut. xiv. there are lists of animals, birds, 



clement] 



172 



and fishes, which might and might not he 
eaten. The regulations thus made were 
doubtless promotive of health. But, besides, 
they, as well as the purifications prescribed 
for un cleanness in men (Lev. xi.-xv. ; Numb, 
xix.), had a symbolical meaning, which is 
ihustrated in Heb. ix. 9-14. _ , , 

CLE^l'EXT. A Christian mentioned by St. 
Paul as his fellow-labourer (Phil. iv. 3). He 
is generally supposed to be the person cele- 
brated as bishop of Rome, and for a letter, 
yet extant, written to the church at 
Corinth. ^ 

CLE'OPAS (very renowned). A disciple 
named as one of those who went to Em- 
maus and were joined by Jesus on the 
evening of the resurrection (Luke xxiv. 13). 
It is questioned whether he was identical 
withthe Clopas or Cleophas, husband of Mary 
the Virgin's sister (John xix. 25). More pro- 
bably not ; for Mary's sons are mentioned 
with their mother in a way which would 
lead naturallv to the conclusion that their 
father was deceased. He never appears. 

CLEOPATRA.— 1. The wife of Ptolemy : 
probably Ptolemy YI. is meant (Rest of 
Esth. xi. 1).— 2. The daughter of No. 1, first 
married to Alexander Balas, king of Syria 
(1 Mace. X. 57, 58), then taken from him and 
given to his rival, Demetrius Nicator (xl. 12). 
When Demetrius was a captive in Parthia, 
she married his brother Antiochus VII. 
Demetrius returned to Syria, and was mur- 
dered there ; Cleopatra being supposed to 
have been pri^T thereto. She afterwards 
murdered her eldest son by Demetrius, 
Seleucus V„ and was in turn poisoned her- 
self by her second son, Antiochus VIII. 

CLE'OPHAS (John xix. 25). A person call- 
ed also Clopas (marg.) most likely identical 
with ALPHJEUS, which see. 

CLERK, or TOWN CLERK (Acts xix. 35). 
A prudent officer at Ephesus is so called ; 
who calmed the uproar of the people which 



divine presence was in the sanctuary: see 
Shechixah. There are other Hebrew words 
sometimes rendered ' clouds' : one in Pro v. 
XXV. 14, properly vapours, which rise fi'om 
the earth ; another in Isai. xix. 1, implying 
darkness. The term last referred to means 
also the dark thicket of a wood (Jer. iv. 29). 

CNI'DUS. A peninsula in the ^gean 
sea jutting out between the islands Cos 
and Rhodes. It was a part of Caria, or 
more properly Doris, and had a town of the 
same name, where the worship of Venus 
prevailed. It was passed by St. Paul on his 
vovase to Italy (Acts xxvii. 7). Cnidus is 
mentioned in the Maccabean history (1 
Mace. XV. 23). ^ „ 

COACHES (Isai. Ixvi. 20, marg.). See 
Litter. 

COAL. It is very doubtful whether the 
mineral to which we ordinarily give this 
name is intended in any of the places m 
which the word ' coal ' appears in our ver- 
sion. Fossil coal was used by some ancient 
nations ; yet we cannot venture to decide 
that the Hebrews were acauainted with it. 
Fossil coal, indeed, exists in Syria. Indi- 
cations of it have been found in the moun- 
tains of Lebanon ; and a coal mine has 
beius worked at Cornale, eight hours east 
fronrseirut at a height of 2,500 feet above 
the level of the sea. The late Mohammed 
All employed an English engineer on this 
(Kitto, Phys. Geogr. of Holy Land, 1848, chap, 
ii p. 95). But the fact by no means proves 
that the Israelites worked any coal mine 
there. Tbeir fuel was charcoal, dung, &c. ; 
so that the word generally rendered ' coal' 
most probably means charcoal, of which the 
roots of the broom-plant are considered by 
the Arabs to yield the best. Another He- 
brew word sometimes signifies burning 
coal, sometimes fuel not kindled, e.g. Prov. 
xxvi 21 as fuel to kindled coals.' Another 
word is used in 1 Kings xix. 6 : it probably 



Demetrius had excited He was the keeper \ means the heated stones on which it was 
?f^Te ar chh4s,\nTpublic reader of decrees cusU>mary to bake bread (see Keil Co.^^^^^^ 
in the assemblies. ^ some, ha^^e ^supposed onK^ngs,^^^^^^^^ ^^'^'^^^^l 



that he had a sacred function. But this was 
not necessarilv the case. 

CLOAK (Isai. lix. 17 ; Matt. v. 40 ; Luke 
vi. 29 ; 2 Tim. iv. 13). See Dress. 

CLO'PAS (John xix. 25, marg.). See 
Cleophas, Alph^tjs. 

CLOTHES, CLOTHING. See DRESS. 

CLOUD. The ordinary Hebrew word for 
cloud signifies covering: clouds are the 
covering of the heavens. Hence, very ap- 
positelv, a numerous army is represented 
as a cloud (Ezek. xxx. 18, xxxviii. 9) : also, 
the transient character of anything is illus- 
trated by the ' morning cloud' (Hos. vi. 4), 
which soon dissolves. Further, as in a hot 
climate the dazzling rays of che sun are 
agreeably tempered and veiled by clouds, 
the Deitv is svmbolized as veiling in clouds 
his intense gloiy, which no man can look 
on (Exod. xvi. 10 ; Psal. xviii. 11, 12, and 
elsewhere). And thus the visible sign of 
the presence of Jehovah with Israel was a 
column of cloud, resting when they were 
to remain In their encampment, moving on 
when they were to march, a cloud by day, 
luminous by night (Exod. siii. 21 22 ; 
Kumb. X. 11-13, 33-36). A like symbol of the 



flames : the same word occurs in Hatjak. 
iii, 5, where the meaning is uncertain. In 
Lam. iv. 8, the marginal rendering is to be 
preferred. Henderson translates (Jeremiah 
and Lam., p. 298) ' darker than the dawn.' 

The word is sometimes employed figura- 
tively ; as (2 Sam. xiv. 7) for the last hope 
or remnant of a family, also for severe 
punishments (Psal. cxl. 10), for burning re- 
morse, and shame (Prov. xxv. 22), for light- 
nings (Psal. xviii. 12, 13). 
COAT. See DRESS. 

COAT OF MAIL (1 Sam. xvii. 5, 38). See 
ARiis. . , . ^ 

COCK. The ordinary domestic bird men- 
tioned, with one exception, only in connec- 
tion with St. Peter's denial of Christ (Matt, 
xxvi. 34, 74, 75 ; Mark xiii. 35, xiv. 30, 68, 72 ; 
Luke xxii. 34, 60, 61 : John xiii. 38, xviii. 27). 
The cock crows with peculiar vivacity just 
about dawn ; but the time generally under- 
stood bv cock-crowing was three in the 
' morning. The rabbins pretend that cocks 
' were not allowed to be kept in Jerusalem, 
for the sanctity of the place ; but there is 
no proof that this was really the case. 



173 



[COLOSSIANS 



COCKATRICE (Tsai. xi. 8, xir. 29, lix. 5 ; 
Jer. Yiii. 17). See Adder. , _ 

COCKLE (Job xxxi. 40). This, the original 
word of which signifies' a noisome thTng,' 
may possibly be the same with « the tares' 
of our Lord's parable CMatt. xiii. 24-30). See 
Tares. But perhaps it is better to under- 
stand generally any noxious weed : see 
Duns' Bibl. Nat. Science, vol, ii. p. 368. 

CCELE-STR'IA Qiolloto Syria). This word 
does not occur in scripture : it is the name 
originally given by the Greeks to the valley 
or hollow between Lebanon and Anti-liba- 
nus, a region said to present a beautiful 
picture of fertility to him who looks down 
from a height into this long cavity— extend- 
ing probably 100 miles— between the two 
mountain ranges. Coele-syria was afterwards 
understood to include a much wider district, 
comprising the tracts east of the Jordan 
down to the very shores of the Red sea, 
and the cities of Heliopolis, Abila of Lysa- 
nias, Damascus, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia, 
&c., and even Scythopolis on the west of 
the Jordan. In the Apocrypha, it is fre- 
quently mentioned asCele jyria, apparently 
equivalent to Syria (e.g. 1 £sdr. ii. 17, 24, 27 ; 

1 ISIacc. X. 69). See Winer, Bihl. B WB., art. 
* Coelesyrien.' 

COFFER. A chest or box hanging from 
the side of a cart or waiu (1 Sam. vi. 8, 11, 
15). 

COFFIN (Gen. 1. 26 ; Luke vii. 14, marg.). 
See Burial. 

CO' LA (Judith xv. 4). 

COL-HO'ZEH {all-seeing). A man of 
Judah (Neh. iii. 15, xi. 5). 

CO' LUIS (1 Esdr. ix. 23). A form of Ke- 
laiah (Ezra x. 23). 

COLLAR (Judges viii. 26). See Ear- 
rings. The orifice at the neck of a close- 
fitting garment is meant in J ob xxx. 18 : it is 
said to have had a strong binding round it. 
It was this orifice or * collar,' that is inten- 
ded also in Psal. cxxxiii. 2, where the oint- 
ment on Aaron's head is described as de- 
scending to his beard, and to the collar 
where his robe fitted round his neck, not 
to his skirts. 

COLLEGE. The word so rendered in 

2 Kings xxii. 14 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 22 does 
not mean any scholastic establishment, but 
rather • the other part,' probably the lower 
city on the hill Akra. The same term dif- 
ferently translated occurs in Neh. xi. 9 ; 
Zeph. i. 10. 

COLONY. The city of Philippi is called a 
colony (Acts xvi. 12). It was so made by 
Augustus CiBsar. A Roman colony was, as 
itwere, a portion of Rome transplanted to 
the place. The colonists were veteran 
soldiers and freedmen, who as Ptoman citi- 
zens were enrolled in one of the tribes and 
retained their privilege of voting atPtome. 
The Roman law was in force in the colony, 
which had its own senate and magistrates, 
being exempt from the authority of the 
governor of the province. These privileges 
were possessed only by the original colo- 
nists, and their descendants by Roman 
wives, or women of a country or town 
having Roman citizenship. 

COLOS'SE, COLOS'S^, or COLAS'S.^. 
This was formerly a large city of Phrygia, 



seated on the rivsr Lycus, which sinks 
into a deep chasm, and discharges itself 
into theMaeander {Herod., lib. vii. 30 ; Xen., 
Anab., lib. i. 2, 6), It was in the immediate 
neighbourhood of Laodicea and Hierapolis 
(Col. ii. 1, iv. 13, 15, 16) ; and, though it con^ 
tinned to be a town of some importance, it 
was in the course of time overshadowed by 
the greater cities in its vicinity. Colossa?, 
with the places above mentioned, was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in the ninth year 
of Nero ; it must, however, have been al- 
most immediately re-built. Its site was 
about three miles from the modern village 
of Chonas. The majority of commentators 
believe that St. Paul had not visited it 
when he wrote the epistle (ii. 1) ; but he ex- 
presses his hope (Philem. 22) of going thi- 
ther after his release from Rome. Epaphras 
was probably the founder of the church at 
Colossge (i. 7). Philemon, Onesimus, and Ar- 
chippus are other persons named who (it is 
generally supposed) dwelt in the place. It 
is noticeable that angel-worship, referred 
to in ii. 18, is known to have prevailed in 
later times through the district, 

COLOS'SIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, 
There can be no reasonable doubt that this 
epistle is from the pen of St. Paul. It is 
cited by Justin Martyr and Theophilus of 
Antioch, and distinctly ascribed to the 
apostle by Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria, 
TertuUian, and Origen. The notion of a 
few modern critics that it contains phrases 
and ideas drawn from heretical philoso- 
phers of later times will not bear examina- 
tion. It must also be conceded that it was 
written from Rome, most probably in the 
earlier and freer period of St, Paul's im- 
prisonment, when he was allowed to dwell 
in his own hired house, and to preach the 
gospel without molestation (Acts xxviii. 
30, 31 ; Col, iv, 3, 4), The date may, there- 
fore, be fixed at about 61 or 62 a.d. It has, 
indeed, been thought by some that this 
epistle was written from Csesarea, during 
the apostle's two years' confinement under 
Felix ; but it does not appear, though the 
governor ' communed with him' (Actsxxiv. 
26), that he had then any general liberty of 
preaching. 

The believers at Colossse were mainly 
Gentiles (i, 27, ii. 1.3) ; and the letter to 
them seems to have been occasioned by in- 
formation which Epaphras and Onesimus 
had conveyed. St. Paul, therefore, while 
rejoicing in the proofs he had of the fruit- 
fulness of the gospel among them (i. 6), felt 
it necessary to caution them against that 
spirit of erroneous philosophy, Judaistic 
and oriental, fostered by the superstitious 
tendencies of the Phrygian character, which 
was derogatory to the glory of Christ, and 
which tended to the fatal Gnosticism which 
afterwards so corrupted the faith. 

After his usual introduction (i. 1, 2) the 
apostle expresses his joy for what he had 
heard of the Colossians (3-8), prays for their 
further improvement (9-ll;, and specially 
that they might be thankful to the Father for 
having translated them into the kingdom of 
his dear Son, whose dignity he emphatically 
describes (12-20) as the reconciler of all 
things. He then enlarges on their be'mp. 



COLOims] 



Zi}t Crcasuri) of 



174 



partakers of the reconciliation, reminding complexion (i. 5). It also implies the Lne 
tbemtliatthev were once alienated, "but now produced tiy being scorched or bnrnt, as by I 
settled in a biessed hope tlirougb that mys- fire or the sun's rays (Gen. xxx. 32, where 
teryof thes-ospelof whichhewasaminister, our A'ersion has ' brown' ; Joel ii. 6), and, 
and for which he suffered (21-29) : it being further, denotes the darkness of water 
his anxious desire that they might come to (Job \i. 16\ mourning garments, black and j 
the full knowledse of Christ, not deceived squalid (Mai. iii. 14 : comp. marg.\ the 
by plausible sophistries (ii. 1-7). He warns ! gloom of a clouded sky (1 Kings xviii. 45), 
them, therefore, against the vain philosophy ' and also the night (Pro v. rn. 9 : Jer. iv. 28). 
which would separate from Christ, and , Black symbolizes eril and distress (Zech. 
would have them soar above creature-wor- 1 vi. 2 ; Rev. vi. 5, 12). ' 
ship and carnal observances, to those high Eed is illustrated by blood (2 Kings iii. 
principles which, if risen with Christ, tbey 22), and describes the colour of a heifer 
should remember ought to rule in them j (Xurab. xix. 2), pottage of le^tiles (Gen. 



(8-iii. 4). He adds many special admonitions 
to a holy life, inculcating relative duties 
(5-iv, 6), and concludes with some private 
directions and greetings (7-18^. 

The striking similarity of the epistles to 
Ephesiis and Colossge should not be un- 
noticed. They were written about the same 
time, probably that to the Colossians first ; 
and neighbouring cities were likely to 
need the same kind of address. The two 
should be read together, and carefully com- 
pared. Among the valuable commentaries 
on this epistle, may be mentioned those of 
Bp. Davenant, Expos. Up. PauU ad Coloss., 
and of Bp. EUicott, Comm. on Ep. to Coloss. 
1858. 

COLOURS. A variety of colours, both 
natural and artificial, are mentioned in 
scripture. And it is obvious that these 
generally have a symbolical meaning, es- 
pecially as sometimes they were prescribed 



XXV. 30), wine (Psal. Ixxv. 8, where, how- 
ever, it is possible that the fermentation 
rather than the colour may be intended ; 
Prov. xxiii. 31), the complexion, or perhaps 
sometimes the hair (Gen. xxv. 25 ; 1 Sam. 
xvi. 12 ; xvii. 42, where in our version 
'ruddy'). A fainter hue of red is occa- 
sionally introduced (Lev. xiii. 19, xiv. 37), 
'reddish.' The 'speckled' or 'bay' horses 
of Zech. i. 8 were reddish or fox-coloured. 
Red was a symbol of bloodshed or destruc- 
tion. Hence sins are called 'red' (Isai. i. 
18) ; and the horse whose rider held the 
sword was 'red' (Rev. vi, 4) ; as also the 
symbolical dragon (xii. 3). 

Yelloio occurs only as descriptive of 
leprous hair (Lev. xiii. 30, 32, 36), which had 
probably a greenish cast, and of gold (Psal. 
Ixviii. 13). 

&reen, as a colour, is used almost exclu- 
sively of herbs or grass (e.g. Gen. i. 30), 



by God himself, e.g. in the construction of ' But \erj freqiiently it denotes (we employ 
- - ^- ' the word in the same way) fresh, flourish- 
ing, moist, unripe (e.g. Lev. ii. 14; Judges 



the tabernacle and of the priestly gai-mentS; 

and also as they prominently occur ir , - - - _ , 

those parts of the divine book, e.g. the xvi. 7, 8 ; Job xv. 32). Words, elsewhere 
rrophetical visions, where by natural quali- rendered green, are sometimes In our 
ties spiritual things are figured. Fully to translation 'pale' (Jer. xxx. 6 ; Rev. vi. 8) ; 
investigate the whole subject of colours where the idea is that of the livid ghastly 
would require greater and more etymologi- ! hue of death. Tlie ' green ' of Gen. xxx. 37 ; 
cal disquisition than the present work can i Esth. i. 6 is more properly white, 
admit: it must suffice to point out here Isotice maybe here taken of that inter- 
Bonie general principles and illustrations. mixture of some of the colours just spoken 
The natural tints shall be noticed first: of which distinguishes certain animals, 
thev mav be enumerated as white, black. The ' speckled ' and ' spotted' (Gen. xxx. 32) 
red' vellow and green. were those marked with white and black ; 

White, -fhere are several words used to I the 'ringstraked' (35) those with white 
de'isnate white, distinsuishing no doubt i bands or stripes, white-footed : the ' grisled' 
diflel-ent decrees, from a dead whitish hue i (xxxi. 10) had probably larger spots : when 
to the gloriolis splendour of the sun-light, spoken of horses cZech. vi. 3, 6), the meaning 
Thus we have the paleness of shame (Isai. | is ' pie-bald ' : the 'white asses' (Judges v. 



xxix. 22), the hoariness of white hair (Gen. 
xiii. 38), the dull white of milk (xlix. 12) 
■ and of marble (Esth. i. 6), and the dazzling 
brightness with which our Lord's face and 
garments shone on the mount of tranfigu- 
: ration (Hatt. xvii. 2). Whiteness is illus- 
I trated bv various similitudes, as snow, and 
1 wool (2 Kings V. 2-r ; Isai. i. 18). White sym- 
bolized purity : thus angels were clothed 
in white raiment (Acts i. 10), and glorified 
saints (Rev. iii. 4. vi. 11) : it signified also 
conquest ; hence the white horses on 
which conquerors were seated (vi. 2, xix. 
U, 14: comp. Zech. vi. 3), and joy: thus 
festive garments were described as white 
(Eccles. ix. 8). 

Black had, like white, various shades, 
and expresses the darkness of a sad coun- 
tenance (Job xxx. 30; Jer. viii. 21), the 
colour of hair (SoL Song v. 11), and a tawny 



10) were perhaps white and red, reddish, 
dapp'cd. 

The colours imparted by dyeing, or arti 
flcial process, may be enumerated as purple, 
blue or violet, scarlet or crimson, and ver- 
milion. Four tints are said to have been 
rea-arded as sacred, because they were used 
for holy purposes. These were purple, 
blue, and scarlet, with white (Exod. xxv. 4); 
for the 'fine linen' must be understood, 
according to its texture, to have been 
white. These colours are said to have had 
a mystical application ; Philo and Josephus 
asserting that they represented the sea, 
the air, fire, and the earth (Philo, De Mose, 
lib. iii. vol. ii., p. 148, edit. Mangey, 1742 ; 
Josephus, Antiq., lib. iii. cap. 7, § 7). It i3 
more likely that they were chosen mainly 
for their cost and beauty. 

The purple tint was obtainedfrom a shell- 



175 



milt mmMstSQt. 



[COMMEKCE 



fish, tlie Murex trunculus, found in ttie 
Mediterranean sea. The colouring matter 
was extracted from a single vessel m the 
fish ; each yielding hut a very small quantity: 
it was therefore rare and of high value. 
Purple robes were worn by sovereigns and 
great men : they were a mark of pre-emi- 
nence and luxurious wealth (Judges viii. 26; 
Esth. viii. 15 ; Jer. x. 9 ; Dan. v. 7, marg ; 
Luke xvi. 19 ; Rev. xvii. 4). But it would 
seem that various hues were comprehended 
under the word. For we find it applied to 
hair (Sol. Song vii. 5) ; and the purple gar- 
ment in which our Lord was clothed (J ohn 
xix. 5) is elsewhere called scarlet (Matt, 
xxvii. 28). Probably this purple was lighter 
and more shining than the dark blue, to be 
next described. It raiglit also have a red- 
dish tinge. ^ ^ ^ , . ■, ^ , 

Blue, occasionally translated 'violet 
(Esth. i. 6, marg.), must have been a deep 
dark hue. The dye of this colour also was 
procured from a shell-fish, found on the 
Phoenician coast, the Helix ianthina. The 
loops of the curtains of the tabernacle were 
blue (Exod. xxvi. 4), as also were the laces of 
the high priest's breast-plate, and of his 
mitre, and the robe of the ephod (xxviii,28, 
31, 37). The riband and fringe on the 
borders of the Israelites' garments were 
l)lue (Numb. xv. 38). Moreover, cloths of 
blue were to be put upon the sacred uten- 
sils when the tabernacle was removed; 
scarlet and purple being in two cases also 
commanded (iv. 6-13). Blue robes were 
worn (as purple) by great men (Ezek. 
xxiii. 6) ; and Jeremiah describes the idols 
of Babylon arrayed in these two colours 
(Jer. x."9). ^ 

Scarlet and crimson seem to be the same. 
The scarlet dye was procured from the 
female of an insect. Coccus ilicis, which 
is found on the boughs of a species of ilex, 
Hex cocci/era, and is common in several 
eastern countries, and resembles the cochi- 
neal. Coccus cacti. This hue is brilliant and 
glaring. "We read of scarlet threads or 
lines (Gen. xxxviii. 28; Josh. ii. 18, 21). 
Scarlet (perhaps also cord) was used in 
conjunction with hyssop and cedar, in the 
ceremony of cleansing the recovered leper 
(Lev. xiv. 4, 6, 49, 51, 52), and at the burning 
of the red heifer (^sumb. xix. 6). Scarlet 
robes were worn by the wealthy (2 Sam. 
i. 24 ; Prov. xxxi. 21 ; Jer. iv. 30 ; Lam. iv. 5 ; 
Ptov. xvii. 4). Eastern warriors wore scar- 
let (Nah. ii. 3) ; as did Roman military 
officers. The lips are likened to a thread 
of scarlet (Sol. Song iv. 3); and sins are 
described as being like scarlet (Isai. i. 18). 

The four tints that have been spoken of 
as sacred were used in combination in the 
curtains of the tabernacle, for the vails at 
the entrances (Exod. xxvi. 1, 31, .36, xxvii. 
16), also for the high priest's robes, the 
ephod, girdle, and breast-plate (xxviii. 6, 
8, 15) : the pomegranates on the hem of 
the robe of the ephod were to have three 
colours, blue, purple, and scarlet (33) ; while 
the mitre was to be white (39). 

Vermilion was a colour used in decorat- 
ing the beams and panels of houses (Jer. 
xxii. 14). It was common among the As- 
syrians for drawing images on the walls of 



temples (Ezek. xxiii. 14), as testified by the 
late discoveries. Idols, according to an 
apocryphal writer, were painted with ver- 
milion (Wisd. xiii. 14). This pigment was 
of ochre. See Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. 

i. pp. 342-346 ; Winer, BiU. EWB., art. ' Far- 
ben.' 

COLT. This word is used m scripture for 
the young of camels (Gen. xxxii. 15) and 
asses (xlix. 11; Judges x. 4, xii. 14; Job 
xi. 12 ; Zech. ix. 9 ; Matt. xxi. 2, 5, 7 ; Mark 
xi. 2, 5, 7 ; Luke xix. 30, 33, 35 ; John xii. 15). 
See Ass, Camel. 

COMFORTER. The term ' Comforter m 
the New Testament generally designates 
the Holy Spirit (John xiv. 16, 26, xv. 26, 
xvi. 7). The same word differently rendered 
is sometimes applied to Christ, as in 1 John 

ii. 1, where it is translated ' Advocate.' See 
Spirit, Holy. 

COMMANDMENTS. See LAW. 
COMMERCE. The interchange of com- 
modities must necessarily have begun at a 
very early period of the world's history. 
Indeed, we can scarcely conceive of a state 
of society at all, without the demand am? 
supply from man to man of what the one 
possessed and the other needed. We have 
incidental notices in scripture, which serve 
to show how soon commerce existed. Thus 
Abraham was rich in gold and silver as well 
as in cattle (Gen. xiii. 2) : also he had slaves 
bought with his money (xvii. 12, 13, xxiv. 
35), and articles of jewelry (xxiv. 22, 30, 53). 
And, when he purchased the cave and field 
of Machpelah for a burying-place, he paid 
for it in current money (weighed out) of 
the merchant (.xxiii. 16). In Jacob's time 
we find that the Shechemites counted on 
the advantage they should get by an alliance 
with his family for trade (xxxiv. 21). A 
little later we read of a caravan of mer- 
chantmen passing near the pasture-ground 
of Dothan, conveying from Gilead the pro- 
ductions of Arabia, and the adjacent coun- 
tries, into Egypt (xxxvii. 25, 28, 36). The 
famine, moreover, which Joseph had pre- 
dicted—and no doubt other scarcities when 
they occurred— promoted a brisk corn-trade 
between Egypt and other nations (xli.56, 57 : 
comp. xiii. 3, xliii. 11, 12). , 

It is probable that some cf the m.aterials 
required for the construction of the taber- 
nacle were obtained by barter or purchase. 
The laws of Moses, however, did not en- 
courage commerce. Statutes were enacted 
for strict justice in regard to weights and 
measures (Lev. xix. 35, 36 ; Deut.xxv. 13-15); 
but the prohibition of usury or interest, 
and the command to let the poor and the 
stranger have freely the produce of the 
sabbatical year (Exod. xxii. 25, xxiii. 11, 
XXV. 6, 14, 35-37 ; Deut. xxiii. 19), must very 
much have checked trade, especially in- 
ternal trade. Still usury from foreigners 
was not forbidden (xv. 3, xxiii. 201 ; and 
advantage was clearly anticipated from ex- 
ternal commerce (xv. 6, xxviii. 12). When 
the Israelites occupied Canaan the produc- 
tions of other countries were found there 
(Josh. vii. 21) ; but we perceive little or no 
indication of foreign trading till the es- 
tablishment of the monarcliy. 
David acquired great facilities for traffic 



commonI 

by subduing Edom, and becoming master 
of the two ports of Eloth and Ezion-geber, 
on the Red sea (2 Sam. viii. 14), and by tbe 
commercial relations he established with 
Hiram, king of Tyre (v. 11). Hitherto trade 
seems to have been mostly carried on by 
laud, and merchandise was transported 
across the deserts by camels, a hardy race 
of animals, admirably adapted by nature 
for such a purpose. And, lest they should 
be attacked and plundered by robbers, the 
merchants associated themselves in coni- 
panies (Isai. xxi. 13), yet common enough 
for the same reason in the east. Solomon 
used and improved the advantages which 
his father had obtained. He visited his 
sea-ports on the Red sea, and established a 
profitable trade, his ships making voyages 
of three vears, in conjunction with his 
Tyrian ally, for gold and silver, precious 
stones, spices, sandal-wood, ivory, &c. 
(1 Kings ix. 26-28, x. 22 ; 2 Chron. viii. 1/, 18, 
ix 10). The building of the temple, too, 
and the other great works which this mon- 
arch carried on, gave animation to the com- 
mercial intercourse with Tyre, then, as long 
after, a mart of nations, whither commodi- 
ties found their way from various quarters 
of the world, to be thence circulated 
through other countries (Ezek. xxvii.). So- 
lomon, moreover, encouraged commerce by i 
land. Horses, chariots, and li^en yarn 
were imported into Palestine out ot Egypt, 
at a fixed price ; and these were not only for 
home consumption, but for the supply ot 
neighbouring districts (1 Kings x. 28, 29). 
Private enterprise also flourished, for it 
would seem that some duty was collected 
on imports (15 ; 2 Chron. ix. 14) ; and it may , 
be supposed that some of the cities which , 
Solomon built or fortified were intended 
(Tadraor, i.e. Palmyra, for example, 1 Kings 
Ix. 18) as commercial stations or depots. 

After the division of the kingdom, as 
Edom remained subject to the princes of 
the house of David, the Jews carried on the 
oriental trade from their ports of Eloth 
and Ezion-geber ; and it was perhaps with a 
vipw of commercial advantage that the 
kings of Israel sought alliance with those 
of Judah (xxii. 48, 49 ; 2 Chron. xx. 35-37). 
When Edom revolted in the reign of 
Jehoram (xxi. 10), that trade was crippled, 
till TJzziah recovered Eloth (xxvi. 2). The 
place was, however, lost again under Ahaz, 
and the Jews were finally expeUed (2 
Kings xvi. 6). ^, , 

But we must not believe that they ceased 
to be a commercial people. Many notices 
are scattered through the scriptures which 
prove both that foreign commodities found 
their way in abundance into Palestine (Isai. 
ii 6 7) ; so that Jerusalem was regarded as 
a rival of Tyre (Ezek. xxvi. 2> ; and that the 
productions of the country were exported 
(Prov. xxxi. 24 ; Hos. xii. 2 ; Jonah i. 3, 5) ; 
and also that there was a brisk inland trade 
(Neh. xiii. 15, 16, 20). Wheat, honey, oil, and 
balm are particularly noticed as suppaed 
bv Judah and Israel to Tyre (Ezra ui. 7 ; 
Ezek. xxvii. 17). During the reigns of the 
Asmonean princes, Joppa, which was forti- 
fied by Simon Maccabeus 0- Mace, xiv. 34), 
and Cfflsarea afterwards were busy sea- 



176 



ports ; and Tyre, as of old, was In J^ew 
Testament times dependent on Judea for 
corn (Acts xii. 20). 

The frequent journeys of the Hebrews on 
occasion of their festivals must have stimu- 
lated business, just as, in later times among 
the Mohammedans, pilgrimages to Mecca 
were taken (bv allowance of the Koran, sur. 
ii. 195) advantage of for trade. The sacri- 
fices, too, required victims. Hence we find 
buyers and sellers intruding even into the 
temple-courts with their supply of animals 
and birds for offerings (John ii. 13-16). It 
niav be added that the Jews in their dis- 
persion have been always, it is well known, 
a trading people. . 

Commerce was doubtless at first carried 
on by barter ; but afterwards the precious 
metals weighed out (Zech. xi. 12) became a 
convenient medium. And the use of them, 
especiallv when stamped into pieces of 
specified value, must have stimulated trade. 
See Money. The first Jewish prince who 
exercised the privilege of coining was 
Simon Maccabeus, by grant of Antiochus 
Sidetes (1 Mace. xv. 6). See Saalschiitz, Arch, 
der Behr. vol. i. cap. xv. pp. 158-166. 

COMMON. That which was partaken of by 
all men alike. Hence the Jews, whose rites 
separated them from Gentile nations, came 
to make ' common' synonymous with ' un- 
clean,' 'defiled' (Mark vii. 2, marg. ; Acts 
X. 14). 

COMMUiS"ION. A fellowship or agree- 
ment in wliich two or more join in one 
thing. Communion with God is the privi- 
lege which he allows to his people (Gen. 
xviii. 17-33; Exod. xxxiii. 9-11; Jfumb. xii. 
7, 8). It was promised by Christ to his fol- 
lowers (John xiv. 23), and was enjoyed by 
Jew and Gentile alike through the opera- 
tion of the Holy Ghost (Eph. ii. 18 ; 1 Jolm 
i. 3). And, as it is by the power of the Spirit 
that the actual union is formed betwixt 
the soul of man and God, it is called the 
' communion ' or 'fellowship of the Spirit' 
(2 Cor. xiii. 14 ; Phil. ii. 1). Believers in 
Christ are knit into fellowship with each 
other (Eph. iv. 1-6). Hence the special ap- 
plication of the word to the celebration of 
the Lord's supper, an act of fellowship with 
Christ, and among Christians one with 
another (1 Cor. x. 16, 17). 

COMPANY. A company of travellers is 
now called a caravan. Merchants or pil- 
grims join together for the sake of safety 
and convenience. A caravan often consists 
of many hundred persons who have pro- 
vided themselves with necessaries for the 
journey, and is under the direction of a 
leader well acquainted with the route, and 
the proper stopping-places by fountains or 
wells. The great annual caravan to Mecca 
has both a commercial and a religious cha- 
racter. Allusions to such a mode of travel- 
ling are frequent in scripture (Gen. xxxu. 
7, 8, xxxvii. 25 : Job vi. 19 ; Isai. xxi. 13 ; 
Luke ii. 42-44). ' ^ 

CONANI'AH (whom Jehovah hath set). 
A chief among the Levites (2 Chron. 

"^"^(DNcisTON. A contemptuous term 
(Phil iii. 2) to signify mere outward cir- 
cumcision of the flesh. See CmcuMCisiON. 



177 



[coney 



CONCUBINE. A secondary wife. The 
practice of concubinage probably grew out 
of polygamy ; when there was a plurality of 
wives some being placed in an inferior j 
grade. Concubines are mentioned very | 
early in scripture ; as in the history of 
Abraham (Gen. xvi.), of Nahor (xxii.24), of 
Jacob (XXX). Sometimes wives, as in the 
cases of Sarah, Rachel, and Leah, gave 
their servants to their husbands for con- 
cubines, in order to obtain children ; and the 
children so born were then reckoned as 
belonging to the wife whose servant the 
mother was. No stain appears to have at- 
tached to such children. It is true that Jo- 
tham depreciates Abimelech as the son of 
his father's maid-servant (Judges ix. 18), but 
this does not seem on account of alleged 
illegitimacy; rather from the social in- 
feriority of Abimelech's mother. Sometimes 
a concul)ine is called a wife. Keturah is 
said to have been Abraham's wife (Gen. xxv. 
Ij ; and yet (5, 6) all Abraham's sons save 
Isaac are called the sons of concubines. We 
must, then, conclude that the concubines 
had a recognized position, that no immo- 
rality was considered to attach to the con- 
nection, and that the children were legiti- 
mate, though more dependent, perhaps, 
upon the father's will for any share in his 
inheritance than the sons of the actual or 
higher wives. The taking of a concubine 
very mucli resembled what is called now 
morganatic marriage, most common in 
Germany, in which a wife supposed to be 
socially below her husband does not take 
his titles or convey them to her children. 
Concubines were often servants or captives 
(Exod. xxi. 7-11 ; Deut. xxi. 10-14) ; but this 
was not always the case. The Levite's con- 
cubine (Judges xix.) was neither ; and it is 
observable that her father is called the Le- 
vite's father-in-law. Moreover, no mention 
is made of this man's having another wife. 
Possibly, therefore, the higher or lower de- 
gree of marriage might be contracted at 
pleasure. Marriage with a concubine does 
not seem to have been celebrated with the 
ceremonies which attended that of the 
higher wife. There was no nuptial feast or 
dowry ; and prol)ably divorce was more un- 
restrained. After the establishment of the 
IsraeUtisla monarchy, the kings accumu- 
lated concubines ; and the right over those 
of one monarch accrued to his successor ; 
so that to seize on any of them was re- 
garded as an overt act of rebellion (2 Sam . 
iii. 7, xii. 8 ; 1 Kings ii. 22, xi. 3). 

CONDEMNATION. A pronouncing of 
scntenee as a judge upon a malefactor 
(John viii. 10, 11). Hence the law is said to 
be a ' m-inistration of condemnatioiL,' or ' of 
death' (2 Cor. iii. 7, 9), because it convicts 
and sentences those who have transgressed 
it. Under this condemnation men generally 
lie (Rom. v. 16, 18). Inheriting the nature, 
inclined to evil, of their first father, they 
have personally broken the divine law ; 'for 
all have sinned and come short of the glory 
of God' (iii. 23). There is but one means of 
escaping this condemnation, with its fear- 
ful consequences; and this is announced 
in the gospel of Christ : ' He that believeth 
on him (the Son) is not condemned ; but 



he that believeth not is condemned already 
(that is, has incurred that guilt which, 
unrepented and unforgiven, will condemn 
him), because he hatk not believed in the 
name of tne only-begotten Son of God' 
(John iii. 18). In the succeeding verse, the 
word 'condemnation' includes the idea of 
aggravation. 

CONDUIT. Conduits are repeatedly men- 
tioned in connection with Jerusalem. Thus 
there was close by the city ' the conduit of 
the upper pool' (2 Kings xviii. 17; Isai. 
vii. 3, xxxvi. 2) ; the locality of which was 
' the highway of the fuller's field,' near the 
road that led to the place where the fullers 
plied their trade. We are further told that 
Hezekiah ' made a pool and a conduit, and 
•brougiit water into the city' (2 Kings 
XX. 20) ; this being probably the same work 
with his stopping ' the waters of the foun- 
tains which were without the city,' and 
stopping ' the upper water-course of Gihon,' 
bringing it ' straight down to the west side 
of the city of David' (2 Chron. xxxii. 3, 4, 
30). There is a difference of opinion as to 
the position of Gihon ; and consequently it 
is not agreed what exactly it was that 
Hezekiah did. According to Keil's view, 
wlio identifies the reservoir of the upper 
cGihon with the modern Birlcet es-Mamilla, 
and the lower pool with Birket es-SuUan, the 
conduit here spoken of is that which went 
from the one to the other, and the ' end,' 
where Isaiah was to meet Ahaz, was that of 
the conduit leading from the pool to the 
city. Hezekiah, therefore, 'stopped the 
upper moutli of the water of Gihon, and 
conducted it down from the west to the 
city, that is, he covered the conduit going 
from the upper Gihon to the lower pool, 
and so conducted the wuter which formerly 
ran on the west side without the city-walls 
down into the valley of Ben-Hinnom, 
through a canal with several subterranean 
chambers into the city, Avhereby, in case of 
a siege, the water would be withdrawn 
from the enemy and preserved for the in- 
habitants ' (Comm. on Kings, transl, to], ii. 
p. 86). Dr. Robinson believes the lately- 
discovered subterranean conduit within 
Jerusalem to be a branch of Hezekiah's 
water-course {Bib. Bes., vol. i. p. 346, vol. iii. 
pp. 243, 244 : com p. Porter's Handh. for Sijria 
mid Palest.., pp. 137, 138). Mr. Williams takes 
a different view. He places the fuller's 
field and Gihon on the north of the city, 
and imagines tiiat the water was brought 
south to the temple, and thence flowed to 
tine pool of Siloam or lower pool {The Holy 
City, vol. ii. pp. 469-478, 2nd edit.). 

it may be added, that there is a conduit 
or water-course still existing, though in- 
jured and only partiaHy serviceable, to 
convey the water from Solomon's pools to 
Joruf-alem. See Pool. 

CONEY. An animal whose flesh was for- 
bidden to the Hebrews (Lev. xi. 5 ; Deut. 
xiv. 7). It is elsewhere spoken of (Psal. 
civ. 18 ; Prov. xxx. 26). The Hyrax Syriacus 
is most probably intended, a small animal 
like a marmot, found in Palestine (though 
now very rarely), Lebanon, Arabia, and 
elsewhere. It is hardly larger than a rab- 
bit, has a very short tail ; its ears, feet, and 



T 



confession] 



178 



snout resembling those of the hedgehog. ] 
It is gregarious, makes its hed in the clefts i 
of rocks, but does not hurrow. It is timid, | 
and difficult to capture. The animal exactly j 
answers the description given in the pas- 
sages cited from the Psalms and the Pro- 
verbs ; but it is not ruminant, according to ] 
, the classification in the Mosaic law. Per- i 
haps, however, this is no sufficient objec- , 
tion ; for the action of the jaws resembles 
that of ruminating animals. 

CONFESSION. A penitential acknow- 
ledgment of sin either to God, as Aaron 
was to confess over the scape-goat tbe ini- 
quities of the children of Israel (Lev, 
xvi. 21), and as Ezra and Daniel confessed 
their sins and the sins of their people (Ezra 
Ix. 5-15 ; Dan. ix. 3-19 : comp. 1 John i. 9j ; 
or to those who have been wronged (James 
V. 16). There was a notable provision in 
the Mosaic law that, if an offender con- 
fessed his fault, the prescribed penalty or 
restitution was lessened (Lev. v. 5 ; Numb. 
X. 7 : comp. Exod. xxii. 1, 4). Confession is 
used to signify the open profession a man 
makes of bis faitb (Luke xii. 8). 

CONGREGATION. This word is applied 
to the collective Hebrew people, theocrati- 
cally regarded; from which some bodily 
disabilities would exclude, and into which 
a stranger could be admitted only under 
certain limitations (Exod. xii. 19 ; Numb. 
XV. 15 ; Deut. xxiii. 1-8). If a foreigner were 
circumcised, and did so enter into the con- 
gregation, he was perhaps ranked with 
some tribe or family, and thus was made 
capable of all the privileges of a home-born 
Israelite. But it was quite possible for a 
sojourner to become subject to some pro- 
visions and duties of the law, without 
thereby acquiring a place in the congrega- 
tion (Lev. xvi. 29 ; Numb. ix. 14). 

The congregation was an organized body, 
arranged under chiefs. The divisions of 
tribes, families, and houses were carefully 
preserved; and the heads of these were 
Invested with a certain authority, indi- 
vidually or collectively, sometimes acting 
as representatives of the whole (Exod. 
vi. 14, 25 ; Josh. xiv. 1, xxi. 1 ; 1 Chron, 
vlii. 10, 13, 28). They were called elders, 
heads, princes, renowned men (Numb. xvi. 
2) ; and of them there were seventy selected 
as a kind of council in the general govern- 
ment (xl. 16). Those thus appointed by 
Moses were specially and divinely qualified 
(25), and in this respect they stood pre-emi- 
nent ; but it was probably intended that 
the institution of a council should be per- 
manent. The place of meeting was at the 
door of the tabernacle, A general assembly 
was summoned by blowing the two silver 
trumpets, the elders by the sound of one of 
them (X. 3, 4, 7). These elders, as the re- 
presentative body, were sometimes called 
the congregation : to them were entrusted 
judicial powers: they were the means of 
communicating with the general mass ; 
and their decisions bound the nation (Exod. 
xii. 21, xvii. 5, xix. 7, 8; Lev. iv. 14, 15; 
Numb. XV. 33-36, xxxv, 12 ; Josh. ix. 15, 18). 
Occasionally, however, the whole of the 
people were summoned (Exod. xix. 17). 
After the occupation of Canaan, the con- 



gregation assembled fro-n time to time, 
but most generally we may suppose by the 
representative elders (Judges xx. 1 ; 1 Sam. 
vii. 5, X. 17, xi. 14, 15 ; 2 Sam. v. 1 ; 1 Kings 
xii. 1, 20 ; 2 Kings xi. 19 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 
29). 

The fact that the masses were represented 
by their chiefs disposes of the objection 
sometimes made to the credibility of the 
narrative on account of the difficulty of 
collecting the whole population. 

CONI'AH (Jer. xxii. 24, 28, xxxvii. 1). A 
shortened form of Jehoiachin, which 

CONONI'AH (Whom Jehovah hath set). A 
chief among the Levites (2 Chron. xxxi. 12, 
13). 

CONSCIENCE. The judgment of the soul 
giving its approbation to actions it thinks 
good, and condemning that which it sup- 
poses evil (Rom. ii. 15). The conscience 
must be enlightened, else it may not give 
a true testimony ; and its dictates must be 
obeyed, else it will become depraved and 
defiled (1 Cor. viii. 7 ; Tit. i. 15). The testi- 
mony of a good conscience, guided by the 
Holy Ghost, is that which a Christian should 
desire and cultivate (Acts xxiv. 16 ; Rom. 
ix. 1 ; 2 Cor. i. 12 ; 1 Tim. i. 5, 19 ; 1 Pet. 
iii. 21). 

CONSECRATION. See Priest, SaisCTI- 

FICATION. 

CONVERT, CONVERSION. The change 
in a man's heart and life, when by the 
effectual working of the Holy Ghost (from 
whom ' aU holy desires proceed') he turns 
from sin and the power of Satan to the 
service of God. It was this that St. Peter 
urged upon the Jews (Acts iii. 19), a change 
from an outward profession to vital godli- 
ness : it was this the news of which by 
Paul and Barnabas caused such joy to the 
brethren (xv. 3), the turning of the Gentiles 
from their idols to the faith of Christ. The 
expression of our Lord to Peter, 'when 
thou art converted' (Luke xxii, 32), must 
mean recovery from his fearful fall : having 
had experience of Satan's power, he might 
well warn and strengthen others against 
yielding to it : comp. 1 Pet. v. 8, 9. 

CONVOCATION (Exod. xii. 16; Lev. 
xxiii, 2 ; Numb, xxviii. 18, xxix. 1, and else- 
where). The word so rendered denotes 
meetings of a religious character, and gene- 
rally has the adjunct ' holy.' The same word 
occurs in Isai. i. 13, and is translated in our 
version ' assemblies.' 

COOKING. The culinary art among the 
Hebrews was probably simple, and similar 
to that among the Egyptians. Females, 
generally speaking, were the cooks ; and 
those at the head of a household, or of high 
rank, did not disdain so to employ them- 
selves (Gen. xviii. 6, xxvii. 14; 2 Sam. 
xiii, 7-9). Men, also, prepared food; and 
there were persons, especially in large es- 
tablishments, whose business it was to 
cook (Gen. xviii. 7, 8, xxv. 29; 1 Sam. 
viii 13 ix. 23, 24). A writer in Dr. Smith's 
Diet of the Bible, vol. i. p. 350, has drawn 
together several notices scattered through 
the bible, which illustrate Hebrew cookery. 
When animal food was eaten, he remarks, 
it was killed only just when wanted (Gen. 



179 



xviii. 7 ; 1 Sam. xxviil. 24), and the blood 
poured out : it was then flayed, and, if 
roasted, roasted whole over the fire, or 
baked in an oven. This was certainly the 
case with the paschal lamb (Exod. xii, 8, 9, 
46) ; but we can scarcely infer that an ani- 
mal was always roasted or baked whole. 
Boiling was, perhaps, more common ; and 
the writer alluded to says tliat then the 
animal was cut up, and the sboulder given 
to the priest (Lev. vii. 32). But surely the 
priest's portion did not depend on the dif- 
ference between roasting and boiling : 
there were specified parts of certain sacri- 
fices that belonged of right to the priests ; 
and ordinarily, it was prescribed, when ani- 
mals were slain they were to be brought 
to the door of the tabernacle, that a 
peace-offering might be made ; though 
there was special provision that the Israel- 
ites should not be bound to this when 
settled in Canaan, and far from the sanc- 
tuary (xvii. 1-7 ; Deut. xii. 5-7, 10-28). The 
mode of boiling may be gathered from 
Ezek. xxiv. 3-6, 10 ; Mic. iii. 3. When suffi- 
ciently cooked, the flesh and the broth 
were served separately (Judges vi. 19), 
Meat was sometimes highly seasoned (Gen. 
xxvii. 4, 7). Vegetables seem to have been 
made into pottage (xxv. 29 ; 2 Kings iv. 38) ; 
fish to have been broiled (Luke xxiv. 42). 
Various culinary utensils, as pots and pans, 
are mentioned in scripture. 

COOP (Jer. v. 27, marg.), equivalent to 
Cage, which see. 

CO'OS (Acts xxi. 1). See Cos. 

COPPER. This wor<i occurs in our version 
in Ezra viii. 27; wher« copper brightly 
polished, or possibly with a mixture of 
some more precious metal, is meant ; there 
being an alloy much esteemed among the 
Persians, of goM and other metals. The same 
Hebrew word is elsewhere wrongly trans- 
lated • brass.' The use of copper was early 
known (Gen, iv. 22). It was found in Pales- 
tine (Deut. viii, 9) ; and instruments and 
utensils of all kinds were made of it, as 
many of the vessels for the tabernacle and 
the temple (Exod. xxvi, 11, 37 ; Lev. vi. 28 ; 
Numb. xvi,39; 2 Chron, iv. 16). The mirrors 
of the women were of copper polished ; 
and of these, voluntarily offered, the laver 
was formed (Exod. xxxviii. 8). So fetters 
were of copper (Judges xvi. 21) ; also ar- 
mour, helmets, shields, spear-heads (1 Sam. 
xvii. 5, 6, 38 ; 2 Sam. ^xxi. 16). It would 
seem that some mode was known of tem- 
pering and hardening copper ; or an alloy 
might have been used. In some cases no 
doubt bronze is intended. Hiram Is de- 
scribed as very skilful in working this 
metal (1 Kings vii. 14). And, though, as 
already observed, it was found in Palestine, 
yet It was brought to Tyre from Javan, 
Tubal, and Meshech, probably the moun- 
tainous regions between the Black and 
Caspian seas (Ezek. xxvii. 13), The word 
is sometimes used for money (xvi. 36; 
where our version has • filthiness') ; also 
in the New Testament (Matt. x. 2). See 
Brass. 

COR (a roundvessel) (1 Kings iv,22, marg.; 
Ezra vii, 22, marg.; Ezek. xlv. 14). See 
Measukes. 



[ogee 



CORAL, This word occurs twice in scrip- 
ture (Job xxviii, 18 ; Ezek, xxvii. 16) : ac- 
cording to the Jewish rabbins it is red 
coral, anciently in high esteem, and still 
much valued when carved and cut. The 
mode in which this substance is built up 
from the bottom of the sea by innumerable 
living creatures, forming their houses,which 
are afterwards their tombs, is highly curious 
and interesting. So have grown myriads 
of islands in the Pacific. The Red sea 
abounds in coral ; and thence probably it 
was carried to the markets of Tyre. 

COR'BAN. An offering, bloody or un- 
bloody, made to God, specially in fulfilment 
of a vow. In vows persons bound them- 
selves positively to do something, or nega- 
tively to abstain from something (Lev. 
xxvii. ; Numb. xxx. ; Judges xi, 30, 31, xiii. 
4, 5, 7). The rabbins overlaid the law herein 
with their traditions. They taught that, 
by declaring a thing ' corban,' a man might 
interdict himself from using it or giving it 
to another, and from receiving any thing 
from another. And the abuse was carried 
so far as to prohibit the doing of any act 
which was pronounced corban. So that, in 
the case our Lord censures (Matt. xv. 5, 6 ; 
Mark vii. 11-13), a son, reserving his goods 
to his own selfish use, might refuse help to 
his parents. It was ' corban' to render them 
any service. And so he pretended he was 
excused. The word occurs frequently in 
the Old Testament. 

COB' BE (1 Esdr. v. 12). A perverted form 
of Zaccai (Ezra ii. 9). 

CORD. Cords or ropes were of various 
materials. Strips of camel's hide are still 
used in the east, sometimes twisted into 
thongs. Strong ropes were probably made 
of these : the finer kinds of flax, or the 
fibre of the date-palm, supplied ordinary 
cords. 

There are some passages of scripture in 
which cords or ropes are figuratively used, 
which require illustration. Thus Isaiah 
speaks of men drawing ' iniquity with cords 
of vanity, and sin as it v/ere with a cart- 
rope' (Isai. V. 18). Lowth's interpretation 
that the reference is to a rope-maker, who 
is continually adding to his materials and 
lengthening his cord, is forced. Hender- 
son is probably right when he says, ' The 
moaning is that the persons described were 
not satisfied with ordinary modes of pro- 
voking the Deity, and the consequent or- 
dinary approach of his vengeance, but, as 
it were, yoked themselves in the harness 
of iniquity, and, putting forth all their 
strength, drew down upon themselves with 
accelerated speed the load of punishment 
which their sins deserved' (Isaiah, p. 43). 
Cords were used for measuring : hence to 
' cast a cord by lot ' (Mic. ii. 5) is to allot an 
inheritance ; and sometimes 'a line' signi- 
fies an inheritance (Psal. xvi. 6). Animals 
were led by cords and prisoners bound with 
them : therefore to 'loose the cord' is to 
cast off restraint (Job xxx. 11); while * cords 
of love' (Hos, xi. 4) may refer to the soft 
bands or leading-strings, used for chil- 
dren. 

CO'RE (Jude 11) The Greek form of 
Korah. 



coriandek] 



180 



CORIAIsDEE- (Exod. xvi. 31 ; munlx xi. 
7), The manna was likened to coriander 
seed in both colour and form. This plant 
(Coriandrum sativum), is very widely dif- 
fused. It is umbelliferous, akin to parsley 
in family characteristics ; with a round tall 
stalk, the flowers small and white. The 
leaves are much divided and smooth. The 
seeds are globular, of a grey colour, and 
from their aromatic nature are used for 
culinary purposes. . 

COPt'INTH. A celebrated city on the isth- 
mus which unites Pehiponnesus (the 
Morea), to the continent of Greece. A vast 
rock called the Acrocorintbus, rose abruptly 
to a height of 2000 feet above the level of 
the sea ; to the north of which lay the city, 
mistress of two harbours, Cenchrese, about 
eight miles distant on the eastern or Saronic 
gulf (2-ulf of iEgina), and Lechaeum on the 
western or Corinthian gulf (gulf of Lepanto) 
only a mile and a half away. So advan- 
taff'eouslv situated, Corinth became wealthy 
and stronsr, and sent out nunierous colo- 



we may date the composition in the spring 
of 57 or 58 A.D. The occasion of writing was 
two-fold. The Corinthians had applied lo 
St. Paul for information, perhaps by Ste- 
phanas, Fortunatus, and Achalcus (xvi.l7) 
on the subjects of marriage, of eating meats 
offered to idols, &c. (vii. viii. &c.) ; and, be- 
sides, he had learned by special informa- 
tion (from Chloe's family) (i. 11) that va- 
rious abuses, dissensions, immoralities, &c. 
had been practised among them. .Full of 
anxietv for those over whom his" bowels 
Yearned, the apostle applies himself imme- 
diatelv to repress the evils that had arisen, 
and to solve the questions submitted to 
him. Corinthian Christians were mainly 
Gentiles (xii. 2) : still there were many Jews 
amouethem (Actsxviii. 4, 8^; and Jewish 
jealousy of Paul, and Grecian profligacy 
and philosophic spirit, combined to endan- 
ger the purity of the faith and to debase 
the holiness of character which ought to 
have been maintained. 
The plan and structure of this epistle ir 



nies toAvestern lands, but was at length ! easily exhibited. After an iiiLroduction 
u terly destroyed bv the Romans under ! and brief expression of thankfulness for 
Alunimius; 146 B.C. In about a century ; the blessings they had received (i. 1-9) the 
Corinth wAs re-founded by Julius Cffisar, and apostle proceeds to rebuke the ^P^rit of 
was inade the capital of the Roman pro- dissension which prevailed, vindicating his 
ce Achaia Thus it was acrain a wealthy authority, and intimating his_ purpose of 
and its commerce flourished anew. 1 visiting them, strongly censuring the case 
The Isthmian eames celebrated close by | of the incestuous person, whom he com- 
added to its prSsperitv; and as riches in- manded to be put out of the church, and 
creaTed so did luxury' and profligacy; tl^^ ! enforcing that iwity which m 

ship of Venus encouraging the most : was especially likely to be corrupted (10- 



VlUi 

city 



worship of Venu; 
shameful licentiousness, 



giug 1 

The Christian : vi. 20). 



He next replies to the questions 



church here was founded by St. Paul ; and sent to him, placing l^efore them hi. o^n 
the Lord had ' much people ' (Acts xviii. 10) i moderation as an example to be followed 
tne i^oiu nau niL i i _ . ^ , .^^ subserviency to the great example of 



in this city, the power of the gospel pre- 



vailing mightily against the corruptions of : Christ (vii. 1-xi. 34) ; and then, after d i 
Tdo atrv and lust. Corinth became the see 1 cussing the right use of spiritual gifts (xii 
S a b sho?: w^iich though the great city is xiii., xiv.), he maintaAns in an admirable 
nowi4Sed o a mere village it still re- ; section the truth of Christ's resurrection, 
L^u<= TheV are s^^^^^^ relics of ancient i and illustrates the resun-ection of the body, 
splendour ; and in the Posidonium or sane- in which the final victory js gained by the 
tSarv of ieptune some traces may be seen believer over the last enemy (xv. , and 
S the l4miai V^^^^^^ of which that was , concludes with directions for a contribution 
Uie scenl The sinall green pine-trees from to be sent to Jerusalem, a notice of his own 



motions, and various greetings (xvi.). 
It should be added that much difficulty 



which the chaplet of victory was taken are 

vet found s'rowiiig in the neighbourhood. I ^~ ~- - 

There a?e notices in the Act_s of Uie Apostles | has J^^en f ejt m^i^gard^to^^^ ^9,^w^ 



of two visits paid by St. Paul to Corinth 
The first extended to a year and 



' or no a prior epistle had been written. The 
best critics are now inclined to answer in 



mT^nthsTxvm' l-Tsx' Gallio, brother of the the affirmative. It is not, however t<) be 

Stop fer Seneca, was then proconsul of supposed that anything has been ost from 

thr^iovince. St. Paul's second visit is the canon. An earlier letter, even if wntten 

briefly noticed, though it lasted three ; by inspiration and no longer extan^,^ had 
months (xx. 2, 3\ Whet 
two the apostle made another is que; 
tioned : see below, p. 181 



Whether between these ; accomplished its end. It was no more the 
' divine purpose that everything written by 
1 Paul or Peter or others should be preserved 



CORIX'THI THE EPISTLES TO for the church, than it was that every word 

THE The First IJpistle.-That the first of uttered by a prophet should be chronicled 
thise epistles was bitten by St. Paul was , for ever. What God's good Providence de- 
never doubted : the evidence of its genuine- i signed for perpetual use we have. 
ne«s and authenticity being abundant and The Second Epistle.-The_ authority of the 
SittinJt It s cited by Clement of Rome, second epistle to the Corinthians is equal 
Polvcarp Irenreus, Cvprian, Athenagoras, to that of the first. It is cited by Iren^us, 
Clemen of ifexa^ TertuUian! and Athenagoras, Clement of A exandna^ 

other ancient writers. The place where it tullian, and others. Soon after the first 
was wiitten is clearly specified (1 Cor. xvi. epistle was despatched St Paul left Ephesus 
S It va4s a^Ephesus at the end of the : (2 Cor. i. 8), and proceeded to Troas where 
apostle^slong sojourn in that city ; and, as he expected to meet Titus with intelligence 
Ee is somli^ison to imagine (aV^^^^ produced by the admonitions 

i waVIbuu tbn time of the paschal feast, , he had given. Disappointed there he went 



181 



28t5Ir IBinoiDlelrgf. [corner-stonb 



on into Macedonia, in some city of wliicli 
he found Titus, and was cheered hy the 
news he brought (ii. 12-14). Paul in conse- 
quence wrote this second letter to prepare 
the Corinthians for his approaching visit 
to them. It was prohahly composed, there- 
fore, In the summer or autumn of the 
same year in which the first epistle had 
been written. The exact place of writing 
cannot he ascertained : we can only say it 
was in Macedonia (vii. 5, viii. 1, ix. 2). 

Though the impression made by the first 
epistle was generally favourable, yet it had 
evidently stirred up the passions of those 
who were not friendly to St. Paul; and 
therefore in noAV writing, after his usual 
introduction (1. 1, 2), he justifies himself 
from the imputations made against him, 
touches on his integrity in the discharge 
of his ministry, and shows how he v/as 
influenced not by worldly interest, but by 
affection towards his converts (i. 3-vii. 16). 
He then speaks of the collection (viii., ix.), 
and afterwards defends his apostolic autho- 
rity (X. 1-xiii. 10). Salutation and solemn 
benediction conclude (xiii. 11-14). 

It is questioned -(xiii. 1) whether the 
apostle had previously paid two visits to 
Corinth ; the second recorded in the Acts 
(XX. 2, 3) being evidently after this second 
epistle was written. It seems most pro- 
bable that a short visit teas paid during 
the lengthened residence at Ephesus. St. 
Luke's omitting to record it is no proof 
that there was no such visit. 

The two epistles to the Corinthians are 
full of interest. A singular variety of topics 
are treated : the changes are rapid, and the 
details minute. Irony, rebuke, consolation 
present themselves in turn; and In no 
other of his writings are the extraordinary 
poAvers of the apostle's mind more evidently 
displayed. Among the commentaries on 
these epistles may be named those of Bill- 
roth, Leipz. 1833; Olshausen, Konigsb. 1840 ; 
Meyer, 1849, 1850. 

CORMORAKT. An unclean bird (Lev. xi. 
17; Deut. xiv. 17). The Hebrew name, 
which implies casting down, is no doubt 
given it from its habit of plunging or dart- 
ing from a height upon the flsh, its prey. The 
common cormorant, Phalacrocorus carbo, is 
most probably the bird intended. It is 
true that a writer in Dr. Smith's Diet of the 
Bible, append. A. p. xliv., declares that it is 
not found on the eastern shores of the Medi- 
terranean ; but Gosse {Iwp. Bible Dict,\o\. i. 
p. 361) and Duns (^Bibl. Nat. Science, vol. ii. 
p. 90) distinctly assert that it Is abundant 
there. This bird measures about three 
feet in length, is black beneath and dark 
brown above, and has a white patch on 
each thigh. The bill is long, nearly straight, 
witli a strongly-hooked tip of the upper 
mandible. The skin of the face and throat 
is yellow, bordered with white. The cor- 
morant is voracious and an excellent diver. 
There is another word sometimes trans- 
lated ' cormorant' (Isai. xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 
14), Avhich is more properly (as in the maz'- 
gin) Pelican, which see. 

CORN. The Hebrew word commonly 
translated corn has a very comprehensive 
meaning, including more than Ave usually 



understand by our term : it is that which 
covers the ground, increase generally. And 
this was veiT applicable to Palestine, a most 
fertile country (Gen. xxvii. 28, 37 ; Psal. 
Ixv. 9-13), where the produce of what was 
sown was manifold ; so that it was able ta 
export cereals to neighbouring nations (1 
Kings V. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 17). The princi- 
pal kinds of corn grown were wheat, bar- 
ley, millet, and a grain with regard to 
which our translators seem in doubt ; for 
they render the Hebrew word sometimes 
' rye' (Exod. ix. 32 ; Isai. xxviii. 25), and some- 
times ' fitches ' (Ezek. iv. 9) : it was probably- 
spelt. A writer in the Imp. BibleDict., vol. i. 
p. 361, is inclined to believe that maize or 
Indian corn was also grown in Palestine. 
For the operations of cultivating, sowing, 
reaping, threshing, winnowing, &c., see 
Agriculture, and the articles under those 
Avords. The storing of corn is a matter of 
much anxiety in the east on account of the 
insecurity of property. Joseph would 
seem to have laid up the vast produce of 
Egypt in granaries (Gen. xli. 48) ; and 
Egyptian granaries were, as the paintings 
slioAv, a series of A^aulted chambers; but 
store-houses in Israel are spoken of 'in the 
fields,' as distinguished from those in the 
cities (1 Chron. xxvii. 25). And these 
doubtless Avere pits, probably like the ones 
noAV in use, lined with straAA% to preserve 
the corn from damp (comp. Jer. xli. 8). 

CORNE'LIUS. A centurion of 'the Ita- 
lian band 'at Cgesarea, a devout man, ear- 
nestly worshipping God according to the 
light he possessed. He Avas instructed by an 
angelic vision to send for the apostle Peter, 
Avho having been similarly directed obeyed 
the summons, and preached the gospel of 
Christ to Cornelius, and a company 
gathered in his house. "While Peter aa^is 
speaking, the Holy Ghost fell upon the 
assembly, Avith supernatural gifts. They 
were therefore as the first-fruits of the 
Gentile Avorld baptized into the Christian 
church (Acts x.). Nothing more is kuoAvn 
of Cornelius. 

CORNER. It was one of the humane 
regulations of the Mosaic laAV that a man 
Avas not to reap the corners of his field. 
What groAV therein Avas, with the gleanings, 
to be for the poor and the stranger (Lev. 
xix. 10, xxiii. 22). Their right is said to haA^e 
been afterAvai'ds commuted for a sixtieth 
part of the Avhole produce. See Agricul- 
ture, Poor. 

The Avord corner is also used in refer- 
ence to the hair or beard, Avhich was not 
to be marred or rounded (xix. 27, xxi. 5). 
The Arabian tribes to the south-east of 
Palestine appear to have observed this 
custom, AA'hich became one of their charac- 
teristics (Jer. ix. 26, marg., xxa^ 23, marg., 
xlix. 32, marg. : comp. Henderson's Jere- 
miah, ])p. G5, 06, note). See Beard, Hair, 
Mourning, Priest. 

CORNER-STONE. A stone of special im- 
portance in binding together the tAvo 
sides of a building. In the structures of 
NincA'eh the corner is sometimes formed of 
a single angular stone. Figuratively the 
term Avas applied to the principal persons 
in a country ; jast as Ave say the ' pillars' of 



corket] 



182 



the state (Isai. xix. 13, marg.). And so Tve i carpas, rendered in our version ' green,' is 
find AIe«=iah r^e-sisniaed in passages ; fine wliite cotton, cotton stuff. It was very 
wliicli'; thousli tliev ml slit "hare an applica- ; likely at first considered as a variety ot 
tion a* manv propiietic utterances liave.to ; linen, and not till after tlie Persian_ domi- 
tlie circumstances of the time when they nion distinguished from it, '"-^^ ^= ^^'^ 



were delivered (as Psal. cx^uii. on occasion 
of the laying the foundation of the new 
temple), yet^certainly pointed forward to 
him on whom all believers should he huilt, 
Jews and Gentiles compacted into one holy 
temple to Gods eternal glory (22; Isai. 
xxviii. 16 ; Matt. xxi. 42 ; Acts iv. 11 ; 1 Pet. 
ii- 6). 

CORXET. A musical instrument. The 
word sliophar, so rendered in l Chron. xv. 
28 ; 2 Chron. xv. 14 ; Psal. xcviii. 6 ; Hos. v. 
8, is generallv elsewhere translated Trux- 
PET, which see. It appears to have been 
a long straicht tube. The cornet, keren 



^ Goitjn is now 

grown to some extent in Syria and Pales- 
' np nnri i> in freouent USe. 

elsewhere). 



tine, and is in frequent use. 

COrCH (Gen. xlviii. 4, 
See Bed. 

COUNCIL. The great council of tne 
Jews was the SA^'HEDRIM, which see. 
There were also inferior local councils, or 
courts (Matt. x. 17 ; Mark xiii. 9), two of 
which were at Jerusalem, one at each pro- 
vincial town. The constitution of these is 
not clear. Their origin may be traced to 
Moses (Deut. xvi. 18) ; and Josephus de- 
clares that they consisted of seven judges, 
with two Levites as assessors (Antiq., lib. 



(Dan V srrTfoTioi, was most likely a curved iv. 8, § 14). See Cities. He himself ap- 
horn". This word is also found as the trans- i pointed a court of seven ]udges_ for sniall 
lation of another Hebrew term, memCaii'lm \ offences {Bell. Jud 
(2 Sam. vi. 5). It probably meant a kind of 
rattle eriving a tinkUng sound when sha- 
ken ; like the sistrum used in the worship 



of the Esvptiah Isis; which was from 8 to 

18 inches in length, of bronze or brass, with 

loose rings on transverse bars. Specimens 

of the sistrum are preserved in museums. 
COHRUPTIOX, MOUNT OF (2 Kings 

xxiii. 13). See Olives, mou>'T op. 
COS or CO'O.S. A small island In the 

^gean sea off the coast of Caria, the Irirth- 

place of Hippocrates, with a chief town of 

the same name, in Avhich was a famous 

temple of ^sculapius. The island was cele- 
brated for its wines, beautiful stuffs, and 

ointments. St. Paul passed a night here 

on his vovaere from Miletus to Judea (Acts 

xxi. 1). It is noted as the residence of Jews 

in Maccabean times (1 Mace. xv. 23) : its 

modern name is Stanchio. 
CO'SAM (a diviner). One In the list of 

Christ's ancestry (Luke iii. 28). 
COTTON. A name, probably derived 

from the Arabic kutn, for a well-known 

substance, a filamentous matter, produced 

bv the surface of the seeds of various spe- 
cies of gossypium, of the parenchymatous 
part of which it may be said to be a de- 
velopment ; while linen is a form of woody 
matter. The cotton plant has been found 
wild in both the old and the new world. 
The situations in which it has been advan- 
tageouslv cultivated are included between , xxi. 31, xxvi 
Egypt aiid the Gape of Good Hope in the | (xxxi. 50; 1 Sam, 
ea-tern, and between the southern shores 
of Chesapeake bay and the south of Brazil 
in the western hemisphere. Beyond the 
parallels limiting these regions it does not 
prosper. It requires a peculiar combination 
of heat, lia-ht, and moisture, appearing to 
prefer theViciniry of the sea in dry coun- 
tries, and the interior districts in moister 
climates. Cotton was Aveil-known and 
largely used in very ancient times, most 
probablv in Egypt (.though the cloths in 
which mummies there were swathed, often 
supposed to be cotton, are now known to 
be linen\ and certainly in India. It is 
natural, therefore, to suppose that the He- 
brews might have been acquainted with 



lib. ii. 20 § 51. The 

Talmu'dical writers, however, say that the 
numljer of judges varied, that it was 23, if 
the population exceeded 120; 3, if it fell 
below. Perhaps the 'judgment' (Matt, v- 
21, 22) referred to these inferior councils. 
The ' council' (Acts xxv. I2j was composed 
of councillors appointed to assist and ad- 
vise the Roman governors. 

COURT. The original word, signifying 
enclosure, and generally translated 
' court,' is used to designate the enclosure 
of the tabernacle (Exod. xxvii. Qj ; also, 
the various courts of the temple (1 Kings 
vi. 36, A'ii. 8 : Psal. xcii. 13). It is likewise 
applied to the court of a private house 
(2 Sam. xvii. 18), of a palace (2 Kings xx. 
4 ; Esth. i. 5), and of a prison (Neh. iii. 25 ; 
Jer. xxxii. 2). It further signifies the en- 
closure of a village, and repeatedly occurs 
{Hazer, or Hazor) in the names of places. 
Another word is used for court in 2 Chron. 
iv. 9, vi. 13, which in Ezek. xliii. 14, 17, 20, 
xlv. 19 is translated 'settle.' It probably 
means a kind of ledge round the altar, as 
it were enclosing it. 

COU'THA (1 Esdr. v. 32). 
COVENANT. An agreement entered into 
between two or more contracting parties 
to perfarm certain specified acts. The 
making of a covenant, in ancient times, 
was usually attended by solemn rites or 
svmbols. Thus an oath was taken (Gen. 

31), and God invoked 

tx. 16, 17). Gifts, too, 

were made (Gen. xxi. 27, 30), or some other 
witness or sis-n employed, as a heap of 
stones, or a pillar, to be a memorial of the 
conditions entered into (xxxi. 45-49). Also, 
a feast was made (xxvi. 30, xxxi. 46) ; and 
sometimes animals were divided into two, 
and the contracting parties passed between 
the pieces (xv. 17 ; Jer. xxxiv. 18, 19). The 
Hebrew word for ratifying a covenant im- 
plies to cut, perhaps with a reference to 
this practice ; and the term for covenant 
it=elf is bv some scholars taken to signify 
eatins together. To this day the mere 
eatinsr with a man constitutes a certain 
title '^to his good offices among eastern 
tribes. It has been thought that 'a cove- 



it But the onlv distinrt mention we have I nant of salt' (Numb, xviii. 19 ; 2 Chron. xiii 
of it in script{ire is in Esth. i. 6, where j 5) had hence its significancy; since it is weU 



183 MMz WimMth^t. 



known that to have tasted another's salt is 
a proverbial phrase for to he hound to him. 
But more probably ' a covenant of salt ' 
means a permanent covenant, because of 
the preservative quality of salt. A cove- 
nant made as just described, with solemn 
ceremonies and an appeal to the Deity, was 
to be carefully observed : to break it was a 
heinous sin (Ezek. xvii. 18"). 

As the Deity has often illustrated his own 
dealings with men by their dealings with 
each other, so he has been pleased to use 
the idea of a covenant, which properly can 
be entered into between those only who 
are mutually bound, and to represent him- 
self as standing in a covenant relation with 
his people. This is altogether of grace. 
For his creatures, sinful creatures pre- 
eminently, have no independent standing, 
and can have no claim upon him but what 
he gives them. And, if he binds himself, it is 
to gain no advantage : it is rather the ex- 
clusive bestowal of advantage and good on 
those whom he admits into his covenant. 
Thus God made a covenant with ISToah, and 
appointed the rainbow as the sign of it 
(Gen. ix. 9-17) ; but it was properly but a 
merciful promise. Similarly there was a 
covenant with Abraham, of which circum- 
cision was the seal (xvii.). It is true that 
certain provisions are made, according to 
which the men of the covenant must act 
if they would not forfeit its advantages : 
it is true, too, that God, taking on himself 
a name of earthly relationship, gives a 
pledge that he will fulfil the requirements 
of that relationship. Thus marriage is a 
covenant (Prov. ii. 17 ; Mai. ii. 14). And 
God condescends to say that he espouses 
his church unto himself (Isai. liv. 5 ; Jer. 
iii. 14; Eph. v. 23, 24), binding himself 
therein to grant his people all the loving 
protection, yea, far more than all, which a 
husband manifests to the wife of his bosom. 
It was as imposing conditions, those of the 
moral law (Exod. xxxiv. 27, 28 ; Lev. xxvi. 
15 ; Deut. iv. 1.3), that God made his cove- 
nant with Israel at Sinai ; hence the dis- 
pensation, and even the book of the law, 
was termed the covenant. And in refer- 
ence to this it was that a better and yet 
more gracious covenant was promised, 
even that new covenant to be made by God 
with Christ, and through Christ with be- 
lievers in him, that their sins should be 
forgiven and eternal life assured them (Jer. 
xxxi. 31-34; 2 Cor. iii. 6-17 ; Heb. viii. 6-13). 
Not, indeed, that the so-called 'new' Mes- 
sianic covenant was an after-thought : it 
was God's gracious purpose from the begin- 
ning (Gen. iii. 15) ; and every provision and 
promise delivered from time to time to the 
fathers was the development of the ori- 
ginal purpose, preparing the way for its 
full manifestation. The two are not really 
in opposition ; but the law was a school- 
master to lead men to Christ (Gal. iii. 21-26). 

In the New Testament, the word often 
rendered' covenant' is also often translated 
'testament.' And it is sometimes very diffl- 
cult to decide which of the two senses is to 
bo preferred. The most perplexing case is in 
IJcb. ix. 15-17, where Scholefield decides for 
I'.ovenant, translating 16, 17, ' For, where a 



[creation 



covenant is, there must of necessity be 
brought in the death of the mediating 
sacrifice. For a covenant is valid over dead 
sacrifices; since it is never of any force 
while the mediating sacrifice continues 
alive ' (Hints for an Improved Transl. of the 
New Test). 

COW (Lev. xxii. 28 ; Numb, xviii. 17 ; Job 
xxi. 10 ; Isai. vii. 21, xi. 7 ; Ezek. iv. 15 ; 
Amos iv. 3). See Bull. 

COZ (thorn). A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. iv. 8). 

COZ'BI (lying). The daughter of a chief 
of Midian, whom Phinehas slew (Numb. 
XXV. 15, 18). 

CRACKNELS. A kind of cake, which 
probably crumbled easily (1 Kingsxiv. 3). 
See Bread. 

CRANE (Isai. xxxviii, 14 ; Jer. viii. 7). 
The word rendered 'crane' in both these 
places properly signifies a swallow. And it 
is most probable that the ' swallow' in the 
same places is a crane. The common crane, 
Grus cinerea, is a well-known bird, migra- 
tory and gregarious. Cranes were formerly 
very numerous in England. 

CBA'TES (2 Mace. iv. 29). A person said 
to be ' governor of the Cyprians.' 

CRAW (Zeph. iii. 1, marg.). Our trans- 
lators appear to have thought the word so 
rendered the substantive, w4iich means the 
crop or craw of a bird. More probably it 
is an adjective signifying rebellious. See 
Henderson, Minor P7-ophets, p. 339, note. 

CREATION. In the beginning of the 
Pentateuch, we find an account of the 
forming of the visible universe. It has 
been hotly contested whether this be in- 
deed a trustworthy, or whether it be not a 
mistaken account. Some writers have 
chosen to say that geological discoveries 
entirely disprove the Mosaic cosmogony; 
while others vindicate the authority of the 
sacred historian, but differ widely in their 
modes of vindication. The brief space which 
can be allowed to the subject in the present 
work entirely precludes that minuteness 
of investigation for which a large book 
would hardly suffice. It must be enough to 
lay down here a general principle, and to 
offer some observations on it which may 
tend to guide the reader towards a sound 
conclusion. 

It is hoped that, in other parts of this 
volume, abundant grounds have been 
shown for receiving the bible as the re- 
velation of divine truth ; so that its his- 
tories are entitled to belief, its doctrines are 
those which the Deity has propounded as 
necessary for the well-being of his crea- 
tures. If the bible is the word of God, 
nay, if, taking lower ground, and less de- 
fensible, the bible contains Vhe word of 
God, it is inconceivable, it is repugnant to 
the very nature of the thing, that it should 
commence with a mere legend, the baseless 
speculation of some Hebrew dreamer. If 
its statements are not to be relied on in re- 
gard to a matter of such practical import- 
ance as the relation which man bears to his 
Creator, resulting from the mode in which 
he was formed, and the kind of dwelling in 
which he is placed, surely the sooner such 
a volume is discarded the better. It is to 



cre.'^tion] 



184 



be concluded, therefore, as strongly as pos- 
t-ible, that the early accounts of Genesis 
5re not mere fanciful reveries, hut do au- 
thoritatively convey definite truth. 

There i&, however, another record ; and 
its facts are hefore our eyes. Tlie investi- 
gations of science prove that a variety of 
chansres have occurred in the earth's his- 
torv r they exhibit to us plants and animals 
which existed long ago, of species alto- 
gether different from those existing now. 
The problem is, how to interpret the scrip- 
ture record so as that it shall not contradict 
ascertained facts. Various modes have been 
attempted of solving this problem. It has 
been alleged that the early part of Genesis 
is of a poetical cast, embodying truth, but 
truth by means of allegorical description. 
It has been allowed, by others, that the 
narrative is one of simple facts ; but among 
those who so maintain the plain truth of 
the record there is this difference, that, 
while some believe God's six days' work iu 
creation to have been spread over six in- 
definitely-hmg periods, during which geo- 
logical changes occurred, others hold that 
these davs were natural days, and that the 
revolutions or changes occurred prior to 
their commencement. Other minor suppo- 
sitions, too, there have been, as that the 
six davs' work concerned only a single dis- 
trict of the earth's surface. 

The principle which shall be laid down 
here is, as noted above, that the opening part 
of Genesis is a plain truthful narrative of 
facts; and for this some reasons shall be 
given: the question whether the 'days' 
were literal days or more extended periods, 
though an opinion shall be given on it, will 
be treated with much less confidence. 

Archdeacon Pratt, in his very sensible 
work, Scripture and Science not at Variance, 
has shown that past history confirms the 
truth of scripture. Scientific discoveries, 
at first apparently at variance with scrip- 
ture, have been found, on better examina- 
tion, to contradict merely the false inter- 
pretations of scripture, and have done good 
service in leading to a more adequate ap- 
preciation of what the scripture really does 
say, illustrating thus, in a remarkable way, 
the harmony betAveen scientific conclusion 
and the statements of the Avritten word. 
This the archdeacon confirms by various 
examples. He further shows how later 
scripture writers, how our blessed Lord, 
continuallv cite or allude to the earlier 
chapters of Genesis, as containing a truth- 
ful narrative of facts. His words, m 
summing up his statement, are, ' Here are 
Bixty-six passages of the New Testament, 
in which these eleven chapters of Genesis 
are eicher directly quoted or are made a 
ground of argument. Of these, five are by 
our Lord himself, two of them being direct 
quotations ; thirty-eight by St. Paul, three 
being direct quotations ; six by St. Peter; 
eight in St. John's writings ; one by St. 
James; two by St. Jude; two by the as- 
sembled apostles ; three, all of them direct 
quotations, by St. Luke ; and one by St. 
Stephen' (p. 77, 3rd edit.). He proceeds, 
' The inference I would draw from this cir- 
crdmstance is that our Lord and his apostles 



regarded these eleven chapters as historical 
documents worthy of credit, and that they 
made use of them to establish truths— a 
thing they never would have done had they 
not known them to be authoritative' (ibid.). 
It is not easy to evade this conclusion; 
a mythical or allegorical interpretation, 
therefore, of the scripture account of crea- 
tion, is inadmissible. So Dr. McCaul argues 
with the greatest force, ' There are in this 
chapter (Gen. 1.) none of the peculiarities 
of Hebrew poetry. The style is full of dig- 
nity, but it is that of prose narrative. 
There is no mention of prophetic vision, 
no prophetic formula employed. . . . The 
prophet or historian is kept entirely out of 
sisrht ; and the narrative begins at once 
without any preface, " In the beginning 
God created the heavens and the earth," 
and then goes to the account of paradise, 
the birth of Cain and Abel, &c., -without 
any break or note of transition from vision 
to history. The book of Genesis is history. 
It is the historical introduction to the four 
following books of the Pentateuch, or, 
rather, to all following revelation ; and the 
first chapter, as the inseparable beginning 
of the whole, must be historical also. When 
the Lord recapitulates its contents in the 
fourth commandment, and makes it the 
basis of the ordinance of the sabbath, he 
stamps it as real history. To suppose a 
moral, or even a ceremonial, command, 
based upon a poetic picture, or a vision, or 
an ideal narrative, would be absurd' ^Aids 
to Faith, pp. 198, 199). 

But, while it is maintained that the re- 
cord of creation is a real historical narra- 
tive, it may be allowed to be a record of ap- 
pearances ; that is, that the events are opti- 
cally described, such as they would aqjpear 
to a spectatcn- placed on the surface of the 
' earth. See Prof. Challis's very sensible re- 
marks in his Creationin Plan and Progress, 
pp. 5, &c. It is not indeed necessary to 
suppose, with IlughlSlUlCT (Testimony of the 
Rocks, pp. 157, &c.), that the great drama of 
creation was unfolded to the eye of the in- 
spired writer in a series of visions, thus pic- 
turing actually before him what no human 
witness was present to describe, and what 
his mind otherwise might not have been 
able to conceive. But, if the description 
had been philosophically exact, expressing 
causes rather than results, it would have 
been less intelligil^le to the mass of men, 
it would have departed from the habitual 
practice not only of the bible, but of per- 
sons in general, nay, of philosophers too, 
in their mode of recording their scientific 
observations. Because the narrative de- 
scribes appearances, it does not the less 
describe facts. This question Is well argued 
by Mr. Birks, who concludes that ' the ob- 
jection to the optical construction of the 
sacred narrative, that it deprives it of all 
definite meaning, and gives it a non-natural 
sense, exactly reverses the real truth. The 
record of visible appearances is quite as 
definite in its own nature as a statement of 
physical causes, and is fa-r easier to under- 
stand ; and no simple reader, in the age 
when Moses wrote, could attach any other 
meaning to the words than that which is 



185 



[CEEiLTION 



_ 3 rashly condemned' (The Bible and Mo- 
dern T7iought, 1862, pp. 317-322). 

With these preliminary ohservations on 
the mode in which tlie narrative is framed, 
let us see what we are to understand by the 
words of the sacred writer. The state- 
ment, as w^e find it, is that the universe 
was framed hy an act of creative energy, 
and that afterwards the earth was trans- 
formed, in six successive periods of time, 
by successive fiats of the Creator, from a 
waste and desolate condition into a fit 
habitation, furnished with vegetable pro- 
ductions, and replete with animal life, for 
its favoured tenant man, created on the 
last of those days. 

'In the beginning God created the 
heaven and the earth' (Gen. i. 1). This is 
not a summary of the description which 
succeeds. It is the account of a distinct 
exertion of Almighty power. At some 
undefined point of his eternal duration, he 
made a beginning of the visible universe, 
by creating heaven and earth— not just the 
materials of which the marvellous frame 
was afterwards constructed, but ' the 
heayen and the earth,' the higher regions 
of which we know so little, and the lower 
world, substantially the same globe on 
which we live. And then, for auglit that 
we can tell, long ages passed. Scientific re- 
search proves that various races of plants 
and animals have lived and passed away ; and 
that great changes have from time to time 
taken place in the earth's surface. And in 
the course of them vast periods must have 
elapsed. It has been thought by many 
aljle men that these changes occurred, and 
these successive groups of life appeared in 
tlie six Mosaic 'days,' which they conse- 
quently have extended— seeing that the 
word 'day' is often used indefinitely in 
scfipture— to comprise great portions of 
time. Hugh Miller was one who embraced 
this hypothesis, and he most ably defended 
it (tibi supr., pp. 115 &c.), believing that 
successive geological epochs corresponded 
remarkably with the successive days of 
Genesis. 

Dissent from the opinions of men so 
well qualified to judge must be propounded 
with modesty. But later research seems 
to have throAvn reasonable doubt on 
Miller's conclusion. He had imagined that 
no break was discoverable between the hu- 
man or present period, and that immedi- 
ately preceding it, called by geologists the 
tertiary, that is to say, that animals lived 
on in regular descent from the former into 
the latter era. But the species appear to 
be quite distinct; and some writers are 
now disposed to believe that the entire 
fauna and flora or animal and vegetable 
existence of the tertiary period were de- 
stroyed. If this be so, the various revo- 
lutions—and as many as twenty-nine are 
numbered— of which geology takes account 
occurred chronologically prior to tlie 
statement that 'the earth was without 
form and void' (Gen. i. 2). The last great 
catastrophe had swept off all animal and 
vegetable life. The remnants indeed of 
earlier creations lay entombed in its rocks ; 
but the surface of the globe was a cleared 



platform for the last and greatest exhibi- 
tion of creative power. We know not how 
long it lay thus waste, just as it was pre- 
viously said we know not how long a time 
elapsed, embracing all the geological eras 
between the original creation of the 
heaven and the earth and the epoch when 
God in his wisdom began specially to fit 
this planet for the reception of the human 
race. Previous races had been gradually 
ascending in the scale of life, not by any 
natural development— the gaps, or breaks, 
or catastrophes of each successive period 
refute the notion— but by the various acts 
of power in which the Creator placed upon 
the earth creatures continually succeeded 
by those of higher type, culminating in 
that race whom he formed after his own 
image, breathing into their nostrils the 
breath of life. 

Viewed in this way there is nothing 
in the scripture record contradicted by 
scientific discovery. And, when it is said 
in the account of the first-named * day' 
that darkness was on the face of the deep, 
and that light broke forth at the almighty 
word, we need not imagine, the text does 
not require us to imagine, that the dark- 
ness overspread any other than our own 
planet, or that, previous to the command 
then given, light was unknown throughout 
the whole universe. It was from the 
earth that the glocnn was cleared away; 
and for this we must allow the bright 
shining of the sun was not necessary ; so 
that we may well conceive that the lumi- 
naries (light-bearers) which now cheer us 
did not become visi])le at the earth's sur- 
face till the fourth creative day. 

It is impossible to describe here the suc- 
cessive processes, in which one step after 
another, most likely, as Dr. M'Caul argues, 
through lengthened periods, was taken, and 
how plants, fowl, beast of the field such as 
we have now, Avere created, similar to, but 
not exactly the same in species with those 
of former epochs. The reader must be 
referred for such details to other works. 
Some such works have been already men- 
tioned: it may be added that much useful 
remark will be found in Duns' BihL Nat. 
Science, vol. i. pp. 1, &c. 

It may, liowever, be distinctly repeated 
that M-o have proof — the rocks afford us 
proof— not to be gainsaid, of the interfer- 
ence of a divine hand. There are endings 
and there are beginnings manifested, the 
close of one epoch and the commencement 
' of another, not an uninterrupted chain, l-ut 
i links broken off, and a fresh series apparent. 
Truly in all this we may say, the finger of 
God is here. This argument has been excel- 
lently wrought out by Dr. Chalmers in his 
' Natural Theology,' book ii. chap. ii. (Select 
Works, vol. V. pp. 132—150). 

Some have chosen to assert that the 
account of creation in Gen. ii. differs from 
that in Gen. i. Doubtless it differs, he- 
cause it is in some respects more full ; but 
it is not antagonistic. Without entering 
here upon the question Avlu^tlier or no 
tlu'se two chapters were derived from dif- 
ferent original documents, it wiW 'no 
sullicient to say that the liistory proceeds 



CnEDITOE] 



186 



upon tlie plan common to all histories. 
There is first a compendious account (i.) 
of creation generally. Then (ii.) the crea- 
tion of man is more particularly detailed, 
in relation to hoth the sexes, in rela- 
tion also to that particular part of the 
earth in which Adam was to live, with the 
condition on which he was placed there, 
and an illustration of that soA^ereignty 
which was confided to him over the lower 
animals. Historians, as ahove said, con- 
tinually, after a general statement, return as 
it were to take up and detail some special 
circumstances, before implied hut not ex- 
pressed ; and no one hlames them, or im- 
putes self-contradiction to them for this. 

It is hoped that in what has been said 
some general grounds have been given 
for- the candid reception of the scripture 
testimony respecting creation. Let the 
reader be reminded that if at any time 
fresh research should occasion fresh dif- 
ficulties he must not at once conclude 
them unanswerable : he may well recollect 
tliat difficulties, at first sight formidable, 
have frequently been so thoroughly cleared 
up by more careful investigation, as really 
to confirm the record they originally 
seemed about to overthrow. And a word 
of caution may not be out of place. 
Christian writers should beware of dogma- 
tizing on the mode of reconciling scripture 
with science. In our search after truth we 
may be sure that all that God has written, 
be it in the book of nature or in that of 
revelation, will ultimately be found to har- 
monize. But, inasmuch as scientific theory 
has often been proved presumptuous, one 
after another having gone down as know- 
ledge increased, we must not venture to 
stake the credit of revelation upon any 
theory which later wisdom may prove in- 
sufiicient. 

CREDITOR. See Loan. 

CRES'CENS (growing). A Christian, of 
whom nothing more is certainly known, 
than that St. Paul speaks of his having 
gone into Galatia (2 Tim. iv. 10). There are 
various traditions of him. 

CRETE. A large island in the Mediter- 
ranean, bold and mountainous, but with 
fruitful valleys, anciently celebrated for its 
hundred cities. It is about 140 miles in 
length, and of very variable breadth. Tacitus 
(Hist., lib. V. 2) represents the Jews as of Cre- 
tan origin : possibly he confounded them 
with the Philistines, or imagined that the 
Cherethites, repeatedly mentioned in scrip- 
ture, were Cretan emigrants. Indeed, the 
Septuagint renders Cherethim, or Chereth- 
ites (Ezek. XXV. 16 ; Zeph. ii. 5) Cretans. In 
later times, it would appear that many Jews 
had settled in Crete, so that we find notice 
of these as being in Jerusalem on the day 
of Pentecost (Acts ii. 11). We have no 
knowledge of the preaching of the gospel 
In this island. We are informed only that 
St Paul was oflE the coast on his voyage 
to Rome (xxvii. 7-14) ; and that he subse- 
quently left Titus there (Tit. i. 5). See 
TiTrs,THE Epistle to. Crete was a Roman 
province, placed from 67 B.C. under a pro- 
consul. The inhabitants had an evil name, 
as false and faithless (12). This island 



is now caUed Candia, and, by the Turks, 

Eirid. 

CRETES, CRET'IAI^S. Inhabitants of 
Crete (Acts ii. 11 ; Tit. i. 12). The verse 
cited in the last-named passage is from 
Epimenides, a native of Phsestus in Crete, 
who was regarded as a prophet. He lived 
about 600 B.C. 

CRIME. See Law, Ptjnisioient. 

CRIMSON (2 Chron. ii. 7, 14, iii. 14 ; Isai. 
i. 18 : Jer. iv. 30). See Colours, Scarlet. 

CRISPING-PINS (Isai. iii. 22). The ori- 
ginal word thus translated here occurs again 
in 2 Kings v. 23, where it is rendered 'bags.' 
It is properly a pocket, reticule, or purse 
for holding money or other articles, conical 
in form, and often of satin or velvet, orna- 
mented with gold (Henderson, Isaiah, 
p. 32). 

CRIS'PUS. The ruler of the synagogue 
at Corinth, who, with his family, believed 
in Christ (Acts xviii. 8), and was baptized 
by the apostle Paul (1 Cor. i, 14). 

CROCODILE. A formidable reptile, of 
which there are several species. The Oro- 
codiliis vulgaris is that which is found in 
Egypt. It is amphibious, and is now to be 
seen only in the upper Nile, though hereto- 
fore it frequented the lower parts of that 
river. The crocodile is too well known to 
require a description here. It is most likely 
the leviathan of Job x!i. : see LEVIATHA^^ 
Possibly also it is intended in Isai. xxvii. 1. 
When Ezekiel was commanded to prophesy 
against Egypt, he described Pharaoh as 
' the great dragon that lieth in the midst of 
his rivers' (Ezek. xxix. 3). The allusion 
must here also be to the crocodile ; and 
it is fitly applied to indicate an Egyptian 
king. 

CROSS. The frightful mode of punish- 
ment by the cross appears to have been 
practised from the earliest periods known 
to history. Crosses were made of two 
beams of wood, crossing each other either 
at right angles, or obliquely in the shape of 
the letter X ; with various modifications of 
form. There was sometimes also a kind of 
bracket attached as a partial support to the 
sufferer. Crucifixion was inflicted among 
the ancient Persians, Assyrians, Egyptians, 
Carthaginians, Indians, Scythians, Greeks, 
and Macedonians (see Winer, BiM. EWB., 
art. ' Kreuzigung,' where authorities are 
given). Among the Romans, it prevailed 
from very early times down to the reign of 
Constantino the Great, by whom it was 
abolished (Soz., Hist. Ecdes., lib. i. cap. 8, 
p. 336, edit. Amst. 1700) ; and from the Ro- 
mans it most probably passed to the Jews ; 
though some have imagined that they could 
trace the punishment in such passages as 
Deut. xxi. 22, 23. 

The mode of execution by the cross 
may be thus described. The criminal 
was first stripped and severely scourged, 
not with rods, but with whips, in which 
were often stuck nails or pieces of bone. 
He was then obliged to bear the cross, or 
some part of it, to the place where it w^as 
to be set up, generally without the city 
walls. Before him was frequently carried 
the placard, expressing his crime, in blacS 
letters on white gypsum, which was after 



187 



[crown 



^ards fastened over his head. Arrived at 
the spot, his clothes, resumed after the 
pcourging, were taken off : they were the 
perquisite of the executioners. Sometimes 
the sufferer was fastened to the cross as it 
lay on the ground : it was then lifted, with 
the hody attached, and dropped into the 
hole, so prepared that the feet were not 
more than about half a yard from the earth. 
But sometimes the cross was first set up ; 
and then the criminal was attached to it. 
Tying and nailing were both in use : the 
former mode, less painful at first, ensured 
a more frightful because a more lingering 
death. Our Lord was nailed ; and a ques- 
tion has arisen whether one or two nails 
were driven through his feet : most pro- 
bably there were two. One single trace of 
humanity was apparent in the fearful pro- 
cess. A medicated draught was offered to 
stupefy the senses : this Jesus refused 
(Mark xv. 23) : he would keep his mind 
quite clear through the whole period of his 
blood-shedding. And then the sufferer was 
left, a watch being set, lest any friends 
should take him down ; and days are said 
sometimes to have passed ere the agony 
was quenched by death. It was merciful to 
break the legs : death would come the 
sooner. The special tortures are thus de- 
scribed by a Avriter in Dr. Smith's Diet of 
the Bible, vol. i. p. .871 : ' 1. The unnatural 
position and violent tension of the body, 
which cause a painful sensation from the 
least motion. 2. The nails, being driven 
through parts of the hands and feet which 
are full of nerves and tendons (and yet at a 
distance from the heart), create the most 
exquisite anguish. 3. The exposure of so 
many wounds and lacerations brings on in- 
flammation, which tends to become gan- 
grene; and every moment increases the 
poignancy of suffering. 4. In the distended 
parts of the body more blood flows through 
the arteries than can be carried back into 
the veins ; hence too much blood finds its 
way from the aorta into the head and sto- 
mach ; the blood-vessels of the head become 
pressed and swollen. The general obstruc- 
tion of circulation which ensues causes an 
internal excitement, exertion, and anxiety, 
more intolerable than death itself. 5. The 
inexpressible misery of gradually increasing 
and lingering anguish. To all of which we 
may add, 6. Burning and raging thirst.' 

The cross on which our Lord suffered, 
was, if we may credit a legend, made of the 
aspen ; which is said hence to be continu- 
ally trembling. More reasonably it may be 
believed to have been of oak, which was 
plentiful in Judea. According to some 
historians, this cross was discovered at Je- 
rusalem by the empress Helena, 326 a.d. 
It had been, with the two on which the 
thieves were crucified, buried near the place. 
There was a difficulty, however, to know 
which was our Lord's ; but that difficulty, 
says the story, was overcome by a trial 
which of the three possessed miraculous 
virtue. From that time the wood has been 
largely venerated ; and so-called pieces of it 
are preserved in various parts of the world. 
It would be out of place here to discuss the 
truth of this narrative: it must be suffi- 



cient to say, tliat the crosses on which crl 
minals had suffered were, by Jewish law, to 
be burned, and that Eusebius says nothing 
of any such discovery, though he minutely 
describes the building of the church of the 
holy sepulchre (Ue Vit. Const., lib. iii. capp. 
25-40). 

The cross of Christ was indeed honoured 
by his disciples; but it was not the mate- 
rial cross. It was Christ crucified v/hora 
the apostles preached ; the divine Redeemer 
stooping so low as to endure this shocking 
death, in order to make a sufficient sacri- 
fice, satisfaction, and oblation, for the sins 
of the world (1 Cor. i. 23, 24, ii. 2). Hence 
they gloried in the cross of Christ (Gal. 
vi. 14), and willingly, for love of him, took 
up the cross (a figurative expression) and 
followed him, suffering for his sake perse- 
cution even to the death (2 Tim. ii. 11, 12). 
The symbol of the cross may, indeed, be 
before our eyes, to remind us of our voca- 
tion, but only as a symbol. The virtue is 
not in the sign, but in that which it repre- 
sents. See Hooker, Uccl. Pol., book v. 65. 
And some centuries elapsed before the sym- 
bol was turned into an image, the cross into 
the figure of Christ suspended on it. 

It may be added that, though among other 
nations bodies were generally suffered to 
rot upon the cross, the rites of sepulture 
being denied, the Jews observed the pre- 
cept of Deut. xxi. 23, and took down the 
corpse before sunset. 

When the Roman empire became Chris- 
tian, the cross, heretofore so shameful, was 
adopted as a symbol of honour : it glittered 
on the helmets of the soldiery, was en- 
graven on their shields, and interwoven 
into their banners. For an account of this 
revolution of feeling, and of the famous 
Labarum, or imperial sacred banner, on 
which the cross was represented, see Gib- 
bon's nistory, chap. xx. vol. iii. pp. 249-252, 
edit. 1838. 

CROWN. The name now applied to the 
ornament worn by sovereign princes ; but 
the words so translated in our version of 
the bible apply also to what we should dis- 
tinguish as coronets, mitres, &c,, garlands 
worn at feasts, at marriages, &c. The crown 
originated in the diadem or fillet used to 
confine the long hair. Jewelry was added : 
special colours were adopted : the fillet was 
made to encircle a cap ; and thus by degrees 
a crown was developed. It is useless to en- 
quire who first wore a royal crown. Various 
legendary accounts are given. 

We have frequent notice of this ornament 
in scripture. Bonnets, or tiaras, were made 
for the Israelitish priests (Exod. xxviii. 40, 
xxxix. 28) : that appropriated to the high 
priest was of peculiar richness, and had a 
golden engraved plate upon it called ' the 
holy crown ' (xxviii. 4, 36-38, xxxix. 30, 31). 
Crowns were worn by the Hebrew princes : 
that of Saul is mentioned as upon his head 
in battle (2 Sam. i. 10). David took the 
croAvn of the king of Ammon, which, with 
its jewels, weighed, or was worth, a talent 
of gold (xii. 30), A crown, too, we are told, 
was placed on the head of Joash (2 Kings 
xi. 12). As to the shape of crowns, it may 
be observed that those worn by the As 



jrown] 



188 



Syrian kings were a kind of liigli and peaked | ^ 'Many crowns ' is an expression occurring 



mitre. Of these, and of Egyptian crowns, 
we bare various examples. 



in scripture (Rev. xix. 12) ; it being cus- 
tomary for those who claimed authority 
over more than one country to wear double 
or united crowns. We have a familiar illus- 
tration of this in the papal tiara, or triple 
crown ; as circlets were from time to time 
added to it to mark the euccessive augmen- 
tations of power. 




Assyrian and Egyptian CroM-ns. 
1. Crown of Upper Egypt. 2. Crown of Lower 
Egypt. 3. Crown of Upper d.nd Lower Egypt united. 
4. Crown of a prince. 5. CroM-n of a queen or 
princess. 6. Crown from a Sassanian medaL 
7. Crown from Nineveh marbles. 

Jilodern Asiatic crowns are turbans 
idorned witb jewels and aigrettes of pre- 
vious stones. 




1. Cro^ 
&U Shall. 



Modern Asiatic CrownN. 
n of Nadir Shah. 2. Crown of Feth 
5. Ottoman Crown. 



1, 2, 5. Olive, Oak, and Laurel Crowns 
4, .% 6 'Mural, Naval and Military Crowns. Those 
which follow are Fillets and Crowns froni tiie coins 
cliiefly of Judean or Syrian kings. 7. M. Vips. 
Agrippa. S. Antigonus. 9. Antiochus IV. 10. 
AntiochusVI. 11. Herod the Great. 12. Antiochug 
VIII. 13, 14. Tigranes, king of Armenia. 15. 
Aretas, king of Arabia. 

Crowns of laurel, &c., were given to vic- 
tors in the ancient games : hence the Chris- 
tian's final prize is represented as a crown, 
the svmbol of successful contest, tlie ap- 
propriate ornament of the royal dignity 
conferred upon him (1 Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim. 
ii. 5, iv. 8; Rev. i. 6, iii. 11). The term is 
also used figuratively elsewhere, as in Prnv. 
xii. 4, xiv. 24, xvi. .31. A wnter in Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 368, ob- 
serves that there were anciently coins 
called ' crowns ' (1 Macc.x. 29, xiii. 39). 

CROWN OF THOR^'S. Our Lord was 
crowned in mockery by the Roman soldiers 
(Matt, xxvii. 29 ; Mark xv. 17 ; John xix. 2). 
It is questioned whether this was merely 
mockery, or whether it was specially in- 
tended for additional torture. Such a crown. 



189 



[curse 



it is clear, must have been made of some 
plant that would readily twist into a wreath. 
The large-leaved acanthus would not : no 
more would the Spina Christi, as it is called, 
with strong sharp thorns. Hasselquist im- 
agines the thorn in question the Arabian 
nabk, a very common plant, 'with many 
smajl and sharp spines ; soft, round, and 
pliant branches ; leaves much resembling 
ivy, of a very deep green, as if in designed 
mockery of a victor's wreath.' 

CRUCIFIXION, CRUCIFy. See CROSS, 
Punishments. 

CRUSE. The word appears as the transla- 
tion of three Hebrew words : one of these 
occurs in 1 Sam. xxvi. 11, 12, 16 ; 1 Kings xvii. 
12, 14, 16, xix. 6 to denote a vessel used for 
water or oil. Gesenius, from the deriva- 
tion of this— that which is expanded— 
thinks it was made of iron plates; but pos- 
sibly it was of earthenware, a globular 
vessel, with a neck, handle, and narrow 
spout, such as is not uncommon at the 
present day. Or it might be a skin-bottle. 
Again, we have a ' cruse of honey' (xiv. 3). 
The same word is also rendered 'bottle ' (Jer. 
xix. 1, 10). This must have been of earthen- 
ware, and had its Hebrew name from the 
gurgling sound caused when any liquid was 
poured from it. The only other place in 
which our version has ' cruse ' is 2 Kings 
ii. 20. The original word is translated 
'dish' in xxi. 1.3, 'pans' in 2 Chron.xxxv. 
13, and ' bosom' in Prov. xix. 24, xxvi. 15. 
It was probably a metal platter or dish. 

CRYSTAL. This word occurs in our ver- 
sion of Job xxviii. 17. The original term 
signifies something of exceeding purity. 
Mr. Carey, for 'the gold and the crystal,' 
translates 'golden glass' {The Book of Job, 
p. 117), and in his notes and illustrations 
(pp. 327-467) shows that the Egyptians had 
the secret of introducing gold between two 
surfaces of glass, together with various 
colours. They could also enamel upon gold. 
It is very likely that a reference to some 
such work of art is intended. The word ren- 
dered ' crystal' in Ezek. i. 22 is elsewhere 
' ice,' or ' frost.' It is probably called 'ter- 
rible,' because of the bright shining of such 
a substance in the rays of the sun, dazzling 
and blinding the eye that looks on it. We 
further find ^ crystal,' the rock crystal, in 
Rev. iv. 6, xxii. 1 : also, the epithet crystal- 
clear is given to ' jasper ' (xxi. 11). See 
Jasper. 

CUBIT. See Measures. 

CUCKOO (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). One 
of the birds of which the flesh was unclean. 
The cuckoo is known in Palestine ; but it is 
not probable that it is here meant. More 
likely some of the lesser kinds of sea-fowl. 
Kitto is inclined to believe that the tern, 
Sterna Mr undo, or sea-swallow, is the bird 
forbidden. Gesenius suggests the sea-gull, 
or sea-mew- The Lar us fiisciis, lesser black- 
backed gul), and Lafiis argentatus, herring- 
gull, are common in Palestine. Duns ima- 
gines that the bird in question might be 
the flamingo, Phoenieopterus ruber, which 
frequents the shores of the Red and the 
Dead seas {Bibl. Nat. Science, vol. ii. p. 89). 

CUCUMBER. This, thought to be the Cu- 
tumis cliate, was one of the productions 



of Egypt, which the Israelites regretted 
(Numb. xi. 5). The common cucumber, 
Gucumis sativus, is also plentiful in both 
Egypt and Palestine. ' A garden ' or field 
'of cucumbers' is mentioned in Isai. i. 8, 
and in the Apocrypha (Bar. vi. 70). The 
' lodge' in such a garden is a frail erection, 
desolate indeed when the watcher has no 
further use for it and is gone. 

CUMMIN. An umbelliferous annual plant, 
Cuminum sativum, cultivated for its aro- 
matic seeds, which are used as a condiment. 
It was threshed with a rod (Isai. xxviii. 25, 
27), a practice still continued in Malta. Our 
Lord alludes to the Pharisees paying tithe 
of it (Matt, xxiii. 23). 

CUP. This is given as the translation of 
vainous Hebrew words, frequently other- 
wise rendered. Thus, Joseph's ' cup' (Gen. 
xliv. 2), probably of large dimensions, is 
the same with the 'pots' in Jer. xxxv. 5 ; 
while ' cups' there is the translation of an- 
other word. Cups were of various shapes 
and materials, earthenware and metal ; and 
many have been found in Assyria and Egypt 
of elegant shape and beautifully orna- 
mented. Some, too, have inscriptions of a 
superstitious character, such as charms 
against disease, &c. Possibly Joseph's cup 
might have some resemblance to these. 
The word ' cup' is often used metaphorically 
in scripture for the portion or destiny of 
any one (Psal. xi. 6) ; for judgments, or 
affliction (Ixxv. 8 : Jer. xxv. 15, and else- 
where). The • cup of salvation ' (Psal. cxvi. 13) 
alludes probably to the cup of ceremony at 
the passover, when the head of a family 
pronounced words of blessing over it : see 
Passover ; and comp. the ' cup of blessing' 
(1 Cor. X. 16). The ' cup of devils ' sym- 
bolized idolatry and foul rites (21 : comp. 
Rev. xvii. 4). 

CUP-BEARER. An officer of high dig- 
nity at eastern courts. Such a one was the 
'butler' of Pharaoh (Gen. xL, xli. 9). Cup- 
bearers are mentioned in the description of 
Solomon's court (1 Kings x. 5) ; and Rab- 
shakeh, as his name indicates, was cup- 
bearer to the king of Assyria (2 Kings 
xviii. 17). Nehemiah held the same post 
under Artaxei'xes (Neh. i. 11, ii. 1). And it 
was not only an honourable appointment, 
but must have been a source of great emolu- 
ment, for Nehemiah was evidently a man 
of wealth (v. 14-19). Some curious parti- 
culars are given by Xenophon (Ci/rop., lib. i. 
cap. 3) of the way in which a Median cup- 
bearer performed his office. The cup was 
washed in the king's presence, and when 
filled, after the officer had tasted a little of 
the wine, which he poured into his left 
hand, was presented on three fingers. So 
no modern eastern attendant ever grasps ; 
any vessel he offers to his master, but , 
places it on his left hand, and steadies it j 
with his right. 

CURSE. An imprecation or solemn de- 
nunciation of evil or judgment (Judges v. | 
23). When the Israelites entered Canaan, 
solemn curses were to be pronounced 
against notorious offenders by certain of the 
tribes who were stationed upon mount 
Ebal; the Levites, who stood with the rest 
of the tribes upon Gerizim, uttering the , 



CIJRTAIX] 



190 



awful words (Dent, xxvil.). This command j 
was executed by Joshua (Josh. yiii. 30-35). 
See Anathema, ExcoiriIUNICATIO^\ | 

CURTAIX. A Hebrew word, denoting ; 
curcains, from a root signifying to shake. 
Is used of the linen and goats' hair hang- 
ings which covered the sacred tabernacle 
(Exod. xxYi. 1-13, xxxvi. S-18). It is hence 
sometimes employed to designate the 
tabernacle itself (2 Sam. vii. 2 ; 1 Cbron. 
xvii. 1). And we find it applied to a tent 
generally (Isai. liv. 2 ; Jer. ir. 20). Other 
Hebrew words are sometimes rendered 
• curtain.' See Hangings. 

CUSH (black ?).—!. An individual or 
tribe of the sons of Ham (Gen. x. 6, 7, 8 ; 
1 Chron. 8, 9, 10).— 2. A Benjamite iu the 
time of Saul (Psal. vii., title). 

CUSH (id.). The name of a region in- 
habited by tribes of the Hamite family so 
called. But there seems to have been an an- 
tediluvian Cush (Gen. ii. 13\ If so, it was in 
Asia ; and Cush the Hamite may have had 
his name from a settlement or allotment 
there. Leaving this as a matter upon 
which we can do little more than conjec- 
ture, it may be observed that the chief 
habitations of the Cushites were to the 
south of Egypt, in the extensive tracts 
called Ethiopia (Ezek. xxix. 10). They also 
appear to have spread in the Arabian pen- 
insula, where were tribes descended from 
them (Gen. X. 7). The Cushites (the word 
being often rendered ' Ethiopian ' in our ver- 
sion) were black in colour (Jer. xiii. 23\ 
robust and large in stature (Isai. xlv. 14), 
and as it would seem wealthy (xliii. 3). They 
are mentioned with the Egyptians (Psal. 
Ixviii. 31 ; Ezek. xxx. 4, 5, 9 ; aS^ah. iii. 9) 
with the Libyans (2 Chron. xii. 3, xvi. 8) ; 
with Phut or Put (Jer. xlvi. 9; Ezek. 
xxxviii. 5\ and as the extreme limit west- 
ward of the empire of Xerxes (Esth. i. 1, 
viii. 9). 'Cush' says Dr. Kalisch 'was 
strictly the southern zone : it comprised 
the known countries of the south, both in 
Africa and Arabia : in the former part it is 
bounded by Seba (Meroe), in the latter by 
Sheba (Sabaa), and, whenever the nations 
inhabiting these districts extended beyond 
the southern regions, either to settle in 
more eastern or in more northern pai'ts, 
they were separated from the stem of Cush, 
and associated with different branches of 
Shem. . . . Only, if the ethnographical re- 
lation was quite undisputed, as for in- 
stance with Raamah, even a more eastern 
nation was acknowledged as descending 
from Cush. This part of our list admits 
then a historical fact of the highest impor- 
tance, namely the early connection be- 
tween the tribes of Arabia and those of 
Africa, a connection guaranteed, not only 
by the Ai-abic character of the Abyssinian 
language, but by the similarity of the 
names of towns on both sides the Arabic 
gulf' {Comm.. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 252. 
253). Dr. Kalisch afterwards notices ano- 
ther important migration of Cush, that of 
Ximrod a Cushite chief (pp. 253, &c.). The 
Cushite woman whom Moses married 
would seem to have been Ai-abian (Numb, 
xii. 1), 

CUSH'AX (id). A name found only in 



Hab. iii. 7. It has been supposed that of a 
man, identical with Chushan-rishathaim ; 
but this is not probable. More likely it is 
identical with Cush, the territory, the Ara- 
bian Cush ; the connection with Midian 
confirming this view. The prophet is de- 
scribing the triumphant approach of Israel 
to Canaan, and the consequent fear of the 
neighbouring tribes. 

CUSH'I {the Eiliirypian). 1. A runner 
whom Joab dispatched to apprise David of 
the victory over Absalom's troops and of 
Absalom's death (2 Sam. xviii. 21, 22, 23, 31, 
32). 2. An ancestor of the person sent to 
Baruch to desire him to bring and read 
Jeremiah's roll to the princes (Jer. xxxvi. 
14). 3. The father of Zephaniah the prophet 
(Zeph. i. 1). 

CUSH'ITE (Numb. xii. 1, marg.). See 

CCSH. 

CUSTOM, RECEIPT OF CMatt. ix. 9; 
Mark ii. 14 ; Luke v. 27). See PuBLiaiN. 

CUTH, CU'THAH (treasure-Jiouse ?) A re- 
gion, whence colonists were brought by 
the king of Assyria into Samaria (2 Kings 
xvii. 24, 30). The number so transported 
must have been considerable ; for the 
Samaritans were afterwards called Cuthira 
by the Talmudical writers. The locality is 
very uncertain. Josephus considers it a 
region of inner Persia (Antiq., lib. ix. 14, 
§ 3, lib. X. 9, § 7). There was a warlike tribe 
called CossEei occupying the mountain 
raueres between Media and Persia. Perhaps 
the'Cutheans may be identified with these. 
Keil, however, prefers the supposition, 
asrreed in by some other writers, that they 
inhabited the Babylonian Irak, in the dis- 
trict of the iS'ahr Malcha {Comm. on Kings, 
transl, vol. ii. pp. 67, 68). 

CUTTING OFF FROM THE PEOPLE 
(Exod. xxx. 33, and elsewhere). See Excom- 
munication, PtJNISTOIENTS. 

CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH. Heathen 
nations frequently cut and lacerated their 
flesh, both as mourning for the dead, a relic 
perhaps of the human sacrifices that used 
to be then offered (examples of which still 
continue among barbarous African nations), 
and also in order to propitiate their idol 
deities a Kings xviii. 28), a practice pre- 
vailing specially (though not exclusively) 
among Svrians (comp.Keil, Connn. on Kings, 
transl, vol. i. p. 280). Further, masters 
used to brand their slaves ; and, though this 
might be a punishment for running away, 
vet^indisputably it served to indicate owner- 
ship, and in this sense it is alluded to in 
various places of scripture (Gal. vi. 17 ; Rev. 
vii. 3, xiii. 16, xix. 20). Akin to this prac- 
tice was the mai'king or tattooing volunta- 
rilv undergone as the sign of devotion to 
some idol god (Zech. xiii. 6). To preserve 
them from all such evil and contaminating 
customs, the strict prohibition was given 
to the Israelites not to make any cuttings 
in their flesh, nor to print any marks upon 
themselves (Lev. xix. 28, xxi. 5 ; Dent. xiv. 1 : 
comp. also the warning in Jer. x^-i. 6, 7). 
It seems, indeed, as if the forbidden rite 
was sometimes practised (xli. 5) ; but the 
persons referred to in this place were pro- 
bably the more-than-half idolatrous Sama- 
ritans. Mention is also made of the custom 



191 



in respect to the Pliilistines and Moabites 
(xlvii. 5, xlviii. 37). 

CY'AMON (Judith vii. 3). A place near 
to the great plain of Esdraelon. Mr. Grove 
is Inclined to identify it with Tell KavmOn, 
on the eastern slope of Carmel (Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 375). 

CYMBALS. Metallic musical instruments 
of percussion, traceable to remote ages, 
and still used with no great variation of 
form. They are in pairs, nearly flat, the 
contral part concave, with a strap at the 
buck for a handle. Sometimes, however, 
one cymbal is fixed, as to a large drum. 
They are repeatedly mentioned in scripture, 
being used on occasions of public rejoic- 
ing and for worship (2 Sam. vi. 5 ; 1 Chron. 
xiii. 8, XV. 16, 19, 28, xvi. 5 ; Neh. xii. 27). A 
distinction is made (Psal. cl. 5) of two 
kinds; the 'loud' and the 'high-sounding 
cymbals.' According to a writer in Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, the former con- 
sisted of four small metallic plates, two 
being held in each hand, like the modern 
castagnettes ; the latter of two larger 
plates : comp. Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
• Becken.' The cymbal (the larger kind) is 
also mentioned in the New Testament 
(1 Cor. xiii. 1). 

CYPRESS (Isai. xliv. 14). The tree here 
intended has been supposed to be the Ilex, 
a species of oak. But it is more probably the 
evergreen cypress, Citpressus sempervirens. 
This is very' common in the lower levels of 
Syria : the wood is fragrant, very hard, and 
not likely to rot. So that it was not unfre- 
quently chosen for making images of gods. 

CYP'BIANS (2 Maec. iv. 29). Inhabit- 
ants of 

CY'PRTJS. A large island in the Medi- 
terranean, lying about sixty miles from the 
coasts of Syria and Asia Minor. Its greatest 
length, from the north-east extremity to 
the most western point, is 140 miles. Its 
breadth varies : where widest it is about 50 
miles ; but it narrows in one part to 5. The 
soil is naturally fertile. Cotton, wine, and 
various fruits are produced ; but at present 
agriculture is in a backward state. Copper 
and other minerals are found in this island : 
the copper-mines, we are told by Josephus, 
were at one time farmed to Herod the 
Great (Antiq., lib. xvi. 4, § 5). After belong- 
ing to Egypt, Persia, and Greece, it became 
a Roman possession 58 B.C., and was at first 
united to Cilicia. When separated it was 
an imperial province, but was subsequently 
given up to the senate ; so that, when St. 
Luke speaks of the 'deputy' (proconsul), he 
speaks most accurately ; as existing coins 
and inscriptions testify. In the ninth cen- 
tury, it was subjected to the Saracens : in 
the crusades, our Pachard I. conquered it, 
and gave it to Guy Lusignan, whose family 
retained it for nearly 300 years : it was then 
possessed by the Venetians, and afterwards 
by the Turks. Cyprus is very frequently 
mentioned in scripture. Perhaps it may be 
intended by Chittim in Esek. xxvii. 6. Jews 
settled there at an early period; and in 
New Testament history we find Barnabas 
a native of Cyprus (Acts iv. 36), and then 
men of Cyprus and Cyrene preaching the 
gospel at Antioch (xi. 19,20). The first mis- 



sionary journey of Paul and Barnabas com* 
menced v/ith Cyprus (xiii. 1-13) ; and thither 
Barnabas went again with Mark (xv. 39). 
Other references to this island are found in 
xxi. 3, 16, xxvii. 4. Salamis and Paphos were 
celebrated cities of Cyprus. 

CYRE'NE. A Libyan city, founded by a 
colony of Greeks from Thera, an island in 
the ^gean, about 632 e.g. It probably took 
its name from a fountain, Cyre, near. Cy- 
rene stood on table-land, 1,800 feet above 
the level of the sea, in a beautiful and fer- 
tile region. It was the capital of a district 
called Cyrenaica; and, with Its port, Apol- 
Ionia, about ten miles ofl", and the cities 
Barca, Teuchira, and Hesperis (subsequently 
named Ptoiemais Ai-sinoe, and Berenice), 
it formed the Cjrenaic Pentapolis. After 
the death of Alexander the Great, it was a 
dependency of Egypt. And then it began 
to be frequented by the Jews, to whom spe- 
cial privileges were granted. Cyrene was 
bequeathed to the Romans by Apion, son of 
Ptolemy Physcon, and was some years after 
75 B.C. reduced to the form of a province. 
Then, 67 B.C., it was united into a single 
province with Crete. Simon, who was com- 
pelled to bear our Saviour's cross, was a 
Cyrenian (Matt, xxvii. 32 ; Mark xv. 21 ; Luke 
xxiii. 26) ; so were some of the first Chris- 
tian teachers (Acts xi. 20, xiii. 1). Cyrenian 
Jews were numerous in Jerusalem ; hence 
the designation of one of the synagogues 
there (ii. 10, vi. 9). 

CYRE'mUS. The name by which a Ro- 
man governor of Syria, Publius Sulpicius 
Quirinus, is known in scripture (Luke ii. 2). 
It has been objected against St. Luke's nar- 
rative, that, apart from his statement, there 
is no trustworthy record of any census hav- 
ing been ordered about the time of our 
Lord's birth, that Cyrenius or Quirinus was 
not governor of Syria tiU some years after 
that event, and that St. Luke himself notes 
a later time for the taxing (Acts v. 37). 
Various modes have been proposed of meet 
ing the difliculty by different renderings of 
St. Luke's words. But unexpected light has 
been of late thrown upon the matter. 

Mr. Browne (07-do Scscloritm, pp. 40-49) 
showed from Tacitus that Quirinus was at 
an early period in the east in some office of 
authority, and also by inscriptions obtained 
from Sanclemente {De^ra Vulgari), though 
these are, perhaps, not to be implicitly 
relied on, that Quirinus had superintended 
some prior enrolment, and that it was pos- 
sible that he might have held the govern- 
ment of Syria twice. Zumpt (Comm. Epi- 
graph, ad Antiq. Rom. pert, vol. ii. p. 98), 
having examined more particularly the pas- 
sage of Tacitus which speaks of Quirinus 
obtaining triumphal honours for reducing 
the strong-holds of the Homonadenses in 
Cilicia, comes to the conclusion that Qui- 
rinus, as governor of Cilicia, was governor 
also of Syria at that time, Cilicia and Syria 
being then united. But the time when this 
occurred was not that ordinarily assigned 
to the governorship of Quirinus, some years 
after Christ's birth : it was earlier ; and 
collateral testimonies add weight to the 
belief that the succession of Syrian gover- 
nors stood thus : 



CYRrs] 



from B.C. 9 



1 



,, A.D. ; 



C. Sentius Saturniiius 
P. Quinctilius Varus . 
P. Sulpicius Quirinus 
M. Lollius . 
C. Marciiis Censormus 
L. Volusius Saturuinus . „ 
P. Sulpicius Quirinus, a second 

time , ^ V ^ • 

It is fair, however, to say, that the consi- 
deration of certain historical circumstances 
tends to throw some doubt on the conclu- 
sion just stated. Mr. Pratt has lately taken 
pains in examining these points, and has 
Riven his reasons in the Joum. of Sacr. 
Lit , Jan., 1864, pp. 475-482, for rejecting the 
i theory that Quirinus was twice governor 
' of Syria. Mr. Pratt, it must he said, is con- 
vinced that the true era of our Lord's birth 
was about October in 7 B.C. ; and it is clear 
that, if this computation be accurate, the 
birth, and consequently the census, must 
have fallen under the administration of 
Sentius Saturuinus. Nor did Quirinus 
immediately succeed ; for Josephus de- 
clares that Varus was still governor after 
Herod's death, and as such was engaged in 
suppressing a dangerous outbreak of the 
Jews at Pentecost, while Archelaus was m 
Rome seeking confirmation from Augustus 
as his father's successor. Still further, Ter- 
tullian, in six different passages, alludes to 
the enrolment, and in one of these asserts 
that it was made under Sentius Saturnmus 
(Adv. Marcion., lib. iv. 19). Mr. Pratt thinks, 
from the repeated and positive mention ot 
the census rolls, that Tertullian had in- 
spected tbem himself, so that his testimony 
is to be relied on. On the other hand, 
Justin Martyr, an earlier writer, resident at 
Rome, while Tertullian lived in Africa, 
three times attributes the enrolment to 
Ouirinu^, and states that Jesus was born 
under Quirinus {Apolog., i. 34, 46; Dialog, ! 
: cim Tryphon., 78). Mr. Pratt believes that i 
i Justin was careless, that he went to the 
record office and asked for the rolls of the 
cen=us under Quirinus, and that, when 
thev were handed to him, he did not dis- 
cover that he was looking at documents re- 
lating to an event that occurred several 
years after that which he wished to verity. 
The reader must lay all the circumstances 
to°-ether, and decide for himself to which 
of these two writers, Justin or Tertulliaii, 
most credit should be given. But then thero 
remains the testimony of Josephus ; and it 
I must be acknowledged that it is puzzling, 
i Still, if Josephus is to be trusted, we can 
I hardly imagine that Jesus was born m the 
1 crovernorship of Saturniuus. For he places 
I the death of Herod not earlier than 4 B.C., 
I in the thirty-seventh year after his appomt- 
i ment asking (Antiq., lib. xvii. 8, § 1), tlmv 
i appointment being 40 B.C. Varus became 
' governor in 6 b.c. ; and it is not probable 
that our Lord's birth was so long as two 
or three vears before Herod's death. 

Perfect certainty in this matter may not 
be at present attainable ; but we must hope 
that future research may throw additional 
light upon it. So far, however, as the re- 
sult can be now stated, there is, to say the 
least, high probability that Quirinus was 
governor of Syria about the supposed time 



192 

of our Lord's birth ; and that there was then 
an enrolment, whoever might be governor 
—so strong is the corroborative evidence 
— no candid person can doubt. St. Luke's 
words, as above noted, have been variously 
rendered bv those who were ignorant of, 
and those who have disbelieved, the alleged 
earlv governorship of Quirinus. Mr. Pratt 
would understand them as afi3rming that , 
the enrolment took place before Quirinus j 
was governor of Syria. But, not to speak j 
of the extreme harshness of the construe- | 
tion, if we are thus to render the sentence, i 
it is almost inconceivable that St. Luke, i 
ordinarily so plain in stating his notes of 
time, should not have obviated every mis- 
apprehension by simply saying that this 
enrolment was in the time of Saturuinus, 
if that really were the fact. 

A mere outline of the discussion is, of 
course, all that can be given here. The 
student who desires to know more will, 
doubtless, consult Mr. Pratt's interesting 
paper, to which reference has been made, 
and may also examine Dr. Lee's Inspiration 
of Script, 2nd edit., p. 401, note 1, and ap- 
pend. Q., pp. 575-581 ; and Dr. Pairbairn's 
Ilerm. Man., app., pp. 461-475 ; together with 
Bp. Ellicott's very sensible note in Mist. 
Lect, lect. ii. p. 58. 

CY'RUS {the sun, splendour of the sun). 
The founder of the Persian, empire. The 
accounts of historians vary as to his per- 
sonal historv. He is said to have been the 
son of Cambyses, a Persian of the royal 
Achcemenian race,byMandane, daughter of 
Astyases the king of Media. His grand- 
father^ordered him to be put to death, be- 
cause in consecLuence of a dream he appre- 
hended danger from him. But he was 
secretly preserved and brought up in ob- 
scurity under the name of Agradates. 
Discovered by the spirit he showed, he was 
placed at the head of the Persians. In a 
revolt which followed against the Median 
power, Cyrus defeated and took Astyages 
prisoner at the battle of Pasargad^ 559 B.C. 
He was now a powerful king : he conquered 
Lydia : he took Babylon 538 B.C. ; and the 
provinces of the Assyrian empire fell under 
his swav. He still went on enlarging his 
dominions ; but having attacked the Scy- 
thians he was killed in battle 529 B.C. 
Such in substance is the account given by 
Herodotus (lih. i. 107-130, 190, 191, 214) : that 
of Xenophon (Cyrop.) differs in many im- 
portant particulars. 

The relation in which Cyrus stood to the 
Jews deserves special attention. It was 
foretold by the prophet Isaiah that he 
should deliver the Jews from their capti- 
vity by his conquest of Babylon, and that 
he'sh-ould direct the re-buildmg of Jeru- 
salem with the temple. The prophet s 
words have an inexpressible grandeur m 
them, calling the future conqueror by 
name, and describing him as anointed by 
the Most High, of whom in his eastern 
home he had never heard (Isai. xliv. 34-xlv. 
I ) We must recollect that the welfare of 
the church was involved, and that the de- 
I liverance from Babylon pre-signifled afar 
greater deliverance and a much happier 
' return. The prosperity with which God 



193 



[dagon 



blessed his people after he had placed them 
again in their own land was very sweet to 
the rescued captives ; and the restoration 
of their temple-worship was a precious 
boon. But their worship was often inter- 
rupted ; and their quiet was often invaded. 
So that wc are not to conceive that the 
magnificent promises of lasting glory had 
their entire fulfilment in the return from 
Babylon. The prophet's eye ranged from 
the comparatively-near to the more distant 
prospect, and beheld adumbrated under 
worldly privileges the spiritual triumpbs 
of Messiah's reign. "% Then Indeed should 
Jerusalem be a name of joy for ever : 
then indeed should the redeemed dwell 
in blissful habitations ; and their rapturous 
song of praise should cease no more. 

Viewed in this light the commission of 
Cyrus was of the greatest magnitude. 
And it was a fitting occasion for the pro- 
phetic spirit to reveal with unwonted clear- 
ness the circumstances relating to him. 
Certain critics have taken exception to 
this, because the Persian prince is an- 
nounced by name. It could not, they 
say, have occurred so long before : they 
bring down this prophecy, therefore, to a 
much later time, to the very time of Cyrus 
himself. This attempted dismemberment 
of the book of Isaiah cannot be now ex- 
amined (See Isaiah, Book of) : suffice it to 
say here that the appellation Cyrus was pro- 



bably a title rather than a personal name ; 
that the crisis demanded a peculiar manifes- 
tation of divine foreknowledge (Isai. xli. 
21-29) ; and that there are other examples in 
scripture of individuals designated by name 
long before their birth (I Kings xiii. 2). 

Josephus, indeed, narrates a remarkable 
story. He says that the prophecies of 
Isaiah respecting Cyrus were shown to 
that king, and that, struck with the divine 
record, he was induced to issue his decree 
(Antiq.,lib. xi. 1, §§ 1, 2). Be this as it may, 
most unquestionably the decree, preserved 
in Ezra i. 2-4, not merely refers to the later 
chapters of Isaiah, but, as Kleinert has 
proved {Ueber die Eclitheit sdmmtl. in dem 
Buclie Jesaia enthalt. Weissagungen, pp. 1.34 
&c.), actually incorporates many of the 
words of th-em. 

The edict of Cyrus, most important in it 
self, was the source ahd authorization of 
other edicts of Persian kings in favour of 
the Jews (Ezra v. 17, vi. i-12). It inaugu- 
rates, therefore a new era in Jewish his- 
tory, an era which,, according to Mr. West- 
cott (Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 
380), was the ' beginning of Judaism,' when 
those great changes occurred 'by which 
the nation was transformed Into a church.* 

Cyrus was succeeded in his dominions by 
his son Cambyses i a tomb said to be his 
is still shown at Pasargadas, the modern 
Murg-Aub. 



DA'BAREH (sheep-walk ?). A Levitical 
city (Josh. xxl. 28) : It is identical with Da- 
berath. 

DAB'BASHETH (hump of a camel). A 
border town of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 11). 

DA'BERATH (the sheep-ioalkl). A city, 
called also Dabareh, on the border of 
Issachar and Zebulun, but belonging to the 
former (Josh. xix. 12 ; 1 Chron. vi. '.-2). It 
has been identified as DebHrieh, a small 
modem village at the western foot of Ta- 
bor. 

DA'BRTA (2 Esdr. xiv. 24). 

DACO'BI (1 Esdr. v. 28). A corrupted 
form of Akkub (Ezra ii. 42). 

DAD'DEUS (1 Esdr. viii. 46). Identical, 
it would seem, with Saddens (45) ; pro- 
bably corrupted forms of Iddo (Ezra viii. 
17). 

DA'GON (little, i. e. dear, or honoured, 
fish). The national deity of the Philistines, 
the god, as Atargatis or Derceto was the god- 
dess. There was a temple of Dagon at Gaza 
(Judges xvi. 23), and one at Ashdod (1 Sam. 
v. l-7),which last was destroyed by Jonathan 
Maccabeus (1 Mace. x. 83, 84) ; and we may 
conclude that occasionally the worship of 
the male and female deities was conjoined 
in the sam-e sanctuary (1 Sam. xxxi. 10 ; 1 
Chron. x. 10). There are places called Beth- 
dagon, where doubtless this idolatrous 
worship prevailed (Josh xv. 41, xix. 27). 



Dagon was represented with the face and 
hands of a human being, and with a fishy 




Afnyrian Fish-Gorl. Nineveh Marbles, Lrit. ?.lu 



daisak] 



194 



tail. A fish-god was worshipped by the 
Babylonians. It was said to have emerged 
from the Red sea, and to have taught men 
the use of letters, the arts, religion, and 
agriculture. Other similar beings, accord- 
ing to the story, from time to time have 
appeared : the name given to the last of 
them was Odarkon. Some have identified 
this Avith the Phoenician Dagon, but per- 
haps without sufficient reason. The fishy 
shape was the symbol of fruitfuhicss, and 
therefore likely to be adopted in various 
places, especially among maritime tribes. 
&ome representations of a fish -god have 
been discovered among the Assyrian sculp- 
tures. 

DAI' SAN (1 Esdr. y. 31). Perhaps for 
Rezin (Ezra ii. 48). 

DALAI'AH (whom Jehovah hath freed). 
A descendant of David (1 CliTon. m. 24). 

DALMANU'THA. A place near the sea,,_,. 

of Galilee, into the parts of which our Lord j succeeded (viii. 15), and transmitted the 

. , . ^ /-Rjr T_ 1 r\\ T>i-i*- o.^ l-i^ TI>^i-» "1^ r» /I o /"x-lll Q f>.1^ 



was Hadad ; and his posterity reigned for 
ten venerations. We find, however, that 
in Solomon's reign, probably towards the 
end, a certain Ilezon gathered partizans 
and possessed himself of Damascus a Kings 
xi. 23-25). He must have been either an 
usurper, or the same with Hezion of whom 
we afterwards read, whose son was Tabri- 
mon, and grandson the Bcn-hadad with 
whom Asa made a league, there haA-ing 
been a similar alliance between Tabrnnon 
and Abijah (xv. 18, 19). This Ben-hadad 
overran the northern part of Israel, and 
secured a kind of authority, called that of 
making streets, in Samaria (20, xx. 34). His 
son, likewise named Ben-hadad (the second 
so designated in scripture), was the anta- 
gonist of Ahab and Jehoram (xx., xxii. ; 
2 Kings vi., vii.). In his reign Syria appears 
to have been pressed by the Assyrian power 
now beginning to turn westward. Hazael 



is said to' have come (Mark viii. 10). But 
St. Matthew, recording the same journey, 
says (Matt. xv. 39) ' into the coasts of Mag- 
dala.' The two must therefore have been 
contiguous. Now M^gdala was close upon 
the shore at the southern end of the plain 
of Gennesaret. A mile beyond this, at the 
mouth of a narrow glen running down 
from the west, are fields, and gardens, and 
copious springs, and ruins. The place is 
called 'Ain el-Bdrideh. Here Mr. Porter sup- 
poses was Dalmanutha. 

DALMA'TIA. A part of the Roman pro- 
vince of Illyricum, on the east coast of the 
Adriatic sea, to the south of Liburnia. Its 
chief towns were Salona, Epidaurus, and 
Lissus. St. Paul speaks of Titus going 
thither (2 Tim. iv. 10). 

DAL'PHON {swiftD. A son of Haman 
(Esth.ix.7). 

DAM'ARIS (probatDly deUcaie ivomanl). 
A female at Athens converted by the in- 
strumentality of St. Paul (Acts xvii. 34). _ 
DAM'ASCENES (2 Cor. xi. 32). Inhabi- 
tants of Damascus. 

DAMAS'CUS (activity, alertness, perhaps 
in reference to trafiic). A noted and most 
ancient city of Syria, seated in a fertile 
plain at the eastern base of the Anti-libanus. 
It is first mentioned in scripture in connec- 
tion with Abraham's slaughter of the con- 
federate eastern kings (Gen. xiv. 15). There 
is also a legendary story that the patriarch, 
on his way to Canaan, stayed some time at 
Damascus. This may well have been so, if 
Dr. Beke's belief that Haran was in the 
neighbourhood be well founded (see Ha- 
ran). Abraham held certainly some rela- 
tion to the Syrian city ; for the steward of 
his hou=e was a Damascene (xv. 2). 

We hear no more of it in scripture till 
the time of David, when the inhabitants of 
that territory of which Damascus was the 
capital ventured to assist their neighbours 
of Zobah against the Israelitish monarch, 
and were by him reduced to subjection (2 
Sara. viii. 5, 6; 1 Chron. xviii. 5, G). It is 
very possible that David might permit the 
native prince still to occupy the throne of 
Damascus as his vassal. His name, if wo 



crown to his son Ben-hadad (xiii. 3, 24). 
Afterwards, whether in Ben-hadad's reign is 
uncertain, Damascus was subjected by the 
Israelitish king Jeroboam II. (xiv. 28). We 
hear nothing more of the city or its king 
till the reign of Ahaz, when Rezin joined 
with the king of Israel against Judah ; but, 
Ahaz having solicited the aid of Tiglath- 
pileser, the Assyrian came, slew Rezin, oc- 
cupied Damascus (where Ahaz went to meet 
him), and carried off many of the people cap- 
tive (xvi. 5-10). This catastrophe was predict- 
ed by Isaiah (Isai. xvii.l and by Amos (Amos 
i. 3-5). Further calamities were in store for 
Dam-ascus, foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. xlix. 
32-27),inflicted according to Josephus(J.7Zii^., 
lib. X. 9, § 7), by an invasion of the Chaldeans 
flveyears after the destruction of Jerusalem; 
when Coele-syria was occupied and Ammon 
andMoab subdued. Damascus passed after- 
wards into the hands of the Persians, the 
Greeks, and the Romans. It was the scene of 
the conversion of St. Paul (Actsix.); and cer- 
tain localities connectedwith theapostleand 
the street called ' Straight' are still pointed 
out. But little credit can be given to these 
identifications. For the authority of Aretas 
at Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 32) see Aretas. 
This city, advantageously situated, has al- 
ways been a place of great traffic. Ezekiel 
mentions the commodities supplied by it to 
Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 18) ; and it would seem 
that it was very early noted for textile 
fabrics ; for the text (Amos iii. 12) might 
be better rendered, ' on the couch of damask' 
(damask taking its name from Damascus, 
from which it is said to have been originally 
brought). See, however, Ewald, Die Proph. 
des A. 5., vol. i. p. 97; Henderson, Minor 
Proph., p. 144. 

Damascus is still a great city under Turk- 
ish rule; reckoned to contain 140,000, of 
whom 12,000 are Christians, and 12,000 Jews. 
But it suft'ered great calamities in the late 
Druze disturbances. A fearful massacre of 
Christians was perpetrated there July 9, 
ISGO. See Churchill, Hie Druzcs and the 
Maronitcs, chap. vii. pp. 207-221. Travellers 
have vied with each other in describing the 
auty of Dauiascus. 'From the edge of 



inav crcdTt I tl'^' mountain range' says Dr. Stanley, 'you 

cited by Josephus iAntiq.,hh. vii. 5. § 2), | look down on the plain. ... It is here seen 



T 

I; 
\ 



195 



milt mit0fcuktfge. 



[dan-jaan 



hi its widest and fullest perfection, witli 
tlie visible explanation of the whole secret 
of its great and enduring charm, that which 
it must have had when it was the solitary 
seat of civilization in Syria, and which it 
will have as long as the world lasts. The 
river (Barada), with its green hanks, is seen 
at the bottom rushing through the cleft 
(see Abaka) : it bursts forth, and as if in a 
moment scatters over the plain, through a 
circle of 30 miles, the same verdure which 
had hitherto been confined to its single 
channel. . . . Far and wide in front extends 
the level plain, its horizon bare, its lines of 
surrounding hills bare, all bare far away on 
I the road to Palmyra and Baghdad. In the 
i midst of this plain lies at your feet the 
! vast lake or island of deep verdure, walnuts 
; and apricots waving above, corn and grass 
: below ; and in the midst of this mass of 
j foliage I'ises, striking out its wide arms of 
I streets hither and thither, and its white 
' minarets above the trees which embosom 
i them, the city of Damascus. On the 
right towers the snowy height of Hermon, 
overlooking the whole scene. Close be- 
hind are the sterile lime-stone mountains ; 
so that you stand literally between the 
living and the dead' {Sinai and Palestine, 
p. 4101 

DAM'MESEK (2 Kings xvi. 9, marg.). 
Damascus. 

DAM'MIM (1 Sam. xvii. 1, marg.). See 
Ephes-dammim. 

DAN (judge). A son of Jacob by his con- 
cubine Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid (Gen. 
XXX. 6, XXXV. 25; Exod. i. 4 ; 1 Chron. ii. 2). 
Of Dan's personal history we know nothing, 
except that he had one son, Hushim or 
Shuham (Gen. xlvi. 23 ; Numb. xxvi. 42). 
He shared with his brethren the prophetic 
blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 16, 17), fulfilled, 
perhaps, in the administration of Samson, 
and in the craft and stratagem which his 
descendants used against their enemies. 
Other explanations, however, have been 
given. Those descendants multiplied large- 
ly; for at the first census after quitting 
Egypt the tribe numbered 62,700 males 
above twenty years of age ; and, when num- 
bered again on their coming to Jordan, 
they were 64,400 (Numb, i.38, 39, xxvi. 42, 43). 
Moses ere his death, as Jacob, pronounced 
a prophetic blessing. ' Dan is a lion's Whelp : 
he shall leap from Bashan' was the utter- 
ance respecting this tribe (Deut. xxxiii. 22), 
fulfilled in the predatory expeditions, of 
which one at least is recorded in their 
subsequent history. 

When the Israelites had subdued Canaan 
and were apportioning its territory among 
j the tribes, to Dan was allotted a pleasant 
j region, narrow in extent, but rich and fertile 
\ In its general character. It was to the west of 
i Benjamin, reaching to the Mediterranean, 
\ bordered by Ephraim to the north, and by 
; Judah to the south-east. But then there 
I were other neighbours. For the Philistines 
; were occupying much of that fruitful plain ; 
] and Dan would need the wisdom as well as 
the venom of the serpent to resist their 
horsemen and their chariots (Josh. xix. 40- 
46). Some of the cities of Dan seem to have 
■ Deen taken from the territories of otlier 



tribes, from J udah or from Ephraim. They 
were not many in all, but seventeen or 
eighteen; and four of them were assigned to 
the Levites (xxi. 23, 24), Several of these 
cities were retained by the Philistines. 
Hence the Danites found their territory too 
circumscribed. And so they sent out a 
small party to explore, who, wandering to 
the far north-east, fixed upon a spot where 
they thought they could surprise and over- 
come the careless inhabitants. A large de- 
tachment accordingly marched to Laish, 
seized it, and called it Dan after their an- 
cestor. It was a well-planned but wild and 
lawless foray (xix. 47 ; Judges xviii.). Some 
of the tribe appear to have taken to the sea 
(V. 17), engaged in fishing probably or this 
coasting-trade ; and perhaps they cultivated 
the arts: two at least of the artists men- 
tioned in the construction of the tabernacle 
and of the temple were connected with the 
tribe (Exod. xxxv. 34 ; 2 Chron. ii. 14). There 
is little more to be said. A prince of Dan is 
mentioned in I Chron. xxvii. 22; but the 
tribe is hardly again named. In Ezek. 
xlviii. its lot is placed in the far north : 
in Rev. vii. it is omitted. Had it proved 
altogether faithless to its trust? Legend 
adds that antichrist is to spring from 
Dan. 

DAN (id.).~l. A place, originally Leshem 
or Laish, seized by a party of Danites and 
called Dan from the ancestor of their tribe. 
The original inhabitants are said to have 
lived ' after the manner of the Zidonians,' 
but far from them. Probably they were a 
colony of Zidon. The Danite free-booters 
brought hither the images they had stolen 
from Micah, and the Levite who was his 
priest ; and here for long this illicit worship 
continued (Josh. xix. 47; Judges xviii.) 
Subsequently Jeroboam set up one of his 
calves at Dan (1 Kings xii. 29, 30). This city 
being in the extreme north, as Beer-sheba 
was the extreme south, a proverbial ex- 
pression came into common use to express 
the whole extent of Palestine : 'from Dan 
even to Beer-sheba ' (Judges xx. 1, and else- 
where). Dan is twice mentioned in the 
Pentateuch (Gen. xiv. 14; Deut. xxxiv. 1). 
In the last-named place, probably Dan Laish 
is meant ; as the account of Moses' death 
must have been supplied by a later writer. 
As to the former it is not easy to decide. 
There might have been another Dan in 
Abraham's time ; but the matter is one of 
those on which we can only conjecture. 
Dan was near Paneas, on the road to Tyre, 
just by the mound now called Tell el-Kadij , 
close by which rises the Leddan. But ' not 
one solitary habitation is there. The foun- 
tain still pours forth its river of delicious 
water ; but herds of black bufl'aloes wash 
and wallow in its crystal pools. Fou cannot 
even examine the site with satisfaction, so 
dense is the jungle of briers, thorns, and 
thistles which have overspread it' (Thom- 
son, The Land and the Book, p.-216).— 2. (Ezek 
xxvii. 19). See Vedax. 

DAN-JA'AN (perhaps woodland Dan). A 
place to Avhich Joab, and his officers, ex- 
tended their circuit in taking the census of 
Israel (2 Sam. xxiv. 6). It is most generally 
believed identical with Dan, formerly Laish. 



dance] 



196 



Some, however, are disposed, from Its being 
named along with Gilead, to heliere it in or 
near to that district; and others would 
place it elsewhere. But these are mere 
conjectures. 

DANCE, DANCING. The inhabitants of 
warm climates are more accustomed to ex- 
press their feelings hy bodily gestures than 
the more staid natives of the north. Just 
as impassioned language became poetry, 
and song broke forth from the lips, so 
the limbs partook of the excitement 
(Psal. XXXV. 10), and joy was exhibited in 
dancing. 

"We read of dances among the Hebrews 
at solemn religious festivals. Thus David 
danced before the Lord at the bringing up 
of the ark into Jerusalem (2 Sam. vi.l4). 
His wife Michal reproached him for his con- 
duct ; but her objection did not apply so 
much to the act of dancing as to the ex- 
posure of his person in the light dress he 
necessarily wore (16, 20-22). It might be 
that Michal's reproaches had some effect ; 
for in all the ordinances Which David made 
for praise, dividing the Levites into choirs,, 
and in subsequent festal rejoicings, Ave find 
no mention of the dance through the whole 
period of scripture history. In later times, 
indeed, the Mishna speaks of a torch-dance 
on the first day of the feast of tabernacles, 
when Jerusalem was illuminated. Besides 
dances performed by men, there were 
dances of Hebrew women. We have an 
example of this after the passage of the 
Red sea. There was a responsive song of 
triumph : the men, however, are not said 
to have danced, but the women did (Exod. 
XV,). Similar were the dances that cele- 
brated David's victory over Goliath (1 Sam.. 
xviii. 6 : see also Psal. Ixviii. 25) ; the ' tim- 
brels ' being musical' instruments inva- 
riably accompanied with dancing. We do 
not find that the sexes were mixed in- social 
dances. Thus it i's evident that the daugh- 
ters of Shiloh were not accompanied by 
even their male relatives (Judges xxi. 21),. 
Theirs would seem to have been a religious 
festival. Of course, there were also dances 
of mere pleasure and revelry (1 Sam. 
XXX. 16 ; Job xxi. II ; Jer. xxxi. 4, 13 ; Luke 
XV. 25). Of the modes or figures of the 
Hebrew dance we know little ; whether it 
was in a ring, or whether the performers 
were arranged in more than one row. In the 
east at present a female leads the dance; and 
others follow, imitating exactly her move- 
ments. Possibly double rows, something 
similar to the country-dance, may be al- 
luded to in Sol. Song vi. 13; where Ginsberg 
translates ' Like a dance to double choirs' 
{Song of Songs, pp. 176, 177). The daughter 
of Herodias danced alone (Matt, xiv.6). See 
Saalschiitz, Arch, der Hebr., vol. i. cap. 28, pp. 
296-302. It may be observed that a Hebrew 
word, mahhol, rendered ' dance ' in our ver- 
sion (Psal. cl. 4, and elsewhere), is sup- 
posed by some to mean a musical instru- 
ment. 

DAN'IEL (.ntdge of God).—l. One of the 
sons of David, born in Hebron, of Abigail, 
the Carnielitess (1 Chron. iii. l). He is else- 
where called Chileab (2 Sam. iii. 3).— 2. A 
priest of the family of Ithamar, who re- 



turned from captivity with Ezra (Ezra 
viii. 2). Possibly he, or his representatiA'e, 
was the person who sealed the covenant 
(Neh. X. 6). 

3. One of the greater prophets. He was 
of royal, or at least noble, race, and 
was one of the young captives carried 
to Babylon after the attack on Jerusalem 
made in the third year of Jehoiakim (Dan. 
i. 1, 2). It has, however, been objected that 
no assault or capture of Jerusalem could 
have taken place so early in Jehoiakim's 
reign. But this objection will be considered 
in the succeeding article, and in that on 
jEHOiAKm, Avhich see. 

Daniel, and some of his companions, 
Avere selected for training in the learning 
and tongue of the Chaldeans. They were 
favoured by the prince of the eunuchs, and 
permitted to decline the 'king's meat ' and 
wine,- from which they Avould haA-e con- 
tracted ceremonial defilement ; and. though 
they lived on plain and scanty fare, by God's 
providence their health was preserved. 
New names were given them, that of Daniel 
being Belteshaz/sar ; and, after a three 
years' course of instruction, they stood be- 
fore the king, and were found to have more 
wisdom than the Chaldean magicians and 
astrologers(3-20). Shortly after this, Daniel's 
knoAvledge was tried. Nebuchadnezzar, in 
the second year of his sole reign, dreamed 
a remarkable dream, Avhich, on awaking, he 
had forgotten. He was about to put all the 
Avise men to death because they could not 
tell him his dream and the interpretation. 
But the secret was supernaturally revealed 
to Daniel, Avho explained the vision to the 
king, and Avas, in consequence, advanced to 
be * ruler OA^er the Avhole proAnnce of Ba- 
bylon, and chief of the governors over all 
the wise men of Babylon' (ii.). Whe- 
ther he retained his official rank through 
the whole of Nebuchadnezzar's reign we do 
not know ; nor are Ave informed how he 
escaped when the king set up his golden 
image for worship ; Ave may only be sure 
that it was by no unworthy compliance. 
He might haA^e been absent in some other 
proA'ince ; or perhaps, as Prideaux sup- 
poses, ' his enemies thought it fittest not 
to begin with him, because of the great 
authority he had with the king, but rather 
to fall first on his three friends, and there- 
by pave the way for their more successful 
reaching of him after it' iCo7inect., xol. i. 
p. 74, edit. 1858). Ztindel, considering the 
required homage to the golden statue to 
have had more a political than a religious 
objectj.beliCA'es that neither DanieljWho was 
placed over the Avise men, nor the wise men 
themselves, would be called on to make the 
prostration, since their office A\'as not po- 
litical (Krit. Untersiich. iiber die Ahfass. des 
B. Daniel, p. 13). We read of Daniel's in- 
terpreting another dream of Nebuchad- 
nezzar in the later part of that monarch's 
reign (Dan. iv.). He was then addressed as 
'master of the magicians;' but, from the 
way in which he is spoken of as coming in 
last, it is not improbable that he Avas not 
residing in Babylon, and was sent for thi- 
ther ; or else that, though called ' master, 
he scood apart from, and in a higher grado 1 



197 



^Me %noM£tSQt. [daniel, the book op 



than, the caste of ordinary wise men (8). In 
, the time of Belshazzar he was evidently- 
neglected (V. 11, 12), but appears to have 
j held some post at Susa (viii. l, 27). In that 
I reign he had two of his remarkable visions 
I (vii., viii.) ; and he interpreted the hand- 
I writing on the wall (v.). By Darius he was 
! made first president of the kingdom ; and 
{ then occurred the plot for casting him to 
: the lions. His integrity, fearlessness, and 
I faith, were most remarkably illustrated at 
' this crisis (vi.). In the first year of Darius 
I he had another vision (ix.) ; and the last re- 
; corded was in the third of Cyrus, Daniel 
being at that time on the banks of the 
Hiddekel, i. e. the Tigris (x. 1-4). Of his 
death we have no certain account ; but 
he is said to have died at Susa; and what 
is called his tomb is still shown there. His 
life must have been long, probably not less 
than 85 years. Daniel is mentioned by Eze- 
i kiel, specially for his wisdom (Ezek. xiv. 14, 
i 20, xxviii. 3) ; and this is not wonderful, 
I seeing that he was so greatly distinguished 
at court, and held at the time the appoint- 
ment of chief of the wise men. 
I DANIEL, THE BOOK OF. The book bear- 
I Ing the name of Daniel is in our bibles placed 
I immediately after that of Ezekiel, as the 
: fourth of the so-called greater prophets. 
In the Hebrew canon it is ranked in the 
third division called kJiethuMm, or, accord- 
ing to the Greek name, hagiographa. 
I This book is composed partly in Hebrew ; 

part, viz., ii. 4— vii. 28, in Chaldee. A portion 
I of it is occupied with a narrative of events ; 

and the rest is a series of prophetic visions. 
! In the history Daniel is spoken of in the 
i third person ; while the visions profess to 
be recorded by himself. There is noreason, 
however, to question the unity of the book 
• You may divide it,' says Zundel : ' you can- 
not possibly pull it to pieces. Separate it 
accordmg to the languages. This you cannot 
do ; for there is a clear reference in the 
Chaldee pieces, ii. 49, iii. 12, 16. 23, 30, to the 
Hebrew, i., and also a substantial connection 
between the Hebrew, viii.-xii., and the Chal- 
dee, vii. ; a similar notation of time being 
found in vii. 1 and viii. 1. Divide it accord- 
ing to the contents, the narrative and the 
visions, i.-vi., and vii.-xii. You are met by 
an equal difiiculty. For i. is clearly by its 
contents an introduction to the historical 
ii.-vi., and by the language and style con- 
nected with the visions viii.-xii., linking 
.through the Hebrew the former with the 
latter division, just as vii. links the first and 
the last through the Chaldee' {Krit. Unters 
iiber die Ahfass. Daniel, pp. 40, 41). Other 
references from one part of the book to 
another might be pointed out: see De 
Wette, Einleit. in A. T., § 256, p. 350 ; Keil, 
jLinleit., § 134, p. 443 ; Home, IntroducL, vol 
11. p. 842, edit.Ayre. But it is needless to dis- 
cuss this point further : critics are generally 
agreed that the whole book proceeds from 
the same hand. 

Beceived into the Jewish canon, this . 
book has been generally attributed to the i 
prophet Daniel. This belief, however, ( 
questioned by certain ancient opponents i 
pt Christianity, has of late years been • 
Keenly disputed ; and many able writers i 



L are now of opinion that the date of its com- 
' position must be brought down to the 
I Maccabean times, and consequently that 
I much of it is unhistorical. They do not 
; impute to the writer any improper motive 
■ or intent to deceive : they suppose him a 
patriotic Jew, who was anxious to inspirit 
his countrymen under the persecution of 
Antiochus, and who selected the names of 
his principal figures from the lists of Ezra 
and Nehemiah (e.g. Ezra viii. 2, x. 28 ; Neh. 
viii. 4, X. 2, 6, 23), guided perhaps by some 
traditionary stories of Daniel as a cele- 
brated Hebrew exile. Whatever may be 
thought of the theory generally, that this 
book is of a late date, such fanciful con- 
firmations must be allowed to be worth- 
less. Neither can the opinion that the 
author was a pious patriotic Jew be easily 
approved. For he distinctly assumes the 
name of Daniel : he relates with all gra- 
vity circumstances that are said to have 
happened to Daniel : he professes as Daniel 
to have received divine communications, 
which he delivers as solemn prophecy. In 
regard to some books it matters little who 
penned them ; their authority and credit 
will not be interfered with. And others 
bear merely a name in the title without 
further allusion to it. But here Daniel's 
history is found in every t)aragraph : 
Daniel personally presents himself every- 
where : Daniel speaks continually as from 
the mouth of Jehovah : you cannot take 
away Daniel's authorship without most 
seriously impeaching the real writer's ho- 
nesty, and reverence, and truthful purpose. 
He trifles with the living God. He speaks 
in the Lord's name ; and yet the Lord did 
not send him : he utters oracles which are 
based upon a lie. This assertion is made 
deliberately and after careful consideration 
of the whole bearings of the case. And 
the conclusion is that, if the book can be 
proved to be the composition of some one 
much later in date than Daniel, it ought to 
be rejected as utterly unworthy of a place 
in the sacred canon. 

It is necessary to examine the reasons 
that are urged against this book's being 
really the production of the prophet Daniel. 
In the brief space which can be given here 
to the investigation, only a few of the 
principal arguments can be adverted to ; 
and the objections of less weight mav well 
be passed over. Thus it is useless to'dwell 
on the assertion that Greek names are 
given to some of the musical instruments 
enumerated in iii. 5, 7, 10, 15. If it were so, 
what then ? It is admitted that Greek in- 
fluence spread far in Asia at a very early 
date, that Sennacherib encountered a 
Greek army in Cilicia,and that Esar-haddon 
had Greeks in his service, from whom 
doubtless Greek words passed into eastern 
speech. And, besides, some Greek names of 
musical instruments were really words of 
Persian origin Grecized (see Zundel 2ibi 
sitpo'., pp. 5, 6). Few would be inclined now 
to lay stress on such a reason for the late 
composition of the book. Neither need 
much attention be paid to the alleged im- 
probabilities of the narrative. It is said 
that no king would have required his wi.se 



DANIEL, THE BOOK Of] El)t EreaS'Ul*!) 0f 



198 



meu to tell him the dream he had forgotten, 
as well as the interpretation of it (Dan. ii. 
1-9). On the contrary, it was the most sen- 
sil)le thing Nebuchadnezzar could do. If the 
magicians had really supernatural know- 
ledge, they could describe to the king his 
dream as well as interpret it. So the event 
proved, distinguishing between the false 
and the true ; for the heathen astrologers 
who could not tell the dream had no power 
to unroll its prophetic signification ; while 
Daniel, who could by divine revelation ex- 
pound, by divine revelation told also what 
the d ream had been. It was an admirable 
test which was thus applied. 

Cases, however, are alleged of actual mis- 
take or misrepresentation. Such is the 
statement that Daniel was carried captive 
to Babylon in the tliird year of Jehoiakim 
i. 1-6). Nebuchadnezzar, it is said, was not 
then king; for his reign commenced in 
Jehoiakim's fourth year (Jer. xxv. 1); and, be- 
sides, it is argued, from the terms of Jere- 
miah's prophecy (8-Tl), that the Babylonian 
invasion was then future. But the fact is 
that, the different places being compared, 
there is, instead of mistake or contradiction, 
a marvellous harmony. For Nebuchadnez- 
zar's march on Jerusalem in Jehoiakim's 
third year (perhaps the earlier part of it) 
was before the victory of Carchemish (xlvi. 
2), while Nebuchadnezzar's father was 
still upon the throne. What wonder that 
the Jews, finding that he wielded all the 
power of Babylon, called him by the title 
which not long afterwards was exclusively 
his own ? And the taking of Jerusalem at 
that time was not that utter destruction 
which Jeremiah predicted in the words 
above referred to, and which did not come 
upon the city till many years later. Jehoia- 
kim submitted, and was continued on his 
throne as a Babylonish vassal ; and for 
three years he was faithful to his liege- 
lord (2'Kingsxxiv. 1; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7). 
Now observe that at the end of Jehoiakim's 
fifth year a fast was proclaimed in Jerusa- 
lem (Jer. xxxvi. 9), when Jeremiah's pro- 
phecies of the destruction of the Judean 
kingdom by the Chaldeans were publicly 
read (10). Wlio can doubt that this fast 
was held in preparation for the revolt from 
Nebuchadnezzar? and thus Jehoiakim's 
rage and destruction of the roll may be 
readily accounted for (22-26). Jeremiah's tes- 
timony just contradicted the king's deter- 
mination. Mark, further, that Daniel and his 
three companions were to be three years 
In training (Dan. i. 5). But in Nebuchad- 
nezzar's second year Daniel stood before 
the great monarch (ii. 1, 25). Exact is the 
correspondence, if the captivity be as early 
as Jehoiakim's third year : the three years 
of previous study had just ended. Again, 
objectors have been bold to declare that 
there never was such a king as Belshazzar : 
he is mentioned nowhere else. On this 
nothing need be said here : the matter has 
already been discussed : see Belshazzau. 
Moreover, Darius the Mede, the son of 
Ahasuerus is a great stumbling-block to 
modern critics : see Darius, 3. But we 
may well say with Ziindel, suppose this 
book of Daniel a late apocryphal unhistoric 



production, and see the wonderful good- 
luck of the writer. He puts down at hap- ; 
hazard a date of Daniel's deportation, and i 
a year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign (i. 1, t 
ii. 1) ; and lo ! patient investigation shows 
that his dates tally, and are in remarkable 
correspondence with other parts of scrip- 
ture. He invents a king, Belshazzar, whom \ 
no one ever heard of ; and, surprising to ! 
relate, modern discovery dis-inters a real \ 
Belshazzar. His good fortune still does 
not foi*sake him. He introduces a Median 
Dai-ius, whom Herodotus never names ; and 
yet there can be no doubt that he has 
spoken of a veritable personage. Who will 
be credulous enough to imagine that all 
this has happened by chance {hM supr., p. 
38)? 

The great objections, however, to the 
authority of this book are the supernatural 
character of its narratives, and the minute- 
ness of its predictions, down to the time 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. With regard to 
the first objection all that shall be said 
at present Is that the wonders related 
are an essential part of the book. They 
cannot be supposed to be interpolations. 
If they are rejected, you must reject the J 
whole. 

As to the minute prophetic detail down to 
Antiochus, and the consequent presumption 
that the book was composed in his times, 
let us see how such a supposition will agree 
with facts. If we imagine some pious Jew 
patriotically disposed, his object must have 
been to rouse and encourage that resis- 
tance to arbitrary profane power which, un- 
der theleadership of the Maccabean family, 
actually resulted in establishing the inde- 
pendence of the Jews. But certainly 
neither the histories nor the visions of 
this book are calculated to call out such a 
spirit : they suggest patient submission 
rather than bold opposition : written in the 
time of the Maccabees they would have 
tended to paralyze rather than to strengthen 
those valiant captains' hands. And, then, 
what could have been meant by the pre- 
dicted resurrection of xii. 1-4 ? Who would 
have made it just follow the downfall of 
Epiphanes? Ziindel places in parallel co- 
lumns the historical facts of the book and 
the occurrences and position of the Jews in 
Maccabean times (pp. 67-7.3). A glance at 
his tables is sufficient to show the utter 
dissimilitude. One cannot conceive a man 
taking up old legends of quite a different 
cast, and trying to illustrate what was hap- 
pening aroimd him by comparisons which 
fail at every point. 

The visions are equally inapposite. Be- 
sides, they reach far down below the time 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. This is a point 
of great importance. For, if it can be 
proved, it at once puts an end to the no- 
tion that the writer was some Maccabean 
uninspired patriot. Now it will hardly be 
j denied that the visions of ii. and vii.' are 
j parallel, and also that we have in viii. a 
special illustration of parts of the precede 
ing visions. Let us place these over-agaiust 
I each other. 



199 



chap. ii. chax) vii 

The golden head The winged lion.' 

The silver hreast. The beai° 

The -brass body and thighs. The four-winged leopard 

The iron and clay legs and feet. The ten-hornid beast 



THE BOOK OF ! 



chap, vili 

The two-horned ram. 
The he-goat. 



The golden head is declared to be the 
Assyrio-Chaldaic kingdom (ii. 37 38) The 
two-horned ram is the Medo-Persian do- 
minion ; and the he-goat the Grecian (vii 20 
21). What, then, can be intended by the 
ten-horned beast, and by the iron and clav 
Legs and feet of the great image (ii., vii ) ? 
The natural answer would be that it was 
that world-wide empire which rose upon 
the ruins of preceding sovereignties, which 
held for long in its iron grasp all known 
civilized lands, but which ultimately, show- 
ing signs of weakness and decay, was di- 
vided into many (generally reckoned ten) 
inferior kingdoms, while under its rule God 
set up another kingdom of diverse charac- 
ter, which grew little aided by human hands 
which has spread itself mightily, which 

chap. ii. 
The golden head. 
The silver breast. 



will embrace within its ample sway all 
I nations, and shall never be destroyed Of 
course if this interpretation stands,' the 
patriotic Jew of the time of Antiochus 
wishing merely to rouse his nation against 
the tyrant, vanishes ; and it must be ac- 
knowledged that the inspiration of God is 
here. Accordingly, critics explain the ten- 
horned beast and the iron and clay lega 
and feet of the Grecian kingdom, identify! 
ing these with the he-goat of viii., and so 
dividingthe Medo-Persian sovereignty tha? 
the SI ver breast and the bear are made 
to symbolize the Medes, the brass body and 
thighs, and the four-winged leopard, the 
Persians The following scheme wil re- 
present this interpretation. 



; The brass body and 
thighs. 
The iron and clay 1( 
and feet. 



chap. vii. 
The winged lion. 
The bear. 
The four-winged 

leopard. 
The ten-horned beast. 



chap. viii. 



One horn 
The other horn 



■of the ram, 



The four-horned he-goat. 



Babylon. 

Media. 

Persia. 

Greece. 



r.S'^L^^}^'^^^ parts of this scheme do 
not fit in well together. The bear with 
unequal sides corresponds better to the un- 
equally-horned ram than with a single horn 
ot It; and the four-winged leopard which 
had suited exactly with the four-horned 
ne-goat IS strangely identified with the 
second horn of the ram ; while, again pro- 
priety IS violated in setting the ten-horned 
beast over-against the four-horned he-goat 
Great allowance certainly would have to be 
made for tlie patriotic Jew, if such were the 
writer of the book, for his ill-management 
of his symbols. Besides, it was doubtless the 
Messiahs kingdom, the Christian dispensa- 
tion, that was ultimately to have sway : 
and this unquestionably does not date from 
the time of Grecian rule. It is objected, 
indeed, that to regard the fourth empire 
under which it rose as the Roman, would 
contradict ii. 44, 45; these verses being 
taken to assert that the fourth emT)ire was 
subverted at the commencement of the 
Messianic kingdom. But this is an unten- 
able gloss, to be maintained only on the 
supposition that Messiah's dominion was of 
a worldly nature. 

It may be properly asked, Wlien, at 
What exact juncture, did the supposed 
Jewish patriot compose the book? Was it 
before or after the death of Antiochus ? If 
before, then he actually uttered prophecy • 
for m vii. 25 we have the prediction that 
the persecution should continue 3} times • 
It alter, the announcement of the resurrec- 
tion (xii. 2) becomes absolutely monstrous 
And then, instead of cheerful consolation' 
Which It IS assumed the book was to inspire' 
Daniel is represented after repeated visions 
as disappointed and mournful (x 2 3) 
51'^- i"^®!^-"'^^ explanation can be given 
ot this? Behevmg that thel)ook was written 
by the Daniel of the captivity, the matter 



IS plain enough. In the third year of Ovrus 
little fruit had been gained of the liberation, 
and of the decree of his first year. Expec- 
tations had not been realized. Opposition 
had shown itself and had prevailed Jeru.^^ 
lem was still desolate : the templ^ had not 
been reared. No wonder that the prophet 
Sv^™^^--. -^"^ is that the far fu- 

tuie IS laid open to him, the one and twenty 
days' resistance of the prince of Persia the 
rapid sketch of Persian history, tl?e po'we? 
of Alexander, the fortunes of the Svr an 
and Egyptian kings, who had sharls of 
dominions, all is intelligible on the sup- 
position that God is unfolding to a true 
prophet the things that should come to 
pass,_ and letting him see that, though dis- 
appointments might occur, an over-rulin- 
hand was at work, and all things tending 

kiiS^^n^'^^^ '^"^^ succession o^f 
kings to that great consummation, the es- 
tablishment of an endless dominion of peace 
and glory. On any other view we have an 
inexplicable riddle. Ascribing the coinpo 
sition to Maccabean times, it is hard indeid 
as above noted, to see how the writer could 
imagine that such narratives and sue 
visions would rouse his counto^nen co 

Sd^-J J^'lf^u""^^ ^^""'"''^ ^^^e^^' persecutors^ 
and It is still harder to believe that the 
readers would have detected any incentives 
m the book sufficient to inspire them with 
hopeful expectations from such a conges 
Minute investigation into the internal cha- 
c^niPn^^'l^' composition, the in^eluu 
tamed, shows the more clearly that the 
presumption of a late origin does not fit t e 

the k."vf f f ']'^ not sup I y 

the key to unlock the mysterious casket 

I^et us proceed to another part of the 
enquiry, and see if any positive reasons f r 
setthng the date can be prndiuTd 

^^ eighty proof of the early existence of 



DANIEL, THE BOOK of] Et)^ tEDr^a^ltirj) of 



200 



the iDook of Daniel is to he gathered from 
the circumstances of the Septuagint trans- 
lation. It is acknowledged that the various 
parts of scripture were rendered into Greek 
at different dates ; the version of the Pen- 
tateuch heing the earliest. Let us see 
whether we can approximate to that of 
Daniel. Now there is no douht that this 
must have been in existence when the first 
book of Maccabees was composed. For the 
expression of 1 Mace. i. 54 is evidently from 
the Septuagint Dan. ix. 27. And the first 
of the Maccabees may be fairly dated about 
100 B.C. Again, we gather from the second 
prologue to the book of Eeclesiasticus, that 
the whole of the Old Testam-ent was at that 
time in Greek ; the writer speaking of ' the 
law, the prophets, an4 the rest of the books.' 
This- prologue was composed about 130 B.C. 
Havernick and Zundel still further argue 
that, as the Septuagint text substitutes ' Ro- 
mans* for ' Chittim,' in xi. 30, the translator 
must have been contemporary with Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, who was peremptorily for- 
bidden by the Koman envoy to prosecute 
his hostile designs against Egypt (Haver- 
nick, Einleit., § 272, vol. ii. 2, p. 458 ; Zundel, 
iM supr., p. 175). If this be admitted, or 
even if the later date, 130 B.C., only betaken, 
then, since it is allowed by critics generally 
that the original composition must have 
preceded the translation 50 or 60 years, the 
notion that the book was first wa-itten in 
Antiochus's time is distinctly disproved. 

That there would be a considerable in- 
terval of time between the original and the 
translation is evident from the fact tbat 
the Septuagint text abounds in faults, mis- 
takes, variations of every possible kind. 
These would not have been made, had the 
version come close upon the original com- 
posing of the book. So faulty is this trans- 
lation, that it was for a long time laid aside, 
and that ofTheodotion substituted in Greek 
bibles ; and it was not till modern times 
that the Septuagint Daniel was discovered 
and published, viz., in 1772 a.d. Ziindel 
has with singular aeuteness examined and 
compared the Septuagint, the version of 
Theodotion, and the original, arranging 
several paragraphs in a tabular form, and 
from his lnvestigations,f or which the reader 
must be referred to his book, pp. 176-182, he 
comes to the conclusion that the Septua- 
gint translator must have had a prior ver- 
sion before him when he did his work. If 
this be so— and the arguments used are very 
forcible— the first composition of the book 
is thro^vn yet farther back ; and what then 
becomes of the notion of the patriotic Jew 
writing it in the time of Epiphanes ? 

There are some other particulars which 
muse not be passed over. It can hardly be 
doubted— De Wette, indeed, acknowledges 
it (Einleit in A. T., § 323)— that the author 
of tlie apocryphal book of Baruch was ac- 
quainted with Daniel : comp. Bar. 1. 11 with 
Dan. V. 11 ; Bar. i. 15-17 with Dan. ix. 7-10 ; 
Bar. ii. 7 with Dan. ix. 13 ; Bar. ii. 10, 11 with 
Dan. ix. 5, 15 ; Bar. ii. 15 with Dan. ix. 19 ; 
Bar. il. 19 with Dan. ix. 18. Tlie question 
Is When was Baruch composed ? In a former 
article (see Baruch, Book of), it was said 
that the earlier chapters of that apocryphal 



work were probably written In Hebrew 
towards the end of the Persian rule, and 
that these were translated, and the whole 
made complete as Ave have it about 160 B.C. 
If this be so, Daniel must have been written 
before the time of Antiochus. And so 
Zundel, who believes that the whole of 
Baruch was composed in Hebrew, and that 
it must have existed in the fourth century 
B.C., concludes that we have here a weighty 
proof that Daniel was in existence and cir- 
culation at least as eai-ly as that fourth 
century (pp. 188-193). 

Take, again, the apocryphal additions to 
Daniel. We cannot, indeed, with certainty 
fix upon the dates of these pieces ; but they 
were composed by different authors, pos- 
sibly in different languages. Ziindel would 
ascribe them to different localities. He 
imagines the story of Bel and the Dragon 
to be of Babylonian origin, the account of 
Habbacuc appended to it Palestinian, while 
Susanna is clearly Syrian. Time was required 
to get them together, more to attach them 
to the canonical book ; and, as spurious ad- 
ditions are not made to works just upon 
their appearance, we may reasonably infer 
a considerable interval between the canon- 
ical Daniel and these excrescences. But 
if Daniel was not written till the time of 
Antiochus, 163 B.C., how could such additions 
have established themselves in the Greek 
bibles, in the Septuagint version, by 130 B.C. 
(ibid. pp. 182-187) ? 

It is impossible to dwell here on all the 
various points which might be argued : the 
reader will find much more in Ziindel's work, 
which has been so frequently referred to. 
But a word must be said upon the question. 
How did the book of Daniel get into the 
Jewish canon, if it is to be dated in the 
Maccabean times ? • ^ * 

Of course, as much as possible is made oi 
the fact that Daniel appears in that division 
of the sacred volume called khethuMm or 
hagiograp/ia, the latest portion, we are told, 
of the canon ; just as, if after the gathering 
of the law, and of the prophets, seeing that 
there were at a posterior time several other 
books, floating as it were unconnectedly 
about, they were at length collected Into a 
late supplement or appendix. But such a 
notion has no sufficient foundation. In 
fact, the reasoning we find is in a circle : 
the collecting of the hagiograplia was late, 
because Daniel is there ; and Daniel is late, 
because it is placed in the hagiographal 
The books of the law naturally formed a 
single class. Those called in the Hebrew 
nomenclature ' the prophets' had a mutual 
interdependence. True, some are historical, 
and some are prophetical ; but there was a 
bond of connection. There was prophetic 
teaching, if not by words, yet by actions. 
The hagiograplia had a different character ; 
and it was at least as much in reference to 
their contents, as to any consideration of 
date, that these books were arranged. For 
tlie Davidical psalms are there, not left for 
a long time out of the canon, but regarded 
from the first as a part of the sacred word, 
and placed as a nucleus round which other 
writings deemed fitting to be associated 
therewith might gather. This part of the 



201 



2St^^^e l^imtol^lfge* [daniel, the book of 



subject is argued at length by Ziindel (pp. 
214-226), who, reaching by independent in- 
vestigation the conclusion that the canon 
was closed about the end of the fourth cen- 
tury before Christ (pp. 226-239), finds in this 
a strong proof of the antiquity of Daniel. 
In any case, it would be hard indeed to 
explain how a production of the dat« of 
Antiochus Epiphanes could get into the 
gacred canon. 

But we may look a little more particu- 
larly at the cause why the book of Daniel 
occupies the place in which we find it. 
Good reasons for the arrangement there 
certainly are, though they might not per- 
haps even appear so forcible in later 
times ; and hence a collateral proof is fur- 
nished of the early settling of the canon. 
Thus, there is a vast difference between 
the contents of Daniel and those of other 
prophetic books. There are no fervid ad- 
dresses in it to the Jewish people, as in the 
others ; how then could it be classed with 
them ? There is not the theocratic tone ; 
nor even is the Jewish nation touched save 
as having a place in the world-system, to 
which, and not to the destiny of his own 
people, the prophet's eye was mainly di- 
rected. How well, then, was the wisdom 
of the sages who gathered the sacred books 
guided to place this in that division, the 
contents of which were rather for private 
edification than (except at certain festivals, 
the five megilloth) to be read in public as- 
semblies. ' The distribution of the sacred 
books was (as Ziindel well says) according 
to their public use. The law was the basis 
handed down from the fathers of all public 
teaching. The prophets, in the constant 
public use of them, discharged towards the 
people the peculiar office which belonged 
to such divine messengers. The hagiographa 
or khethubim were for the private use of 
pious Israelites. And, besides these, there 
were apocrj'phal writings, set aside and 
withdra^vn from authoritative use alto- 
gether' (see p. 224). A similar distribution 
is made in the New Testament; and no 
man carps at it : why is not the Revelation 
discredited because it stands last? 

Such are but a few of the reasons which 
can be produced for disbelieving that the 
book of Daniel is a late production of the 
Maccabean age. And, it may be added, if 
it is not of the Maccabean age, it is what it 
professes to be, of the exile and time 
immediately succeeding. For there is no 
pretence for placing it in the interval; 
and no one has ascribed it to that interval. 
Well and deeply, in regard to this part of 
the subject, should the words of Dr. Mill be 
pondered. The objection, he observes, is an 
old one, as old as the time of Porphyry, who 
concluded, from the particularity of detail, 
that the prophecy was merely history^ 
written after the events. ' To those who 
conclude that Gen. xlix. must have been 
written after the establishment of David's 
dynasty, and all of Isaiah, from the fortieth 
chapter to the end, after the restoration of 
the Jews from Babylon— simply because the 
royalty of Judah is mentioned in the one, 
and the edict of Cyrus in the other— this 
argument must needs be irresistible. Un- 



fortunately, however, it assumes as granted 
the whole matter on which such critics are 
opposed to ourselves, viz., that no higher 
intellect than that of man has been con- 
cerned in what those writers of Israel pro- 
pounded to the world. And it is quite 
sufficient to reply that, in all to which the 
art of criticism properly relates, the criteria 
of human authorship and transmission of 
meaning which are common to these writ- 
ings with all others, there is nothing to 
justify their allegation, but everything 
against it' (Observ. on Appl. of Pantheist. 
Princ, part ii. chap. i. sect. iv. pp. 133, 134). 

It was observed above, that the super- 
natural character of the narrative portion 
of Daniel was used also as a main argu- 
ment against its authority. To those en- 
lightened men who have discovered the 
impossibility of a miracle, the alleged oc- 
currence of one is a fatal objection to a 
book. On this question nothing need be 
said here : see Miracle. But, as a suffi- 
cient reason for vindicating the ways of 
God, the observation of Ziindel is very 
weighty, that, where the welfare of God's 
Israel is brought face to face with the 
world's power, there the wonder-working 
hand of the Lord is stretched forth. We 
may see it in the contest with Pharaoh, we 
may see it when the holy ark was placed in 
an idol's temple by the Philistines ; it was 
reasonable to expect it in the crisis at 
Babylon {ubi supr., pp. 51, 52). 

Little can here ]je said of the notice we 
find of Daniel by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 
xiv. 14, 20). He is coupled with two eminent 
patriarchs, Noah and Job. Now, if Daniel 
had been endowed with eminent wisdom, 
if he had been able to interpret the dream 
of the Babylonian king, if he was conse- 
quently raised to high place in the empire, 
we cannot wonder that one so distin- 
guished, a faithful minister in a heathen 
court, should be ranked among the Lord's 
most favoured servants. If, on the other 
hand, the history we have be false, if no 
such prophet had attracted Nebuchadnez- 
zar's favour, or received such marvellous 
communications of the divine Spirit, if 
Daniel were but a mythic personage, how is 
the mention of the name by Ezekiel to be 
explained ? 

There is a yet more august reference to 
him. Events in God's providence repeat 
themselves; and those which fulfil a di- 
vine prediction are in turn pre-signitlcative 
of a yet more complete accomplishment. 
Now the pollution of the sanctuary ly 
Antiochus had been predicted (Dan. xi. 31) 
But the prophecy was not exhausted by the 
Syrian king's profanation. There would be 
a more fearful desecration in a far more 
calamitous time. And of this our Lord 
speaks. He tells his disciples it would 
come, and warns them of it as the signal of 
their flight from the doomed city. And he 
expressly ascribes the prediction to Daniel 
(Matt. xxiv. 15). Now observe. He does 
not speak here as he does of Moses, just 
quoting a book which bore Moses' name. 
He does not speak as he does of Jonah, 
referring to a circumstance which, if it 
were but legendary, might vet be used for 



DAXIEL, THE BOOK Of] ^l)Z CrCaStlVD Of 



202 



illustration. Here Clnist cites a rropliecy yet 
to be accomplished, attributes it to a certain 
individual, and declares its approaching ac- 
complishment— and tliat in the samehreatli 
in which lie denounces and cautions the 
apostles against false prophets, pretenders 
, to divine gifts (11, 24). Will any man dare 
I to sav that the prophecy he so refers to 
was merely the word of an impostor, of a ; 
rnau wlio had concocted a legendary book, j 
and whose pretended prediction was hut | 
: the clothing of past events in the phrase- i 
I ologv of the future ? To all reasonable ar- I 
I guments let due weight be given : all reve- 
^ rent treatment of a mysterious matter may 
< have its honour ; but the criticism which 
attributes such ignorance, such perversion 
; of fact, to the Only-begotten is too daring : 
let no man who venerates the Saviouj give 
it the least countenance. 

It has been repeatedly said that brevity 
is necessary in the present notice. The 
futility, therefore, of the objections taken 
from the presumed use of Greek names 
(slightlv touched above\ andfrom the style 
and phraseology of the book cannot be here 
dwelt on : the reader may be referred on 
such points to the satisfactory disguisitions 
of Hengstenberg. 

Iseither can the positive evidence of Dan. 
is. be exhibited. It can only be said that, 
if, as many of the best expositors seem to 
have proved, the prediction of the 70 weeks 
reaches to the very times of Messiah (see 
Messiah^ that is sufficient proof of the 
authority of this book. Yet it must in 
all fairness be said, that critics of name, 
who admit the genuineness of Daniel, do 
otherwise interpret this prophecy. Xor 
can the fact be more than hinted, that the 
book of Revelation— to say nothing of some 
other prophetical parts of the apostolic 
writings— is grounded upon Daniel. Could 
an inspired book take its colour from a 
clumsy forgery ? 

Shortly as the question has been here 
treated, enough, it is hoped, has been urged 
to vindicate the authority of this book. Let 
no reader suffer himself to be influenced by 
i that weakest of all arguments, that all the 
most enlightened critics now give up the 
genuineness of Daniel. Were this indeed 
the case— and it is not so— it should not 
weigh with the honest enguirer after truth 
(John vii. 48). 

The book, as already intimated, is divided 
into two parts:— 1. The historical portion, 
including the interpretation of 2sebuchad- 
nezzar's prophetic dream, i.-vi.— 2. The pro- 
phetical part, vii.-xii. 

Several works have been referred to as 
useful for the elucidation of this book. It 
would be easy to draw out a long list of 
critics and commentators upon it. It must 
suffice to mention that work of Zundel 
so often cited; Hengstenberg's Die Au- 
thentie d. Dan., 1831 ; Haveruick's Comm. 
iiber d. B. Dan., 1832 ; Auberlen's Der Proph. 
Dan. und d. Offenb. Joli. 2nd edit. 1857, with, 
of Enellsli books, Birks' Four Prophetic Eni- 
pfres, 1844, and Two Later Visions of Daniel, 
1846. The commentary of Barnes Is plain 
and worth consulting. Mcn-e learned works 
u.re purposely here omitted. 



DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIOXS 
TO. These are the Song of the three Child- i 
ren, the story of Susanna, and that of Bel ! 
and the Dragon, pieces which are found in ; 
the ancient "Greek translations of Daniel, \ 
the first introduced between w. 23, 24 of 
chap. iii. ; the others, one at the beginning ; 
of the book and one at the end, in some 
editions, while other editions place them ! 
at the end as chaps, xiii., xiv. Jerome j 
separated them and expressly noted that 
he had not found them in the original : 
Hebrew, but had translated them from the \ 
Greek version of Theodotion. They appear, 1 
however, in the Vulgate without this cau- j 
tionarv notice, and have been received as 
canonical by the council of Trent. They 
were not so received by the Jews, nor by 
the Christian fathers who adhere to the : 
Hebrew canon. And, though occasional re- \ 
ferences to them are found in early writers, j 
they are generally (the last two) treated as ^ 
fables ; aiid it may be added, as an addi- ; 
tional proof of the small veneration paid \ 
them, that they appear to have been ampli- i 
fled after their first composition. Of their 
origin nothing can be said with certainty. ; 
The Song of the three Children, consisting 
of a praver and a canticle of praise, is 
believed by De Wette (Einleit., § 258) to 
have been written in Chaldee. But the 
reasons be adduces establish hardly more 
than a faint presumption. He thinks also, . 
by a comparison of vv. 15, 31, 32, 62, 63, 
that the whole did not proceed from a 
single hand. The stories of Susanna and of 
Bef and the Dragon were indisputably 
written in Greek. There is a play on words 
! in the first of them, which bolds only in 
that lanecuage. But the legend of Habbacuc 
appended to the last (33-42) was perhaps 
originally Hebrew. Possibly there may 
have been some such person as Susanna; 
but this can be merely conjectured. The 
other piece is clearly fictitious. It describes 
a kind of idolatrous worship wliich did not 
exist in Babylon. 

DA:lS'ITES. The descendants of Dan 
(Judges xiii. 2, xviii. 1, 11 ; 1 Chron. x-ii. 35). 

DAis 'XAH {low land ?). A city among the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 49). 

DAPH'XE. A grove and sanctuary of 
Apollo, with the right of asylum, near to 
Antioch. It was in a situation of great 
natural beauty, and was founded by Seleu 
cus Xicator c2 Mace. iv. 33\ 

DA'RA a Chron. ii. 6), probably contracted 
or corrupted from 

DAR'DA (jjcarl of icisdov}'). One of the 
persons whom Solomon is said to have sur- 
passed in wisdom (1 Kings iv. 31). It is 
impossible to say when Darda lived ; for, 
even if we suppose him to be identical with 
Dara, called the son of Zerah, the word 
' son' is often used in so extended a sense, 
that we cau by no means fix him to the 
generation immediately after Zeraln 

DARIO. This word does not appear in 
our translation : but it is the proper name of 
a piece of money rendered ' dram ' (1 Chron. 
xxix. 7 ; Ezra ii. 69, viii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 70, 
71, 72). The daric was a Persian gold coin, 
i common among the Jews while under Per- 
sian rule. It usually bore the image of an 



^03 



[darkness 



archer with a tiara, and on the reverse an 
irregular square. The weight was ahout 
128 grains troy. Specimens exist in collec- 
tions, but probably none earlier than the 
reign of Xerxes. The name daric is sup- 
posed to be taken from Darias ; but there 
are other derivations proposed of the He- 
brew word for this coin. Some Persian 
silver pieces are said also to have been 
called darics. See Money. 



sents Astyages as dying without male issue, 
and that.Xenophon alone mentions Cyax- 
ares. Zundel, however, believing Darius to 
be Cyaxares II., imagines him the brother 
and not the son of Astyages ; both these 
princes being sons of Cyaxares I. (Krit. 
Untersucli. uber die Ab/ass. des B. Baniet, 
pp. 34-38). 

BARF US (1 Mace. xii. 7). This would 
seem to be put for Areus : comp. 20. 





DARVTJSCcoefder, conservatorD—l.The son 
of Hystaspes, a king of Persia, who obtained 
the crown after that the false Smerdis, who 
succeeded Cambyses, had been put to death. 
His reign was long, 521-486 B.C., and was for 
the most part occupied with internal trou- 
bles and foreign wars. It was against the 
forces of Darius that the Greeks gained the 
battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. The policy of 
this monarch was favourable to the Jews. 
He confirmed the edict of Cyrus, and per- 
mitted the re-building of the temple at 
Jerusalem. The works which had been 
stopped under Cambyses and the false 
Smerdis were accordingly resumed in the 
second year of Darius, and the house of 
God was completed and dedicated in his 
sixth year (Ezra iv. 5, 24, v., vi. ; Hagg. i. 1, 
15, ii. 10 ; Zech. i. 1, 7, vii. 1).— 2. A Persian 
king (Neh. xii. 22), who is generally iden- 
tified with Darius II. Nothus, son of Arta- 
xerxes Longimanus, and reigned 423-404 
B.C. Some difficulty, however, has been 
felt, because in the same passage the line 
of the high priests is carried down to Jad- 
dua, who was contemporary with Alex- 
ander the Great : the Darius in question 
might therefore be Codom annus the last 
king of Persia, 335-330 B.C. But this would 
bring down the date of the book of Nehe- 
miah to a late point ; and Keil argues very 
strongly against such a supposition, Mn- 
leit, § 1.52, pp. 526, 527.-3. A sovereign 
called ' the Median,' ' the son of Ahasuerus 
of the seed of the Modes,' who took the 
kingdom after the death of Belshazzar (Dan. 
V. 31, vi., ix. 1, xi. 1). Various conjectures 
have been hazarded in regard to this prince. 
Perhaps, however, we may conclude that 
he was either the Astyages of profane his- 
tory, grandfather to Cyrus, or Cyaxares, 
Cyrus's uncle. The last supposition is the 
most reasonable; and it agrees with the 
account of Josephus, who identifies this 
Darius with Cyaxares II., the son of Asty- 
ages, and says that he was known among 
the Greeks by another name {Antiq., lib. 
X. 11, § 4). It is true that Herodotus repre- 



DARKNESS. Twice in scripture history 
darkness is said to have occurred of an ex- 
traordinary and (it must be admitted) a 
supernatural character. A plague of dark- 
ness was inflicted upon the Egyptians, the 
more remarkable because Israel in Goshen 
had light in their dwellings. In this dark- 
ness the atmosphere was thickened so that 
it might, as it were, be felt : so intense was 
it, that no person could move ; artificial 
means of light, it would seem, being use- 
less: it lasted, too, three days (Exod. x. 21- 
23 ; Psal, cv. 28). Some, pressing, perhaps 
too literally, the Psalmist's expression 
(Ixxviii. 49), have imagined that lurid 
spectres glided through the gloom. No 
doubt this, like the other plagues, stood in 
connection with the natural phenomena of 
Egypt ; still no sufficient reason can be 
assigned for it from merely physical causes. 
Thei-e is said to be a peculiar wind in Egypt, 
and, while it blows, the sun is obscured, 
the atmosphere filled with dust, and intense 
darkness sometimes produced. But, in the 
case before us, there were circumstances, 
the sudden occurrence, the prolonged dura- 
tion, the limited area, which cannot l)e ex- 
plained, save on the assumption that, while 
natural causes are often made to carry out 
the divine will, there was a greater cause 
in operation, that in short (as the magicians 
had been previously compelled to acknow- 
ledge) the finger of God was there. There 
was also a strange darkness while our Lord 
v/as on the cross (Matt, xxvii. 45 ; Mark 
XV. 33 ; Luke xxiii. 44, 45). Opinions difiler 
on the point, whether this was confined to 
Judea, or had a wider influence. But it is 
of comparatively-little moment. Some are 
inclined to attribute this darkness to an 
eclipse of the sun. And it is said thei-ewas 
an eclipse at noon, in or near the year of 
the crucifixion, attended by an earthquake 
in Blthynia, which Phlegon of Tralles men- 
tions. To be sure the passovcr was to be 
held just after the full moon ; but it lias 
been argued that the Jewish calendar had 
got into confusion, so that the statutable 



DARKOXj 



Kl}t Crras'urj) at 



204 



times of their feasts were not observed. 
It is not, however, easy to believe that 
there would be a great departure from the 
regular times of festivals made dependent 
upon the phases of the moon which every 
one could observe. And various scholars 
have satisfied themselves that Phlegon's 
eclipse could not occur in any year. likely to 
be that of the crucifixion. Besides, the 
duration of three hours, assigned by the 
evangelists, far passes the limit of an 
eclipse. Here, therefore, again we must 
acknowledge that a supernatural fact is 
recorded. 

Darkness is often figuratively used in 
scripture for privacy or concealment : as 
when God is said to dwell in thick darkness 
(Exod. XX. 21 ; 1 Kings viii. 12), because 
mortal eye cannot penetrate to him ; for 
misery (Isai. v. 30, lix. 9, 10) ; for ignorance 
or sin (Rom. xiii. 12; Eph. v. 11) ; for final 
punishment (Matt. viii. 12). 

DAR'KON (scatterer). A person whose 
descendants returned from Babylon (Ezra 
li. 56 ; iS'eh. vii. 5S). 

DAPl'MESEK (1 Chron. xviii. 5 ; 2 Chron. 
xvi. 2, xxiv. 23, xxviii. 5, 23, marg. in all 
the places). See Damascus. 

DATE. The fruit of the palm (2 Chron. 
xxxi. 5, marg.). See Palm. 

DA'THAIST (Jbeloiiging to a fountain). A 
chief of Reuben, who joined in Korah's 
treason (Numb, xvi., xxvi. 9 ; Dent. xi. 6 ; 
Psal. cvi. 17). 

BATH' EM A a ^^acc. v. 9). 

DAUGHTER. The word is used, in a 
similar way with ' son,' in a much wider 
sense than the literal acceptation would 
allow; as for grand-daughter or more re- 
mote descendant (Gen. xxiv. 48 ; Luke i. 5), 
for any dependent relationship, e.g. the 
daughters of a tree, that is, the branches 
(Gen. xlix. 22, marg.), the daughter of a 
strange god, that is, an idolatrous woman 
(Mai. ii. 11). It is also used of cities by 
personification (Isai. x. 32, xxxvii. 22, and 
elsewhere), and especially of villages or 
small places dependent upon the chief town 
of a district (Numb.xxi. 25, marg. ; 1 Chron. 
vii. 28, marg. ; Ezek. xvi. 46, 48, and else- 
where). Hence it easily comes to signify 
the women of any particular family, or city, 
or race (e.g. Gen. vi. 2 ; Judges xi. 40, 
xxi. 21), and is sometimes put for women 
in general (Prov. xxxi. 29 ; Isai. xxxii. 9). 

DA'YID (beloved). _ The distinguished king 
of Israel. He was the eighth youngest son 
of Jesse, the Beth-lehemlte, of the tribe of 
Judah. Six of his brothers are named in 
scripture (1 Chron. ii. 13-15) : of the other, 
we know only the fact of his existence 
(1 Sam. xvii. 12) ; and it is needless to men- 
tion the conjectures which have been form- 
ed of him. David had also two sisters (1 
Chron. ii. 16, 17). His mother's name is not 
recorded, unless, as some have believed, she 
was the Kahash of 2 Sam. xvii. 25. See 
Nahash. 

The first notice that we have of David is 
when the Lord, provoked by the ungodly 
conduct of Saul, had determined to choose 
out another king who would more faithfully 
rule his people. Accordingly, Samuel was 
directed to proceed to Beth-lehem : there 



among the sons of Jesse he should find the 
i future sovereign. The prophet obeyed with 
some reluctance; and, when he saw Eliab, 
' Jesse's eldest-born, struck with his bold 
i bearing and goodly stature, he conceived 
that this was to be the Lord's anointed 
Nay, God seeth not as man seeth ; and the 
' rest of the family must pass before him. 
None of those present was selected ; and it 
was not till the youngest, the lad that 
tended the sheep, was sent for, that the 
divine intimation was given : 'Arise, anoint 
him ; for this is he.' David's personal ap- 
I pearance is minutely described. He was a 
' bright and beautiful boy, of a fair com- 
j plexion, with reddish or auburn hair, and 
: sparkling eyes (1 Sam. xvi. 12, xvii. 42) 
I Some have supposed him short of stature • 
' possibly he was not tall ; but had he been 
at all dwarfish he could hardly have pos- 
sessed the strength which he manifestly 
had. For to be a shepherd was no peaceful 
charge. Marauders might have to be re- 
sisted ; or, at least, wild beasts were prowl- 
ing round ; and two of these one night this 
shepherd lad had conquered and slain. 
Samuel anointed him ' in the midst of 
his brethren' (xvi. 13); and the Spirit 
of God was from that day specially upon 
him ; though whether he and his family 
fully understood the whole signification of 
the prophet's deed may be doubted. David 
returned to the care of his flocks. Such 
education as the times afforded he had 
doubtless had; and God's word was his 
study. He had poetic genius, too ; and 
music was his delight. "We may imagine 
him— as he traversed the neighbourhood of 
Beth-lehem, and looked upon the rich pas- 
tures dotted with flocks and herds, or when 
he watched his sheep by night, and beheld 
the starry host— arranging the thoughts 
which gushed up in his mind in such strains 
as Psalms viii., xix., xxiii. ; while, more free 
from care than when aftex'wards he wore a 
crown, he sang to his harp the praises of 
Jehovah. 

The name of the gallant youth was ere long 
known beyond his immediate circle. And, 
when the sovereign, afflicted now with that 
black spirit of melancholy which his sins 
had justly brought upon him, might, it was 
thought, be soothed by a minstrel's music, 
some one of his body-guard mentioned 
Jesse's son, famed for his musical skill, 
and, as his prowess in defending his flock 
recurred to memory, a mighty valiant 
man ; sure that such an eulogium would be 
most likely to recommend him to the warlike 
monarch. Accordingly, David took his harp 
j to the palace ; and his music calmed Saul's 
1 distemper ; and Saul was gratified and be- 
i came attached to his skilful attendant. He 
; was not indeed altogether removed from 
1 home. He went backwards and forwards, 
as the king's dark hour was upon him, and 
: his services were needed. In l Sam. xvi. 21 
''. it is said that Saul made David his armour- 
bearer. And this has puzzled commentators 
exceedingly. For it then would have been 
strange if neither Saul nor any one about 
his person had recognized David when he 
came, as we find in the next chapter, to 
accept Goliath's challenge. And so all sorts 



205 



[david 



of devices have been contrived to get the 
history into chronological order; some 
imagining that the fight with the Philistine 
was before David's being attached to Saul 
as the minstrel. The same difficulty would 
be found with any history whatever. You 
cannot, if you want to keep it intelligible, 
detail all the facts exactly as they occurred. 
You must sometimes sum up, and relate the 
steps thereto afterwards. So it is here. 
The sacred historian tells of the impression 
David made on Saul, and says that he ad- 
vanced him. And then he returns to de- 
scribe how it was not merely a minstrel's 
reward that was bestowed, on his becoming 
armour-bearer, but how he earned it on the 
field of battle, the forgotten minstrel prov- 
ing himself unexpectedly able to take rank 
with the mighty warriors of the kingdom. 
The Philistines had gathered their hosts ; 
and Goliath came forth to defy the armies 
of Israel. Obliged to head his forces in 
the field, Saul had lost his moodiness. It 
is then that David, sent by his father to 
see his three brothers who were with the 
army, hears of Goliath's challenge, and with 
characteristic spirit expresses his wonder 
that no Israelite, valiant for his God, would 
meet the heathen giant. His words are 
bold and burning ; and they are carried 
through the camp, till some one reports 
them to Saul. The king sends for him, but 
fails to recognize him. It is no wonder: 
he had scarcely seen him, save when the 
evil spirit was on him ; and months, per- 
haps, had passed since David's harp w^as 
touched before him. David offers to engage 
Goliath ; but Saul doubts whether the young 
man was equal to such a perilous encounter ; 
and David of course makes no allusion to 
his having previously stood before the king. 
Had it come out then that he was but the 
minstrel, the discovery would have been 
enough to prevent his being allowed the 
combat : he tells, therefore, how he killed 
the lion and the bear ; and his evident 
enthusiasm wrings a consent from Saul 
that he shall go to battle. Saul accordingly 
arms him—not with his own personal ai*- 
mour, as some have not very wisely sup- 
posed : the stalwart king would have known 
better than to encumber the stripling with 
his own coat of mail— but with weapons — 
plenty were no doubt in the royal tent- 
more suited to his size. With these, how- 
ever, unaccustomed as he was to such har- 
ness (an additional proof that he had never 
yet been Saul's armour-bearer), David re- 
fuses to go. He will rather take his shep- 
herd's sling, and choose him out pebbles 
from the brook. As he passes forth to the 
battle, some reminiscence seem-s to strike 
the king ; and he appeals to Abner r * Whose 
son is this youth?' Abner, captain of the 
host, usually at the head of troops, had 
never troubled himself about the royal 
minstrel, perhaps he had never seen hfm, 
or, if he had, he was not the man to help 
him forward now. Abner was selfish, and 
foresaw, if David succeeded, a rival to him- 
self, and therefore he indiiferently said 
that he knew not who he was. David was 
successful: the huge Philistine fell; and 
the Israelitish troops pealed out their shouts 



of victory. Then Abner was willing to ap- 
pear as a patron, and took the conqueror to 
Saul. And, in answer to the king's query, 
David replies, ' I am the son of thy servant 
Jesse the Beth-lehemite (xvii. 58), adopt- 
ing the style by which he was first named 
to the king (xvi. 18). He is now fullv 
recognized, found both a skilful musi- 
cian and a valiant soldier, and attains the 
position mentioned before (xvi. 21). Saul 
loves him, and makes him his armour- 
bearer, and sends a second message to 
Jesse (22), which, if not explained in this 
w^ay, would seem imnecessary rsee 19). David 
is now established in the king's favour: 
he is specially beloved by Jonathan : he is 
set over the men of war (xviii. 5), perhaps 
made captain of the body-guard, and em- 
ployed in various services the rest of the 
campaign; by which his popularity was 
increased. But the king's mind began ere 
long to change. The rejoicings at the 
re-establishment of peace provoked his 
jealousy. For the chief praise in the songs 
of the women was given to David (6-9). 
And speedily the evil spirit resumed his 
sway. David did not then refuse to take 
up again his harp; though once or twice 
the maddened king strove to kill him with 
his javelin, and, because he could no longer 
bear his constant presence, removed him 
from the body-guard to a separate com- 
mand (13). 

The course of David's life, and the steps 
of the estrangement which led to his becom- 
ing an outlaw, must be more briefiy told. 
After he had manled Saul's younger daugh- 
ter Michal, instead of the elder Merab, who 
had been promised him, Saul, further en- 
raged by David's increasing credit with 
the nation, and understanding, it is likely, 
by this time, that the young Beth-lehemite 
was the chosen of the Lord to whom the 
kingdom was to be transferred, sent to 
arrest him in his house. By Michal's stra- 
tagem he escaped, and fied to Samuel at 
Naioth in Ramah. Hither, however, he was 
followed (xix.), and again he fled ; his stay 
wi^h Samuel, whom he had perhaps not 
seen since the anointing, being in all pro- 
bability not longer than a day or two. 
Convinced by an interview with Jonathan 
that Saul's enmity was no mere transient 
passion (xx.), David went to Nob, where his 
duplicity cost the high priest his life, and 
thence to Achish, king of Gath, where, to 
escape the jealousy of the Philistines, he 
simulated madness (xxi.). Returning into 
Judah, Le gathered a band of men, and 
maintained himself sometimes in the wil- 
derness, sometimes hiding in caves, some- 
times occupying a town, as Keilah. His 
father and mother he had placed with the 
king of Moab (xxii. 3) ; and he had now the 
presence of the prophet Gad (5). At Kei- 
lah, too, Abiathar, become high priest on 
his fathers murder, joined him (20, xxiii. | 
4), and various warriors : eleven Gadite i 
chiefs are particularly specified, and some | 
of Judah and Benjamin (1 Chron. xii. 8-18). ! 
To this period belong the circumstances j 
narrated in the concluding chapters of the 
first book of Samuel— the adventure vrith 
Nabal, and David's marriage with Abigail; 



david] 



206 



: his twice sparing Saul's life; perhaps the 
I hattle for the water of the well of Beth e- 
1 hem n Chron. xi. 15-19) ; and, in fine, the 
residence with Achish, who gave him Zik- 
i lag DaAad's conduct at this time cannot 
i "be justified. He laid waste the country of 
' Philistine allies, and pretended that he had 
' destroved only the tribes dependent upon 
Judah^ and he ioined Achish's army when 
marching to the battle of Gilhoa. Here 
, he was reinforced by some Manassites 
I xii 19, 20), hut was dismissed from the 
fxpedition through the renewed jealousy 
of the Philistine lords. He returned, 
therefore, to Ziklag, to find it plundered 
i and hurnt. However, he recovered what 
i was lost, and obtained greater spoil, which 
' he politicly sent to his friends in Judah, 
i pnd, on the news of Saul's defeat and death 
i inst after, he repaired, by God's direction, to 
i Hebron, and was anointed king (2 Sam. 

i ^^"we are now to \\ew David in another 
' capacitv, as a monarch. He reigned as yet 
over onlv a part of the nation ; for Abner 
i established Isti-bosheth. Saul's son, on the 
i west of the Jordan, and over Israel gene- 
I rallv. But gradually the tribes were tiockmg 
to David (1 Chron. xiii. 23-40) ; and Saul's 
house was weakening as he was strength- 
ened; till at length Abner himself came 
i with a proposal to transfer to him the 
I whole kingdom (2 Sam. iii.). But Abner 
i was murdered by Joab, David's nephew 
I and commander-in-chief, a man too power- 
: ful to be punished; and shortly after Ish- 
bosheth was assassinated by two of his ofil- 
cers; and then the nation was re-united; and 
David reigned over the kingdom of Israel ; 
Eeven vears and six months having elapsed 
since his assumption of the crown of J udah 
(iy ,v ). He was now ' one of the great men 
of the earth' (vii. 9). He consolidated his 
power at home, took Jerusalem and made it 
his capital, removing thither the ark of God 
(vi.), organized his array (1 Chron. xi.), and 
regulated the services of the sanctuary 
(XV , xvi.), enlarsedhis harem (2 Sam. iii. 2-5, 
V 13-16), opened a commercial intercourse 
with the king of Tyre (v. 11), and also ex- 
tended his power abroad, subduing the 
Philistines, Syrians, Moabites, and Am- 
monites. His dominion, therefore, was no 
petty chieftainship : it was an empire, ex- 
tending far as the large promise made 
originally to Abraham, and repeated again 
and again to the chosen people (Gen. xv. 
18-21 ; Exod. xxiii. 31 ; Deut. xi. 24). 

But, just at that time when David's power 
was established, the cloud was rising which 
I overshadowed more or less the rest of his 
' career. He had lingered at Jerusalem, while 
Joab was besieging Rabbah of the children 
of Ammon. And then occurred those. shame- 
ful deeds, the adultery with Bath-sheba, 
and the murder of Uriah, which at first, it 
seems, did not touch his conscience, but 
which when charged home upon him by the 
prophet Nathan, humbled the guilty mo- 
narch in the dust (2 Sam. xi:, xii.). He 
repented deeply ; and he obtained pardon 
by God's mercv. But he was not agaili the 
David of former days.. The sword was never 
to depart from his house (xii. 10). And it 



never did. Heretofore, with the Lord's 
blessing upon him, he had run a course of 
almost-uninterrupted prosperity : hence- 
forth one frightful event after another 
showed him, and left it to the world as a 
lesson, that it is an evil and a bitter thing to 
depart from God. There was the defilement 
of Tamar, and the murder of his first-born 
Amnon (xiii.) ; and then Absalom's un- 
natural rebellion and death (xv.— xviii.) ; 
and Sheba's insurrection (xx.) ; and the 
plague for the numbering of the people 
(xxiv.) ; and Adonijah's seizure of the go- 
vernment, when the most long-tried coun- 
sellors of David deserted him, a movement 
that could be crushed only by the aged 
monarch's devolving his crown upon Solo- 
mon (1 Kings i.) ; with various other griefs. 
Yet, perhaps. In the humiliations of his 
later years, the king gathered more instruc- 
tion, and found more true peace, than in 
the proud days of victory, when courtiers 
flattered him, and suppliants crowded his 
presence-chamber, and subject nations 
crouched before him. He learned more of 
the evil of his heart, and found it good to 
be afilicted. And he died in hope. He had 
the promise of an assured throne to his 
descendants : he transmitted a magnificent 
heritage to Solomon, to whom he left the 
carrying out of that purpose he had long 
before conceived (2 Sam. vii. ; 1 Chron. 
xxviii., xxix.), of erecting a habitation for 
the mighty God of Jacob. And no doubt 
his prophetic eye rested in the far distance 
on one of his line, who should be great, the 
Son of the Highest, to whom the Lord God ; 
would give David's throne, and of Avhose ] 
kingdom there should be no end. Of him j 
in manv respects David was a type. And j 
many of the predictive utterances, setting 
out from David, have their full meaning In 
David's glorious Son (Jer. xxx. 9 ; Hoa. 
iii. 5). " . ^, 

David's character is clearly shown m the 
events of his life— a shepherd, a soldier, a 
statesman, a poet, a prophet, a king, tender, 
generous, sometimes fierce, easily moved 
to passion, and easily appeased, a faithful 
friend, an indulgent father— there is scarce 
a personage of scripture history on whom 
our thoughts and love centre so much as 
on David, whose strains of inspired song 
intertwine with all the devotional and joyful 
feelings of God's people in every age. The 
psalms are a rich heritage to the church. 
Very many were from David's pen. And, 
though we cannot with precision point out 
all he wrote, or describe the times and cir- 
cumstances under which those were penned 
that we know did come from him, yet we 
delight to couple particular compositions 
with various crises of David's life— as Psal. 
xiii. with his flight across the Jordan in 
Absalom's rebellion ; Psal. xxiv. with the 
bringing up of the ark to Jerusalem ; Psal. 
xviii^ with David's deliverance from his 
enemies, &c., and to see his emotions of 
praise, and hope, and repentance, and grati- 
tude, and faith, at the wonderful dealings of 
God with him. 

Of the children of David many are men- 
tioned in scripture ; and there were pro- 
bably more • twenty-one sons are euu- 



207 miu mimutiQt. 



merated and one dau.cbter (2 Sam. iii. 2-5, 
T. 13-16, xii, 15, 24 ; 1 C'lirou. iii. 1-9, xiv. 3-7 ; 
2 Chron. xi. 18). 

David left tlie impress of his reign upon 
the nation, hoth politically and religiously. 
It is true that in the days of his grandson 
that schism occurred which rent from his 
house a large portion of their inheritance. 
IS'everthelesSjhis seed continued to possess 
Judah ; and David's regulations (1 Chron. 
xxiii.— XXV.), however they might be dis- 
regarded by ungodly princes, were always 
referred to as a standard in times of refor- 
mation (2 Chron. xxix. 25-27, 30, xxxv. 4). 
Never was a promise more thoroughly ful- 
filled than that to David (Psal. Ixxxix. 35) ; 
and the most blessed heritage which can 
even now be desired is the ' sure mercies of 
David ' (Isai. Iv. 3 ; Acts xiii. 34). 

DAVID, CITY OF— 1 (2 Sam. v. 7). Zioy, 
which see.— 2 (Luke ii. 4, 11). Beth-lehem, 
which see. 

DAY. The natural day from sunrise to 
sunset is continually varying. It has there- 
fore been found convenient to take one 
revolution of the earth, a day and night, 
as the standard of time. Different nations 
have begun their day at different points. 
We, like the ancient Romans, begin it at 
midnight : the Hebrews, probably from the 
narrative of creation (Gen. i. 5; see Dan. 
viii. 14, marg.), began theirs at sunset (Lev. 
xxiii. 32). Their divisions of the day appear 
to have been in early times very inartifi- 
cial. Thus we read of a distribution into 
three parts, evening, morning, and noon 
(Psal. Iv. 17). Other more minute divisions 
are also spoken of, such as dawn, sunrise, 
lieat of the day, noon, cool of the day, 
evening ; but these were rather occasional 
notings of time, than recognized parts of 
the ordinary day. At length, however, 
hours were introduced. The first mention 
of an hour is by the prophet Daniel (Dan. 
iii. 6, 15, iv. 19, V. 5): probably, then, the 
reckoning of the twelve hours of the day 
was borrowed from the Chaldeans. In New 
Testament times it was a well-understood 
distribution of time (John xi. 9). These 
twelve hours, extending from sunrise to 
sunset, were of course of variable length. 
The variation is not, how^ever, so much as it 
would be in our latitude; and, the sixth 
hour being noon, the third may ))e roughly 
said to be our 9 in the morning, the ninth 
3 in the afternoon. The nights were divided 
into watches, at first three, afterwards 
four. 

The word ' day ' is used in various senses, 
sometimes for a festal or birth-day (Job 
iii. 1), sometimes for the great day of God's 
judgment (Acts xvii. 31 ; 2 Tim. i. 18). The 
meaning is sometimes indefinite, as it is 
with us (Gen. ii. 4) ; and according to some 
the 'days' of creation (i. 5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31) 
indicate not natural days, but long periods 
of time. Day is also used symbolically 
(Numb. xiv. 34) ; and sharp contests there 
are amonginterpretersof prophecy whether 
the days of Dan. xii. 11,12; Rev. xi. 3, 9 do 
not mean years. For the arguments used 
their works must be consulted. See Even- 
ing, WAi'cir. 

DAYSMAN: An umpire or arbitrator 



[deacon 

(Job ix. 33). The word occurs in this sense 
in old English writers, e. g. Spenser's Faerie 
Qiieene, book ii. canto viii, 28. 

DEACON. The designation of an office- 
bearer in the Christian church. It has 
generally been connected Avith the appoint- 
ment of the seven who were to relieve the 
apostles in the * daily ministration,' the 
distribution of the public monev, or the 
apportionment of the public meals (Acts 
vi. 1-6). The special name of deacon is not, 
however, given to these seven ; and it may 
be questioned whether this appointment was 
not rather to meet a particular case ; the 
order called deacons being subsequently 
established, and founded upon or in imita- 
tion of the temporary office committed to 
the seven (See Alford, The Greek Test, note 
on Acts vi. 5). It has indeed been imagined 
that there was already a class called 'the 
young men,' as contradistinguished from 
' the elders,' and that this body of young 
men was the prototype of the diaconate. 
Such ' young men ' are certainly mentioned 
(Acts V. 6, 10) ; but the fact that different 
Greek words are used in the two verses just 
referred to seems fatal to the supposition. 
Surely one definite name, had such a class 
or order been constituted, would have been 
applied to them. 

The Greek word for deacon often occurs 
in a general sense to indicate any person 
ministering in God's service. Thus it 
designates our Lord himself (Rom. xv. 8) ; 
and St. Paul describes by it his oAvn posi- 
tion (2 Cor. vi. 4 ; Eph. iii. 7 ; Col. i. 23) ; 
in all which places it is translated 'minis- 
ter.' But after a while it began to be used 
of a particular order in the church (Phil, 
i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 8-10, 12, 13). In the last- 
named place the qualifications of deacons 
are described ; from which in some mea- 
sure their duties may be deduced. They 
were to hold a certain authority, and to 
show themselves patterns to believers. They 
were to be pure in faith ; but it is not re- 
quired, as it is of the bishop or overseer, 
that they should be ' apt to teach.' The in- 
ference undoubtedly is that, even if there 
were exceptions, teaching was not an ordi- 
nary part of the deacon's employment. Still, 
from the example of at least some of the 
seven, it must be admitted that there was 
no essential reason why teaching might not 
be conjoined with the more secular ' daily 
ministration.' And, though St. Paul does not 
affirm that it was, his words constitute no 
proof that it was not. It has been ques- 
tioned whether the diaconate was originally 
a step to a higher ecclesiastical office ; and 
different interpretations have been given 
of 1 Tim. iii. 13. These interpretations may 
be seen in Dr. Alford's note upon the pas- 
sage ; and, though critics of name advocate 
other views, it must be confessed that more 
properly the honour spoken of should be in- 
terpreted as that attained in the deaconship, 
and not in promotion to another ofiice. 
Generally speaking, too, permanence in tlie 
diaconate seems to have been the rule in 
primitive times. 

It is ol)vious that, as the church was more 
thoroughly organized, the duties of deacons 
would be more precisely marked out. 



"'^5; J? TPsSs (irlsV "not merely of 



Sp1^-,e?lo"=i SKroif ol MsMessl^ship. 



Sl.'Se....e,^.Xo.^e^e.eo.^-|^^^^^^^^^^^^ 



that they ^vere .-i. xu 

H.o TM-if^Rt. reciting the names ot tnose umt , ^^^^ 



the priest, reciung tuc xxc......^^^^^^ ^ 

ofiEered -3. To J^ad « ^Se"^ consecrated 



rrived of the spirit or hreath of me (cu . 



c„uncus-iu xu .eu„.. Ja correct tbos^e K 13 U).^m to tm^ 

his mouth, angels, P^oP^^^f' Sies fo the only penalty threatened against and 
church. Some churches, ^^o^^2.iW^/f'.n I the, nower of divine grace. Hen_^e the uu 



)r is th4 duties to I only Pjm^^^^ 



He Avas of the same order with t^^e ^eacon^f ^^^^^.^^^ ^ / the 



Of wT''?.!^^ 12^ Ph!l iv 2, 3; 1 Tim. 
pnmstratiOB^ (3, 12 , PhiL \^ 



descrihed to ^^^^^ ^ ^^P^P^^SSi. 

gi"sjtsrai^ii«^^^^ 

temroral. ana death eternal. 

Ti^'Bia (inner sanctuary). The kiDo oi 
p5™ one ot the five who comhincd against 
llS'afe? the Giheonltes had ohtamed 

'»i''rSA?l-fol4.fo™er,r 



i^'V; torture to orler to extract informa- 

iccles., hook li. chap. 22. 

gli? ^'lerlwlfa Inercltnl rrohihitton -'^'^h th^^^^^^ 
in'^.leiiolclawag^n^stcnr^^^^ ^?.hont continual stru.glo 



•"'rietorS arhiSories common to a^ 
Tribe to ^higeneraHn-chiel the exploits 

S?T hadSr" that they were again and 
IgSi ^ttackei Debir wa. one of the PUc^^ 
^hlch the Aiiai™ held (. o^s^ . 



209 



^tblt WilXiiiMttSQt* [dedication, feast ob 



Debir stood in the hill-country and was 
assigned to Judah (xv. 49), but was after- 
wards allotted to the priests (xxi. 15 ; 1 
Chron. vi. 58). It was probably to the south- 
west of Hebron ; but the site has not yet 
been fully identified- 2. A frontier place of 
Gad (Josh. xiii. 26) to the east of the Jordan. 
It was not far from Mahanaim, and possibly 
might be the same with Lo-debar (2 Sam. 
xvii.27.)— 3. A place on the north boundary 
of Judah, near the valley of Achor (Josh. 
XV. 7) : its exact position has not been ascer- 
tained. 

DEB'ORA (Tob. i. 8.) A person said to be 
Tobit's grandmother. 

DEB'ORAH (bee).— I. The nurse of Ee- 
bekah, whom she accompanied into Canaan 
(Gen. xxiv. 59). She appears afterwards to 
have been with Jacob's family, by whom on 
her death sb.e was buried at Beth-el under 
an oak, called the ' oak of weeping,' (xxxv. 
9). Hebekah was doubtless dead when Jacob 
returned from Padan-aram, as we then hear 
nothing of her (corap. 27) ; and it is na- 
tural to suppose, Rebekah being dead, that 
the nurse would join Jacob's household. The 
Jews, indeed, have a tradition that it was at 
this spot, Beth-el, that Jacob learned the 
news of his mother's death ; so that the name 
given to the oak referred to her as well as 
to Deborah. 2. A prophetess, the wife of 
Lapidoth, who judged Israel She dwelt un- 
der, i.e. had a tent pitched beneath, a noted 
tree ; a palm-tree it is called, and may have 
been at Baal-tamar (Judges xx. 33), or, it 
has been suggested, it might be the iden- 
tical tree under which the first Deljorah was 
buried, which certainly could not be far dis- 
tant from the place indicated. Deborah in- 
cited Barak to deliver his people from the 
oppression of Jabin, at his desire accom- 
panied him, though witharebuke, and after 
the victory uttered a triumphal song of 
praise (iv., v.). See Barak. 

DEBT, DEBTOR, See LOAN, Pledge. 

DECAP'OLIS. A region so called from its 
embracing ten cities in the north-eastern 
part of Palestine, near the lake of Genne- 
saret. These cities, without any special con- 
nection, seem to have been endowed with 
certain privileges by the Romans, under 
whose immediate authority they were ; their 
population being for the most part heathen. 
Geographers differ as to the names of the 
cities. Possibly the same privileges were 
extended to others besides the original ten. 
The following is Pliny's list-: Damascus, 
Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Gadara, 
Hippos, Dion, Pella, Gerasa, and Canatha ; all 
of these, except Scythopolis, being east of 
the Jordan. But the district of Decapolis 
must have comprised a tract of country on 
both sides the river (Matt. iv. 25 ; Mark v. 
20, vii. ,31). 

DECISION, VALLEY OP (Joel iii. 14). 
The place where the great crisis should 
occur when God's judgments would be in- 
flicted on the assembled enemies of his 
people ; no doubt identical with the val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat previously mentioned 
(2, 12). 

DE'DAN {low groicndl). 1. The name of a 
person or tribe, descendants of Ham (Gen. 
X. 7 ; 1 Chron. i. 9).— 2. A son of Jokshan, 



Abraham's son by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 3 , 
1 Chron. i. 32). 

It has often been supposed that from these 
two sources two different tribes descended ; i 
but it is more reasonable to believe that 
they were but a single people, and that the 
posterity of the Abrahamic Intermarried \ 
with that of the Hamitic Dedan. The re- 
marks of Dr. Kalisch on this matter are 
valuable. ' Dedan,' he says, ' is sufficiently 
defined by the biblical allusions, both with 
regard to its geographical situation and its 
social condition. It was a commercial nation 
of Arabia, which traversed the deserts with 
their goods (Isai. xxii. 13) : their exports con- 
sisted especially of ivory and ebony, which 
they carried to the markets of Tyre (Ezek. 
xxvii. 15) ; and their trade resembled in ex- 
tensiveness and importance that of Sabsea 
and Tartessus (xxxviii. 13). They are some- 
times described as the immediate neigh- 
bours of the Idumeans (Jer. xlix. 8), whose 
territory is stated to have extended between 
Theman and Dedan (Ezek. xxv. 13) ; but in 
other passages they are called the inhabi- 
tants of an island (Jer. xxv. 23), and are ■ 
therefore coupled with Tartessus and 
Greece, and other islands [i. e. maritime j 
countries] (Ezek. xxvii. 12-15, 20). It is, 
therefore, evident that the tribes of Dedan 
settled in two different regions ; partly on 
the north-western coast of the Arabian gulf, 
and partly nearer the mother land, Raamah, 
perhaps on the island Daden in the Persian 
gulf, from whence they took part in the 
trade from India and central Asia. The in- 
tercourse between both colonies was enter- 
tained by their lively commerce, and per« 
haps by various intermediate stations along , 
the northern part of the Arabian peninsula ; I 
they might, therefore, have been regarded | 
as one country, but it is not impossible that ' 
the inhabitants of that island were later 
either subdued by, or, at least, greatly inter- 
mixed with, emigrants from other tribes; 
and hence it may be explained that Dedan 
is reckoned with the Cushites ; whilst it is 
in another passage (Gen. xxv. 3), ranged 
among the Shemites' {Covim. on Old Test. 
Gen., p. 252). 

DEDA'NIM. The inhabitants of Dedan 
(Isai. xxi. 13). 

DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE, The 
temple of Solomon was solemnly hallowed, 
by the placing there of the ark, and dedi- 
cated at the feast of tabernacles (1 Kings 
viii. 2 ; 2 Chron. v. 3). The second temple 
was finished on the third of the month 
Adar, and probably was dedicated imme- 
diately ; though the festival rejoicings seem 
to have lasted over the feast of the passover, 
which was held a little more than a month 
later (Ezra vi. 15-22). These rejoicings 
were celebrated but once. But there was a 
third dedication, which commenced on the 
twenty-fifth of the month Casleu or Cisleu, 
and extended over eight days, at the puri- 
fying of the temple from the polluting dese- 
cration of Antiochus Epiphanes. This feast 
was to be kept continually from year to 
year (1. Mace. iv. 52-59); and we find it men- 
tioned in scripture (John x. 22). It was ce- 
lebrated in a way similar to that in which the 
feast of tabernacles was kept, with branch- 



DEER 



210 



bearing and psalm-singing (2 Mace. x. 1-8). 
The great Ilallel (Psal. cxiii.-cxviii.) was 
sung every day in the temple ; and in later 
times there were illuminations. Josephus 
! calls It ' light,' from the joy felt at the unex- 
pected deliverance (Antiq., lib. xii. 7, § 7). 
Hence the solemnity was sometimes termed 
the Feast of Lamps or Lights. See Lamps. 

DEER. See Fallow-Deer. 

DEGREES, SONGS OP. Fifteen psalms, 
cxx.-cxxxiv., are so entitled. A varietj^ of 
reasons have been supposed for this. The 
Jews believe that they were sung by the 
Levites on the fifteen steps which separated 
the men's court from the women's in the 
temple. Gesenius suggested that there was 
a kind of progression in the thought and 
phraseology ; the last member of a verse 
or part of it being taken up, repeated, and 
amplified in the next verse, thus : 
' I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 

From whence cometh my help. 

Ml/ help cometh from the Lord, 

Which made heaven and earrh.' 

(Psal. cxxi. 1,2). 
But this structure cannot be detected in 
all of them. Hengstenberg and others 
believe that they were 'pilgrim-songs,' 
chanted l)y those who went up to Jerusalem 
at the solemn feasts. There is an ingenious 
disquisition on these psalms in the Joum. 
of Sacr. Lit., Oct. 1854, pp. 39-53. The writer 
supposes that they are systematically ar- 
ranged, being grouped round Psal. cxxvii., 
composed by Solomon, which furnishes a 
kej'-note with which the rest are in unison. 
Tliey have their echo in the book of Nehe- 
miah. So that, if we examine, we shall find a 
striking coincidence of thought, in many 
cases a verbal resemblance, to what we 
read in Nehemiah of that pious ruler's la- 
bour in re-building the walls of Jerusalem. 
Taking Psal. cxx. for an example : v. 1 is 
illustrated by Neh. ii. 17, also i. 3-11, ix. 37. 
In vv, 2, 3, the lying lips, &c. accurately 
describe Sanballat and otherf oes (Neh. ii. 19, 
vi. 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13). In v. 7 the psalmist 
was for peace : Kehemiah's enemies were 
always picking quarrels (Neh. ii. 19, iv. 7, 8, 
vi. 12). The writer, further, connects these 
psalms with the steps which, from the na- 
tural position of Jerusalem and the temple, 
he supposes must have been frequent there. 
Pious Jews would often be likely to repeat 
Psal. cxxvii. as they paced the numerous 
stairs belonging to the temple. And It 
rnust be observed that Psal. cxxi. Is ex- 
tremely apposite to this idea. Thus, con- 
necting Nehemiah with these psalms, the 
two-fold object of the collection is brought 
out — (1), ' a historical memorial of an im- 
portant part of the national history of the 
Jews ; and (2), the position which the songs 
occupied in the temple service rendered 
them instrumental in keeping up a perpettml 
thanksgiving to God f(^r his goodness in re- 
gard to that national era.' 

DEHA'VITES {villagers). A tribe from 
whom the king of Assyria had sent colo- 
nists into Samaria (Ezi-a iv. 9). They are 
probably the Dai mentioned by Herodotus 
(lib. i. 125), a Persian sept, near the Caspian, 
found also diffusing themselves in other 
regions. 



DE'KAR (a thrusting through, a lancer). A 
person whose son (Ben-dekar) was one of 
Solomon's commissariat officers (1 Kings 
iv. 9). 

DELAI'AH (whom Jehovah hath freed).— 
1. The head of one of the courses of the 
priests (1 Chron, xxiv. 18).— 2. One whose 
descendants, of uncertain pedigree, re- 
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
ii. 60 ; Neh. vii. 62).— 3. The father of a per- 
son who tried to intimidate Nehemiah 
(vi. 10).— 4. One of the princes in the time 
of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 25). 

DELI'LAH {delicate, pining with desire), 
A woman, most probably a Philistine, liv- 
ing in the valley of Sorek, who, bribed by 
the Philistine lords, succeeded in enticing 
Samson to disclose the secret of his strength 
(Judges xvi. 4-20). 

DELUGE. See Flood. 

DE'LUS (1 Mace. xv. 23). A small island 
among those called Cyclades in the ^ggeaii 
sea (Archipelago). It was peculiarly sacred 
to the classical god Apollo, who, with his 
sister Diana, was said to have been born 
there. 

DE'MAS (probably contracted from De- 
metrius). A companion of St. Paul during 
his first imprisonment at Rome (Col. iv. 14; j 
Philem. 24). The mournful note is subse- i 
quently made that he had forsaken the • 
apostle, 'having loved this present world* | 
(2 Tim. iv. 10). Whether this meant actual 
apostacy we know not. 

DEMETRIUS (belonging to Ceres).— I. A 
maker of silver shrines (models of the 
great temple) of Diana at Ephesus (Act3 
xix, 24).— 2. A Christian mentioned with 
commendation by St. John (3 John 12). 

DEME'TRIUS.— \. Demetrius L, sur- 
named Soter, ' the saviour,' king of Syria, 
was the son of Seleucus IV., called Philo- 
pator. At the time of his father's death, 
175 B.C., he was a hostage at Rome. He 
found means, however, to quit Italy, and, 
landing atTripolis in Phoenicia, 161 B.C., he 
obtained possession of the Syrian crown ; 
Antiochus V. being put to death, and De- 
metrius's title being acknowledged by the 
Romans (1 Maec. vii. 1-4 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 1, 2). 
Incited by the Grecizing party, he sent four 
expeditions against the Jews (1 Maec. vii., 
ix.), but received a peremptory order from 
the Romans to molest them no more (viii. 
31, 32). When Alexander Balas appeared 
as an aspirant for the crown of Syria, De- 
metrius endeavoured vainly to secure the 
help of Jonathan, brother of Judas Macca- 
beus. A decisive battle was fought between 
the rivals, in which Demetrius was slain, 
151 B.C. (X. 1-50).— 2. Demetrius II., called 
Nicator, ' the victorious,' was the son of 
No. 1. He made a descent on Syria, 147 B.C., 
in order to recover his father's dominions 
(67-69). He ultimately succeeded (xi. 19), 
and, though Jonathan had opposed him, he 
confirmed him in the high priesthood, and 
ratified the privileges of the Jews (20-37). 
By Jonathan's help he suppressed an insur- 
rection (38-52). After a struggle with Try- 
phon, in which the Jews took-part (53-74, 
xii. 24-53), and at length obtained from De- 
metrius immunity from tribute (xiii. 34-42), 
Demetrius invaded Media, and was taken 



211 



[demon 



prisoner by Arsaces, king of Persia (xiv. 
1-3). He was liberated by Pliraates, suc- 
cessor of Arsaces, in order to oppose An- 
tioclius Sidetes, and recovered liis king- 
dom. But not long after lie was defeated by 
a pretender to the crown, Zabinas, and put 
to death. See Winer, BibL EWB., art. 
' Demetrius.' 

DEMON, DEMONIAC. The appellation 
* demon 'was given by classical writers to 
beings superior to man, including even the 
highest deities they worshipped. More 
exactly, or in later speech, the demons 
were regarded as intermediate between 
gods and men, those through whom the 
gods communicated with the human race, 
either the spirits of the dead or a distinct 
order of creatures. And, as thus placed in 
a certain relation to men, they were sup- 
posed to exercise a kind of tutelary care 
over individuals. The full idea of a natu- 
rally-evil and malignant character in these 
beings does not seem developed in classical 
writers. But, when v/e consider the debased 
notions (at least popularly) entertained by 
the heathen of the gods they worshipped, 
how they attributed to them human pas- 
sions and sensual desii'es, the step was easy 
enough, especially if quickened by eastern 
influence, to the belief that there were evil 
demons, bent on moral and physical mis- 
chief, whose enmity must be counteracted 
or be bought off by those who would escape 
the effects of it. And, though there might 
be a lingering idea in the Jewish mind that 
there were good demons as well as bad, 
yet, generally speaking, such spirits were 
regarded by those who had the knowledge 
of the true God as foul and wicked. 

The scriptures of the New Testament cer- 
tainly corrol)orate this view. The demons 
are there invariably regarded as evil. For 
the clear explication of this, it must be 
observed that the original word which we 
translate 'devil' is used, when applied to 
an evil spirit, only in the singular number, 
as if designating one particular being; and 
that, when persons are said to be possessed 
by a 'devil,' or when 'devils' in the plural 
number are spoken of, the original word is 
that which might with more precision be 
rendered 'demon.' Now these are called 
'unclean spirits' (Matt. x. 1), 'evil spirits' 
(Acts xix. 12, 13, 15, 16) : fellowship with 
them is placed in direct opposition to fel- 
lowship with Christ (1 Cor. x. 20, 21) ; and 
they are said to tremble at that truth of 
God which they cannot but acknowledge 
vJames ii. 19). They are, further, repre- 
sented as subordinate to some chief, which 
chief is Beelzebub, or Satan, ' the devil' em- 
phatically (Matt. xii. 24-28; xMark iii. 22-26; 
Luke xi. 14-20). So far then as the plain 
evidence of the scripture goes, we have a 
number of agents working with or under 
Satan for evil, probably ' the angels' of the 
devil (Matt. xxv. 41), exercising some great 
power, and actually taking the place in 
gentile worship that rightfully belonged to 
God (Lev. xvii. 7 ; 1 Cor, x. 20 ; Rev. ix. 20). 
The honour paid to mere idols, which in 
themselves were nothing, was really, it 
would seem, through the idols directed to, 
and appropriated by, these demons. And 



who shall say that it was not a reasonable 
and a just thing, when men, contrary to 
what even nature and the visible creation 
might have taught them, ' changed the 
glory of the uncorruptible God into an image 
made like to corruptible man, and to birds, 
and four-footed beasts.and creeping things,' 
for God in retribution to give them up to 
evil powers, who might work their will in 
them (Rom. i. 18-25) 'i Questionless, there 
are awful indications scattered through 
scripture of the i)ower of the wicked one 
over those who have thrown off their alle- 
giance to God (2 Cor. iv. 3, 4; Eph. ii. 2; 
2 Tim. ii. 26). 

Some of the most noteworthy cases of 
power exercised by demons over men are 
found in the accounts of such as are said to 
be 'possessed with devils.' It is true that 
many expositors have thought fit to depart 
from the literal explication of the sacred 
narrative : they have pi'esumed that its 
meaning was but symbolical, or that our 
Lord accommodated himself to the notions 
of the Jews of his time, treating what was 
mere insanity as if it were a residence of a 
demon in the sufferer's person. But, if the 
gospel be really a record of facts, if the 
history of Christ be the relation by eye- 
witnesses of what was obvious to their 
senses, the expressions used cannot be sym- 
bolical. Symbolical expressions occur in 
poetry or highly-wrought narrative: they 
are utterly out of place in a sober record of 
events. Nor would our Lord have acted as 
he did, if possession had been merely a 
Jewish notion. It is just conceivable that 
he might have forborne to rectify an error : 
it is inconceivable that he would himself 
have plunged into it. Dr. Trench makes a 
very just distinction. We may speak, he 
says, 'of certain forms of madness as lunacy, 
not thereby implying that we believe the 
moon to have or to have had any influence 
upon them : . . . but, if we began to de- 
scribe the cure of such as the moon's ceasing 
to afflict them, or if a physician were so- 
lemnly to address the moon, bidding it 
abstain from injuring his patients, there 
would be here a passing over to quite a dif- 
ferent region .... there would be that 
gulf between our thoughts and words in 
which the essence of a lie consists' {On 
Miracles, p. 153). The cases of our Lord's 
speaking to the wind (Matt. viii. 26) and to 
the fever (Luke iv. 39) are not parallel. He 
did not converse with the one or the other, 
as he is said to have done with the demons. 

There is a clear distinction made between 
the diseased and the possessed (Matt. x. 8). 
The demons speak, though through the 
sufferer's bodily organs, yet as apart from 
them, and with a higher knowledge than 
they or any one else had at the time at- 
tained (viii. 29; Marki.24, V.7 ; Luke iv. 41; 
Acts xix. 15) ; and they evince a strange 
mysterious terror of Christ's power over 
them and his authority to judge and punish 
them. We cannot help seeing what Dr. 
Alford calls ' a double will and double con- 
sciousness' in the possessed, 'sometimes 
the cruel spirit thinking and speaking in 
him, sometimes his poor crushed self crying 
out to the Saviour of men for mercy' (T/w i 



DEilOFHON 



2] 2 



G-reek Test., note on Matt. viii. 32 : cornp. an j 
admirable note of Bp. Ellicott, Hist. Lect. j 
071 Life of Christ, p. 163, 2d edit.). Then | 
there was sometimes a singular power of j 
divination exercised by tlie spirit, shedding j 
a lieht upon the heathen oracles, which , 
were not, it may he, all imposture (Acts xvi. 
16-18). Moreover, what are we to say to 
the departure of the demons from the men , 
(one perhaps more fierce than the other, ' 
and therefore especially noticed), and their 
entrance into the herd of swine (Matr. viii. 
28-U ; Mark v. 1-20 ; Lute viii. 26-39 ? It is 
quite beside the mark to explam it as if it 
were merelv a transference of a disease. 
Diseases do not ask to be moved from one 
subject to another. So that the inflic- 
tion of the leprosy of isaaman on Gehazi 
(2 Kinsrs v. 27) is not at all a parallel case. 
And the 'fixed idea' in the lunatic's mind, 
bv which some would interpret the answer 
•My name is Legion; for we are many," 
as if it were only one of the wild notions 
which madmen ordinarily entertain, is fu- 
tile as regards the swine. We are not called 
on to explain why the demons wished to 
enter the swine : we have here only to look 
at the fact. And certainly the statement 
of the sacred writers, for which we must 
suppose, if words have any meaning, they 
pledge their credit, is that some indepen- 
dent power which was in the man passed 
thence into the swine, some being or beings 
first inhabited the one and then inhabited 
the other. It has been questioned why our 
Lord, whose miracles were those of mercy, 
permitted this act of judgment. May not 
a sufficient answer be found in this ? He 
permitted it in order to give demonstrative 
proof of the separate existence and power 
of the demons ; a proof which no fair reason- 
in s can evade or overthrow. 

It is not without ground, then, that Dr. 
Alford, in the place before referred to, 
declares that 'the gospel narrative? are 
distinctly pledged to the historic truth of 
these occurrences (demoniacal possessions). 
Either they are true ; or the Gospels are 
false. For they do not stand in the same, or 



been no other evidence than the fact re 
lated of Je-iNish practices in Acts xix. 13-17, 
it would have been hard to explain it by 
the notion of a mere disease. 

But, after all, might there not have been 
then, may there not now be, instances even 
in the more ordinary- diseases of the action 
of some evil external power? Such agency 
is certainly hinted at in scripture. The 
' sore boils ' of Job were produced by Satan 
(Job iL 7). The infirmity of the woman 
whom Jesus healed is ascribed to Satan 
(Luke xiii. 11, 16). Those generally who re- 
covered health are said to have been 'op- 
pressed of the devil ' (Acts x, 38). Assertions 
of this kind illustrate the power with 
which through sin ' the god of this world' 
reiens. It may be that that power was 
more evidently" exerted in our Lord's time 
than before or since ; that it was its most 
rampant dominion that he attacked and 
mastered, to give the fullest proof to the 
world of his almighty lordship. We dare 
not, indeed, say that persons are possessed 
' with demons now, as many then were. 
But it is not too much to suppose tbat, 
when a man yields to the evil influence, 
when he chooses to become the slave of 
lust, when he has revelled in sin, and had 
, his pleasure in the gratification of filthy 
' desires, the power which works in him 
i waxes stronger and stronger, till it seems 
I as if some fell master were actually ruling 
! him, against whom the victim tries to 
i make head too late, his resolutions broken, 
I his struggles ineffective, the chain drawn 
tighter, the imperious will more tyranniz- 
in"g over both soul and body, to be subdued 
1 only by that voice of resistless power which 
bade the evil demons of old relax theii 
grasp, and they were compelled to obey. 

The subject is full of interest : it cannot 
be pursued further here; but it speaks trum- 
pet-tonsoied to us all, to resist at once, at 
the flrsf onset, not to give any 'place to the 
, devil' (Eph. iv. 27 : James ii. 7 ; 1 Pet. v. 8). 

XT'JfOPiTOT ^2 Mace. xii. 2). 
I DE^nA'PlIUS, or Iloman penny (Matt. 
! iviii. 28, and elsewhere). See Moxey. 




Roman Denarius. 



a similar position, with the discrepancies in 
details, so frequent between the evangelists; 
but they form part of that general ground- 
work in which all agree.' And, it may be 
added, the opinion of the Jews, accompanied 
as it verj- likely was by superstitious no- 
tions and' observances, instead of weaken- 
ing, rfther confirms the case as gathered 
frora otir Lord's miracles. Even had there 



DEPOSIT. The Mosaic law provided for 
the safe custody and due restoration of 
goods and property which a man had under- 
taken to-keep for another. If goods, 'money 
or stuff,' so deposited were stolen, and the 
thief found, he was to pay double : if the 
thief was not found, then the person in 
whose custody tbe goods had been was to 
appear before tlie judges, that it might be 



213 



known whether or no he was the guilty 
party, and he was put upon his oath. With 
regard to heasts, if they died, or were hurt, 
or driven secretly off, the person entrusted 
with them also was to swear that he had 
not dishonestly made away with them. 
But, if they were stolen, he was obliged to 
make the loss good ; if, however, an animal 
was torn hy a wild beast, he must bring 
the remains in proof, and then he was quit 
(Bxod. xxii. 7-13). Of course, if perjury was 
committed, there was punishment, the prin- 
cipal and a fifth added thereto was to be 
restored, and the sacrifice of a ram for a tres- 
pass-offering was required (Lev. vi. 1-7). At 
a later period an acknowledgment of a de- 
posit seems to have been given (Tob. v. 3). 

DEPUTY (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38). The 
term by which our translators render a 
Greek word equivalent to the Latin procon- 
sul, the governor of a senatorial province. 

DER'BE (perhaps juniper-tree). A small 
town in Lycaonia, probably near the pass 
called the Cilician gates. According to 
Vf iner it was to the south of Iconium and 
south-east of Lystra {Bihl. RWB. art. 
•Derbe'); but this is doubtful. The site 
of this town has been variously placed. 
Perhaps it was at DivM, near the base of 
Taurus. St. Paul visited Derbe repeatedly 
(Acts xiv. 6, 20, xvi. 1), and most likely also 
on his third journey (xviii. 23, xix. 1) ; and 
one of his companions when proceeding to 
Jerusalem was Gains of Derbe. He was not 
persecuted in this place ; and therefore it Is 
not mentioned in 2 Tim. iii. 11— a minute co- 
incidence confirming the credibility of the 
sacred narrative. 

DESERT. There are several Hebrew 
words thus rendered in our version. One 
of these is midbar, signifying pasture-land, 
open field, in contradistinction to that 
which was tilled. It is derived from a verb 
implying to lead or drive, i.e. flocks and 
herds to pasture. Midbar with the article 
designates the great Arabian desert to- 
wards and around Sinai (Exod. iii. 1, v. 3, 
xix. 2, xxiii. 31 ; Numb, xxxiii. 8, 9, 16, and 
elsewhere). It is more frequently trans- 
lated ' wilderness.' This word is also used 
for the open field or pasture round many 
towns and villages, somewhat like our com- 
mons, and often named after the place to 
which it was contiguous (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 
15, 25), land in the spring covered with ver- 
dure, and even after the heats of summer, 
though dry and burnt up, yet not with- 
out food for the cattle scattered over 
the surface. There is good reason for 
believing that the Arabian desert was an- 
ciently far less sterile than it is at present. 
We may see hence the futility of the 
objection made to the statement that the 
Israelites had flocks and herds with them 
in their wanderings. Much of the country 
they traversed, wild and rugged as it often 
was, furnished sufficient pasturage, and 
enclosed many verdant glens well supplied 
with wells of water. Another Hebrew 
word, 'ardbah, signifies an arid tract of 
country (Isai. xxxv. 1, and elsewhere): it 
is also translated 'wilderness' (Job xxiv. 
5 ; Isai. xxxiii. 9, and elsewhere). When the 
article is prefixed, that great sunken region 



[deuteronom's I 



extending from the lake of Gennesaret to- 
wards the gulf of Akabah, through part 
of which the Jordan flows, is invariably 
meant. This is rendered 'the desert' in 
Ezek, xlvii. 8, but generally ' the plain.' 
South of the Dead sea it was indeed a dry 
and fearful desert : see Arabah. Hhorbah 
implies wasteness, or desolaMon : it some- 
times occurs in the plural number, and 
is translated in our version 'desert' or 
' deserts' (Psal. cii. 6 ; Isai. xlviii. 21 ; Ezek. 
xiii. 4). There is yet another word, 2/es/<f- 
vion, signifying a desert region (Isai. xliii. 
19). With the article it appears to desig- 
nate the high waste land to the east of 
the Dead sea (Numb, xxiii. 28). See Jeshi- 

MON. 

DE8'SAU{2 Mace. xiv. 16). 

DEU'EL {invocation of God). The father 
of the prince of Gad in the wilderness 
(Numb. i. 14, vii. 42, x. 20). But (ii. 14) he is 
also called Reuel. 

DEUTEPtON'OMY. The fifth book of 
Moses is known among the Jews (who 
divide it into eleven perashioth) by se- 
veral names. Thus the two words with 
which it begins, and the second word, signi- 
fying respectively: 'These are the words,' 
and ' The words,' are common appellations : 
it is also called ' The repetition of the law,' 
and ' The book of reproofs.' Our name, 
Deuteronomy, is derived from the Greek 
title, signifying ' the second law.' 

Its obvious purpose is to repeat to Israel 
the principal laws which had been given 
them in the wilderness, explaining, enforc- 
ing, adding to the sanctions with which 
those sacred ordinances bound them, ga- 
thering up some notices of what had be- 
fallen them on their way, and unfolding so 
far their future destiny as that they might 
see that obedience to the covenant Avould 
ensure their prosperity, while idolatry and 
rebellion against God's laws would provoke 
him to scatter them through the world and 
make them a mocking and a bj^-word to the 
nations. The fulfilment of this threatening 
is before our eyes. We cannot walk the 
streets of our cities without beholding it. 
And, as it is on all hands conceded that this 
book was written before the dispersion 
began, we have in the very fact of the his- 
tory of the branded sons of Jacob a proof 
not to be evaded that he who wrote it was 
gifted with supernatural prescience, that 
he ' spake ' as he was ' moved by the Holy 
Gh ost.' 

It was very fitting that such an address 
should be at the time delivered to the Israel- 
ites. Their weary wanderings were now end- 
ed. Their multitudinous hosts lay camped 
in the plains of Moab, close upon that pro- 
mised heritage, a fair land, fertile and most 
desirable, which they were only waiting 
for the signal to occupy. And in strains 
touching and tender, delivering the last 
admonitions of a father, does their veteran 
leader charge them. For himself his life- 
long hope was not to be realized. O if he 
might but set foot upon the soil of Canaan ! 
But he had sinned ; and therefore, though 
his eyes, undimmed by the mists of a hun 
dred and twenty years, might feast upon 
the lovely prospect, his feet sliould nevei 



deuteroxomy] 



214 



tread the other bank of Jordan. His life, 
waning fast, was the last single thread 
which bound his nation in their pilgrimage. 
Wlien he was dead, and buried where no 
man knew, then once more should the cry 
' Go forward ! ' that had stirred them to ad- 
venture the passage of the Red sea (Exod. 
xiv. ]5) summon them to cross the full 
river Avhich swelled before them, and the 
swarming tribes should press on to occupy 
the great and goodly cities which they did 
not build, and enjoy the vineyards which 
they had not planted (Dent. vi. 10, 11). An 
address delivered l)y such a man in such a 
crisis would not, we maybe sure, be in that 
lilain style of narrative which he might use 
at other times. And hence the hortatory 
tone, the fulness of expression of the book 
of Deuteronomy, are the surest warrants 
that it is what it professes to be. ' I must 
regard this book,' says Professor Moses 
Stuart, 'as being so deeply fraught with 
holy and patriotic feeling, as to convince 
any unprejudiced reader who is competent 
to judge of its style, that it cannot, with 
any tolerable degree of probability, be at- 
tributed to nny pretender to legislation, or 
to any mere imitator of the great legislator. 
Such a glow as runs through all this book 
it is in vain to seek for in any artificial 
or supposititious composition ' (see Crit. 
Jlist. and Def. of the O. T. Canon, edit. 
Davidson, sect. iii. pp. 49, 50). 

And yet certain critics are disposed to 
deny the Mosaic authorship of Deutero- 
nomy. Some ascribe it to the person who 
they say supplemented the otlier books of 
the Pentateuch ; and some are of opinion 
that the writer was a third individual, who, 
having lighted upon the works of two pre- 
decessors—the Elohist and the Jehovist 
theyare called— constructed from them the 
preceding four books, and added Deutero- 
nomy from his own pen. Some, from a 
fancied resemblance in diction, attribute 
the work to Jeremiah ; while Ewald has re- 
course to the very reasonable notion that 
it was written by a Jew who lived in Egypt 
jn the latter part of Manasseh's reign. 
Speculations of this kind placed together 
are mutually destructive ; and little respect 
can be felt for criticism thus uncertain. 
Ewald, in particulai", can hardly have ex- 
pected credit for his theory, so utterly 
repugnant to the principles of common 
sense. For the Egyptian Jew of his dream he 
supposes to be a pious man, giftedwith pro- 
phetic power, who adopts the Mosaic mode of 
expression to make his countrymen believe 
that their ancient legislator was addressing 
them. And he succeeds, according to this 
notion, so well that they never detect his 
well-intended fraud, they incorporate his 
composition with the rest of the Penta- 
teuch (the five-fold division of which was 
not made, in all probability, till the time of 
the Septuagint translators), they reverence 
it as scripture, and as scripture our Lord 
himself cites it. Surely the wildest cre- 
dulity must be startled at a theory like this. 

The grounds on which such improbaljle 
fictions are based are very narrow. Let us 
briefly examine them. The book is pretty 
generally allowed to be (with trifling excep- 



tions) a complete wliole. It is consistent 
throughout. But tlien it is said that, both 
In regard to its legislation and its historical 
statements, there are differences from the 
preceding books, additions and indeed con- 
tradictions, sufficient to show that they 
could not all have proceeded from one pen ; 
and, moreover, that there are unequivocal 
indications of a later date. Among the 
historical additions may be mentioned the 
prohibition against attacking Edom,Moab, 
and Ammon (Deut. ii. 4-6, 9, 19), and the 
greater circumstantiality in relating the 
aggression of the Amalekites (xxv. 17-19 
compared with Exod. xvii. 8). In the legisla- 
tion, we are to observe that the command to 
kill an animal at the door of the tabernacle 
(Lev. xvii. 3-5) is modified and relaxed (Deut 
xii. 15, 20, 21), and that there are special 
directions introduced as to the appointment 
of a king (xvii. 14-20). But surely such addi- 
tions as these do not even tend to prove 
diAxrsity of authorship : no writer would 
bind himself to say in a second work neither 
more nor less than he had said in a first. 
Rather some of the additions are strong 
evidence that Deuteronomy was delivered 
at the time and under the circumstances 
professed. The command to kill at the dooi 
of the tabernacle was appropriate so long 
as the tabernacle was in the centre of the 
camp, each man's tent close by: itAvould 
have been inappropriate, almost tanta- 
mount to a prohibition against killing 
animals at all, when the tabernacle was 
settled in a city, and the tribes were dis- 
persed through the extent of Palestine. 
Doubtless God, in his wisdom and his good- 
ness, will enact his laws so as to fit the 
varying circumstances of his people. And 
it was very meet that the repetition of law, 
delivered as Deuteronomy was on the eve 
of the occupation of Canaan, should look 
forward to Israel's position there, and not 
backward to their habits in the wilderness 
they were leaving. God does not deal with 
men as if they were mere machines. He 
would have them use their faculties, and 
find out their wants, and then apply to him 
on his mercy-seat. Thus their filial depen- 
dence on him is best secured. We have 
a remarkable illustration of this in the 
progressive legislation in regard to the 
daughters of Zelophehad (2\umb. xxviii. 
1-11, xxxvi.1-12). 

But we must see if the so-called discre- 
pancies can disprove the Mosaic authorship 
of Deuteronomy. Only one or two of these 
can be here noticed. Thus it is said that 
Deut. ii. 24 contradicts Numb. xxi. 21, 22 ; 
for that in the last-named place the Is- 
raelites sent Sihon a peaceful embassy, 
while in the other God encouraged them to 
attack him. But the fact is that Sihon had 
a warning, as Pharaoh had. He might have 
escaped attack. Invasion did not come till 
the embassy had been sent and the terms 
had been rejected (Deut. ii. 26-30). God, 
however, foresaw that they would be re- 
jected, and that Sihon would be justly 
destroyed. It is also said that Deut. x. 6, 7, 
contradicts Numb. xx. 22-27, xxxiii. 30-38. 
A very feasible explanation has been given 
of the apparent contradiction ; but for this 



215 MUt 5Rn0£DlcXrcs;F. 



the reader must be referred to another ar- 
ticle : see "Wandeiiixg. Once more it is 
alleged that, whereas generally in the pre- 
ceding books the mountain where the law 
was given is called Sinai, in Deuteronomj% 
with one exception (xxxiii. 2), the name 
Horeb is used. But it would seem a suffi- 
cient reply that Sinai is the particular 
mountain, Horeb the range : it was natural, 
at an earlier period, when in the neighbour- 
hood, to specify the single summit, but, 
when the region had long been quitted, it 
was equally natural to apply the general 
name. As to traces of a post-Mosaic date, 
it is argued that the regulations already re- 
ferred to concerning the kingdom show 
that the government of Israel had already 
become monarchical ; but this argument can 
hardly weigh with those who are not in- 
clined to deny the prescience of God, and 
to refuse him the right of providing for 
the future guidance of his people. 

Little more can be said in this place. 
Be it only added, as a brief summary 
of the evidence for the Mosaic authorship, 
that direct quotations (1 Kings viii. 29 ; 
2 Kings xiv. 6 ; Jer. xxxiv. 14) would show 
that 400 years and onwards after Moses this 
book was in existence and was recognized 
as law ; that there are verbal allusions in 
various early books of scripture, and traces 
in history which serve to connect Deutero- 
nomy with the times in which it professes 
to be written. De Wette can evade the con- 
clusion only by saying that the final edi- 
tors of Judges and Samuel were acquainted 
with the Pentateuch, and caught the spirit 
of the book of Deuteronomy (Emleittmg, 
§ 162 b. p. 201). Further, the diction of 
this book is archaic like the rest of the 
Pentateuch, so much that one critic is 
driven to the pitiful resource of guessing 
that the writer had very likely a fancy for 
imitating the phraseology of old books. 
Then we have the evident high antiquity of 
chap, xxxiii., the silence as to post-Mosaic 
events, peculiar geographical notices, a re- 
lation pre-supposed of Moab, Ammon, and 
Edom to Israel, varying from that which 
subsisted later, a familiar acquaintance 
with Egypt, a certain indeflniteness in the 
predictions, laws appearing which related 
to the conquest of Canaan, the sanction, 
moreover, which our Lord gave to Deutero- 
nomy, together with the glaring difficulties 
to which a contrary hypothesis is exposed, 
seeing that it can be successfully main- 
tained only on the supposition that the 
book is an elaborate forgery (see Journ. of 
Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1858, pp. 313-325). He that 
comes in a reverent spirit to the bible 
cannot easily doubt that Deuteronomy is 
what it professes to be. 

The contents may be arranged under the 
following heads :— I. A repetition of the 
history related in the preceding books 
(i.-iv.), concluding with an introduction to 
the following discourse. II. A repetition 
of the moral (v.-xi.), ceremonial (xii.-xvi.), 
and judicial law (xvii.-xxvi.). III. The con- 
firmation of the law, with prophetic pro- 
mises to the obedient and curses against 
the disobedient, and sundry admonitions 
(xxvii.-xxx.). IV. The personal history of 



[devil 



Moses to his death ; the account of which is 
of course supplied by some other hand 
(xxxi.-xxxiv.). There is a remarkable Mes- 
sianic prophecy in Deuteronomy (xviii. 15, 
18, 19), expressly applied to Christ in the 
New Testament (Acts iii. 22, 23, vii. 37). 

Expositions of this book are, for the 
most part, found in commentaries on the 
whole bible, or at least upon the Penta- 
teuch. There are, however, some excep- 
tions, as Calvin's Sermons upon Beut, trans- 
lated by A.Golding, London, 1583 ; Schultz's 
Das Beut, erkldrt, Berlin, 1859. 

DEVIL. The appellation generally given 
to a mighty spirit of evil, in rel^ellion 
against God, and antagonistic to man. 
•Devil' is derived from, and is the render- 
ing of, a Greek word, diabolos, implying one 
who sets at variance, a slanderer, an ac- 
cuser. This word (when designating men) 
is occasionally used in the plural number 
(1 Tim. iii. 11 ; 2 Tim. iii. 3 ; Tit. ii. 3) ; where 
persons are described as slanderers. It is 
applied to Judas (John vi. 70) : elsewhere 
it has the article (Acts xiii. 10 excepted), 
and must, therefore, designate some one 
special being, to whom also other appella- 
tions are given in various parts of scrip- 
ture. Such are • Satan ' (cidversary), the 
'wicked' or 'evil one' (Matt, xiii, 38,39; 
1 John ii. 13), 'the prince of this world' 
(John xii. 31, xiv. 30), ' the god of this 
world' (2 Cor. iv. 4), 'the prince of the 
power of the air' (Eph. ii. 2), ' the old ser 
pent' (Rev. xx. 2), &c. &c. 

There can be no doubt of the personality 
of such a being. He is described as exer- 
cising power, as influenced by motives, as 
performing actions, as receiving judgment, 
as sulfering punishment (Gen. iii. ; Matt. iv. 
1-11 ; Luke xxii. 31 ; John xvi. 11 ; 1 Pet. 
V. 8 ; Rev. xx. 10) : it is impossible, there- 
fore, with any fairness, to interpret lan- 
guage so used of an abstract principle 
personified. 

This is yet further proved by the glimpses 
afforded us of the history of this evil one. 
His origin, indeed, is not explained ; nor 
are the steps detailed by which he came 
to his present state. He is introduced 
abruptly, is spoken of at first as a tempter 
and an enemy (Gen. iii. 1 ; 2 Cor. xi. 3). But 
it is not to be supposed that lie was un- ' 
created ; for that would be to set up two 
co-ordinate opposing powers, an error and 
a heresy, which, though revived from time : 
to time, has been long ago sufficiently con- 
futed. Kor must it be imagined that Satan } 
was evil as he proceeded from his Creator's \ 
hand. For, though certainly the devil is 
said to have been ' a murderer,' and to have , 
' sinned' ' from the beginning' (John viii. ! 
44 : 1 John iii. 8), yet in one of these places I 
a departure from former truth seems im- ' 
plied ; and we may perhaps (though opi- 
nions vary on the point) connect this with 
the mention elsewhere of 'angels that 
i sinned,' and that ' kept not their first estate' : 
(2 Pet. ii. 4; Jude 6). Just as when man 
had been created holy he transgressed, bo • 
we may conclude that there were other ; 
beings— the time and the locality we know ' 
not— who forfeited their prerogative, who i 
\ broke the tie of love betwixt thejnselvea ; 



dew] 



2U 



and their Creator, and for whom a just pun- 
ishment is prepared (Matt. xxv. 41). Among 
these one stands forth pre-eminent. He is 
their head and king. To him the special 
name of 'the devil' is given; while the 
rest are called 'demons.' It may be that 
he was the great mover in the rebellion, 
prompted, it is possible, by pride (1 Tim. 
iii. 5), who induced others to range them- 
selves on his side : it may be that he was 
far higher originally than they, and has 
preserved his fatal pre-eminence in ruin. 
We must, however, be careful not to let 
speculation carry us too far. The scrip- 
tures do not minister to curiosity: all 
their revelations are intended for practical 
guidance. 

And this is a practical matter. We are 
warned that we have a foe, powerful, ma- 
iignant, and unwearied. Why he and his 
company have been permitted to exercise 
their injurious propensities upon our race, 
instead of being at once conQned in their 
destined prison, we cannot tell : but the 
I fact is patent. The devil gained a victory 
! when he lured our first parents into dis- 
j belief and disobedience : he is striving to 
I gain fresh victories over us. And he will 
I succeed, unless we take tte right mode of 
I repelling him. He has various kinds of 
j temptations ; for David (1 Chron. xxi l) 
I for J Ob (J Ob i. lo, 11, ii. 4, 5), for Judas (Luke 
I xxii. 3-6), for Ananias (Acts v. 3), according 
i to tlie various dispositions and circum- 
' stances of the men. And when he prevails 
he is ready to spread their fault before the 
1 divine Judge, and to call for punishment 
: on the sin to which he has incited (Rev. 
j xii. 10). Men can overcome him only 'by 
[ the blood of the Lamb' (il). It is well to 
I know that we are engaged in a struggle, 
the issue of which will be life or death. It 
is not merely with flesh and blood, but with \ 
principalities and powers of higher force. 
We must ' put on the whole armour of God,' 



cation of fertility (Gen. xxvii 28: Deut 
xxxiii. 13), and the withholding of it as the 
curse of sterility (2 Sam. i. 21 ; Hagg. i. lo) 
Sometimes, perhaps, it means light rain.' 
The dew often occurs in a figurative sense • 
speech distils like it (Deut. xxxii. 2) : the 
goodness of Ephraim and Judah exhales 
as quickly as it does (Hos. vi. 4) : the wicked 
pass away like it (xiii. 3) : the Lord is wel- 
come to his people as dew to the thirsty 
soil (xiv. 5). 

DIADEM (Job xxix. 14 ; Isai. xxviii. 5 
Ixii. 3 ; Ezek. xxi. 26). See Crotvjt. 

DIAL. It was on the ' dial of Ahaz' that 
the miraculous sign given to Hezekiah for 
his recovery from sickness showed itself 
(2 Kings XX. 8-11 ; Isai. xxxviii. 7, 8). With 
regard to the wonder itself we need not too 
curiously enquire. He, who formed the uni- 
verse, and gave the worlds their motions, 
could, as easily as he created, with a word 
suspend the operations of the vast machine. 
And they, who allege that all would have' 
been thrown into disorder if one particular 
part had been touched, must imagine the 
Almighty like an unskilful workman, who 
thinks of stopping only certain wheels in 
an engine, and forgets that the rest would 
dash themselves to pieces. Hard and easy 
are words unknown to the Deitv ; and what 
he willed he accomplished. Still it might 
be that the effect was produced by a su- 
pernatural refraction of the light. Only 
we must acknowledge that the sign was 
miraculous; else, if it could have been 
effected by human skill, it would have been 
no sufficient proof to Hezekiah. 

It is uncertain what the ' dial ' of Ahaz 
was. The word so translated is elsewhere 
rendered ' degrees,' ' steps ' (e.g. Exod. xx. 
26). Some have imagined it a hemispherical 
cavity in a horizontal square stone, pro- 
vided with a gnomon or index in the mid- 
dle, the shadow of which fell on different 
lines cut in the hollow surface : some think 



the breast-plate of righteousness,' ' the I that it was a vertical in dex 'surround edbj 



shield of faith,' 'the sword of the Spirit . 
with these weapons we may stand (Eph. vi. 
12-18). 

The serpent, it was predicted, should 
braise the heel of the woman's seed ; but 
that seed should braise the serpent's head 
(Gen. iii. 15). Essentially and most entirely 
fulfilled by the divine Saviour, who came 
for the express purpose 'that, through 
death, he might destroy him that had the 
power of death, that is, the devil' (Heb 
ii. 14), it is yet again fulfilled in Christ's 
faithful soldiers and servants. They take 
part, by virtue of union with him, in their 
Master's victory, in their Master's glory 
(Rev. iii. 21). Let them be careful to keep 
up their persevering resistance. They 
shall have in due season their triumph : 
* The God of peace shall bruise Satan under 
your feet shortly' (Rom. xvi. 20). 

DEW. The dew is very copious in Pales- 
tine, so as in some degree to supply the 
want of rain in summer. Travellers de- 
scribe it as sometimes rolling off their 
tents like rain (Sol. Song v. 2 ; Dan. iv. 
23, 25), illustrating the history of Gideon's j 
fleece (Judges vi. 36-40: comp. Psal. ex. 3). 



twelve concentric circles ; while some, with 
perhaps greater probability, believe it an 
obelisk-like pillar, set up in an open ele- 
vated place, with encircling steps, on which 
the shadow fell (Keil, Comm. on Kings, 
transl, vol. ii. pp. 115, 116). Ahaz appears 
to have had a taste for curious things 
(2 Kings xvi. 10), and might have borrowed 
this dial from some foreign pattern. It is 
not clear whether the phenomenon was ob- 
served out of Palestine. The enquiry from 
Babylon in regard to it would seem to im- 
ply that it was heard of, but not witnessed 
there (2 Chron. xxxii. 31). 

DIA]\IOND. One of the gems in the high 
priest's breast-plate is so called in our ver- 
sion (Exod. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11). The same 
word also occurs in reference to the king 
of Tyre (Ezek. xxviii. 13). It is doubtless 
some hard stone ; for the original Hebrew 
term implies striking. But it is question- 
able whether, in the early ages of the 
world, the art of cutting and engraving 
the diamond was understood. It is, there- 
fore, more generally supposed that an onyx 
is here meant. A different word is trans- 
lated ' diamond ' in Jer. xvii. 1 : it is else 



Hence we find the promise of it as an indi- 1 where rendered Ad.uiaxt which see. The 



217 



[dionysi^ 



diamond is -well known as the hardest, most 
beautiful, and most precious of gems. It 
Is pure carbon, and may be called charcoal 
crystallized. Exposed to heat it loses its 
crystalline texture. 

DIA'jSTA. The Roman name of the god- 
dess called Artemis by the Greeks. This 
deity distinguished by the title 'Great' 
was specially honoured at Ephesus (Acts 
xix. 23-41), where a magnificent temple was 
dedicated to her. It had a large revenue, 
and was accounted the public treasury : it 
had the privileges of an asylum ; and no 
weapons were to be carried into its pre- 
cincts. The Ephesian Diana, however, dif- 
fered much in the attributes ascribed to 
her, and the character of the worship paid 
her, from the Grecian goddess. She was 
more the Syrian Astarte ; and, being repre- 
sented with numerous breasts, she must be 
con-sidered as symbolizing the generative 
and sustaining powers of nature. The 




The Ephesian Diana. From a medal of 
Ephesus. Montfaucon. 



earliest image, said to have fallen from 
heaven, was very rude, a head on which 
was a mural crown, and an almost-shape- 
less trunk, each hand holding a bar or staff. 
Later images were more developed with 
many breasts, bands, and symbolical figures 
round the body. The servants of this god- 
dess were women, melissce, and eunuchs, 
megabyzi. No bloody sacrifices were offered 
in her temple. 

DIBLA'IM (double cake). A person (male 
or female?) whose daughter Hosea the 
prophet took to wife (Hos. i. 3). 

DIB'LATH (possibly a corruption for 
Riblah). This name occurs only in one 
place (Ezek. vi. 14), and is obviously at the 
extremity, most likely the northern extre- 
mity, of the land. 

mBLATB. A' llSl(tivin-cakes). See Almon- 

DIBL^THAIM and BETH-nrnLATHAIir. 

DI'BON (a pining, wasting A town 



on the east of the Jordan, assigned to the 
tribe of Gad, who are said to have built oi 
fortified it (Numb. xxi. 30, xxxiii. 3, 34). 
But afterwards it belonged to Reuben 
(Josh. xiii. 9, 17), and in the decay of the 
Israelitish power was occupied by Moab 
(Isai. XV. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. IS, 22). Some ruins 
on the Roman road, three miles north of 
the Arnon, still bear the name of Dhibdn. 
—2. A town inhabited after the captivity 
by the men of Judah (Neh. xi. 25) ; it is, 
perhaps, identical with Dimonah. 

DI'BON-GAD {toasting of Gad). A station 
of the Israelites, probably identical with 
Dibon, 1 (Numb, xxxiii. 45, 46). 

DIB'RI {eloquent). A Danite, whose 
daughter Shelomith was married to an 
Egyptian. Their son was stoned for blas- 
phemy (Lev. xxiv. 11). 

DIDRACH'MA, DIDRACH'MON (Matt, 
xvii. 24, marg.). See Money. 

DID'YMUS {twin). The surnam.e of the 
apostle Thomas (John xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2). 
See Thomas. 

DIK'LAH {a palm-tree). A son of Joktan 
(Gen. X. 27 ; 1 Chron. 1. 21). His descendants 
are said to be the Mingei, a people described 
as inhabiting a country abounding in palms. 
But then their location is not easily to be 
ascertained. Among many discrepant viev;^s, 
they may, perhaps, be most probably be- 
lieved to have occupied a part of the Ye- 
men ; and some traces of the name MiuLel 
are stated to exist there. 

DIL'EAN {gourd-field). A city of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 38). 

DILL (Matt, xxiii. 23, marg.). See Axise. 

DIM'NAH {dung-hill). A city of Zebulun, 
assigned to theMerarite Levi tes (Josh, xxi, 
35). It is not enumerated elsewhere with 
the cities of Zebulun ; and in 1 Chron. vi. 77 
Rimmon is substituted for it. Perhaps 
Dimnah is a copyist's error. 

DI'MON {stillness, or perhaps for Dibon). 
The waters of Dimon appear to have been 
streams to the eastward of the Dead sea, 
in the territory of Moab (Isai. xv. 9). 

DIMO'NAH {id.). A city in the south of 
Judah (Josh. xv. 22); probably the same 
as Dibon, 2 ; on the site of the ruins of ed- 
Deib. 

DTNAH {judged, acquitted, or avenged). 
The daughter of Jacob and Leah (Gen. xxx. 
21). The history of her visiting the daugh- 
ters of the heathen inhabitants of the land, 
of her defilement by Shechem, and of the 
treacherous and bloody revenge taken by 
her brothers Simeon and Levi, are record- 
ed in xxxiv. Nothing more is certainly 
known of her : she probably accompanied 
her family into Egypt (xlvi. 15). 

DI'NAITES. An Assyrian people, from 
whom colonists were placed in the cities of 
Samaria (Ezra iv. 9). 

DINHA'BAH (perhaps lord or place of 
■plundering, i. e. robbers' den). The city of 
Bela, a king who reigned in Edom (Gen. 
xxxvi. 32 ; 1 Cliron. i. 43). 

DINNER. See Meals. 

DIONY'STA. The name of a feast of 
Dionysus or Bacchus, celebrated with wild 
and I'icentious enthusiasm. So great were 
tlic excesses committed that the RomauH 
had forbidden the celebration of this feast 



DIONTSIUS] 



218 



n Italr And vet it ^as forced upon the 2. A son of Anah, and grandson of Seir 



Jews by Antiochus Epipbanes (2 Mace. vi. 7), 
Bee Bacchus. I 

DIONY'SIUS (belonging to Dionysus, or 
Bacclius). An eminent Atlienian, converted 
hy means of St. Paul's preaching (Acts 
xVii. 34). Tradition reports him to have 
heen hishop of Athens, and to have suffered 
iflartyrdom there. The writings which bear 
his name are spurious. 

JjIOSCORIX'THIUS (2 Mace. xi. 21). See 

DIOT'REPHES (Jove-nourislied). A pro- 
fe-=;ed Christian, who resisted the authoriry 
of St. John i3 John 9\ His place of resi- 
dence can only he conjectured. 

DI'PHATH (1 Chron. 1. 6, marg.). See 

KlPHATH. ^ ^ , 

DISCERXTXG OF SPIRITS. One of the 
supernatural gifts of the Holy Ghost, by 
which some believers were enabled to dis- 
tinguish the operation of God'e Spirit from 
tliat which was evil or merely human (1 Cor. 
xii. 10 ; 1 John iv. 1). 

DISCIPLE. This word is often used m 
the ^'ew Testament to designate the fol- 
lowers of Christ (Matt. x. 42; Acts ix. 26, 
and elsewhere). See Education, School. 

DIS'CUS (2 Mace. iv. 14). A circular plate 
of metal or stone, the throwing of which 
was one of the exercises in the ancient 
games. See Games. 




Dhcobolus : figure of an athlete vcho threir the 
discus. Brit. 3Ius. 

DISEASES. See Medicine, PHTSiCiAy. 

DISH. The words sometimes so rendered 
in our version are also translated 'basin,' 
'bowl,' &c. In Exod. XXV. 29, xxxvii. 16; 
Kurab. iv. 7 a deep dish or bowl is meant 
The ' dish ' of Judges v. 25, translated ' bowl 
in vi 38, is a shallow basin. The word 
used in 2 Kings xxi. 13 signifies a platter 
into which anything is poured. The dip- 
ping in the dish (Matt. xxvi. 23 ; 3Iark xiv. 
20) is still customary in some eastern coun- 
tries. Each person dips a piece of bread 
in the dish, and carries it to his mouth with 
some portion of the contents. The phrase 
as applied to Judas, of dipping his hand m 
the same dish with our Lord, was used to 
indicate familiar association. 

DI'SHAX (antelope). A son of Sen- the 
Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 21, 28, 30; 1 Cnron. i. 

^^DPSHO^f (?d.).-l. Another son of Sair 
(Gen. xxxvi. 21, 26, 30; 1 Chron. i. 3S).- 



(Gen. xxxvi. 25 ; 1 Chron. 1. 41). 
DI'SHO^'^ (Deut. xiv. 5, marg.). See Py- 

GARG. 

DISPEXSATION. Tliis word, occurring 
in 1 Cor. ix. 17 ; Eph. i. 10, iii. 2 ; Col. i. 25, 

propeiiv means stewardship or administra- 
tion. It has come, however, in the ordinary 
use of it, to imply a system of religious 
doctrines and rites. Thus, v,-e speak of the 
Jewish dispensation and the Christian dis- 
pensation. 

DISPEPtSIOX, JEWS OF THE. The 
' dispersed,' or the ' dispersion,' was the ap- 
pellation given to those who continued in 
other countries after the return from Ba- 
bvlon. Babylon thus became a centre from 
which offshoots spread ; and colonies of 
Jews estalilished themselves in Persia, 
Media, and other neighbouring countries. 
The result of Greek con<iuest was to draw 
off Jewish settlers to the west. Hence 
thev were found in the cities of Asia Minor, 
enjoying privileges from the Syrian kings. 
Settlements were also formed in Egypt, ex- 
tending themselves along the northern 
■ coasts, and possibly also into the interior. 
And, after the capture of Jerusalem by 
Pompey, Jews were introduced at Pome. 
The dispersed, however, all looked to Jeru- 
salem as the metropolis of their faith : they 
' paid the legal half-shekel towards its ser- 
I vices : they had with tlicm everywhere 
1 their sacred books, which thus became 
kno^\-n to the Gentiles (Acts xv. 21) ; while 
a wholesome influence was perceptible on 
themselves: 'The difficulties,' says Mr, 
TS^'estcott, 'which set aside the literal ol>- i 
servance of the Mosaic ritual, led to a wider 
view of the scope of the law, and a stronger 
sense of its spiritual significance. Out- 
wardlv and inwardly, by Its effects both on 
the Gentiles and on the people of Israel, 
the dispersion appears to have been the 
clearest providential preparation for the 
spread of Christianity' (Dr. Smith's Bid. of 
the Bible, vol. i. p. 441 : see also Introd. to 
the Gospels, chap. i.). The 'dispersion' in- 
cluded the twelve tribes (John vii. 35 ; Acts 
xxvi. 7 ; James i. 1 ; 1 Pet. i. 1). 

DISTAFF (Prov. xxxi. 19). See Spix- 
^'I^'G, Weaving. . 

DIVI^'ATIO^^ The human mmd has 
always evinced a great inclination to read 
the future. Accordingly, various modes 
have been resorted to in different nations 
of gratifying this propensity, sometimes 
with a view of directing the actions so as 
to ensure prosperity, and sometimes evea 
with a hope, by magical arts, of influencing 
superior powers into conformity with the 
wishes. , ^, 

Divination was practised among the 
Greeks The appearance of the sky and of 
the heavenlv signs, the flight and song of 
birds the phenomena presented by the en- 
trails' of victims, &c., were supposed to 
prognosticate events; and, according to 
the-e prognostications, public as well as 
private actions were regulated. See Ora- 
cle The Pomans were equally zealous m 
divinini?. Much of it among them v/as 
probably of Etruscan origin ; and it pre- 
vailed in Ptome to such a dpgree, that 



219 



[DIVUfATION 



there was scarcely a natural event or ordi- 
nary occurrence which did not, in their 
view, bear upon the future. The most im- 
poi-tant proceedings of state were some- 
times nullified if the auspices were pro- 
nounced unpropitious. And, besides the 
observation of lightning and heavenly 
signs, of the flight of birds, of the appe- 
tite of sacred fowls, of the appearance of 
the entrails of sacriflces, &c., they had the 
Sybilline books to consult, in which they 
believed the decrees of fate to be inscribed. 
Thoughtful men must have been aware of 
the absurdity of such a system. For not 
unfrequently different modes of divination 
would yield exactly-opposite results. And 
we have evidence in classical authors of 
the acknowledgment of imposture. Yet 
the hold that such practices had upon the 
public mind was very strong. We need the 
less wonder at it when we notice the eager- 
ness with which, even now, persons will 
resort to a specious fortune-teller. See 
Dollinger, TJie Gentile and the Jeiv, Engl. 
transL, book iv. l,vol. i. pp. 206-209; book 
vii. 2, § 5, vol. ii. 98-108. 

There is frequent mention of diviners in 
scripture ; and the Hebrews are repeatedly 
warned against the pretensions of those 
who affected to foretell events. 

Divination first appears in connection 
witli Egypt. The soothsayers or diviners 
were here a recognized body of men, a class 
of the priesthood' it would seem. They are 
designated by different names, both in the 
original and in our version, perhaps as in- 
dicating separate departments or modes of 
acting. These names shall be briefly no- 
ticed, with some explanation of their si>e- 
ciai meaning. The word rendered ' wise 
men' (Gen. xli. 8; Exod. vii. 11) has pro- 
bably a general purport, designating 
those skilled in occult science. It is the 
name frequently applied to the sages of 
Babylon (Dan. ii. 24, iv. 6, v. 15). The word 
rendered ' magicians,' lihartummtm (Gen. 
xli. 8 ; Exod. vii. 11, 22, viii. 7, 18, 19, ix. 11) 
may signify those acquainted with the sa- 
cred writing or hieroglyphics in which 
secret things were recorded (see Kalisch, 
Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 644-647). The 
same name is given to the Chaldeans (Dan. 
i. 20, ii. 2). The 'sorcerers' (Exod. vii. 11 ; 
Dan. ii. 2 ; Mai. iii. 5), mekhashshepMm, were 
those who muttered and used incantations. 
The word occurs in Es;od. xxii. 18 (fem.) ; 
Deut. xviii. 10. where our version has ' a 
witch ;' in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6, 'used witch- 
craft.' The divination said to be exercised 
by Joseph is not easily explained. * The 
ancient Egyptians, and still more the Per- 
sians, practised a mode of divination from 
goblets. Small pieces of gold or silver, 
together with precious stones, marked with 
strange figures and signs, were thrown 
Into the vessel ; after which certain incan- 
tations were pronounced, and the evil de- 
mon was invoked : the latter was then 
supposed to give the answer, either by in- 
telligible words, or by pointing to some of 
the characters on the precious stones, or in 
some other more mysterious manner. Some- 
times the goblet was filled with pure water, 
upon which the sun was allowed to play; 



and the figures which were thus formed, or 
which a lively imagination fancied it saw, 
were interpreted as the desired omen— a 
method of taking auguries still employed 
in Egypt and Nubia. The goblets were 
usually of a spherical form, .... and from 
this reason, as well as because they were 
believed to teach man all natural and many 
supernatural things, they were called " ce- 
lestial globes'" (Kalisch, ubi supr., p. 673). 
It may be that Joseph, intending to prove 
his brethren, in order the more surely to 
preserve his incognito, professed to adopt 
an Egyptian custom. It can hardly be imar 
gined that he, to whom God had given su- 
pernatural discernment, should have really 
used heathen and false incantations. The 
word rendered 'divine' (Gen. xli v. 5, 15) 
implying originally to hiss like a serpent, 
may mean to murmur incantations, or to 
use ophiomancy, that is, divination by 
means of a serpent. This same word occurs 
elsewhere (Lev. xix. 26 ; 2 Kings xvii. 17, 
xxi. 6, 'used enchantments'), as also a 
nearly-similar word (Psal. Iviii. 7, ' char- 
mers '). And it sometimes bears a very 
general sense, to augur, to have a presage, 
to conclude by experience, as in Gen. 
XXX. 27. 

There was another kind of diviners fre- 
quently mentioned in scripture, me'onentm, 
generally rendered 'observers of times' 
(Lev. xix. 26 ; Deut. xviii. 10, 14 ; 2 Kings 
xxi. 6; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6). This is also trans- 
lated ' soothsayers' (Isai. ii. 6 ; Mic. v. 12): 
also a form of the word is ' sorceress ' (Isai. 
Ivii. 3) and ' enchanters' (Jer. xxvii. 9). The 
original meaning of the term is to cover; 
hence to use covert arts. Some would con- 
sider this mode of divination as the ob- 
serving of the clouds or meteoric appear- 
ances, the noting of dreams, or fascination 
with the eye. Gesenius beliCA^es it to im- 
ply a kind of divining connected with 
idolatry. 

Another word, yidde^ontm, signifies know- 
ing ; hence a wizard (Lev. xix. 31, xx.6, 27 ; 
Deut. xviii. 11 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 9 ; Isai. 
xix. 3) : it is often joined with the having 
or resorting to what is called a familiar 
spirit. 

The word expressive of a familiar spirit, 
6b, designates a bottle (Job xxxii. 19) ; and 
the spirit- was supposed to be in the body 
of the diviner as if in a bottle ; hence the 
application of the term (Lev. xix. 31, xx. 
6, 27). It was by this means that Saul 
sought an answer when the Lord refused 
to hear him (1 Sam. xxviii. 7, 8, 9). This 
kind of divining was probably the same as 
consulting the dead (Deut. xviii. 11, where in 
our version 'necromancer'). The spirits 
were supposed to be those of dead persons. 
And the answers given, in which it was ima- 
gined that these spirits spoke, were pro- 
bably by a kind of ventriloquism ; and thus 
the Septuagint translators have rendered 
the original word. The voice is sometimes 
described as 'out of the ground' (Isai. 
xxix. 4). There is another word, itttm, oc 
curring in xix. 3, rendered 'charmers 
by our translators, which appears to have 
the same meaning. According to its deri 
I vatiou, it would designate those necro- 



Y)iTORCE] 



myt Cvcasurp ct 



220 



mancers who emitted the supposed murmur 
of a spirit. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
• Todtenbeschworer.' Analogous to the ' fa- 
miliar spirit ' was that ' spirit of divina- 
tion' or 'Python,' which possessed the 
damsel at Philippi (Acts xvi. 16). This ap- 
pears, however, to have been a case of 
actual possession by a demon. 

'Dreamers of dreams' are denounced 
(Deut. xiii. 1-5) ; it being of course under- 
stood that these dreamers were but pre- 
tenders, and that tlieir purpose was to draw 
away the people into idolatry or other evil 
(Jcr. xxiii. 32). 

' One that useth divination ' is mentioned 
in Deut. xviii. 10. A''ose?u, the original word, 
implies dividing out, perhaps by lot ; and 
hence a diviner, used always with a bad 
meaning, as in reference to Balaam (Josh, 
xiii. 22, where our version has ' soothsayer') 
and to the Philistines (1 Sam. vi. 2). "We 
find it in a general sense (Ezek. xxi. 21), as 
including three different modes of divin- 
ing, which are just after specified ; by ar- 
rows, on which, perhaps, were inscribed 
the names of different cities, that to be 
attacked which was drawn ; by consulting 
teraphim ; and by inspecting the entrails of 
victims : see Henderson, Ezekiel, p. 104. 

The * charmer' (Deut. xvlii. 11) was some 
person who could bind (for this is what the 
original word implies) with spells. It is 
used of one who charmed serpents (Psal. 
Iviii. 5). There is another term, gazerln, 
rendered 'soothsayers' (Dan, ii. 27, iv. 7, 
V. 7, 11). It signifies deciders, probably 
those who cast nativities, and by various 
modes of computing foretold the fortunes 
of men. The word ashshaphtm (Dan. i. 20, 
ii. 2) is rendered in our version ' astro- 
logers.' The primary idea being that of 
covering, it must signify those who used 
occult arts. A kindred word occurs in 
27, iv. 7, V. 7, 11, 15. The divining-rod is 
mentioned in Hos. iv. 12. To the consulta- 
tion of oracles there is no distinct allusion. 

In such modes as those which have been 
now enumerated curiosity respecting the 
future endeavoured to satisfy itself. And 
idolators and impostors were ready to gra- 
tify such desire. But they were all dis- 
tinctly forbidden by the sacred law (Deut. 
xviii, 9-14). God had provided modes by 
which his people, in all necessary cases, 
might know his will for direction, 'by 
dreams, by Urim, by prophets' (1 Sam, 
xxviii, 6). These Avere not to be resorted 
to without sufficient reason. But, as he was 
in a special sense the king of the chosen 
people, it was natural that extraordinary 
means should be at hand of learning his 
will ; and to him alone, and not to vain 
idols, or to arts invented by men, were his 
people to apply. 

It is a question how far divination was 
an imposition. That much imposture was 
mixed with it no one will deny. But it 
may not unreasonably be believed that 
some dark superior influence was at work. 
"We may not attempt to define it. But if, 
as we know, the prince of the power of the 
air had sway over the children of disobe- 
dience (Eph, ii. 2), and evidenced his do- 
minion in many remarkable cases (see 



DEMO^"IAc), it may be that sometimes the 
soothsayers, the magicians, the sorcerers, 
were helped in their evil courses by him 
whose slaves they were. Be this, however, 
as it may, Avhether the whole were impos- 
ture, or whether there was some reality in 
it, the law of God was holy, just, and good, 
which condemned and punished it. 

DIVORCE. Marriage, on its original in- 
stitution, was regarded as indissoluble 
(Gen. ii. 24). In the course of time divorce 
(like polygamy) became customary, arising, 
no doubt, from the assumed inferiority of 
the female to the male sex, so that a man 
regarded a woman as property to be dis- 
posed of at pleasure. This licence was not 
prohibited by the Mosaic law. For men 
must be dealt with according to what they 
are, in order to raise them to what they 
ought to be ; so even noAv God appears to 
wink at many disorders. It is the wisdom 
of his providential government, because 
we are in a state of probation, and because 
a day of righteous retribution is coming 
upon the world. Thus our Lord intimates ' 
that, had the Israelites been in a higher 
moral state, the law would have been in 
some respects different (Matt. xix. 8). There 
were, however, checks to the facility of 
divorce. Certain cases are mentioned in 
which it was forbidden (Deut. xxii, 19, 29) ; 
and generally there was to be a legal docu- 
ment (xxiv. 1). It has been imagined that, 
the majority of the people being unable to 
write, the effect of this regulation would 
be to refer divorce practically to the Le- 
! vites, the educated class of the nation. 
I Much stress cannot be laid on this; but 
the mere fact of a bill or document being 
I required would give time for deliberation ; 
j and possibly it might have been necessary to 
' state therein the reason alleged for the act. 
Very light reasons, indeed, according to the 
rabbins, were sufficient ; and the schools 
of Shamraai and of Hillel Avere, in the 
time of our Saviour, at issue upon AvhaL 
was siifflcient, the latter allowing divorce 
for the merest caprice. A divorced woman 
might marry with another man, but might 
not return to her first husband (2-4 ; Jer. 
iii. 1). The power of divorcement seems 
[ to have rested only with the husband ; and 
j Salome is noted as the first example of 
j such a step by a wife (Joseph., Antiq., lib. 
\ XV. 7, § 10). There is no instance of divorce 
I distinctly recorded in the Old Testament; 
but it was evidently common in the later 
j periods of HebreAv history (Mai. ii, 15, 16). 
I Occasion was furnished to our Lord, by the 
I attempt made to embroil him with one of 
1 the rival schools of teachers above referred 
\ to, for repeating his distinct authoritative 
j law respecting divorce (Matt. v. 32, xix, 9 ; 
:Mark X. 11 ; Luke xvi. 18). Adultery alone 
is a sufficient justification of it. Whether 
' the divorced parties are at liberty to con- 
I tract (either or both) a fresh marriage is 
a vexed question, Avhich need not be here 
discussed. But it may be added that St. 
Paul's direction (1 Cor. vii. 15) seems to 
apply to a community not thoroughly 
Christian, and where heathens and Chris- 
tians were in the bond of wedlock : conip. 
Ezra X. 18, 19. See Winer, Bihl. BWB., art. 



221 



'Ehesclieidung' ; Saalschiitz, Arch, der 
Eebr., cap. 62, vol. ii, pp. 199-201. 

DI'ZAHAB (of gold, or possessor of gold, 
i. e. a spot rich in gold). A place in tlie 
Aral)ian desert (Deut. i. 1). It has been 
identified with Dahab, a cape on the western 
shore of the gulf of Akabah. 

DOCTOR (Luke ii. 46, v. 17 ; Acts v. 34). 
See Lawyer, Teacher. 

DO'CUS (1 Mace. xvi. 15). A fort near 
Jericho, where Simon Maccabeus and two 
of his sons were murdered. 

DO'DAI (loving). One of David's cap- 
tains (1 Chron. xxvii. 4). He is probably 
the same with Dodo, 1 ; and some have 
imagined that the words ' Eleazar the son 
of ' have been omitted by an error of tran- 
scription. 

DODA'NIM (leadersl). A name among 
the sons of Javan (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chron. i. 7). 
But in the margin and in some copies in 
the text we have Rodanim : this, however, 
is, most probably, an erroneous reading. 
Various opinions have been held as to the 
tribes which may be supposed to have hence 
deduced their origin. Some are in favour of 
the Dardani or Trojans, others of the Dau- 
nians in Italy. See Winer, Bibl.BWB., art. 
' Dodanira ' ; Kalisch, Comm. on Old TesU 
Gen , p. 245. 

DODA'VAH (love of Jehovah). A man of 
Mareshah, whose son Eliezer rebuked Jc- 
hoshaphat (2 Chron, xx. 37). 

DO'DO (amatory).—!. The father of one 
of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 9 ; 1 
Chron. xi. 12), probably the same with 
Dodai.— 2. A Beth-lehemite, whose son was 
one of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 24; 
1 Chron. xi. 26). 

DO'EG (fearful). An Edomite, the chief of 
Saul's herdmen, * detained before the Lord,' 
probably by a vow, or because it was the 
sabbath, when David fled to Nob (1 Sam. 
xxi. 7). Doeg afterwards falsely accused 
Ahimelech, the high priest, to Saul ; and, 
when none of the king's guard would exe- 
cute the ferocious sentence to slay the 
priests of the Lord, he fell upon them and 
killed eighty persons, sacking also their 
city (xxii. 9-19 ; Psal. lii., title). 

DOG. This well-known animal is fre- 
quently mentioned in the bible. But, 
though it was emjiloyed to watch the flocks 
(Job XXX. 1), and to guard the house (Isai. 
Ivi. 10), it was by no means regarded as we 
regard it, the companion and friend of 
man. Many of the various species of the 
dog were known to the Egyptians, and 
doubtless also to the Israelites, Some pro- 
bably had never been domesticated ;and 
there were multitudes, half-wild, prowling 
about the fields and the towns, devouring 
offal and dead bodies, and disturbing the 
night with their howhngs. This is the 
case at present in the east ; troops of dogs 
abounding, recognized in a degree by food 
and water being occasionally given them, 
and, according to the instinct of their na- 
ture, guarding the places where they con- 
gregate, but deemed impure and unclean, 
just as among the ancient Hebrews. Hence 
we can understand the comparison of savage 
and cruel men to dogs (Psal. xxii. 16 ; Phil, 
ill 2), and ihe contempt and dislike at- 



tached to the name of a dog (1 Sam. xxiv 
14 ; 2 Sam, iii. 8, ix. 8 ; Rev. xxii, 15). To 
the present day the word is applied by Jews 
to Gentiles, and by Mohammedans to Chris- 
tians, as a term of reproach, 

DOMINIONS (Col, i. 16), See Angel. 

DOOR. This word is often used figura- 
tively ; an open door implying free access. 
Thus Christ calls himself ' the door' (John 
X. 7, 9 : comp. 1 Cor. xvi. 9 ; 2 Cor. ii. 12 ; 
Col. iv. 3 ; Rev. iii. 8). See Gate, House. 

DOPH'KAH (knocking.) One of the sta- 
tions in the march of the Israelites (Numb, 
xxxiii. 12,13). Porter suggests that it might 
be at the junction of the Mukatteb road 
with Wady Feirau (JIandb. for Syria, p. 22). 

DOR (a dicelling). An ancient Canaanitish 
city (Josh. xi. 2, xii. 23). It was locally in 
the territory of Issachar or Asher, but was 
assigned to Manasseh (xvii. 11 : comp. 
1 Chron. vii, 29), The original inhabitants 
were not at once expelled (Judges i. 27) ; but 
we afterwards find the whole region one of 
the commissariat departments of Solomon 
(1 Kings iv, 11). It was of some consequence 
in the Maccabean times, being called Dora, 
and also under the Romans. It stood be- 
tween Ca3sarea and Ptolemais, and is now 
TantHra, ' a sad and sickly hamlet of 
wretched huts, on a naked sea-beach, with 
a marshy flat between it and the base of 
the eastern hills' (Dr. Thomson, The Land 
and the Book, p. 500). 

DO'BA (1 Mace. xv. 11, 13, 25). See Dor. 

DOR'CAS (gazelle, doe). (Acts ix, 36, 39) 
See Tabitha. 

DOBYM'ENES (1 Mace. iii. 38 ; 2 Mace, 
iv, 45). 

DOSITH'EUS.—l (Rest of Esth. xi. 1).— 2 
(2 Mace. xii. 19, 24). One of the officers of 
Judas Maccabeus. — 3 (35). 

DOTHA'IM (Judith iv. 6, vii. 3, 18, viii,3) 
Identical with Dothan. 

DO'THAN (two cisterns or wells). A place 
where Joseph found his brethren (Gen. 
xxxvii. 17), afterwards mentioned as the 
residence of Elisha (2 Kings vi. 13). It wag 
at the southern edge of the plain of Esdrae- 
lon, about twelve miles north of Samaria, 
Its site is now called Tell Dothaim or 
Dothan, near the great road for the cara- 
vans from Gilead to Egypt : comp. Gen. 
xxxvii. 25, 28. 

DOVE. The natural family of birds 
called Columbidce comprise pigeons, doves, 
and turtles. The Hebrew word yonah in- 
cludes the various varieties of doves and 
pigeons found in Palestine, excepting tur- 
tle-doves, called tdr. We find the dove 
first noticed when Noah sent one from the 
ark (Gen. viii. 6-12); and there are very 
many allusions to this bird, for its beauty of 
plumage (Psal. Ixviil. 13), its simpleness 
(Hos. vii. 11), its harmlessness (Matt. x. 16), 
&c. ; so that it even symbolizes the Holy 
Spirit, the meekness, purity, and splendour 
of righteousness (Matt. iii. 16), Doves are 
frequently domesticated in the east, 
Morier (Second Journey to Persia, p. 140) 
speaks of the pigeon-houses as ' large round 
towers, rather broader at the bottom than 
the top, crowned by conical spiracles 
through which the pigeons descend. Their 
interior resembles a honey-comb, pierced 



dove's dung] 



222 



with a thousand holes, each of which forms 
a snug retreat for a nest. The extraor- 
dinary flights of pigeons which I have seen 
upon one of these buildings afford perhaps 
a good illustration for the passage in Isai. 
Ix. 8.' The species most common in Syria 
are the stock-dove, the ring-dove, and the 
common pigeon in several varieties. The 
turtle-doves, Columha tiirtur, are invariably 
smaller than pigeons properly so called : 
they have generally a patch of coloured 
feathers on the neck, or a kind of black 
collar. Pigeons and turtle-doves might, 
alone of birds, be offered in sacrifice ; full- 
grown turtle-doves in pairs, but only the 
young of pigeons (Lev. i. 14, v, 7, 11), They 
were the offering of the poorer classes ; 
hence made by the Virgin (Luke ii. 24). 
And on this account it was that those who 
sold doves established themselves in the 
precincts of the temple (Matt. xxi. 12). It 
is said that the Assyrians and Babylonians 
bore a dove on their standards, in memorial 
of Semiramis, nourished by doves, when 
exposed after her birth (Diod. Sic, Hist., lib. 
ii. cap. 4). There may be an allusion to this 
in Jer. xxv. 38, the last clause being better 
translated 'the fierceness of the dove' i.e. 
the Assyrians. 

DOVE'S DUNG. In the siege of Samaria, 
by Ben-ha-dad, a fourth part of a cab of 
dove's dung was sold for five shekels (2 
Kings vi. 25). Bochart supposes chick-peas 
here meant; but Keil, without deciding 
the question, produces testimony that ex- 
ci'ement has been used for food in famine, 
and that the literal meaning is not impos- 
sible {Cijmm. on Kings, transL, vol, i. p. 397. 
Dr. Thomson considers dove's dung a coarse 
kind of bean {Tlie Land and the Book, p. 470.) 

DOWRY (Gen. xxx. 20, xxxiv. 12 ; Exod. 
xxii. 17 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 25). See Marriage. 

DRACH'MA (Luke xv. 8, 9, margj. See 
Money. 

DRAGON. There are two Hebrew words 
nearly alike which are rendered 'dragon' 
in our version ; but they must be carefully 
distinguished. One, tannivi, is a plural 
form : the animals intended dwell in deserts 
(Isai. xiii. 22, xxxiv. 13, xxxv. 7, xliii. 20) ; 
hence ' the place of dragons ' means the 
desert in Psal. xliv. 20. They are described 
as suckling their young (Lam. iv. 3 ; where 
our version has 'sea-monsters' or 'sea- 
calves'); and as uttering a wailing cry 
(Job xxx. 28, 29 ; Mic. i. 8). Wild asses, 
too, are compared to them (Jer. xiv. 6). 
Now it is manifest that serpents cannot be 
intended : it has therefore been with reason 
supposed that jackals, noted for their wail- 
ing cry, and their frequenting desert places, 
are the tannim of scripture ; or, at least, 
some animals akin to jackals. The other 
word is tannin : this seems to describe 
some monstrous creature whether of the 
land or the sea. Thus it is used for marine 
animals (Psal. cxlviii. 7, also in Gen. i. 21; Job 
vii. 12, where it is rendered 'whales'), and is 
sometimes coupled with Leviathan (Psal. 
Ixxiv. 13, 14 ; Isai. xxvii. 1). It must mean 
land serpents in Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Psal. xci. 
13 ; Jer. li. 34 ; and it is rendered ' serpent ' 
In Exod. vii. 9, 10, 12. Not unfrequently it 
signifies the crocodile, as the emblem of | 



the king of Egypt (Isai. li. 9 ; Ezek. xxix 
3 ; xxxii. 2). In the New Testament the 
word is symbolically used for Satan, ' that 
old serpent which is the devil,' or for some 
antichristian power stirred up by him 
against the church (Rev. xli. 3-17, xiii. 2, 4, 
11, xvi. 13, XX. 2). 

DRAGON-WELL. This seems to have 
been over-against the valley-gate (Neh. ii. 
13). Robinson believes it identical with 
the pool or fountain of Gihon {Bihl. lies., 
vol. i. pp. 320, 347, 2nd edit.). 

DRAM (1 Chron. xxix. 7 ; Ezra ii. 69, viii. 
27; Neh. vii. 70-72). See Daric, Money, 

DRAWING WATER (1 Sam. vii. 6). The 
ceremony here mentioned was not pre- 
scribed by the law. Various opinions have 
been offered upon it. Doubtless it had a 
symbolical meaning. Some, as Kitto, are 
inclined to believe it emblematic of the 
abundance of tears the occasion required 
(Pict. Bible, note on 1 Sam. vii. 6). See 
Water, Well. 

DREAM. The phenomena of dreams 
have given rise to innumerable specula- 
tions. It must suffice to say here, generally, 
that the perceptive and sensational powers 
retain very often their activity during 
sleep, while those of reflection and judg- 
ment are lost. Hence the disjointed charac- 
ter of dreams. Vivid impressions are 
made : the fancy revels as it were in a mar- 
vellous confusion of time, place, and 
circumstance, the strangeness of which 
the reason does not rectify or even per- 
ceive. Thus no surprise is felt at a conver- 
sation in a dream with one whom we 
know at the time to be dead. The play of 
the imagination is sometimes quite inde- 
pendent of the bodily organs of sense, and 
sometimes connected with them. Thus the 
sleeper's ear is not insensible to a loud 
noise, which, failing to awake him, raises in 
his mind the notion of a tumult or perhaps 
a battle, of which he says afterwards that 
he has dreamed. An apparently-long dream 
may occupy really but a very few moments. 
Indeed some have maintained, though 
perhaps not on sufficient grounds, that all 
dreaming is at the crisis, a second or two, 
when the faculties are just succumbing to 
the influence of slumber, or being aroused 
from it. 

One mode of divine communication to 
the mind of man has been by dreams (Numb, 
xii. 6). While bodily organs were asleep 
and yet the perception active, God has 
sometimes spoken, occasionally in the way 
of direct message, occasionally by symbolic 
representation, for which afterwards an in- 
terpreter was needed. The prophetic dream 
must be distinguished from the prophetic 
vision. The latter might be in the night 
(Acts xviii. 3, xxiii. 11, xxvii. 23) ; but the 
senses were not wrapped up in sleep. It 
was by means of dreams that God commu- 
nicated with those who wei'e not of his 
covenant people (Gen. xx. 3-7, xxxi. 24, xl. 
5, xli. 1-8 ; Judges vii. 13 ; Dan. ii. 1, iv. 5, 
10-18 ; Matt. ii. 12, xxvii. 19). Often, indeed, 
it was by a dream that God spoke to his 
most favoured serv^ants (Gen. xv. 12-16, 
xxxvii. 5-10; Matt. i. 20, 21); but a writer 



223 



[dress 



in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible suggests 
I that dreams, as means of revelation, ' are 
almost always referred to the periods of 
their earliest and most imperfect knowledge 
of him,' indicating that such a kind of reve- 
lation might he expected to pass away in the 
fulness of time. He notices Daniel (Dan. ii. 
19, vii. 1) as the only exception, and tries to 
account for it on the principle that it was to 
put to shame the falsehood ' of the Chaldean 
belief in prophetic dreams, and in the power 
of interpretation, and yet to bring out the 
j truth latent therein.' There may be some 
ground for what this writer says : still 
there are more exceptions than he notices. 
God communicated by a dream with Solo- 
mon, not only while he was young (1 Kings 
iii. 5-15), but also in his mature life (ix. 2-9). 
We can only say that the Lord acts herein 
according to his good pleasure. The false 
dreaming of a dreamer of dreams, it may 
be added, was censured and to be punished 
(Deut. xiii. 1 5). 

DREDGE (Job xxiv. 6, marg.). In the 
text of this passage our version has 'corn.' 
Gesenius interprets 'mixed provender'; 
but Carey is inclined to accept a conjectural 
emendation, not altogether without au- 
thority, and translates : 'in fields not their 
own do they reap ' {Job, pp. 109, 304). 
DREGS (Psal. Ixxv. 8 ; Isai. li. 17, 22). See 

DRESS. In order to give anything like a 
satisfactory account of the dress of the 
Israelites, it will be well to note first of 
all the materials of which their clothes were 
made, and afterwards to explain the dif- 
ferent names by which we find garments 
designated in scripture, comparing them 
as far as possible with the articles of dress 
now in use in Palestine and the neighbour- 
ing countries. 

The first attempt at clothing, made by 
Adam and Eve at the fall, was by adapting 
fig-leaves (Gen. iii. 7). Shortly after they had 
' coats of skins' (21). The hides of animals, 
with or without the fur or wool, have in all 
ages furnished a material for dress. In 
their rougher form they suited the rude 
inhabitants of uncivilized and cold regions ; 
and, more carefully prepared, they supplied 
the reciuirements of luxury. Some of the 
ancient sculptures represent persons 
clothed in sheepskin coats ; and, though 
such material was less suital)le for the 
climate of Canaan, and was probably little 
used among the Hebrews, yet it is possible 
that Elijah's mantle may have been a hairy 
skin (1 Kings xix. 13, 19 ; 2 Kings i. 8, ii. 8, 13, 
14 : comp. Zech. xiii. 4) : at all events such 
garments were used by those who fled from 
persecution (Heb. xi. 37). The sackcloth, 
too, of which we so frequently read, was 
made of hair (Rev. vi. 12) ; and John the 
Baptist's garment was of camel's hair (Matt, 
iii. 4). Of the common use of skins andfur 
among ourselves nothing need be said here. 
Other materials of dress were wool and 
linen (Lev. xiii. 47-49). Of linen the very 
finest kinds were in early use; as the 
existing linen integuments of Egyptian 
mummies show. Different words are used 
in the original for linen, distinguishing per- 
haps the raw material from the manufac- 



tured fabric, or denoting various degrees of 
fineness or quality : seeLrxEN. Linen and 
wool might be ordinarily used at pleasure 
separately ; but it was a command of the 
Mosaic law, intended probably to carry out 
the idea, so frequently enforced, of simpli- 
city and parity, that a garment ' of woollen 
and linen together' must not be worn 
(xix. 19; Deut, xxii, 11). Cotton, moreover, 
was, we may suppose, more or less used : 
see Cotton. It is a common material of 
dress in the east now. Silk was not known 
till later times (Rev. xviii. 12) : see Silk. 
As the articles of Hebrew clothing were for 
the most part loose and simple, their gar- 
ments could have required little of what 
we call 'making.' This, so far as it was 
necessary, was perhaps generally done in 
a household. Thus the excellent housewife 
is described both as spinning and also as 
making clothing (Prov. xxxi. 19, 22, 24) ; and 
the charitable Tabitha is mentioned as 
making * coats and garments ' for the needy 
(Acts ix. 39). 

Thei-e are several original words used in 
scripture for particular garments. It is 
unfortunate that our translators have fre- 
quently rendered them by inapplicable 
English terms, and that they have not pre- 
served uniformity in their renderings, 
giving in different places the most different 
English words for a single one in Hebrew. 

The khethOneth, or khuttdneth, correspond^ 
ing to the Greek chiton, was a loose inner 
garment or tunic, like the shirt with us. 
Originally, perhaps it was short and without 
sleeves ; but afterwards it had sleeves and 




was larger. It was made of wool, cotton, or 
linen, of finer or coarser quality, according 
to the means of the wearer. Frequentl/ 
this garment was worn alone, being con- 
fined by a girdle ; and a person so dressed 
probably resembled the man here figured. 

But any one wearing only the khethd- 
neth was commonly called naked in scrip- 
ture. So Saul is said to have been naked, 
when he had stripped off his upper clothes 
(1 Sam. xix. 24) ; Isaiah, when he had laid 
aside his outer garment of sackcloth (Isai. 
XX. 2, 3) ; Peter, when he was without his 



DEESS] 



224 



'fislier's coat' (John xxi. 7). And so the 
tei-ra 'naked' elsewhere describes a man 
who had hut one garment, that is, a poor 
man (Job xxii. 6 ; Isai. Iviil. 

The vie'il, generally of one piece (Jose- 
phus, Antiq., lib. iii. 7, § 4), was an upper 
tunic, larger than the kMthoneth and worn 
over it. From this fact such passages as 
Matt. X. 10 ; Luke iii. 11, are illustrated : the 
' two coats ' were the upper and under 
tunics; and our Lord's injunction to his 
disciples, when he sent them forth, had pe- 
culiar force, since, as we gather from Jo- 
gephus, travellers ordinarily used the two 
{Antiq., lib, xvii. 5, § 7). The word m^il oc- 
curs very frequently, and is rendered in 
almost every conceivable mode by our 
translators, 'coat,' 'mantle,' 'robe' (e.g. 
Exod. xxxix. 22 ; 1 Sam. ii. 19, xv. 27, xviii. 
4, xxiv. 4, 11, xxviii. 14 ; 1 Chron. xv. 27 , 
Job i. 20, ii. 12). Perhaps the word may 
express generally any upper garment. 

There vras another loose under garment 
worn next the body, called sacUn. It was 
probably always of linen. It is rendered by 
our translators 'sheet' or 'shirt' (Judges 
xiv. 12, 13), and might be the ' linen cloth,' 
sindon, cast about the young man's naked 
tody (Mark xiv. 51). 

Then there was an outer large woollen 
parment, quadrangular, and, we may fancy, 
resembling a Scotch plaid. Several names 
were given to this, as beged, khesfith, levfish, 
simlah, and others, perhaps expressing 
Bome differences of size and quality. Cor- 
responding Greek terms were liimation and 
stole. Some of these words frequently imply 
clothes in general ; and the heged, levush 
and stole appear to indicate the handsomer 
or state robes, or royal dress. Thus heged 
occurs in Gen. xxvii. 15 ; 1 Kings xxii. 10, 
30 ; levfish in Esth. vi. 11, viii. 15 ; and stole 
in Mark xii. 38, xvi. 5 ; Rev. vi. 11, vii. 9, 13. 
One or other of such words is occasionally 
used for a military cloak (2 Sam. xx. 8; 
Isai. ix, 5), priests' vestments (2 Kings x. 
22), &c. This outer garment was some- 
times wrapped round the body, or brought 
i over the shoulder, with the ends hanging 
j down, or passed over the head. It was this 
that in the corners or ends was to have ' a 
I fringe,' and be bound with ' a ribband of 
i blue' (Numb. xv. 38; Deut. xxii. 12). It 
i was fastened round the waist by a girdle (2 
i Sam. XX. 8) ; and one or more of the folds 
I of it were used for pockets, purses, or con- 
i venient receptacles for anything (2 Kings 
iv. 39; Prov. xvii. 23). The addereth was 
the 'mantle' worn by Elijah (1 Kings xix. 
13, 19 ; 2 Kings ii. 8, 13, 14). It was probably 
a loose wide outer wrapper. The same 
word designates the king of Nineveh's 
robe (Jonah iii. 6). Several other names 
appear in the Talmud as given to garments 
afterwards in use. 

We have scarcely any examples preserved 
of Israelitish garments, and those only on 
monuments where captives are thought to 
be Jews, But various illustrations can be 
given from Eerypt and Assyria ; and modern 
oriental dress may be taken to bear a 
great resemblance to that of the ancient 
Israelites, Over the inner garment or shirt 
is worn a hxiftayi or long gown of striped 



silk or cotton, with long sleeves. This la 
confined by the girdle, a coloured shawl, or 
piece of figured white muslin. Over the 
kaftan is the gibdeh, a coat of woollen cloth 




Assyrian King. Nineveh Marbles. 

with sleeves to the wrist ; or the benish, 
which with longer sleeves is more of a robe 
of ceremony. The abba is a shapeless cloak 




Aasyrian Lady. From an ivory carvuig. 
Brit Mils. 

like a square sack with an opening In front,- 
and slits for the arms. It is made of wool 
or hair, all black or all white, or more fre- 
quently striped of two colours white 



dress"] 



226 



being one), varied according to tlie distinc- 
tion of the tribe. This is the outermost 




Egyptian Captiyes or Allies. RoseUini. 

2 




outer garment is the hyke, a woollen blan- 
ket, white or brown ; or in summer a cotton 
^eet, blue or white, or both together. It 
is worn by putting one corner over the left 
shoulder in front : the rest of it goes round 
the body behind, is drawn ujider the right 
arm, and brought round so as to go agani 
over the left shoulder, thus leaving the 
risht arm disengaged. The figure no. 1 
shows an Egyptian with the gibbeh over 
the kaftan, those nos. 2 and 3 an Egyptian 
and a Bedouin with the abba. 

We now come to the dress of women. 
The khethdneth or inner tunic was worn 
also by females. This is the word used for 
the garment of the princess Tamar (2 Sam. 
xiii. 18), having probably very long sleeves. 
But it may be observed that the robes with 
which such ladies were clothed are m the 
same place called mm. There were several 
outer garments which seem to have been 
peculiar to females. Some of these were that 



garment. Instead of this the hburnnos is 
sometimes worn, much resembling the 
abba, except that it has a hood. Another 




1. FemaTe, supposed to represent a Jewish captive, 
from Nineveh Marbles, wearing probably the 
mPU and a veU. 2. Modern woman of Upper 
Egypt. 

called viitpahhath, rendered 'veil' (Ruth 
iii. 15) and ' wimple ' (Isai. iii. 22) : perhaps it 
was a kind of shawl ; another, ma atdpha fi, 
'mantle' (ibid.); a third, tzafpTi, the 'veil 
which Rebekah put on (Gen. xxiv. 65) and m 
which Tamar, Judah's daughter-in-law, en- 
veloped herself, concealing her face ther^ 
with (xxxviii. 14, 19) : it has been supposed 
some gay or showy article of dress another, 
radtd, 'veil' (Sol. Song v. 7; Isai. lu. 23), 
probably resembling the tea^p7^, a garment 
worn out of doors, a long fine veil. Dr. 
Saalschiitz supposes, fastened to the back 
of the head, falling do>va over the shoulders 
and drawn at pleasure round the whole per- 
son (Arch, der Eehr., cap. iii. vol. 1. pp. 28, 
29) The dresses of females were long and 
fringed or bordered, covering the feet ; ag 
it was considered a peculiar disgrace for the 
leg to be lef f. bare (Isai. xlvii. 2\ 



227 



[dress 



The most noticeable description of fe- 
male dress and ornaments is to be found in 
Isai. ill. 18-24. Explanations have been at- 
tempted of the different articles named, 
which will for the most part be found under 
their respective headings. But it may be 
well to enumerate them in order here, 
giving, as far as can be ascertained, the 
best meanings of each. They are as follows : 
• tinkling ornaments about the feet,' an- 
klets ; ' cauls,' perhaps braids of hair en- 
folded in silken threads, to which pendants 
were attached, giving the whole the ap- 
pearance of checker-work (see Head- 
dress) ; ' round tires like the moon,' or- 
naments of a crescent or moon-like shape, 
hung on the neck-chain ; ' chains,' perhaps 
ear-drops ; * bracelets ' ; ' mufflers,' small 
thin veils ; 'bonnets,' turbans, the conical 
part ; ' ornaments of the legs,' step-chains ; 
' head-bands,' fillets for the hair, or possibly 
girdles; 'tablets,' smelling-bottles; 'ear- 
rings,' amulets worn in the ears ; ' rings,' 
finger-rings; 'nose-jewels'; 'changeable 
suits of apparel,' robes for special occasions, 
changed or laid aside till so wanted again ; 
' mantles ' ; * wimples,' shawls ; ' crisping- 
pins,' reticules ; ' glasses,' mirrors ; ' fine 
linen,' linen shifts ; ' hoods,' the folds of 
the turban : Henderson suggests ribands ; 
•veils'; 'girdles'; 'stomacher,' wide man- 
tle or holiday-dress. 




It is likely that there Is no great differ- 
ence between the ancient and modern fe- 
male oriental dress, save that the Israelit- 
ish women, enjoying far more freedom 
than those in the east at present, did not 
use the hideous veil, which now is thought 
necessary to conceal the features from the 
gaze of men. The figures of the illustration 

; above represent a modern Egyptian lady in 
private, and in her walking dress. Among 
the Syrian peasantry the women usually 
wear draAvers, and a long loose gown of 
coarse blue linen,with an ornamental border 
of some other colour about the neck. On 
the head is a kind of turban, attached to 
which is a veil behind covering the neck, 

[ back, and bosom. 

There are some references to foreign 



dresses in various parts of scripture. Thus 
the ' garment' (Esth. viii. 15), was the long 
flowing rol)e of an eastern monarch ; and, 
in the account of the three confessors at 
Babylon (Dan. lii. 21), the 'coats' were 
drawers, now common In the east, the 




Ancient Persian Dress. Persepolis. 



'hosen' the inner tunic, the 'hats' the 
upper tunic, corresponding to the meHl ; 
the 'garments' the outer cloak or beged 
(see Smith's Diet of the Bible, vol. i. p. 457). 
Of Greek or Roman dress there is little 
mention. The ' robe' (Matt, xxvii. 28) was 
probably the military Roman cloak; that 
which St. Paul sent for (2 Tim. Iv. 13), a 
thick travelling cloak; though some sup- 
pose it rather a cloak bag for books or other 
articles ; and there are other conjectures. 

The general colour of Hebrew garments 
would seem to have been white ; several of 
the terms used for the materials implying 
whiteness. White was the symbol of joy 
(Eccles. ix. 8), also of purity (Rev. iii. 4, 5, 
iv. 4, vii. 9, 13, xix. 14). Hence, as stains 
would be easily perceptible, the necessity 
for the fuller (Mark ix. 3). Sometimes, how- 
ever, scarlet and purple robes were worn 
(2 Sam. i. 24 ; Prov. xxxi. 22 ; Luke xvi. 19). 
Dresses of the richer hues were preferred 
more by the neighbouring nations than 
by the Hebrews; at least we find more 
frequent reference to them among the Mi- 
dianites, the Persians, the Assyrians, the 
Phoenicians (Judges viii. 26 ; Esth. viii. 15 ; 
Ezek. xxiii. 6, 12, 15). It is a question whe- 
ther variegated robes were in early use 
among the Israelites. The many-coloured 
garments occasionally spoken of (Gen. 
xxxvii. 3, 23 ; 2 Sara. xiii. 18), have been 
thought to be rather such as had long 
sleeves, and reached to the ankles. Per- 
haps variegated robes were those censured 
as being imported from abroad, the dress 
of foreign nations (Zeph. i. 8). Yet gar- 
ments were frequently ornamented. Thus 
we find that some of those for the high 
priest were to be embroidered : see En- 
BROIDERY. Both colourod threads and gold 
threads seem to have been introduced into 



drink-offering] Crta^tirj) of 



tlie fabric (Exod. xxviii. 6, 8, 15, xxxv. 25) ; 
also there were figures, as of the cherubim 
in the tabernacle curtains (xxvi. 1, 31). Such 
a figured garment, perhaps, was that which 
Achan appropriated (Josh. vii. 21 : comp. 
Judges V. 30). We also read of gold bro- 
cade (Psal. xlv. 9, 13). 

Great store of garments constituted a 
considerable part of a man's wealth ; hence 
'to have clothing' (Isai. iii. 6, 7) was ex- 
pressive of being rich. Changes of raiment 
were not only required for personal luxury, 
but were necessary, according to oriental 
customs, as presents to friends, or those 
who were to be honoured (Gen. xlv. 22 ; 2 
Kings V. 5, 22, 23) : sometimes also at feasts 
the guests were provided with p^ttire. 
Hence the fault of the man in our Lord's 
parable, who must have refused the offered 
wedding-garment (Matt. xxii. 11, 12). To 
bestow the best robe was a peculiar mark 
of affection (Luke xv. 22) ; and it was a 
great honour when a superior, as J onathan 
who was a prince, stripped off his own gar- 
ment and gave it to another. (1 Sam. xviii. 
4). Kings had a very large quantity of 
vestments, and a special officer appointed 
to take charge of them (2 Kings x. 22) ; but 
private persons also were in the habit of 
accumulating dresses (Job xxvii. 16 ; Matt, 
vi. 19 ; James v. 2) : for which, and for ex- 
travagance in dress, frequent reproofs 
were given by the prophets and apostles 
(e.g. Jer. iv. 30 ; i Tim. ii. 9; 1 Pet. iii. 3). 

The garments of the Hebrews being 
loose and ample could be easily taken off, 
and used off-hand for various purposes, as 
to receive or carry articles (Judges viii. 25 ; 
Ruth iii. 15), to serve for a saddle (Matt. 

xxi. 7), &c. An outer garment served also 
for bed-clothes ; whence it was forbidden 
to retain it as a pledge after sun-set (Exod. 

xxii. 26, 27 ; Deut. xxiv. 12, 13 ; Ruth iii. 9). 
Various symbolical actions were per- 
formed with the garments. Rending them 
implied ' grief (Gen. xxxvii. 29, 34 ; 2 Sam. i. 
2 ; Job i. 20), fear a Kings xxt. 27 ; 2 Kings 
xxii. 11, 19), indignation (v. 7, xi, 14; Matt, 
xxvi. 65), or despair (Judges xi. 35; Esth. 
iv. 1).' It was generally the outer garment 
that was rent, but sometimes the inner, 
and occasionally both. Sometimes also the 
rending of a garment was the figurative 
sign of a prophecy to be accomplished (1 
Kings xL 29-32). * Shaking the garments, or 
shaking the dust off them, was a sign of re- 
nunciation (Acts xviii. 6) ; spreading them 
before a person, of loyalty and joyous recep- 
tion (2 Kings ix. 13 ; Matt. xxi. 8) : wrap- 
ping them round the head, of awe (1 Kings 
xix. 13), or of grief (2 Sam. xv. 30, xix. 4 ; 
Esth. vi. 12 : Jer. xiv. 3, 4) ; casting them 
off, of excitement (Acts xxii. 23) ; laying 
hold of them, of supplication (1 Sam. xv. 
27 ; Isai. iii. 6, iv. l ; Zech. viii. 23) ' (Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 457, 458). 
It was necessary to gird up the flowing 
dress of the Israelites on occasion of any 
particular exertion ; or to throw off the 
outer robe (l Kings xviii. 46 ; 2 Kings iv. 
29; Mark x. 50; John xiii. 4) ; hence the 
metaphorical expression of girding up the 
loins of the mind (Luke xii. 35 ; 1 Pet. i. 13). 
To cut the garments of any one short wa.s a 



great insult (2 Sam. x. 4); as also to raise 
the skirts of a Avoman's clothing (Jer. xiii. 
22, 26 ; Nah. iii. 5). See Girdle, Head- 
dress, SA2fDAL, Shoe. 

DRINK-OFFERING. See Ofperikg. 

DRINK, STRONG. See WiXE. , 

DROMEDARY (1 Kings iv. 28 ; Esth. viii. 
10; Isai. Ix. 6 ; Jer. ii. 23). See CAiiiEii. But 
sometimes horses or mules may be meant. 

DROPSY. This disease is mentioned but 
once (Luke xiv, 2). Our Lord healed a man 
afflicted with it on the sabbath-day ; by an 
apt example showing the lawyers and Phari- 
sees who watched him, that it was lawful 
to do good on the sabbath. 

DROUGHT. The summer in Palestine is 
dry, little rain falling. Hence ' the drought 
of summer' (Psal. xxxii. 4). Long-con- 
tinued dry weather parched up the country, 
and was a heavy judgment on the inhabi- 
tants (1 Kings xvii. ; Isai. v. 6 ; Amos iv. 7 ; 
Hagg. i. 11). See Seasons. 

DROWNING. See PujiriSHMEXT. 

DRUNKENNESS. The first recorded in- 
stance of drunkenness is that of Noah (Gen. 
ix. 20, 21). This vice is strongly condemned 
in scripture (Prov. xxiii. 29-35 : Rom. xiii. 
13 ; Eph. V. 18, and frequently elsewhere). 
The word is used figuratively of persons 
oppressed with sorrow, animated with rage, 
and the like (e.g. Isai. xxix. 9, li. 21, Ixiii. 6 ; 
Rev. xvii. 6) ; just as we use the word in- 
toxicated—intoxicated with success. 

DRUSIL'LA. The younger daughter of i 
Herod Agrippa I., and sister of Agrippa II. ! 
She was first betrothed to Antiochus Epi- 
puanes, prince of Commagene ; but, as he 
refused to become a Jew, she was married 
to Aaizus, prince of Emesa. Soon after, 
Felix, the Roman procurator, persuaded her, 
by means of the Cyprian sorcerer Simon, 
to leave her husband and marry him (Acts 
xxiv. 24). She bore him a son, Agrippa, who 
perished in the eruption of Vesuvius in the 
reign of Titus. 

DUKE. The chiefs of Edom and the 
Horites are called ' dukes ' (Gen. xxxvi. 15- 
43 ; 1 Chron. i. 51-54 ; comp. Exod. xv. 15 ; 
Josh. xiii. 21). Chiefs or princes would have 
been a preferable word. 

DULCIMER. A musical instrument (Dan. 
iii. 5, 10, 15). The modem dulcimer is a box, 
triangular in shape, and containing a large 
number of strings varying in length, which 
are played on by small hammers. But this 
is not the instrument intended. The Chal- 
dee word is sumpho7iia, which has been i 
thought to be adopted from the Greek, j 
The supposition, however, is by no means 
certain. Simphoii (Buxtorf., Talm. Lex., 
p. 1504) is an air-pipe ; so that very probably 
the instrument was a double pipe with a 
sack, resembling the bag-pipe. And this is 
confirmed by the fact that a similar instru- 
ment is still in use, called in Itsilj sainpogna, 
and in Asia Minor sambonya.. 

DU'MAH isilence). One of the sons of 
Ishmael (Gen. xx^. 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 30. 

DU'MAH (id.). 1. A city in the mountain- 
ous district of Judah (Josh. xv. 52). It was 
probably afew miles south-west of Hebron; 
where there are some ruins still bearing the 
name.— 2. A place in Arabia (Isai. xxi. 11), so ; 
called, it is likely, from the son of Ishmael. I 



229 



whose descendants Inhabited that locality. 
There is a town bearing the name of Booviat- 
el-Jendel, Dumah of the stones, which may 
be upon the site of the ancient city. 

DUMB, Those speechless through na- 
tural inlrrnity or other cause (Psal. xxxix. 
9 ; Ezek. iii. 26). Our Lord repeatedly cured 
the dumb, to the astonishment of the people 
who heard them proclaim the praises of God 
(Isai. XXXV. 6; Matt. ix. 32, 33; Mark vii, 
32-37). 

DTJISTG. There are two uses of dung re- 
ferred to in scripture ; for manure, and for 
fuel. Thus (Luke xiii. 8) holes were to be 
dug about the tree, and the manure put in, 
a mode still not unfrequently practised. In 
Ezek. iv. 12, 15 the use of dung as fuel is 
referred to. In Egypt it is mixed with 
straw, and formed into flat cakes, which 
are dried in the sun for this purpose. The 
dung of sacrifices was to be burnt outside 
the camp (Exod. xxix. 14) : hence the threat 
(Mai. ii. 3) implies the most ignominious 
treatment. To sit on a dunghill marks 
uiisery the most extreme (1 Sam. ii. 8 ; Lam. 
Iv. 5) ; and the making of a man's house a 
dung-heap (Ezra vi. 11 ; Dan. ii. 5) was to 
condemn him to the worst disarrace. The 
word as used by St. Paul (Phil. ill. 8) means 
any kind of refuse. 

DUN(5-GATE. One of the gates of Jeru- 
salem (Xeh. ii. 13, iii. 14), variously placed 
by different writers in the south-east or 
south-west wall of the city. 
DUNGEOX. See Prison. 
DU'PlA {circle). The place where Nebu- 
chadnezzar set up his golden image (Dan. 
iii. 1). Dr. Layard identifies it with Bur, 
below Tekrit, on the east bank of the Ti- 
gris ; but Oppert would place it, with more 
probability, to the south-east of Babylon, 
near a mound called Z»rtazr, where he found 
the pedestal of a colossal statue. 

DUST. To lick the dust (Psal. Ixxii. 9) 
signifies abject submission. To shake the 
dust from the feet (Matt. x. 14 ; Luke x. 11) 
implies the renouncing of all contact. The 
Pharisees entering Judea from a Gentile 
country were accustomed to shake the 
dust from their feet, as a renunciation of 
Gentile communion. But there was a fur- 
ther meaning. As Paul's shaking his gar- 
ment (Acts xviii. 6), so shaking off the dust 
was a declaration of being free from the 



[eagle 



blood of those who rejected the gospel- 
message. The casting of dust on or against 
a person was a form of bitter execration 
(2 Sam. xvi. 13 ; Acts xxii. 23). See Ashes. 

MOURNIXG. ' 

DYEING. The art of staining textile and 
other fabrics with permanent colours. It 
was known and practised to a considerable 
extent, and with much skill, bv the ancient 
Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Ro- 
mans. In scripture we read of a scarlet 
thread as early as the birth of Zarah (Gen 
xxxviii. 28, 30) ; and in the construction of 
the tabernacle we find artificial colouring 
(Exod. xxvi. 1, 14). There is no precise 
mention of dyers in the Old Testament : 
but the Israelites must have been acquaint- 
ed with the art, and they have ];een sup- 
posed indebted to two of the neighbouring 
nations, to the Phoenicians for the dyes, and 
to the Egyptians for the mode of applying 
them. So far as we can judge from the ac- 
count of the making of the tabernacle, the 
raw material was coloured and afterwards 
manufactured (xxxv. 25). And this was 
usual in Egypt. There is sufficient proof 
of the perfection to wdiich the Egyptian 
artists attained. They employed various 
vegetable and mineral substances. They 
were acquainted with mordants, which 
serve, as a bond of union between the dye 
and the substance to be dyed, to fix the 
colour; fully knowing the difference be- 
tween substantive colours, those which are 
at once permanent, and adjective, tho«e 
which are fugitive without some auxiliary 
process. The processes of dveing are re- 
presented in very minute detail on the 
Egyptian monuments; and specimens of 
their colouring, yet bright and fresh 
though of a very early age, still exist, 
proving their familiarity with the necessary 
chemical knowledge. See Wilkinson, Anc 
Egypt, vol. iii. chap. ix. pp. 131-133, edit. 1847. 
An interesting notice connected with this 
subject occurs in the New Testament (Acta 
xvi. 14). Lydia was a seller of purple 
either of the highly-valued dye procured 
from a shell-fish, Murex truncuhts, or, more 
probably, of cloth coloured with it. The 
Lydian women were famous for cultivating 
this art ; and inscriptions have been found 
at Thj-atira relating to the guild of the 
dyers of that city. 



E 



EAGLE. An unclean bird of the family 
talcomdoe, of the order Eaptores, forbidden 
to the Hebrews for food (Lev. xi. 13 ; Dent. 
XIV. 12). A distinct species must have been 
meant m these passages; possibly the 
Aqiala chrysaetos, or golden eagle, which is 
IJrSo P'T.^ Europe, Asia, North 

Airica, and North America, and was for- 
merly common in these islands, but is now 
round only in the mountainous parts of 
bcotlana and Ireland ; or the Aqaila heliaca 



or imperial eagle, very abundant In Svria, 
distujguished by a spot of white feathers 
on each shoulder. 

But the Hebrew word nesTier, 'eagle' in 
our translation, is ageneric term, including 
the species just mentioned with probably 
some others, and also vultures, the cognate 
Arabic term nasr commonly meaning vul- 
ture. Thus the Vultur fidvus, whicli is 
bald on the head and neck, is very likely 
tlie bird meant in Mic. i. 16. It is true tha^ 



230 



eagles become more or less bald in tjje 
moulting season; but a reference to them 
would not so well express the meaning of the 
prophet, or illustrate the custom of sha,v- 
in- the head as a sign of mournmg or ca- 
amitv Eagles are distinguished for their 
s-ze-the la?ger kinds measuring three and 
a-half f eet from the head to the tip of the 
tail, and expanding their wings seven or 
eight feet-their courage, and powers o. 
mint and of vision. They choose their 
abode where there are woody mountain* 
andloftv cliffs; a pair usually occupying a 
single district.' They are voracious a d 
prey on antelopes, hares, lambs, &c. Allu- 
Soii is made in scripture to their swiftness 
(Deut. xxviii. 49 ; 2 Sam. i. 23), their care of 
their voung (Deut.xxxii. il, 12), their moult- 
mT(M ciii. 5), their spreading their 
wings when they have seized their prey to 
bear it aloft (Jer. xlviii. 40), their placing 
Sr nests on high (xlix 16) &c The eag^e 
was an Assyrian symbol (Hab. i. 8), as tne 
A«=;vrian sculptures would seem to show : 
it^was adopted also by the Persians (comp. 
1=5 xlvi. 11), and by the Romans: hence 
the significance of our Lord's expression 
OIatt.°xxiv. 28 : Luke xvii. 37), though here 
doubtless, vultures were included. See 
Vulture. 
E'ANES a Esdr. ix. 21). 
EIR, BORING THE. If a servant did 
not choose to avail himself of his right 
of freedom after seven years, he was to be 
brought before the judges, and have his eai 
bored through with an awl (Exod. xxi. 2-6 , 
Deut XV. 12-17). See Serva^nTS. 

eIr E4RED, EARING. These words 
occur in five places in the authorized ver- 
sion (Gen. xlv^ 6 ; Exod. xxxiv 21 ; Deut 
xxi. 4 ; 1 Sam. viii. 12 ; Isai. xxx. 24). Ea, \ 
an old English term for plough; and the 
original is frequently so translated, e g. 
Deut. xxii. 10. We preserve one of the de- 
rivatives in arable, anciently eam&Ze, Lat. 
aro to plough. A trace of it also may per- 
haps be found in some other existing ^ords. 

EARNEST. Something given as a pledge 
for the performance of a specified bargain 
(Gen. xxxviii. 17). It must be observed that 
the earnest, properly speaking, is a part o£ 
the whole to be granted ; what remains, 
therefore, and is expected, is similar in 
kind to that already received. Thus the 
earnest of the Spirit (the Spirit itself Uing ^ 
the earnest) is that measure of grace vouch- j 
safedhere which shall be augmented and 
ripened into the fulness of grace hereafter 
(2 Cor. i. 22, V. 5 ; Eph. 1. 13, 14). 

E-vR-RING. Ear-rings were usually 
worn by the Hebrew women, and by the 
children of both sexes (Exod. xxxii. 2); 
whether bv the men is questioned. Asiatic 
n^ales certainlv have, in both ancient and 
modern times, very commonly worn ear- 
rin'^s ; and the presumption is that the 
male Hebrews would observe the same 
cu=tom Tbe original word generally tran s- 
lated 'ear-ring' is ambiguous, and may 
si^nifv an ornament for the ear or for the 
nose. ^ In Gen. xxxv. 4 ; Exod. xxxii. 2 it is 
=0 qualified as to mean clearly an ear-nng. 
In Gen. xxiv. 47 ; Prov. xi. 22 ; Isai. in. 21 ; 
Ezek. xvi. 12 it is as clearly a nose-jewel ; 



while in Judges viii. 24, 25; Job xlii. 11 ; i j 
Prov XXV 12 ; Hos. ii. 13 it is uncertain. 
Ear-rings were probably round ; so anothei 




AssjTian Ear-rings. 

1 7 From the sculptures. 8. Gold -srith pearls, 

found at Nimroud- 9, 9. Bronze. 

word, used in Numb. xxxi. 50 ; Ezek. xvi. 
12 implies. Being of gold, and of a consi- 
derable size, they were valuable. And then 
thev had often jewels or drops attached to 
them, as in Judges viii. 26, translated col- 
lars ' Isai. iii. 19, translated ' chains. Some- 
times thev were regarded as amulets, serv- 
ing a superstitious purpose; hence tliey 
were given up by Jacob's household (Gen. 
xxxv 4). In Isai. iii. 20, the ' ear-rings are 
properly amulets, and should be so trans- 
lated Probably the so-called 'ear-rmgs of 
Job xlii. 11, were simply rings. Ring money 
was in use among the Egyptians. _ 

EARTH. This word occurs m scripture 
in more than one sense. Sometimes it 
means ground, soil, or the matter of the 
earth, in Hebrew dddmah (2 Kings r. 
Another word, eretz, considered to imply 
low, is used for the world as distinguished 
from the heavens (Gem i. D, the dry land 
as opposed to the sea (10, 28) a country 
(xxi: 32, where our version has rightlj 
• land'), a field (xxiii. 15, where also land ). 
It occurs also in the phrase ' bowiua: to tue 



231 



[earth 




Egyptian Ear-rings, from originals in the British 
Museum, except the one marked a, which is from 
the collection at Alnwick Castle. 



earth* or 'the ground' (xxxiii. 3, xxxyii. 
10, xlii. 6), and for the earthy particles or 
scorice of metals (Psal. xli. 6), ' silver puri- 
fied in a workshop as to the earth,' i. e. from 
its dross, as Gesenius renders. By a com- 
mon figure of speech, 'the earth' is put 
for the inhabitants in Gen. xi. 1. In the 
New Testament especially, our translators 
have frequently retained the word 'earth' 
where Palestine is meant, and where ' land ' 
would have been a preferable rendering 
(e. g. Matt, xxiii. 35 ; James v. 17). 

For some notice of the work of creation, 
in which this planet was formed and pre- 
pared by the fingers of God for the habita- 
tion of man, and as the scene of his 
righteous dispensation of government, see 
Creation. 

The knowledge of the extent and distri- 
bution of the earth's surface can hardly 
have been much greater among the He- 
brews than among other neighbouring con- 
temporary peoples. They appear somewhat 
rudely to have reckoned four quarters ; and, 
as a person was supposed to look to the 
east, tlie south was at his right hand, the 
north at his left, and the west behind him. 
These terms were used without much exact- 



ness : the Isi'aelites, however, were not 
quite so ignorant as some learned men 
imagine, who accuse them of placing As- 
syria and Babylonia in the northnJer. iii. 18, 
vi. 22) ; the fact being that Assyrian and Ba- 
bylonian invasions came necessarily by way 
of the north into Judea. And, besides, they 
had in their sacred books that remarkable 
genealogy of nations (Gen. x.) which will 
always supply the most valuable materials 
for ethnographical research. Indications, 
too, there are, in various passages, of a se- 
cret wisdom, expressing Itself in language, 
possibly not altogether comprehended by 
those who employed it, which foresha- 
dowed future discovery ; of which we 
have a notable instance in Job xxvi. 7. 
Generally speaking, we may suppose the 
geographical knowledge of the Israelites, 
•acquired f roin the Egyptians, to have com- 
prised some considerable part of Africa, 
along the northern coast of the Mediterra- 
nean and that of the Red sea, of Western 
Asia the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, 
while their intercourse and alliance with 
the Tyrians would make them acquainted 
with some parts of Europe and the more 
eastern regions of Asia, as far at least as 
India, or l)y possibility even China. And 
in later times, when the tribes were dis- 
persed, and yet many of those who settled 
in distant countries were in the habit of 
resorting to Jerusalem at certain feasts, in- 
telligent communication would be kept up 
between widely-separated points, and great 
facilities would be furnished for making 
the gospel known throughout the world. 

The genealogy of nations (Gen. x.) has 
been referred to, and its value noticed, as 
showing how the earth was replenished 
with inhabitants after the deluge. It may 
be well to exhibit this to the eye of the 
reader. The following table is therefore 
given from Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 231-233, with a few variations. But it 
is necessary to premise that the names 
generally (many of them being in the plu- 
ral form) are those of tribes, not of indivi- 
duals, and that, whereas the same name 
appears sometimes in different positions, 
it must be understood that tribes of dif- 
ferent stocks came to inhabit the same 
locality ; in such cases, the country, rather 
than the inhabitants, would seem to be 
meant. And, further, from the migrations 
of various peoples, a single name may 
perhaps at different periods of time h£ Ve 
passed from one place to another. 

I. JAPHETH, representing the nationo of 
the north and west :— 
I. Gomer, the Cham art, Bactrians; 2nore 
probably the Cimmerians. 

1. Ashkenaz, Bhagce in Great Media. 

2. Riphath, Ripcean mountain tribes. 

3. Togarmah, inhabitants of the Tun- 

ric peninsula, or Crimea', some 
would have it Armenia. 

ii. Magog, the Scythians. 

iii. Madai, the Medes. 

iv. Javan, the lonians In Gree( /—marl. 

time countries. 

1, Elishah, Jlellas, the JEoIians. 

2. Tarshish, Tartessus in Spain ? 



EAUTHEN TESSELS.] Ei)t CrCa^tlfU Of 



232 



3. Kittim, Cyprus, iii which was a 

towu'Citium. 

4. Dudanim, the Daimkins in Italy; 

or the Dardani 1 
T. Tubal, the Tibareni \hi Northern 
ri. Meshech, the Jro^c7zi j Armenia, 
vii. Tiras, inhabitants of tlie Taurus. 
U. HAM, including the nations of the 
south :— 

I. Cush, tribes of Southern Africa and 
Arabia. 

1. Seba, Meroe in Ethiopia. 

2. Havilah, tribes near the Arabian 

Gulf. 

3. Sabtah, the Astabori, by th€ river 

Astaboras, or Tacazze, 

4. Raamah, Bhegma in Arabia. 

a. Sheba, Saba in Yemen, 

b. Dedan, tribes on the norih-icestern 

coast of the Arabiun GuJf, and 
also near the Persian Gulf, in 
■which is the island Daden. 

5. Sabtecha, In Ethiopia, Y>ev\\2i^i Ni- 

gritia. 
fi. Babel, Babylon. 

f. Erech, Orchoe, the modem Wurlca. 

8. Accad, Tell Ximroitd, or Akkerkuf ; 

but see Accad. 

9. Cain eh, probably iS'l^er, 

10. :j\ineveh, Nineveh, on the Tigris. 

11. Rehoboth-Ir, perhaps on the ea.^tern 

bank of the Euphrates, where some 
ruins still bear the name of Bar 
habeh. 

12. Calah, Kalah Slierghat. 

13. Eesen, Nimroud, or, according to 

Rawlinson, Selamiyeh. 

ii. Mizraim, Egypt, Epper and Lower. | 

1. Lndim, Letus, or Letopolis, in JuOV,'er | 

Egypt, or Mauritania ? j 

2. Anamim, perhaps Cynopolis, the '< 

to^xn oi Anubis in Middle Egypt ? i 
theX>e/ta? j 

3. Lehabim, the X?6?/a?zs. ' 

4. Kaphtuhim, Xapata, in the north 

of the province of Meroe. 

5. Pathrusim, the people of Upper 

Egypt, or the Thebaid. 

6. Casluhim, Chernnis or Paiwpolis, 

the chief town of a district of 
the Thebaid. : 
fl. Philistim, the Philistines. ' 

7. Caphtorira, Cuptos, in the Epper 

Thebaid. 

iii. Phut, Phaiat or Lybia, adjoining 

Egypt, or else Buto in the Delta. 

iv. Canaan, Syria, Phcenicia, and Pales- 

tine. ■ 

1. Sidon, Sidon, in Phoenicia. 

2. Heth, the Hittites, neai' Hebron, 

Beth-el, (fcc. 

3. The Jebusite, a tribe in and around 

Jerusalem. 

4. The Amorite, on both sides of the 

Jordan. 

5. The Girgasite, in the centre of Pa- 

lestine. 

6. The Hivite, in Shechem, and Gibeon, 

and near Hermon. 
1. The Arkite, Area in Phoenicia, at 
the north-west foot of the Leba- 
non, 

8. The Sinite, Sinnas, near Area. 

9. The Arvadite, the island Aradus, 



off the northern coast of PhoB' 
nicia. 

10. The Zemarite, Simyra, on the Eleu- 

therus. 

11. TheHamathite, Samath,Epiphania 

on the Orontes. 
r. Shem, representing the central parts 
of the ancient world :— 

i. Elam, Elymais, in Persia. 

ii. Asshur, Assyria. 

iii. Arphaxad, Arrapachitis, in North 

Assyria. 

(1) . Salah, his descendants spread on 

the eastern bank of the Tigi-is. 

(2) . Eber, and the sons of Eber, on the 

u-est of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

a. Peleg, in various parts of Arabia 

Desertal 

b. Joktan, the reputed ancestor of 

the Arabian tribes: there is a 
town called Kahtan to the 
north of Xedsheran. 

1. Almodad, in Arabia Deserta. 

2. Sheleph, the Salapeni, in Ye- 

men. 

3. Hazarmaveth, Hadramaut, in 

the south of Arabia. 

4. Jerah, the coast and mountain oj 

the iloon, near Hadramaut. 

5. Hadoram, the Adramitce, on the 

southern coast, adjoining Ha- 
dramaut. 

6. Ezal, Sanaa, the capital of Ye- 

men. 

7. Diklah, the ITincei, near Mecca ? 

8. Obal, the Avalites, near Bab-el- 

Mandeb ? 

9. Abimael, the Mali in Arabia? 

10. Sheba, the Sabeans, in the east- 

ern parts of Arabia. 

11. Ophir, on the southern or south- 

eastern coast of Arabial 

12. Havilah, tribes near the Persian 

Gulf 

13. Jobab, in Arabia Deserta 

iv. Lud, the Lydians, originally living 
in the highlands of Armenia. 

V. Aram, Aramcea, including northern 
Mesopotamia, Syria, and districts 
of Arabia, 

1. Ez, Ausitis, In the northern parts 

of Arabia Deserta, 

2. Hul, Golan, to the east of the Jor- 

dan, or possibly a district near 
lake naieh. 

3. Gether, Geshur, on the Orontes? 

4. Mash, the tribes of Mount Masius, 

who emigrated to Asia Minor, 
the Mysians. 

From these tribes, migrating and extend- 
ing themselves in the course of ages, have 
the nations of the earth sprung. 

EARTHEN VESSELS, EARTHENWARE. 
See Potter, Pottehy. 

EARTHQUAKE. Palestine has, in both 
ancient and modern times, been subjected 
to earthquakes ; so that, as we might natu- 
rally expect, there are many allusions in 
scripture to these convulsions ; particularly 
as they often occurred with some special 
interference of divine power, or accom- 
panying some great work in which the 
finger of God was to be peculiarly manifest 



233 



[ebex-ezeh 



Whetlier earthquakes, properly so called, 
were felt at the time of the destruction of 
Sodom (Gen. xix. 24-29), and at the descent 
of God on Sinai (Exod. xix. 16-19), is not per- 
fectly clear: the probahility is, especially in 
the former case, that they were. Then we 
have that which destroyed the men who 
joined in the rebellion of Korah (Numb, 
xvi. 28-34), that which occurred when Jona- 
than stormed the garrison of the Philistines 
(1 Sam. xiv. 15), that when Elijah stood be- 
fore the Lord inHoreb (1 Kings xix. 11, 12j, 
that in the reign of Uzziah (Amos i. 1 ; Zech. 
xiv. 5), those at our Lord's crucifixion and 
resurrection (Matt, xxvii. 51-54, xxviii. 2). 
The dreadful phenomena which accompany 
earthquakes furnish the sacred writers 
with various illustrations, often when de- 
scribing God's wonderful dealings, but also 
as shadowing forth political convulsions 
(Judges V. 4 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 8 ; Psal. xviii. 7, 
xlvi. 2 ; Tsai. v. 25, xxiv. 20 ; Joel iii. 16 ; 
Habak. iii. 6, 10; Ptcv. vi. 12, xi. 13). 

A terrible earthquake occurred in Syria 
Jan. 1, 1837. See, for a graphic description of 
; it and its calamitous results. Dr. Thomson, 
I Tlie Land and the Book, pp. 276-280. 

East. There are two Hebrew words used 
to express ' east,* sometimes placed together 
(as Exod. xxvii. 13). The more indefinite 
implies rising, i.e. of the sun, and seems 
sometimes to be almost synonymous with 
distant (Isai. xlvi. 11). The other term 
simply means in front. The Hebrews were 
considered, when describing the points of 
the compass, to be looking eastward. To say, 
therefore, that any place or object was be- 
fore them was equivalent to saying that it 
was to the east d Kings xi. 7, compared 
with Zcch. xiv. 4). 'The east' sometimes 
designates particular countries, as Mesopo- 
tamia, Chaldea, Arabia, lying eastward from 
Judea (Judges vi, 33, vii. 12) ; and with the 
article it is definitely the southern region 
I of Arabia (Gen. x. 30). So in the New Tes- 
' tament, when the article is used, some defl- 
: rite locality is meant (Matt. ii. 2). See arti- 
cle in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible. 

EASTER (probably from the Saxon aster, 
to rise). This word occurs in Acts xii. 4. 
In earlier English versions it was re- 
peatedly used for the Greek original term 
that signified passover. At the last revision 
this was left the only place iu which 
• Easter' was retained. 

EAST SEA (Numb, xxxiv. 3 ; Ezek. xlvii. 
18; Joel ii. 20; Zech. xiv. 8, marg). The 
Dead sea is to be understood. See Sea, 

EAST WIND. See Wind. 

EAT, EATING. See Meals. 

E'BAL (stone, stony).— 1. A descendant of 
Seir, the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23).— 2. One 
of the posterity of Eber (l Chron. i. 22). 
In Gen. x, 28 he Is called Obal. 

E'BAL (id.). A mountain in Palestine on 
which the Israelites were to build an altar, 
and write thereon the words of the law. 
Half the tribes were to stand here and de- 
nounce the curses upon transgressors, while 
over-against them the other six were to 
stand on mount Gerizim and to bless 
the people (Deut. xi. 29, 30, xxvii.). 
This was accordingly done, as we read, 
ty Joshua (Josh, viii, 30-35). Ebal and Ge- 



rizim are the two mountains bounding — 
Ebal on the north, Gerizim on the south— 
a beautiful valley, in which lies Shechem, 
the modern Nahlous. It has, however, been 
objected that the words of Moses (Deut. 
xi. 30) describe the mountains as over- 
against Gilgal, and also that those at She- 
chem are too far apart for the voice to be 
sufficiently heard from one to the other. 
These ol;jections are futile. The Canaanites 
are described as dwelling, and not the 
mountains situated, over-against Gilgal. 
They dwelt at Shechem too (Gen. xii. 6) : 
but Israel first met them as soon as they 
had crossed the Jordan. Besides, our trans- 
lation does not give the full force of the 
original. ' They lie beyond (or behind) the 
way toward the sunset ' is De Wette's ver- 
sion, clearly pointing to the centre of the 
land. And that the voice is audible from 
one of the Shechem mountains to the other 
has been proved again and again by actual 
experiment ; the valley at the eastern end 
being not more than 60 rods wide. Ebal is 
the higher summit, about 2,700 feet above 
the level of the sea, Gerizim 2,600 ; and, as 
Nablous is 1,672 feet above that level, Ge- 
rizim rises 928, Ebal 1,028, above the town. 
Some have said that Ebal is the more barren; 
but there seems really little difference be- 
tween the two. There are remains of old 
buildings on Ebal ; but they have not been 
fully examined. In regard to tlie law to 
be written on the stones there, it lias been 
questioned whether it was the whole law: 
it was more probably the blessings and 
cursings before prescribed. It has also 
been questioned whether the words were 
cut into the stones : they were more likely 
written on the plaster with which the stones 
were coated. Dr. Thomson says tliat he has 
seen such writing on or in cement more 
than 2,000 years old, still perfectly distinct 
(The Lund and the Book, pp. 470-472). See 

GERIZIil. 

E'BED (slave, servant).—!. The father of 
Gaal, who assisted the Shechemites against 
Abimelech (Judges ix. 26, 28, 30, 31, 35).— 
2. One of the descendants of Adin, who 
returned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra 
viii. 6). 

E'BED-ME'LECH (slave of the king). An 
Ethiopian eunuch at the court of Zedekiah, 
king of Judah. By his intervention Jere- 
miah was delivered from the dungeon-pit. 
For this he was assured that his life should 
be spared at the destruction of Jerusalem 
(Jer. xxiviii. 7-13, xxxix. 15-18). 

E'BEH (Job Iz 26, marg.). In the text we 
have ' swift ships' ; ' ships of desire' being 
also suggested. Gesenius inclines to ' skiffs 
of reedV i.e. the light boats made of the 
papyrus of the Nile. See Carey, The Book 
of Job, pp. 220, 442. 

E'BEN-E'ZER (stone of help). A memorial 
stone set up by Samuel after a victory over 
the Philistines, in acknowledgment of the 
Lord's help in the success (1 Sam. iv. 1, v. 1, 
vii. 12). It is not strange that we find the 
name in the first two places applied to the 
spot before the event whi^^h gave name to 
it occurred. The books of Samuel were not 
composed contemporaneously witli tlie cir- 
cumstances theyrecord. And a writer, liviJig 



I 



eber] KVCK^UX^ Qi 234 

shortly after, would naturally describe the the Mogul conguests in the 13th centurj 
rlace br the name yrhich had become so , after Christ, and sunk ultimately, two or 
note-worthy three centuries later, into complete rum. 

E'BER (the regiMi hevond ? a passer over 1) \ The present remains are upon and around a 
1 The «on of Salah, and great-grandson of conical hill about 150 feet above the cou- 
Shem (Gen x. 21, 24, 25, xi. 14, 17 ; jS'umb, ' tiguous plain. One wall, just at the brow 
xxiv 24 • I'chron. i. 18, 19, 25). He is called ' of this hill, maybe readily traced, enclosing 
Heber in Luke iii. 35. From him is most j an oval space of 800 yards by 400. There 
nrobablv derived the designation He- i are no vestiges of other encircling walls; 
BREvr Vhich see —2. A Benjamite a i hut they might very well have been ranged 
Chron' viii I'^X 3. A priest in the time of on the slope of the hill on ail sides but the 
Joiada (Xeii xii. 20). ! eastern, which abuts upon a hilly tract of 

There^are' two other names which ought . ground, and is but little elevated above the 
to be rendered Eber, but which are given adjacent country : see account in Dr. Smith's 
Heber (1 Chron v. 13,viii. 22) ; our version ' Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 472. The other 
not bein^ careful to distinguish names , Ecbatana (2 Mace. ix. 3) was the metropolis 
quite different in the original. See Heber. i of Media Magna, on the northern side of the 
EBI'A_S1PH (father of gathering). A Le- ; mountain Orontes, now EJivcnd. It was the 
viteflChron.vi. 23, 37, ix. 19, xxvi.l,marg.). : summer residence of the Persian kings 
See Abiasaph Asaph. from Darius Hystaspis, and later of the 

EBOXY a' dark, hard, stone-like (this ' Parthian monarchs. It is still an important 
idea the orisrinal word convevs) wood, Dios- '< city, containing from 20,nooto 30,000 mhabi- 
rniros ebeman, mentioned as brought with : tants, called Earaadan. The Jews pomt out 
ivory bv the men of Dedan to Tyre rTJ/ek. the tombs of Esther and Mordecai m the 
xxvli 15). The best quality comes from neighbourhood. ^ , . ^ , 

^outhern lndia and Ceylon. It is the centre | ECCLESIAS'TES. The name of this book, 
of the tree which furnishes the very black 1 Ecclesiastes, is derived from the Septuagint 
wood which is so much prized in ornamental ! version ; it being a Greek word signifynig 
carvings and inlavinsrs, and takes so fine a a preacher, one who addresses a pubUc as- 
poli^h Such centraf loffs mav be obtained sembly. The Hebrew title JTo/ieZef/i conveys 
from trees in Cevlon, two feet in diameter , nearly the same idea, intended to intimate 
and from ten to fifteen in length. There are preaching wisdom. 



other inferior species of the genus Dies- 
pyros ; and probably some so-called ebony 
is procured from trees of a different genus. 

EBRO'NAH (passage, sc. of the sea). One 
of the stations of the Israelites, nearly at 
the head of the Elanicic s-ulf iXumb. xxxiii. 
34, 35)- en-:^ii}:h ? Possibly there may have 
been a ford there. 

j:CA'XT7S (2 Esdr. xiv. 24\ 

ECBAT'AX'A, or ECBAT'AXE. A Median 
citv, mentioned only once in scripture 
(Ezra vi. 2, marsr., Aclimetha being given in 
the text) ; and even there it has been 



The book has generally been ascribed to 
Solomon as the author; and it is only of 

late years that any serious doubts have | 

been entertained upon the question. Some : 

of the Jewish rabbis, it is true, advanced ! 

different opinions ; and Grotius in more \ 

modern times denied the Solomonic author- ■ , 
ship. The general belief, however, was j 

little disturbed by these exceptions. It is : : 

allowed on all hands that the writer repre [ ! 

sents himself as Solomon. He does not, ' j 

indeed.take the very name of the wise king ; : \ 
but, when he says ' I, the preacher, was king ' 



doubted whether the word does not rather ; overlsrael m Jerusalem (i. 12),he sufficiently 
mean in a coffer, treasury, or record- ! indicates whom he means, there being aftei 
' I Solomon no king who reigned oxer Israel 

There were two cities which bore the . in Jerusalem. The question, therefore, is 
name of Ecbatana. These are sometimes , whether Solomon literally was the writer, 
confounded; and, indeed, as they vere ' or whether his nape is assumed as persom- 
no verv great distance afart, it is by no : fying that high intellectual faculty which 
mean^'eaV to decide which of them an specially distuiguished the gifted son of 
author refers to. One was the capital of , David. There are many examples m litera- 
Xorthern Media, or Media Atropatene ; ture of some eminent man being chosen, 
and it has been identified by Sir H. : into whose mouth sentiments agreeing 
Hawlin==on with the ruins of Ta.TcMA-Sum- i with his known character are placed. The 
man According? to Herodotus (Kh. i. capp. Cato ^lajor of Cicero is an instance ; and 
98 99 153) this dtv was built by Deioces, the paral.les of scripture are of a similar 
and =ur?ounded bv seven circles of walls, ^ cast. Why then, it is asked, why should 
each inner circle I'espectively over-topping not an inspired writer, commissioned to 
the one next to it externally, and differently : teach moral truth, have allowed himself the 
coloured Sir H. Rawlinson believes this ^ same licence, in order to give a form and 
to be a true description, and thinks that the clothing to the instructions he had t^ con> 
puriio4 was to place the city under the: vey? Different answers will undoubtedly 
protecaon of the seven planets ; their sym- be given to such a question. Modern critics 
bolical colours being used perhaps in the , are not content with rejecting the Solo. 
o?dei black white, orange, blue, scarlet, ' monic authorship : they would carry aown 
silver gold This Ecbatana it probably the date of Ecclesiastes to a very low period 
wa« beiu? said to be the capital of Cyrus, indeed, after the captivity, to the Persifm. 
where till roll spoken of bv Ezra was nay, to the Macedonian, rule Many of the 
found Aud it s mentioned in some of the arguments they urge are of little weight. 
apo?rn^hal hooks (Tob. iii. 7 ; Judith i. l-4\ , Thus Bleek, enumerating the reasons on 
U continued an important place down to , >vhich he forms his opinion, says th'it the 



235 



reference to maBy books (xii. 12) is a proof 
of the lateness of the composition (Einleit- 
ung in das A. T., pp. 642, 643). And yet early 
Israelitish history shows that books were 
not few : witness the annalists of the va- 
rious reigns, from Samuel, Nathan, and 
Gad, downwards (1 Chron, xxix. 29): witness 
more especially the wise king himself, who 
was a voluminous writer (1 Kings iv. 32, 33) ; 
in whose mouth, therefore, the observation 
in question would be specially appropriate. 
Bleek argues, further, that passages like 
iv. 13-16, V. 8, viil 1, &c., X. 4, 16, &c.,20, de- 

- scribe a time when the people were op- 
pressed, when they paid a reluctant obe- 
dience to kings not of their own hereditary 
stock, but of a foreign rule. One is tempt- 
ed to ask. Well, and what then? Granted 
that it was so, what does the fact prove 
against the Solomonic authorship? Can 
any man of the most ordinary habits of re- 
flection imagine that Solomon had no eyes 
but for what happened in Palestine? Was 
he quite ignorant of revolutions occurring 
elsewhere in his days? And why should he 
not refer to these? The fact is that we 
know there was much oppression, even by 
Solomon himself (1 Kings xii. 4) ; of which 
he might become in his later days pai)if ully 
conscious ; that there were troubles stirred 
up against him (xi. 23-40) ; and that there 
was a change of dynasty in Egypt dur- 
ing his reign, which from his Egyptian 
alliance must have forced itself particularly 
upon Solomon's notice, the sovereign whose 
daughter he married being believed to be 
of the 21st dynasty, under which the 
country seems to have fallen into anarchy, 
while Shishak (Sheshonk) was of the 22nd. 

These facts will sufficiently account for 
the expressions in Eccleslastes, without any 
necessity for travelling down to Persian or 
Macedonian misrule. Passing from argu- 
ments like those just noticed, we may look 
at some which it is fair to say are of greater 
weight. Thus the preacher says (i. 16, ii. 9) 
that he attained to greater wisdom and 
more magnificence than all that w^ere in 
Jerusalem before him. Now Jerusalem had 
become an Israelitish town not very long 
before Solomon's time ; and David was the 
only king there that preceded him. To say 
the least, the assertion in Solomon's mouth 
is somewhat perplexing, Tlien the diction 
of the book is taken to prove its late com- 
position. It must be acknowleged that in 
this respect Eccleslastes differs from Pro- 
verbs. And, as both books are didactic, the 
language, if from the same pen, might be 
expected to be similar. Critics have col- 
lected examples of late Aramaisms, philo- 
sophical expressions, abstract forms, &c., 
which they think conclusive against the 
Solomonic authorship. But it is fair to put 
against them the judgment of Professor 
Preston, whose Hebrew learning well 
qualifies him to speak: ' The Chaldee, Ara- 
bic, and Hebrew, having all emanated from 
the same source, it is manifestly impossible 
to pronounce with certainty on a word 
occurring in so confessedlj- an ancient book 
as Eccleslastes, that it belongs to either of 
the two former, and not to the latter ; be- 
cause, the further we trace these dialects 

,1 



back, the greater will be their similarity ; 
and even supposing some of the words . . . . 
to be foreign and Aramaic .... Solomon 
may easily have acquired them through his 
constant intercourse with the neighbour- 
ing nations, or from his foreign wives, 
especially as this Ijook w^as written late in 
life' (The Hebrew Text and a Latin Version 
of the Book of Solomon called Ecclesiastes, pp. 
7, 8). It must be added that there are pe- 
culiar phrases and expressions occurring 
in Ecclesiastes which are also found in 
Proverbs : by some this fact will be taken 
to prove an identity of authorship ; while 
others will see only a careful study by the 
writer of Ecclesiastes of Solomon's acknow- 
leged works. Decision in this matter is 
not easy: if the evidence be thought con- 
vincing against the Solomonic authorship, 
it must be held equally conclusive against 
an earlier date than the exile; but by no 
means can this book be placed later than 
the time of Nehemiah or Malachi. 

The scope of Ecclesiastes is indicated in i. 
2, and xii. 13. It is an enquiry into the chief 
good of man, and is distributed by Keil into 
four discourses {Einleitung, § 131). The first 
Ci., ii.), exhibits (1) the vanity of theoretical 
wisdomdirected to the knowledge of things, 
and (2) the nothingness of practical wis- 
dom which aims at enjoying life; the 
result being that man with all his striving 
can attain no lasting good. The second 
(iii.-A'.), following the idea thrown out in ii. 
21, 26, begins with a description (iii. 1-8) of 
man's entire dependence on a higher un 
changeable providence, and, in reply to 
the question of the chief good, shows that 
there can be no higher (iii. 9-22) than self en- 
joyment and benevolence ; which however 
(,iv.) it is not easy to attain; still one must.in 
the fear of God and a conscientious fulfil- 
ment of duty, seek trustingly and content- 
edly to use earthly goods. In the third 
discourse (vi. l-viii.l5), is shown the vanity 
of grasping riches (vi.) : practical wisdom 
is then described (vii. 1-22), and the mode 
of attaining it indicated, spite of the in- 
congruities of earthly life (vii. 23-viii. 15). 
The last (viii. 16-xii. 7), further discusses 
these incongruities, lays down rules for 
the conduct of a happy life, which may 
please God, and brings us to the conclusion 
of the whole (xii. 8-14), that a future judg- 
ment will clear up all present uncertainties. 
This is the great objecu the author intends 
to develope : he argues at first on lower 
principles, to show their imperfection, not 
prematurely expressing the whole truth 
(comp. iii. 21), but reserving that till he has 
raised by degrees the view to that 
high tribunal Avhere every wrong will be 
redressed. The style of this book is loose 
and unconnected, with little poetical cha- 
racter. It was one of the megilloth read, 
we are told, by the Jews at the feast of 
tabernacles. Professor Preston's Text, Ac, 
of Ecclesiastes has been already referred to : 
some devotional commentaries as those by 
Buchanan, Eccles. its Meaning and its 
Lessons, and by Bridges. Expos, of the Book of 
Eccles., may also be usefully consulted. 

ECCLESIAS'TICUS. This is tlie title 
given in the Latin version to • the Wisdom 



eclipse] 



2b0 



of Jesus the son of Sirach,' which has often 
been regarded and cited as a genuine work 
of Solomon. Solomon's, however, it cannot 
be ; for the division of the kingdom after 
his death, and the sins of Israel deservedly 
punished by the captivity, are recorded m 
xlvii. 13-25 (comp. xlviii.-l.) ; nor was it ever 
admitted into the Jewish canon. _ 

The notices in the book itself and m the 
prologues show that it was the work of one 
Jesus, a Palestinian J ew,who was thorough- 
ly conversant with the Old Testament, and 
had collected many wise maxims, some 
perhaps ascribed to Solomon, all which 
he blended with observations of his o^vn, 
in order to produce an ethical treatise 
which might be useful to his countrymen. 
This work was not finished when he 
died and left it to his son, from whom it 
passed to his son, another Jesus. This 
last reduced it to order, translated, and 
published it. 

There seems nothing to throw serious 
doubt upon this statement : and then the 
question is to ascertain the date of the com- 
position. Now, there are two indications of 
this ; but each involves a difficulty. For the 
grandson savs he came into Egypt in the 
reign of Euergetes ; but there were two of 
the Ptolemies who bore that title. And 
(1. 1) Simon the high priest, son of Onias, 
is commended ; but there were two high 
priests named Simon, and the father of 
each was Onias. The first of these Simons 
(about 310-290 B.C.) was the more distin- 
guished man, and bore the appellation of 
the Just. It is the most reasonable suppo- 
sition that he is the person commended; 
and then, as it would seem that Jesus the 
grandson A'isited Egypt in the thirty-eighth 
year of the reigning king, and this caii 
apply only to Ptolemy Physcon, the second 
Euergetes, who, including his usurpation, 
reigned 169-117 B.C., we may suppose that 
the translation was made about 130, B.C. and 
the original compilation perhaps 180. b c. 
This conclusion will still be most probable, 
if we believe that the 38th year spoken of 
was that of the writer's ago, not of a king s 
reign. The Talmud mentions a Ben Sira, 
the author of a moral book which it classes 
under one division of sacred writings. 
Some of the sentiments there quoted from 
Ben Sira resemble passages in Ecclesiasti- 
cus; but, though by this name doubtless 
Sirach is meant, no satisfactory conclu- 
sion can hence be reached. The alphabetical 
collections of proverbs still extant ascri- 
bed to Ben Sira are probably later compi- 
lations ; and perhaps we may most reason- 
ably suppose that the reputation of the son 
of Sirach caused various maxims of wisdom 
resembling his genuine production to be 
attributed to him. The original language 
of Ecclesiasticus was either Hebrew, or the 
Syro-Chaldaic vernacular of Palestine. Cer- 
tain mistakes in the Greek text sufficiently 
prove this. This original, possibly seen by 
Jerome, has disappeared ; but three ancient 
versions (besides the Greek) have been 
printed, in Syriac, Arabic, and Latin ; and 
there appears to be another Syriac trans a- 
tion yet only in manuscript, at Milan. 1 ne 
Greek te,^t is not in a very satisfactory 



state : the readings and arrangement differ 
in various MSS. and editions. 

Ecclesiasticus is a book of very consider- 
able value, frequently cited in the church 
bv honourable names, and, though not a 
part of canonical scripture, yet occasionally 
read in the service of the English church. 
There is a general resemblance in it to tjie 
book of Proverbs ; from which, as well as 
' other sources, the compiler borrowed. But 
topics are sometimes discussed more con- 
nectedly and at greater length than by 
Solomon. There is little definite order, 
however, in the work; nor would it be easy 
to arrange its contents. The best division 
is that which distinguishes three parts: 
I. A commendation of wisdom, with pre- 
cepts of general application for the regula- 
tion of life (i.-xliii.^ ; IL An encomium on 
the patriarchs, prophets, and other Hebrew 
worthies (xliv.-l.) ; IIL A prayer and exhor- 
tation to the pursuit of wisdom (1.) The 
style is poetical ; and there is much acute- 
ness of thought and beauty of expression 
in this work. Reference to it has been 
supposed in the New Testament (e. g. 
James i. 19 to v. 10, 11 ; Luke xii. 19 to xi. 
18 19) ; but such reference is more than 
doubtful. The fathers, from the end of the 
second century, repeatedly cite it. 
i ECLIPSE. An eclipse of the sun is occar 
sioned by the interposition of the moon 
between the sun and the earth : it occurs 
therefore at new moon. So that the dark- 
ness at our Lord's crucifixion, the passover 
being just after full moon, was not occa- 
sioned bv an eclipse of the sun. An eclipse 
: of the moon is when the earth is interposed 
■ between the sun and moon, and the latter, 
being then of course at the full, passes 
! through the earth's shadow. The sun when 
I totally eclipsed appears black : the moon 
! in total eclipse does not disappear, but as- 
I sumes a reddish colour ; hence the pro- 
I priety of the scripture language : ' The sun 
I shall be turned into darkness, and the 
i moon into blood' (Joel ii. 31 ; Acts ii. 20; 
Rev vi. 12), to signify civil and ecclesiasti- 
cal changes. Eclipses are not distinctly 
mentioned in the bible ; but allusions are 
not unfrequently made to them by the pro- 
phets. And it has been calculated that 
eclipses actually occurred about the times 
when such allusions were made. Thus, 
Archbishop Ussher, Annals, 3213 A.M., 
notes three great eclipses of the sun : June 
24, 791 B.C. at pentecost ; Nov. 8, 771 B.C. at 
the feast of tabernacles ; May 5, 770 B.C. at 
the feast of unleavened bread, and connects 
Amos viii. 8, 9, 10 therewith, Amos prophe- 
sying about that time. Hitzig speaks of a 
total eclipse visible at Jerusalem shortly 
after noon in the days of the same prophet, 
Feb 9, 784 B.C. There was also an eclipse 
June 5, 716 B.C. in the time of Isaiah and 
Micah (see Isai. xiii. 10 ; Mic. iii. 6) ; and one 
Sept. 30, 610 B.C. (see Jer. xv. 9 ; Ezek. xxxu. 

^'eD (tuitness). This word is introduced 
into the authorized version as the name of 
the altar erected by the trans-Jordanic 
tribes : it appears in some MSS., but is not 
in the received Hebrew text (Josh, xxiu 
34) • the exact translation of which is 



237 



[eden 



•And tliey named the altar, 'because it is a 
witness between us that Jehovah is the 
God ' (comp. xxiv. 27). 

E'DAR (flock). The tower of Edar was a 
place where Jacob encamped after leaving 
Beth-lehem (Gen. xxxv. 21). It is said by 
Jerome to have been about a mile from 
that town. In Mic. iv. 8* marg., a tower of 
Edar is also mentioned ; but that, being in 
apposition with ' the strong-hold of the 
daughter of Zion,' must have been close 
upon Jerusalem. 

EDDI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 26). A corrupted 
form of Jeziah (Ezra x. 25). 

E'DEN (pleasantness). A Levite in the 
time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12, xxxi. 
15). 

E'DEN (id.).—l. The region in which the 
garden of paradise was planted (Gen. ii. 8). 

Few questions have more perplexed cri- 
tics and commentators than the determi- 
nation of the site of Eden ; so that almost 
every quarter of the world known or un- 
known has had its advocates, anxious to 
prove it the happy land. It would be neither 
instructive nor interesting to enumerate 
the various conjectures which have been 
liazarded ; and indeed such an enumeration, 
to be complete, would require a very consi- 
derable space. The curious reader may 
find enough to satisfy him in the ' tabular 
view ' of ' principal opinions ' furnished by 
Dr. Kalisch (Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 100- 
102). When learned men have so widely 
differed it becomes an individual to ex- 
press himself with diffidence. No dogmatic 
opinion therefore will be here propounded : 
and only some general considerations 
urged which may probably tend to a defi- 
nite notion not inconsistent with the truth 
of the scripture record. 

The sacred penman is giving a literal ac- 
count. Had he been writing allegorically, 
he would hardly, in so compendious a state- 
ment, have descended to such particular 
details, mentioning not only certain rivers, 
but the countries through which they 
flowed, and the very productions of the 
lands they watered. Keither would he 
have introduced among imaginary streams 
one so well known, and conveying so 
thoroughly the notion of fact, as the Eu- 
phrates. The theory, moreover, is unsatis- 
factory, which supposes Eden to have had 
its great features altered by the deluge so 
as to be now unrecognizable. The his- 
torian speaks in the present tense. He 
does not describe a region lying perhaps 
when he wrote at the bottom of the ocean, 
but one which men might, by the marks he 
gave them, then identify. 

Let us see, then, what the narrative may 
fairly be taken to mean. Doubtless a 
popular notion is that there was a single 
stream which watered the garden of para- 
dise, and that, being divided perhaps just 
after it left it, it formed four great rivers, 
the names and descriptions of which are 
thereupon precisely given. And then, 
as it is supposed that four rivers may be 
found— possibly the Phasis, the Araxes', the 
Tigris, and the Euphrates— rising no great 
distance from each other, it is concluded 
either that there is a communication be- 



tween them, or that originally they flowed 
from a common source, though now, by 
some change in the earth's surface, thev 
have their independent streams. It is easy 
then to imagine some place on the water- 
shed near the heads of these rivers as the 
spot where paradise was. But tliis notion 
will hardly satisfy the conditions of the 
case. Great rivers may divide near their 
mouths ; but we do not usually find, perhaps 
not a single example precisely in point can 
be produced of one fountain breaking out 
into several great streams, which flow so 
far as to be justly said to 'compass' ex- 
tended territories. Besides,the four heads,' 
into which it is stated the 'river' first 
spoken of ' was parted,' are afterwards de- 
nominated rivers themselves, as if each 
were independent (Gen. ii. 10-14). There 
would seem, therefore, no impropriety in 
assuming with some eminent critics that 
the word translated 'river' (10), is used 
collectively, implying that, not one alone, 
but various streams rising in Eden contri- 
buted, all or some of them, to water para- 
dise, and that of these streams, divided off 
not by physical separation, but rather by 
geographical apportionment, four capital 
ones are specified, all of which, though tra- 
velling far, and watering great countries, 
were really rivers of Eden. For it is no- 
where asserted, or even hinted, that Eden 
was a small district. PLather we may believe 
it some vast region, of which the garden, 
carefully said to be in the eastern part of it, 
was a very inconsiderable portion. If this 
be allowed, much of the difficulty disap- 
pears. It is substantially the view of Bush, 
argued with much good sense (Notes on Gen- 
esis, -pp. 44-47). 'The historian's meaning is 
simply,' he says, ' that from the beginning 
four considerable rivers .... flowed over 
or along the pleasant land of Eden, by means 
of which, or some of their branches, the en 
closure of the garden was watered and 
fertilized .... that afterwards .... geo- 
graphical distinctions arose, the extensive 
tract was divided into minor portions, and 
the rivers were "parted," that is, assigned 
in geographical reckoning to particular dis- 
tricts or territories embraced in the larger 
original whole. These .... were after- 
wards known by the names which he pro- 
ceeds to specify, and by the designation of 
which he would help the reader to under- 
stand the true topography of the primitive 
Eden. As to a physical partition or division 
of a single river into different channels or 
courses, it is by no means necessarily im- 
plied in the import of the original word. It 
is the proper term for expressing that kind 
of conventional allotment which we under- 
stand by it.' 

In endeavouring to identify the four 
rivers, the great difficulty is in respect to 
Pison, and Gihon. The former is said to 
compass the land of Havilah. Where, then, 
was Havilah, the land of gold so good, of 
bdellium and the onyx-stone? It would 
seem that there was a region thus named 
inhabited by descendants of both Ham and 
Shem (Gen. x. 7, 29) ; and in one of these pas- 
sages Havilah is in juxta-position with 
Ophir. The region, therefore, must havo 



EIjc Cr^a^ttry at 238 



edeb] 



been far to the east, lying perhaps upon 
the Persian gulf, and extending, it may be, 
to India. If so, there could he nothing un- 
reasonable in imagining that the great 
river Indus is intended. The Gihon com- 
passes the land of Ethiopia or Gush ; by the 
term Cush the districts on both sides the 
Arabian gulf or Red sea being understood. 
It has therefore been supposed that the 
Gihon is the Nile. And, as this supposition 
is adopted by Bush, he conceives, since 
Hiddekel is confessedly the Tigris, and 
Euphrates sufficiently known, that Eden 
must have comprehended ' the fairest por- 
tion of Asia, besides a part of Africa .... 
Cabul, Persia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Syria, 
Arabia, Abyssinia, and Egypt.' 

From this conclusion of course many 
will dissent. And, indeed, it seems little 
j likely that the Nile should this once be de- 
signated by the name of Gihon, a name not 
again recurring, though repeatedly again 
in the Pentateuch the Nile is mentioned or 
referred to. Besides, the extent ascribed 
to Eden seems too vast, comprehending 
well-nigh all the countries that could be 
said to be known at the time when the Pen- 
tateuch was written. And many will be 
! disposed to object to the interpretation 
! given of the parting of the 'river' first 
! mentioned into the ' four heads.' In truth, 
1 as above admitted, no certainty can at pre- 
■ sent be arrived at ; and the identification 
of Eden will probably continue one of 
those interesting problems to which in- 
genious men will apply themselves without 
producing conviction in any minds but 
their own. 

Still, as before said, there are some con- 
clusions which we may reach. That the 
Tigris and the Euphrates flowed through 
Eden cannot be doubted. We must look 
for it, therefore, in contiguity to those 
streams. And that it was far larger than 
the happy garden it is reasonable to be- 
lieve. For Adam and Eve, when expelled 
from the garden, were not ejected from 
Eden. We may fairly gather that Cain was 
the first of the sons of men who left Eden ; 
i and he went farther east (iv. 16). But 
j the great extension of Eden from the spot 
' he quitted must have been westward ; as it 
was in the east of Eden that the garden 
was planted. Large limits seem therefore 
required. And perhaps the research of fu- 
ture explorers may, within those limits, 
discover rivers, in some part of their course 
at least, answering better the descriptions 
of Pison and Gihon than any at present 
fixed on. Around Mesopotamia and Baby- 
lonia the circle must be drawn. But the 
' attempt to identify any one particular spot 
with the garden of paradise seems abso- 
lutely hopeless. The two must not be, as they 
so frequently are, confounded. Eden may 
be known ; while the garden is for ever 
hidden. See Paradise. 

2, A region, the children or inhabitants 
of which had been subdued by the Assy- 
rians (2 Kings xix. 12 ; Isai. xxxvii, 12). It 
is also mentioned as having had commer- 
cial intercourse with Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 23). 
There are various conjectures as to this 
locality. Some would identify itwith M'adon 



in the modern province of Diarbekr ; others 
suppose it Aden (Winer, Bihl. RWB., art. 
' Eden, 3'). But, as we find it connected with 
Gozan and Haran, we may fairly believe 
that it was somewhere in the north-western 
part of Mesopotoraia. See Telassab. 

3. A place near Damascus, perhaps a coun- 
try residence of the king (Amos i. 5). See 
Beth-eden. Dr. Robinson imagines that 
the ruined village JUsieh el-Eadimeh, on 
the eastern slope of Anti-libanus, north 
of Damascus, may mark its site {Bibl. Res. 
in Pal, vol. iii., app. p. 171). 

E'DER (flock). A Levite descended from 
Merari (1 Chron. xxiii. 23. xxiv, 30). 

E'DER {id.'). A city in the extreme south 
of Judah (Josh. XV. 21). Wilton is inclined 
to identify it with Arad, supposing that 
there has been a transposition of the letters 
{The Negeb, pp. 73, 74). 

E'DES (1 Esdr. ix. 35). A corrupted form 
of Jadan (Ezra x. 43). 

ED'NA (Tob. vii. 2, 8, 14, 16, viii. 12, x. 
12, xi. 1). The wife of Raguel. 

E'DOM {red). This name appears to have 
been adopted from the sale by Esau of his 
birth-right to Jacob for a mess of pottage. 
It was the red pottage, made of lentiles, 
which Esau in his hungry haste desired ; 
and such a sacrifice for such a paltry benefit 
might well infix a name upon him (Gen. 
XXV. 29-34). The appellation -was the more 
appropriate because of the hairy redness 
of Esau at his birth (25). But it does not 
seem to have been used as a personal name : 
it was rather that of his descendants, and 
of the country in which they settled. Esau 
had married three wives, and had by them 
five sons born in the land of Canaan (xxxvi. 
4, 5). He had become aware that Canaan 
was to be the possession of the posterity 
of his brother Jacob, who, as now having 
the birth-right , would have the largest share 
of his father Isaac's wealth. Esau accord- 
ingly removed to mount Seir (6-8). We may 
suppose this removal to have taken place 
before Jacob's flight into Mesopotamia. 
It is not so likely that Esau would have 
migrated during his brother's absence ; and 
that he was occupying Seir before Jacob's 
return is distinctly asserted (xxxii. 3, xxxiv. 
14-16). The reasonable conclusion is that, 
in the years succeeding Esau's marriages, 
before Jacob's offence of fraudulently ob- 
taining the blessing had been committed, 
and the two were friends, he had wil- 
lingly retired (See Kalisch, Comm. on Old 
Test. Gen., pp. 595, 596). 

The country where Esau settled was 
mount Seir, a rugged tract, east of the 
great valley of the Arabah : see Seir. It 
was previously inhabited by the Horites 
(Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20). But when the 
Edomites multiplied they extirpated the 
Horites and appropriated their country 
(Deut. ii. 4, 8, 12). Wilton, however, distin- 
guishes between Seir and mount Seir, and 
believes that the Seir in which Esau 
dwelt at Jacob's return was the country 
afterwards occupied by the Amalekites, 
still in its eastern part called es-Serr {The 
Negeb, p. 73, note 1). 

And the Edomites soon did multiply. 
The five sons expanded into thirteen fa- 



239 



[educattox 



milies (Gen. xxxvi. 9-14). And then these 
families became clans, one (that of Korah) 
being reckoned twice over, or in two divi- 
sions, because, though Korah was the son 
of one of Esau's wives, some o£ his descend- 
ants probably intermarried with the de- 
scendants of another (15-19). There was 
yet another step. Kings reigned in Edom 
long before the promise was fulfilled to 
Jacob that kings should come out of his 
loins (XXXV. 11). Eight Edomitishmonarchs 
are enumerated (xxxvi. 31-39), besides the 
dukedoms or powerful tribes (40-43), from 
which, as Kalisch imagines, the kings might 
be elected. It is clear that Edom had 
grown into a populous and warlike state. 

The Israelites were forbidden to appro- 
priate any of the Edomitish territory (Deut. 
ii. 5). Consequently they asked permission 
to pass through it, promising to do no 
injury. This, however, the king refused 
(Numb. XX. 14-21) ; so that, instead of cross- 
ing immediately tiirough Edom, Israel had 
to go round along its frontier (xxi. 
4 ; Judges xi. 18). No friendly intercourse, 
therefore, was to be expected between the 
nations. Still we have not any account of 
actual hostilities till the time of Saul 
(1 Sam. xiv. 47). David subdued Edom ; 
but so determined was the resistance that 
Joab had to keep military possession of the 
country for many months, destroying all 
the males bearing, or able to bear, arms 
(see Keii, Comm. on Kings, transl, vol. i., 
p. 195) ; and strong garrisons were placed 
among the conquered people to secure their 
obedience (2 Sam. viii. 14; 1 Kings xi. 15, 
16 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 19, 20 ; Psal. Ix. 8, 9). 
Thus was the prediction fulhlled that ' the 
elder' should * serve the younger' (Gen. 
XXV. 23). By this conquest David obtained 
possession of Elath and Ezion-geber, open- 
ing a way for the commerce by the Red sea, 
which Solomon afterwards so remarkably 
extended (1 Kings ix. 26; 2 Chron. viii. 
17). The kings of Judah, after the disrup- 
tion of the monarchy,held Edom a long time, 
governing it by a vassal prince (1 Kings xxii. 
47; 2 Kings iii. g). In the reign of Joash, how- 
ever, the Edomites revolted, and, after a 
desperate struggle, established their inde- 
pendence (viii. 20-22 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 8-10) ; 
accomplishing another divine prediction 
(Gen. xxvii. 40). Amaziah invaded Edom 
and took Sela (2 Kings xiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 
11, 12) ; and TJzziali recovered Elath (2 
Kings xiv. 22 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 2) ; but this 
place was no long time after occupied by 
the Syrians, or possibly by the Edomites (2 
Kmgs xvi. 6) ; and the Edomites were 
strong enough to invade Judah in the reign 
of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 17). We then hear 
ittle of Edom till the time of the Baby- 
lonian conquests, when this country, too. 
It was foretold, should fall under the great 
King (Jer. xxvii. 3, xlix. 7-22 ; Ezek. xxxv. 2- 
lo ; Amos i. li, 12). And it is marked as a 
great aggravation of Edom's guilt and 
punishment, that they rejoiced at and 
forward the calamity of Judah 
(Obad.). The enmity of the two nations 
survived the captivity. The Edomites had 
occupied the southern part of Palestine, 
including Hebron ; but they were defeated 



by Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace. v. 3, 65), and 
ultimately subjected by John Hyrcanus, 
who compelled the people to conform to the 
Mosaic law(Joseph., Antiq., lib. xii. 8, § 6, xiii. 
9, § 1). They were afterwards governed by 
Jewish prefects ; one of whom, an Idumean 
by birth, Antipater, obtained the authority 
over Judea (47 B.C.) ; and his son was Herod 
the Great (See Winer, Bibl. EWB., art. 
' Edom, Edomiter'). 

The country of Edom lay (as already ob- 
served), to the east of the Arabah. It con- 
sists of limestone hills, with red and 
variegated sandstone cliffs and ridges, 
marked by that peculiar ruddy tinge of 
colour so consonant with the name of 
Edom. In the recesses of these hills are 
deep and fertile glens (Gen. xxvii. 39), pre- 
senting a remarkable contrast to the bare 
and parched plains east and west (see Porter 
in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i, p. 488). 
This was Edom Proper, about 100 miles 
long by 20 broad, divided from Moab by 
the brook Zered (Deut. ii. 13, 14, 18) ; but 
the region south of Palestine, formerly the 
country of the Amalekites (now the desert 
of et-Tlh), was afterwards occupied by 
Edom. And, while Edom Proper became 
the seat of the Nabatheans, and was called 
Arabia, the western portion, under the 
Greek name Idumea, comprehended the 
country between the Arabah and the Medi- 
terranean, south of Palestine, and even 
including portions of the last-named coun- 
try. The ancient capital of Edom was 
Bozrah, afterwards Sela, or Petra, which 
subsequently was the city of the Nabatheans, 
to whom the extraordinary remains now 
existing belong. These were first explored 
in modern times by Burckhardt, 1812 a.d. 
See Sela. The traffic and caravan-trade 
through this country was large. 

E'DOMITES (Gen. xxxvi. 9,43; 1 Kings 
xi. 14 ; 2 Kings viii. 21 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 12, 
1-3; 2 Chron. xxi. 8, 9, 10, xxv. 19). See 
Edom. 

ED'REI {Strong)—!. One of the chief cities 
in Bashan, the residence of Og, at or near 
which occurred the decisive battle in which 
Og was destroyed. Edrei, with the sur- 
rounding territory, was allotted to the half- 
tribe of Manasseh (Numb. xxi. 33 ; Deut. i. 
4, iii. 10 ; Josh. xii. 4, xiii. 31). It has been 
supposed to be on the site of the modern 
Der'a ; but Mr. Porter more satisfactorily 
identifies it with Edr'a, on a rocky promon- 
tory at the south-west corner of the Lejah 
(Trachonitis). There are extensive ruins 
here: the present inhabitants, about 50 
families, occupy some of the massive old 
houses. It was an episconal see in early 
Christian times.— 2. A town in Naphtali, near 
to Kedesh (J osh. xix. 17). Mr. Porter would 
identify it with some ruins on a rocky 
hill two miles south of Kedesh. 

EDUCATION. We have little definite in- 
formation in scripture as to the formal 
modes of educating children ; but we must 
conclude, from the attainments which we 
find incidentally noticed of various indi- 
viduals, that there had been preparatory 
training. Thus the inscribing of the pre- 
cepts of the law upon the posts of the 
houses and on the gates CDeut. vi. 9, xi. 20^ 



1 1 egg] 



240 



I ■nre-sTiDPoses a general competent know- 
fed4 of rSing and^vriting. There were 
persons acc^aainted with the mensnra- 

Ifon ol land^Josh. Y'"^' ^\.fnt\Tthe 
\ or penmen are noted as belong ng to t e 
I tribe of Zebulun (Judges r. 14). Solo- 
I mon was not only a didactic author and 
' poet, but had large acQtmintance wi^^^ 
natural history and physics (1 n . 

^2 33) The state officers of Hezekiah 
were skilled in a foreign language (2 Kings 
xviii 26). If some of these were rare at- 
Sinments, the facts ^^^^^ertheless show 
that there must have been some system of 
eScation The Mosaic law especially 
cCged parents with the instruction of 
their children. Boys are said to have re 
mailed till their fifth year in the women's 
auartments; afterwards they came under 
?he fSr's care ; and injunctions were 
g ?enTharthey should instructed m 
the law of the Lord (Dent. iv. 9, \i. 6, 7, xi. 
9) Of such instruction 1^7 Parents w? may 
hp t^aid to have specimens m Prov. i.-vn., 
Sxxf 1 9 T e ritual observances, too, were 
awaken the curiosity of young people, 
and were to be carefully explair.^d Exod. 
^ii 9fi 27 • Josh iv. 6, 7 ; Psal. Ixxvni. o, 6). 
ind, thougt ali this had Particular refer- 
ence to moral and religious training, yet it 
manifest that the lessons so given 
Lfth'afe embraced at least the rudimen^^^ 
of general knowledge: they must have m 
eluded, besides reading and ;vritin|, the 
facts of the national history, and the reia 
t?on of Israel to other peoples. It may per- 
haps be gathered from the account of 
Samuel that children were sometimes en- 
frusied to a priest for training (1 Sam 24 
'2^^ or that there was a kind of seminap 
I tkSed to the tabernacle ^i^^^l^^^^ 
there were the schools of the propnets, in 
which regular instruction was imparted 
Tsee PROPHETS), and which had very likely 
i raorrextended character than on y the 
JeSi^ing of those who were expected to 

B^^^^ S'r f fs r^e^. 
1 gufar schools were established ; and we are 
i fold that the rabbis sat on rai^d seats and 
' thp -scholars on benches below, or on tne 
IrouS (comp Luke ii. 46). The regulations 
gf TholastTc"^ discipline af terjhe destruc- 
timi of Jerusalem are laid down m the iai- 
S Flmales were trained in 'needle- 
'^ok; auTin the d-ties of mana^ging a 
T.^mcphnld fProv. XXXI. 10-31). it maj oe 
S d th'at e^ery one was expected to teach 
his son a trade, for honest subsistence 
Thus Siough St. Paul was an accomplished 
ISr. he had learned also a manual ait 

^^E^GG^^Aiew^no^^^^ of egg3 occurin 
^rrinture Thus there is a prohibition 
taking the dam when sitting on 

about the size of an eg?-, ^i^^t I)r Tho^^^^^ 
savs 'There is no nnaginable nijenefes 
uveen an egg and the ordinary black 



.scorpion of this country, neither iu colour 
nor size, nor, when the tail is extended m 
Siane But old writers speak of a icinte 
Son? and such a one, with he t^i 
folded up as in specimens of fossu tii- 
?obites,w?uldnot look unlike a small egg 

^"^^^STali^e^f'o'neoTikvi^ 
.o^^ecialVJaM ^vho bore him his. sixth 
'on Itlrream, in Hebron (2 Sam. in. 5 ; 1 
Chr'on. iU. 3). The Jews had an improbable 
tradition that Eglah was Michal 

EGLA-'IM (two pools). A place m Moao, 
nrobably in a remote district (Isai. xv.. 8). 
It hi ieeS thought-but it is only conjec- 
iure-to be identical with Eii-eglaun 

EG'LON (pertaining to a calf). A Jving oi 
Moab who gathered the Ammonites and 
AmalekTtes, fnd, crossing the Jordan, made 
r^fp children of Israel tributary for eight- 
een ^ears He is said to have ' possessed the 
city'of palm-trees.' if not upon, yet near to 
the «ite of the ancient destroyed city of 
Jericho Here Ehud brought him a Present, 
nnd aftef quitting him. returned and slew 
Mm Ehud escapld, summoned the people 
of Israel, and attacked the Moabites, con- 
?ouiSed no doubt at the loss of their king 
The fords of the Jordan were seized ; and 
men of Moab, attempting to pass to 

their own country, ^^7^ k^l^J h 'htvfea?s 
this pxnloit the land had rest eighty j ears 
aidSs iii 12 30). The account given by 
S'ofeghus'Xffers in several particulars from 
that of the sacred writer. See EHup. 

EG'LON (So A city of theAmorites. no 
great distance from Lachish, taken and de- 
Rtroved by Joshua (Josh. x. 3-5, 34, 3o, xii. 
s^royeu uyo allotted to Judali 

?xv 39). It appears to have stood in the low 
country, on the southern part of the great 
S?ain It is identified with the modern 
S; little more than a mound covered 
4ith debris and pottery, ten miles north- 

^^EGYPT ^Ss celebrated country usually 
bears the name of Mizraira in the Hebrew 
.c?fptures Mizraim is a dual form, and 
theiefore aptly designates a land compris- 
ing two great districts, Upper and Lower 
EgVpl the Delta, and the hi?l^er valley of 
fife Kile. According to Gesenius themean- 
ins of Mizraim is borders or limits, but it 
s ouestionable whether this is here the 
Sue sign?fication. The modern Arabic 
name fo? the country isMur; and t^is^s 
said to imply red or brown mud. ine name 
I in hieroglyphics is Keni, similar to tne 
rontic appellations now used by the natives, 
' Sr^^'efni, Jceme, ' black ' ; and a cognate 
Arabic word means black mud. It cannoi 
f'^ifto sU?Sthe reader that Egypt is also 
called ' the land of Ham' (Psal. Ixxmi . 51, 
cv 23 27) ; Ham signifying warm perhaps 
So browned. We may with much proba- 
bilitv conclude that the names given to this 
countiT imply dark, sufficiently appropriate 
?o its black alluvial soil, striking enough 
after the crops have been gathered m. 
before the Sle has again covered the surface 

-^^'S^'f^^e Mediterrane^ 
to the cataracts of Assouan, 'fromMigdol 
^0 Syene ' (Ezek. xxix. 10. xxx. 6. marg.), and 



ii 



241 



Tegypi 



ATI the east and west it is bounded by the I 

S the eastern desert, are much more lofty , 
In eastern uc j^^.g^^a^ib, rismg to 
SoTfeet But'l owefEgypt is lor the most 
tZi- l^^l'ct fprtile nlain. The Nile divides into 
L^eral strfams lormi a great triangle 
^fXJhThelimits^veretheanci^^^^^^^^^ 
!>wr! Pelusiac branches. The otners were 
theBoSne, originally a c^^fi^'^J^^^^^^^ ' 
St- Rosetta: the Sebenitic, lost in the lake 
Bourlos - the Phatnitic or Bucolic open at 
Samietta, being the eastern extremity of the 
modern Delta; tHe Mendesian ; and the 
Tanitic or Saitic. The last two, with the 
Pelusiac. are absorbed by an exten- 
five lagoon. In early times cultivation 
reached farther eastward : thus there was a 
fruitful valley along the canal of the ±tea 
sea. This, the Wady et-Tumeijlat, is now a 
saudy wilderness. In the Libyan desert are 
some verdant oases; but several of these 
are properly beyond the limits of Egypt. 
That now called the Faioum was the an- 
cient Arsinoite nome, the whole country 
being divided into a number of districts, or, 
as they are called from a Greek word, nomes. 
They are said to have been at first 36 : they 
were afterwards increased. The superficial 
extent of Egypt has been variously esti- 
mated. A writer in Dr. Smith's Diet of the 
■BiUe, vol. i. p. 495, fixes the area ' which the 
Nile either does or can water and fertilize, 
at * 9,582 square geographical miles.' But in 
the National Cyclopcedia we are told that 
* the whole of the cultivable land of Egypt, 
in the valley of the Nile and the Delta, is 
reckoned at 17,000 square miles.' 

The climate of Egypt is considered salu- 
brious during a large part of the year, es- 
pecially that of the upper province, though 
the heat there is greater. The khamsin, 
a hot wind which blows from the south 
in April and May, is oppressive and un- 
wholesome. In summer there are northerly 
breezes. But the dryness of the atmosphere 
causes a vast quantity of dust, peculiarly 
annoyingand Injurious to the sight. Ophthal- 
mia, therefore, is common ; and cutaneous 
disorders prevail. Pestilence hasfrequently 
ravaged Egypt ; and in modern times it has 
been afflicted with that appropriately desig- 
nated the plague. 

The Nile is the great fertilizer of Egypt , 
and,' were it not for the periodical inunda- 
tions of the river, as scarcely any rain ever 
falls, the country would speedily become 
an arid waste. The rising of the Nile 19 
therefore earnestly looked for, and dili- 
gently watched ; for, if it does not come up 
to a certain standard, disastrous results 
may be apprehended. The flood begins m 
June, about the summer solstice, and in- 
creases to September. All the lowlands are 
then overflowed ; and the Delta presents 
the appearance of a great lake or marsh, 
interspersed with innumerable islands ; the 
towns, villages, and groves being just 
above the water. The welcome stream is 



carried everywhere by canals; and then, 
after the inundation has continued sta- 
tionary for a few days, it gradually passes 
away ; and the fields are left, generally by 
the end of November, covered with its de- 
posit, a rich brown slime, ready for the 
labours of the husbandman. The seed is then 
sown ; and in three or four months' time the 




Drawing water with the shadouf. From an 
ancient painting. 




Modern method of drawing water, 
hnrvpc^t begins The cultivation of such a 
country is° of course peculiar. Artificial 
frriStion is necessary ; and the more if the 
rise^of the Nile has been below its proper 
avera-e and during the periods between 
?ie?nunda Uons. A kind of machine is now 
m use called shadouf: it consists of an 



eg^t] 



242 



upright beam or beams, to whicb is attached 
a pole, with a bucket suspended from one 
end, and a weight from the other. By this 
means the raising of the bucket when filled 
with water is made easy to the labourer. 
Some artificial system of conveying water, 
possibly by canals, is alluded to by Moses, 
' the land of Egypt .... where thou 
sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy 
foot, as a garden of herbs ' (Deut. xi. 10). 
The produce of the land was various, and 
— though severe famines have not unfre- 
quently occurred— in general abundant. 
Egypt was a great corn-producing country, 
and was considered one of the granaries of 
Rome. Some of its productions are al- 
luded to in the murmuringsof the Israelites 
in the wilderness, ' the cucumbers, and the 
melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and 
the garlic' (Numb. xi. 5). And it is said 
now to yield wheat, barley, beans, peas, 
lentiles, vetches, lupines, clover, flax, cole- 
seed, lettuce, hemp, cummin, coriander, 
poppy, tobacco, water-melons, and cucum- 
bers ; while of the summer-plants, for which 
the artificial watering above spoken of is 
needed, doorah, Indian corn, onions, millet, 
henneh, sugar-cane, cotton, coffee, indigo, 
and madder may be mentioned. Rice also 
is cultivated ; and there are various fruits, 
such as dates, olives, grapes, figs, sycamore 
figs, mulberries, pomegranates, and bana- 
nas. Fish abounded in the Nile and the lakes 
in the northern parts of the country, and 
they are still a common article of food. By 
these lakes and along the river the papyrus 
or byblos, of the stalks of which boats 
were made, while its leaves produced pa- 
per, formerly grew. It is now scarcely 
known; and the reeds have well-nigh 
perished (Isai. xix. 6, 7). 

Egypt was a pastoral country, perhaps 
more so than at present : we read in scrip- 
ture of horses, asses, camels, oxen, and 
sheep (Gen. xii. 16, xli. 2, 3; Exod. Ix. 3), 
Horses, in Solomon's time, were exported 
from Egypt into Palestine and Syria (1 
Kings X. 28, 29). The breed must therefore 
have been in request. Asses are still nu- 
merous and excellent : dogs, as usually in 
Mohammedan lands, are accounted un- 
clean, but are sometimes kept for watching 
houses : very few swine are in the country. 
Camels, singularly enough, are not men- 
tioned in ancient inscriptions, or depicted 
on the ancient monuments, though there 
can be no doubt that they were known in 
Egypt in very early times. In the bordering 
deserts there are various kinds of wild ani- 
mals Some of those formerly not uncom- 
mon are now found no more. Thus, the 
hippopotamus was anciently an inhabitant 
of the lower Nile : now it is not seen lower 
down than in Nubia. Similarly with re- 
spect to reptiles. The crocodile, once so 
common as to be the symbol of the Pharaoh 
(Ezek. xxix. 3, 4), is now rare in the lower 
reaches of the Nile, though frequently 
met with higher up the stream. Frogs are 
abundant, and annoying by their incessant 
croaking in the autumn : snakes and scor- 
pions, too, are plentiful, the more venom- 
ous kinds in the desert. Fleas and lice 
are noted by all travelers as a perfect 



plague ; and locusts appear from time to 
time : bats cluster in the ancient tombs 
and temples; and there are various kinds 
of birds, none, however, remarkable for 
beauty of plumage : kites and vultures are 
perhaps as common as any. Divers and 
waders frequent the islands and sand-banks; 
but the once-sacred ibis has disappeared. 

Egvpt was peopled by the descendants of 
Eam^Gen. x. 6, 13, 14). ' A consideration, 
says Kalisch, 'of the physiognomy and 
bodily structure of the Egj'Ptians, proves 
that they are ... . derived from the 
Hamites .... It is not necessary to con- 
sider all Egyptians as negroes, black in 
complexion, and curly-haired ; this is con- 
tradicted by their mummies and their por- 
traits : the former exhibit mostly the 
osteology, the latter the physiognomy,of an 
Asiatic or Arabic race : they show the skull 
and the facial outline of the Caucasians : 
they are, indeed, darker in complexion— 
bro-svn with a tinge of red, and great vane- 
ties in the shades: they have often a 
fuller lip, and a more elongated almond- 
shaped eye, half -shut and languishing, and 
turned up at the outer angles, sedate and 
placid countenances, round and soft fea- 
tures, and large mouths .... Blumenbach 
.... describes the general or national 
type as possessing a peculiarly-turgid habit, 
flabby cheeks, a short chin, large promi- 
nent eyes, and a plump form of body. The 
present Copts exliibit further a certain ap- 
proximation to the negro ' {Comm. on Old 
Test. Gen., p. 263). ' The Egyptian ladies,' 
the same writer observes, 'were not re- 
markable either for grace or beauty : they 
are pictured by ancient writers with no 
flattering colours ; nor do the monuments 
permit any romantic illusion on this point : 
if rotundity and corpulency, thick and up- 
turned lips, contracted brows, long oval 
eyes, and well-developed and prominent 
ears, are attractions, the Egyptian ladies 
belong to the fairest of their rex' (p. 632). 

With regard to the institutions and ha- 
bits of the Egyptians, their public and 
their private life may be briefly touched on. 

The government was monarchical ; but it 
was not an absolute despotism. The sove- 
reign had great power : which he some- 
times delegated to his minister (Gen. xli. 40): 
he took the advice of his councillors (37, 
38) : he dc^aded and put to death high 
officers of his court, but not, it seems,with- 
out examination (xl. 1-3, 20-22) : he did not 
venture to interfere with the franchises of 
the priestly caste, even when the rest of 
the people- were brought into a feudal sub- 
jection (xlvii. 20-26)— these facts show that 
the monarch's authority, at least at one 
period, was under certain limitations. The 
laws of the country, there is reason to be- 
lieve, were equitable and well-enforced. In 
the monuments persons are represented as 
unarmed : it has been inferred, with much 
probability, that there was security for life 
and property. The Egyptians must have 
been a warlike nation : we hear of conquests 
effected by their arms ; and, till the predo- 
minance of the great eastern monarchies, 
Egyptian Influence would seem to have 
extended over neighbouring countries. Tha 



9A'6 



[EGYPT 



most powerful arm of their military force 
was probably their war-chafiots : thus we 
find it specially noted that a vast chariot- 
force pursued the departing Israelites 
(Exod. xiv. 6, 7, 23, 25) : SO, in later times, 
the Egyptian chariots are specially men- 
tioned (2 Chron. xii. 3, xiv. 9) ; and it may 
well he thought that the 'horsemen' were 
those who fought in the chariots. 

The religion of Egypt was an organized 
system. There was, as has been said, a 
Driestly caste ; and these formed the high- 
est aristocracy : they were great landed 
proprietors ; they controlled the sovereign; 
and the statues of the chief priests, like 
those of the Pharaohs, were set up in the 
temples. The high priest had vast power ; 
his office being hereditary. Of their gods 
there were three orders. The first compri- 
sed eight great deities : —1. Amun, king of 
gods ; 2. Maut, the mother of all, or ma- 
ternal principle ; 3. Noum, variously called 
Nou, Noub, Nef, and Knef, the ram-headed 
deity ; 4. Sate, his consort ; 5. Pthah, 
creative power ; 6. Neith, corresponding 
to the classical Minerva ; 7. Khem, the 
generative principle and universal nature; 
8. Pasht, corresponding to Diana. Then 
followed the second order of twelve 
gods :— 1. Re, Pa, or Phrah, the sun ; 2. Seb 
(Saturn) ; 3. Netpe (Rhea) ; 4. Khons ; 5. 
Anouke (Vesta) ; 6. Atmou, Atmoo, Atum, 
or Atm, darkness ; 7. Moui ; 8. Tafne ; 9. 
Thoth, intellect (Mercury) ; 10. Savak, the 
crocodile-headed god ; 11. Seneb, Soven, or 
Eileithyia; 12. Mandoo, Mandou, or Munt 
(Mars). The third order were the children of 
Seb and Netpe : they were, 1. Osiris ; 2. 
Aroeris, the elder Horus ; 3. Seth or Typhon, 
the dark destroying principle; 4. Isis ; S.Nep- 
thys. There were many other deities, of 
which the most noted was Thmei, Mei, 
or Ma, truth and justice (Rawlinson's He- 
rod., Append, book ii. chap. iii. vol. ii. pp. 
288-300). But there is some uncertainty as 
to the arrangement of these gods. Diillin- 
ger places Ra at the head of all (,The Gentile 
and the Jew, book vi. 5, vol. i. pp. 436 488). 
Different deities were specially honoured 
in different cities ; and there were triads, 
generally a god with his wife and their 
child .who had peculiar respect paid them in 
certain places. 

Indeed the gods of the first and second 
orders were but partially venerated. He- 
rodotus (lib. ii. 42) tells us that they were 
not everywhere worshipped alike. It was 
the third order, Osiris and others con- 
nected with him, that were nationally re- 
cognized. And there Is a legendary story, 
not only current among the Egyptians, but 
adopted and embellished by classical wri- 
ters. The five children of Netpe were born on 
five successive days, the intercalary days 
to be added to the year of 360. Osiris be- 
came the husband of Isis ; and the younger 
Horus was their son. Typhon was the hus- 
band of Nepthys, and had by her Anu- 
bis. Osiris was king of Egypt. He pro- 
moted civilization among his people, and 
taught them agriculture. Then he tra- 
velled, leaving Isis regent. He traversed 
Ethiopia, where he gathered a band of 
satyrs, Arabia, and Europe, everywhere in- 



culcating the worship of the (inferior) gods 
and the knowledge of a Supreme Being. 
While he was absent, Typhon raised a rebel- 
lion, murdered Osiris on his return, and 
scattered the pieces of his mangled body. 
Isis was at Coptos when she received the 
intelligence. She cut off her hair and put 
on mourning. Then raising an army she 
defeated the rebels, recovered the remains 
of Osiris, which she enclosed in images, and 
distributed to the various temples. ' Being 
the author of agriculture, the ox was select- 
ed as his sacred animal : Isis being added 
to the deities at her death, the cow became 
her appropriate emblem. Anubis, who as- 
sisted in the search for Osiris, was made 
an attendant genius, and is represented 
with the head of a jackal, which the Greeks 
mistook for a dog. Typhon was condemned 
to perpetual abomination, as the spirit of 
evil, in the shapes of an ass and a hippopo- 
tamus. Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, 
succeeded to the throne, being the last god 
that reigned in Egypt. He also, according 
to some accounts, was prematurely cut to 
pieces. Here was a myth, affording abun- 
dant scope for the piety, the patriotism, 
and the personal sj'mpathies of the people 
.... It described the deeds and sufferings 
of a primitive monarch .... the boast ol 
the nation, and a martyr in its cause. The 
popular ballads identified him with Menes, 
the founder of the first monarchy, who was 
torn in pieces by a hippopotamus: they 
joined with affectionate solicitude in the 
sorrowful quest of the widowed queen, and 
were never wearied of the annual rejoicing 
to commemorate the day when Osiris was 
found. Conceptions of this kind, mingling 
with the elder mythologies, naturally over - 
powered their weak and passionless ab- 
stractions. "With the exceptions of Amun 
and Kneph, the gods of the first and second 
orders seem all to have passed into the 
Osirian group, and been supplanted by it. 
Osiris is figured as Phthah, and as Khem ; 

Isis as Neith They were called the great 

god and goddess of Egypt : their son Ho- 
rus assumed the hawk's head of Ra, the sun 
.... In effect, while the older forms were 
honoured with an occasional rite, Isis and 
Osiris were em-phatically— to foreigners al- 
most exclusively— the objects of Egyptian 
worship. Their rites exercisd a power- 
ful infiuence, not only over the native 
mind, but on the robuster intellects of 
Greece and Rome. The mysteries of Isis 
became a tale of wonder throughout the 
civilized world. They gained admittance, 
in spite of repeated prohibitions, into im- 
perial Rome : the legions carried her 
shrine to distant Britain, and planted it 
outside their encampments in every quarter 
of the empire. A temple to Serapis, the later 
form of Osiris, stood near the ancient 
Eboracum, on a site now covered by the 
York railway-station' (Trevor's Ancient 
Egypt, 1863, pp. 150-152). Besides the deities 
hitherto mentioned, the Egyptians wor- 
shipped animals, and even inanimate 
things, believing that the gods dwelt in 
them (comp. Exod. viii. 26). For, according 
to their pantheistic philosophy, they con 
ceived not of God as a persoii, but as ax. 



sgypt] 



244 




Ladies and gentlemen at a party : servants presenting a cup of wine, garlands, etc. 
From an ancient painting. Brit. Mus, 

BOATS OF THE NILE. 




Boat conveying cattle. Passenger boat, showing the nature of the rigging. 




'Mihlt UnninUtfgt. [egypx 



245 



essence, diffused throughout nature, and 
manifested In infinite variety of form. 
Animate and inanimate things were parts 
of one nature, of which the entirety was 
believed to he God. So that any one might 
be a manifestation of the divine presence. 

The Egyptians are said to have be- 
lieved the immortality of the soul, and 
future rewards and punishments. But it 
was not the scripture truth that they held 
They imagined that there was a transmi- 
gration of the soul, which, when It parted 
from the human body, passed in a kind 
of circuit through inferior animals and 
birds, till eventually it resumed the form 
of man. The judgment of the dead is 
delineated in papyri enclosed with mum- 
mies. The spirit stands before Osiris, and 
professes innocence of various crimes. Then 
before forty-two avenging judges It utters 
again protestations of innocence ; and 
afterwards the heart is weighed. There are 
representations of blessedness, in which 
worldly occupations are still pursued, and 
of torments to which the wicked are sub- 
jected. It may be added that the rite of 
circumcision was anciently practised in 
•this country. 

In their private life the position of the 
women was remarkable. There was free in- 
tercourse between the sexes ; men and 
women being entertained in the same apart- 
ment, seated in mixed groups. They were 
a pleasure-loving convivial people. The 
monuments show them amusing themselves 
with music and dancing, regaled with wine 
and other refreshments, and presented with 
garlands and perfumes. The women were 
immoral : concubinage was allowed ; the 
concubines ranking as inferior wives. They 
had various games ; and the higher orders 
were pleased to superintend their fields 
and gardens, and diverted themselves with 
hunting and fishing. The classes were dis- 
tinct, though there was no regular system 
of castes : the lowest were put to tend cattle. 
They were acquainted with letters ; and no 
nation was ever so fond of writing down 
everything as they were. But nothing was 
of more importance than their funeral rites. 
See Embalming. They had made great pro- 
gress in the arts : their architecture, sculp- 
ture, and paintings, speak for them to the 
present day. Of course they had boats for 
the navigation of the Nile. They excelled in 
manufactures,in weaving, pottery, &c. They 
cultivated more recondite sciences ; as the 
mention of their magicians shows (Gen. xli. 
8 ; Exod. vii. 11, 22). All these particulars, 
which here canbetouched only in the brief- 
est manner, are illustrated in detail in Wil- 
kinson's Ancient Egyptians ; to which the 
reader must be referred for full information. 
So many ancient monuments exist in Egypt 
in which the habits of the people are de- 
picted, and so much has been learned from 
the inscriptions which have been decipher- 
ed, that,though in regard to their history we 
yet want more certain knowledge, the daily 
life of this remarkable people is brought 
out to us with vivid distinctness. Some il- 
lustrations are given to show the domestic 
manners, in the preparations for the table, 
and the amusements of the people. "We see 



Domestic Scenes. 




Butcher sharpening his knife. 




Butcher killing an ox or ibex. 




Trussing a fowL 




Preparing a duck, for the cook. 



2-47 



[EGYPT 





Playing at a game resembling chess or draughts. 



Game of mora : a game still common in Italy. 

thus -what the country was in which the 
Israelites had to serve a liard apprentice- 
ship; liow they were hrought in contact 
with and must have learned many arts 
there ; and wbat was the Egyptian idolatry, 
with which they were tainted, and were 
subsequently prone to fall into. We cannot, 
however, doubt that the sojourn of Israel 
in Egypt was ordained for good, and that 
God employed this sharp discipline for liis 
church's welfare. The.Tudge of all the earth, 
in this, as in everything else, did right. 
The language of aucienc Egypt Is pre- 




Playing -with balls. 

served in the monumental inscriptions, 
which are found in the hieroglyphic and 
in the demotic or enchorial, i.e. the popular 
mode, of WTiting. It was for a long time 
thought impossible to decipher these; but 
the first step was taken by means of the 
famous Rosetta stone, now in the British 
Museum, on which were three copies of, as 
It was presumed, the same inscription. One 
of these was in Greek. A key was therefore 
obtained to the others; and scholars have 
since done much to unravel the ancient 
records. The present Coptic, of which there 
are various dialects, as the Memphitic, the 
Thebaic, and the Bashmuric, bears, it is 
thought, a near relation to the old language. 

In Egyptian history much uncertainty 
still remains ; nor can we feel ourselves on 
perfectly-sure ground till Ave come down to 
the Shishak who plundered Jerusalem in 
the reign of Behoboam. An extravagant 
antiquity has by some been claimed for the 
monarcliy ; and dynasties, first of gods and 
then of men, have been said to reign iulong 



EGYPT] 



248 



succession through thousands of years. 
Thus, adding together the rule of the gods, 
demi-gods, and manes, i.e. ghosts, to the 
thirty dynasties of men which have been 
enumerated, the sum is 36,360, or 36,525 
years. It must he enough to say here that 
"several of these human dynasties (of course 
we need take no notice of the fabulous 
reigns of gods) were contemporaneous; 
different sovereigns swaying at the same 
time the sceptre over different regions or 
provinces. And then by degrees, by con- 
quest or by inheritance, a preponderance 
was obtained by the Theban monarclis, who 
"consolidated their power, and reigned over 
the whole of Egypt. This Theban supremacy 
seems to have been overthrown, or afc all 
events Lower Egypt was wrested from its 



the Hyksos or shepherd-kings. They are 
said to have been at length expelled, and 
kings of native Egyptian race to have 
reigned again. Some would place these 
shepherd-kings before the descent of the Is- 
raelitish family into Egypt, and account for 
the facility with which Joseph, a Hebrew, 
was made viceroy, and the welcome with 
which Jacob and his sons were received, 
by the supposition that a foreign shepherd- 
king would be glad to strengthen himself 
against a people who did not willingly sub- 
mit to his sway. The king therefore, who 
afterwards arose who knew not Joseph 
(Exod. i. 8), is thought to be the head, 
Amosis, of the 18th dynasty (Theban) of 
natives. There are others who imagine 
that Goshen was ready for the occupation 




The great pyramid and sphinx. 



princes by some foreign intrusion. But 
again it would appear pre-eminent, till ul- 
timately the Delta became the seat of sove- 
reignty, and Thebes was neglected, or con- 
quered and destroyed. It is clear from 
scripture that a monarchy was existing 
in Egypt at a very early period ; for Ave 
find a Pharoah when Abraham went down 
to sojourn there, in consequence of a 
grievous famine that afflicted Canaan (Gen. 
xii. 10-20). The earliest sovereign is gene- 
rally called Menes ; but the date of his reign 
is disputed. Some chronologers, for in- 
stance', have placed it 2717 years, and some 
2224, before the Christian era. 

There are other disputed questions 
which have exercised the ingenuity of 
scholars. It is recorded that an intrusive 
foreign dynasty reigned for a considerable 
space of time in Egypt. These are called 



of the Israelites, in consequence of the just- 
previous expulsion of the shepherds who 
had settled in it. And some scholars, feel- 
ing that, if Egyptian annals mentioned at 
all the sojourniner of Israel, which termi- 
nated so disastrously for the kingdom, they 
would record it in a most distorted shape, 
have believed that the whole story of the 
shepherd-kings is but a narrative strangely 
disfigured, cloaked, and embellished, of the 
residence in Esypt, and departure thence, of 
the Israelites themselves: see Browne's 
Ordo Seed, append, iii. sect. ii. pp. 577-585. 

Much difference of opinion, too, exists 
as to which king, according to Egyptian 
annals, must be supposed the Pharaoh of the 
Exodus. This cannot be discussed here; 
1)ut, for some brief notice of the different 
kings of Egypt mentioned in scripture, see 
Pharaoh. And, it may be added, with all 



milt mitotDi^tfse. 



249 



the uncertainty which yet rests in Egyptian 
annals, we cannot help seeing much to 
corroborate the scripture history. 

Egypt was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and the sovereign was made we may suppose 
a vassal of Babylon. It afterwards fell under 
Persian rule ; whence, after various rebel- 
lions, it passed to Alexander the Great, and 
a line of Ptolemies, descended from one of 
his generals, were sovereigns of Egypt till it 
ultimately became a province of the Roman 
empire. Of the settlement of many Jews in 
Egypt, of the erection of a temple at Leon- 
topolis, of the translation in Egypt of the 
Hebrew scriptures into Greek, notice is 
elsewhere taken. See Ir-ha-heres, Ver- 
sions, pp. 903, 904. 

Besides Mr. Browne's valuable disquisition 



[EGYPT 



describe with terrible particularity, not 
only the judgments which would be in- 
flicted in their days, but how Egypt should 
be a base kingdom,' and there ' be no more 
a prince of the land of Egypt' (Jer. xlvi.; 
Ezek. XXX.). How accurately these threat- 
nings have been accomplished let history 
declare: see Bp. Newton On the Prophecies, 
diss. xii. 

Egypt is now a fief, under hereditary ru- 
lers, viceroys, of the Turkish empire. The 
houses of the wealthier classes in the chief 
towns are roomy, and substantially built ; 
but the dwellings of the lower orders are 
many of them but hovels, built of unbaked 
bricks cemented with mud. The villages 
stand upon eminences of rubbish, the ma- 
terials of older buildings, and are thus 




Colossi at Thebes. 



already referred to, pp. 571-633, Mr. Palmer's 
Egyptian Chronicles may be mentioned : he 
has constructed an elaborate Harmony of 
Sacred and Egyptian Chronology, vol. ii. 
pp. 896-906, which well deserves examina- 
tion. Also, in Trevor's Ancient Egypt is a 
good popular compendium of Egyptian his- 
tory. 

The prophecies relating to Egypt, and 
their fulfilment, demand the most attentive 
consideration. They were uttered when 
the Pharaohs were at their height of powex'. 
Then did Joel commence the mournful 
strain: 'Egypt shall be a desolation ' (Joel 
iii. 19). And Isaiah tooK it up : ' The Egyp- 
tians will I give over into the hand of a 
cruel lord' (Isai. xix. 4). And Jeremiah and 
Ezekiel, when the catastrophe was nearer, 



just above the reach of the inundations. 
The whole land is crowded with relics of 
antiquity. The pyramids, the temples, the 
tombs, speak of a grandeur that has passed 
away, and will always attract the curiosity 
and admiration of the world. The habits of 
the modern inhabitants illustrate in many 
respects the narratives of scripture. Many 
Israelitish customs there alluded to have 
their counterpart in modern Egypt. For 
full descriptions the reader must be refer- 
red to Lane's Accoimt of Manners and Cus- 
toms of Modern Egyptians. 

EGYPT, RIVER OF. By this expression 
the Nile must sometimes be understood, as 
in Gen, xv. 18, the eastern branch of the 
Nile ; the Hebi-ew term being nahar. But 
in Numb, xxxiv. 5 ; Josh. xv. 4, 47 ; 1 Kings 



EGYPTIAN] 



Cljt CxTas'urg at 



250 



viii. 65 ; 2 Kings xxiv. 7 ; Isai. xxtii. 12, the 
brook or torrent of Egypt, nahlial m He- 
brew by the town Rhinokoloura, the mo- 
dern Wady eVArish, is meant. In Ezek. xlvii. 
19 xlviii. 21, it is termed simply * tlie nrer. 

EGYPTIAN. A native of Egypt (Gen. 
xvi. 1, and frequently elsewhere). ^ 

The person, so called in Acts xxi. 38, was 
no doubt the pretended prophet who posted 
himself on mount Olivet, and declared that 
the walls of Jerusalem would fall down at 
his word Felix, however, set upon him, and 
defeated his followers, while he fled and 
disappeared (Josephus, Antiq., lilx xx. 7, § 6 ; 
Bell. Jud., lib. ii. 13, § 5 : comp. Dr. Alford s 
note on this place, , „ . 

E'HI Oiiy brother). A son of Benjamm 
(Gen xlvi 21). He was known also by other 
names, Ahiram (^^umb. xxvi. 38), Aher (1 
Chron. vii. 12), Aharah (viii. 1). 

E'HUD (union).— I. A ]udge or deliverer 
of Israel (Judges iii. 11-30). He was the son 
or descendant of Gera, a Benjamite (Gen. 
xlvi. 21 ; 1 Chron. viii. 3, 5). Ehud is said 
to have been 'left-handed' ; and it is ques- 
tioned whether the meaning of the original 
word is that his right hand was disabled, or 
whether he could use both with equal fa- 
cility. But it seems clear that we should 
adopt the last opinion. For the word is 
used only once again (Judges xx. 16); 
where 700 'left-handed' are described as 
chosen men ; which would hardly have been 
said of persons labouring under a_ physical 
defect Further, as all these, Ehud included, 
were Benjamites, it is not unlikely that_ m 
that tribe there was some special training 
for the use of both hands. For (1 Chron. 
xii.2) a body of Benjamites jomed David, 
of whom it is expressly said that they 
' could use both the right hand and the 
left ' Ehud assassinated Eglon king of Moab, 
who had oppressed Israel for eighteen 
vears, and gained a great victory over the 
Moabites.-2. A great-grandson of Ben] a- 
min : he is said to be the son of Bilhan (1 
airon. A-ii. 10, viii. 6). 

E'KER (a rooting vp, a plant rooted up 
and transplanted). A descendant of Judah 
a Chron. ii. 27). 
EK'REBEL iJndm-iTU.m. 
EK'RON (eradication, emigration). One or 
the five principal cities of the Philistines 
(Josh. xiii. 3). It was assigned first to 
the tribe of Judah (xv. 11, 45, 46 ; Judges 
i 18), afterwards to that of Dan (Josh, xix 
43). But, though once taken by Judah, it 
continued generally in liands of tlie 
Philistines (1 Sam. v. 10, vi.l7). It was from 
Ekron that the ark of God was sent bacic to 
Israel. We afterwards hear of a slirine of 
Baal-zebub at this city (2 Kings i. 2 3 6, 16), 
and it is occasionally mentioned by the 
prophets (Jer. xxv. 20 ; Amos i. 8 ; Jeph ii 
4; Zech. ix. 5, 7). It was situated m the 
plain country ; just on the i^o^li ,^'estj)"r- 
der of Judah. It was given by Alexander 
Balas to Jonathan Maccabeus (1 Mace, x^ 
BQ) being then called Accaron, and is now 
tiie village 'AMr, with pretty gardens and 
still, according to Dr. Thomson (The Land 
and the Book, p. 535), abounding fiies 

EK'RO^^ITES. The inhabitants of Ekron 
(Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. v. 10). 



E'LA (1 Esdr. ix. 27). A form of Elam (Ezra 
X 27). 

EL'ADAH (whom God puts on, i. e. fills 
with himself). A descendant of Ephraira (1 
Chron. vii. 20). ^ ^ , * 

E'LAH {terehinm.—l. One of the dukes of 
Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 41; 1 Chron. i..52).— 2. 
The father of one of Solomon's commissariat 
officers (1 Kings iv. 18).-3. The son and 
successor of Baasha, king of Israel. He 
reigned two years (930-928 B.C.), and was 
killed by one of his officers, Zimri, while 
drinking at the house of his steward 
Arza, at Tirzah (xvi. 6-l4).-4. "The father 
of Hoshea, last king of Israel (2 Kings xy. 
30, xvii. 1, xviii. 1, 9).-5. A son ot Caleb, 
the son of Jephunneh (1 Chron. iv. 15).— 6. 
A Benjamite chief (ix. 8). _ -a 
E'LAH (id.). The valley m which David 
fought with Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19_, xxi. 9). 
This valley has been identified with the 
Wady es-Sumt, or 'acacia yalley. It is 
close bv Suweikeh, the ancient Shochoh, 
which stands upon its southern slope, and 
is about fourteen miles south-west of Jeru- 
salem, on the road to Gaza, and about twelve 
from Beth-lehem. At the junction of tlie 
Wadv es-Sumt with two other wadies there is 
an open space, about a mile wide, with a tor- 
rent bed in the centre, strewed with round 
pebbles, and fringed with acacia bushes. 
Terebinths, from which the ancient name, 
are still abundant in the neighbourhood. 

E'LAM (age, eternity 1 )-l. The son of 
Shem (Gen. x. 22 ; 1 Chron. i. l7).-2. A Ben- 
jamite chief (viii. 24).-3. A Levite porter 
(xxvi 3)— 4. One whose descendants re- 
turned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 7 ; Neh. vii. 12).-5. One called for 
distinction 'the other Elam,' whose sons 
also so returned (Ezra ii. 31 ; Neh. vii. 34) 
Descendants of one of these accompanied 
Ezra (Ezra viii. 7) ; and some ot them had 
married foreign wives (x. 26). .The name of 
their representative appears in the hst of 
those who sealed the covenant (ISeh. x. 14). 
— 6 One of the priests who took part m 
the' dedication of the waU of Jerusalem 
(xii.42). , . . , ^ 

E'LAM (id.). A region of Asia peopled 
by the descendants of the son of Shem 
(Gen X. 22). These were, according to 
Professor Rawlinson (Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible, art. 'Elam,') conquered in very ancient 
times by a Hamite or Cushite race from 
Babvlon, who became the dominant people 
in Elam, and were called by the Greeks 
Cissians. It is difficult to define exactly the 
boundaries of this country, which probably 
was of greater or less e:stent at different 
times ; but it may generally be said that it 
lay to the south of Assyria, and east of 
Persia proper, reaching down to and along 
the Persian gulf. Elam appears as an inde- 
pendent power, its soA^ereign holding su- 
premacy over Sliinar, or Babylonia, mthe 
time of' Abraham (Gen. xiv. i-11), and ex- 
tending his conquests far westward. This 
independence was in great measure main- 
tained during the Assyrian and Babylonian 
dominion; but Elamite troops marched 
under the banner of Sennacherib (Isai.xxu. 
6) • and ultimately Elam was a province ot 
Babylon (Dan. viii. 1,2), in fulfilment, Raw- 



251 3^ihU ^iinMsUQt* [elealeh 



linson supposes, of the prophetic denuncia- 
tions (Jer. xlix. 34-38 ; Ezek. xxxii. 24, 25). 
Blam is spoken of as supplying part of the 
invading army which captured Babylon 
(Isai. xxi. 2), and was of course a constituent 
part of the Persian empire ; its chief city, 
Shushan, or Susa (whence the name Su- 
siana), becoming the Persian metropolis. 
The inhabitants, as proved by some of the 
passages already referred to, were brave 
and skilled in archery. See Kalisch, Co7nm. 
on Old Test. Gen., p. 277. Captive Israelites 
were located in Elam, whence their return 
is predicted (Isai. xi. 11) : Elamites, too, 
were placed in the cities of Samaria (Ezra 
iv. 9) ; and Jews were still resident there in 
the apostolic age (Acts ii. 9). 

E'LAMITES. The natives or inhabitants 
of Blam (Ezra iv. 9 ; Acts 11. 9). . 

EL'ASAH {-whom God made).— 1. The son 
of Shaphan (Jer. xxix. 3).— 2. One of the 
priests who had married a strange wife 
(Ezra X. 22). 

E'LATH, E'LOTH (trees, tereUnths, a 
grove, perhaps palvi-grove). A town of Idu- 
mea, at the extremity of the eastern gulf 
of the Red sea. It is first mentioned in 
the account of the journeyings of Israel 
in the wilderness (Deut. ii. 8). When David 
conquered Edom (2 Sam. viii. 14), Elath 
came into his possession, and it is named in 
connection with Solomon's navy at the 
neighbouring port of Ezion-geber (1 Kings 
ix. 26 ; 2 Chron. viii. 17). It was lost when 
Edom revolted, was recovered by TJzziah (2 
Kings xiv. 22), and was finally wrested from 
Judah by Rezin, king of Syria, who expelled 
all the Jewish inhabitants (xvi. 6). By the 
Greeks and Romans it was called Elana, or 
^lana, and hence gave name to the eastern 
gulf of the Red sea called the Elanitic gulf, 
at present the gulf of Akabah. Elath is said 
now to be an insignificant place termed Eylet. 

EL-BETH'-EL (God of Beth- el, or of God's 
Jiouse). The name said to be given by Jacob 
to the place where God appeared to him 
when he fled from Esau (Gen. xxxv. 7). 
Some versions omit the prefixed M, God. 
But it was probably the altar which Jacob 
so named : comp. xxxiii, 20. See Beth-el. 

EL' CIA (Judith viii. 1). One of Judith's 

EL'DAAH (whom God called). A son of 
Midian (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chron. i. 33). 

EL'DAD (whom God loves, identical with 
Theophilus). One of the seventy to whom 
the prophetical spirit of Moses was com- 
municated. He with Medad did not go with 
the rest to the tabernacle, but prophesied 
in the camp. Joshua therefore begged 
Moses to forbid them (Numb. xi. 24-29). 

ELDER. The word signifying more ad- 
vanced in age came to imply a person 
vested with authority, because naturally 
older persons, for their wisdom and ex- 
perience, would be selected for offices 
of trust and government. So we find the 
* eldest servant' of Abraham's house 'rul- 
ing over all that he had' (Gen. xxi v. 2) : we 
have also mention of ' the elders of Joseph's 
house,' and the 'elders of the land of EgjTt' 
(1. 7), obviously indicating the chiefs of Jo- 
seph's establishment, and high Egyptian 
officers. 



There must have been some recognized 
body under this title at an early period 
of the Hebrew history. For Moses was 
desired to convey the divine message to 
'the elders of Israel' (Exod. iii. 16); and 
they were both to accompany him when he 
demanded freedom from Pharaoh, and also 
to be the means of communication between 
Moses and the mass of the people (18, iv. 
29, xii. 21). We are not distinctly told who 
these elders were, probably the leading 
persons in each tribe. We find them after 
the departure from Egypt (xvii. 6, xix. 7) ; 
and from these seventy were selected for 
special worship with Moses, Aaron, Nadab, 
and Abihu (xxiv. 1, 2, 9-11). Moses had, at 
the suggestion of Jethro, appointed officers 
to administer justice (xviii. 26), but he 
seems to have required, further, a body of 
(if they may be so called) political advisers. 
Accordingly seventy out of the general class 
of elders were chosen, approved men ; and 
on these the divine Spirit was especially 
poured (Numb. xi. 10-30). Possibly it was 
from this example that the sanhedrim was 
afterwards constituted. 

There were 'elders' of neighbouring na- 
tions, synonymous with 'princes,' as of 
Moab and Midian (xxii. 7, 13), and of the 
Hivites (Josh. ix. 11). And we find the 
institution remaining in Israel through the 
whole history, under every change of go- 
vernment, and a certain authority exercised 
by them to which the people submitted. 
Sometimes they are mentioned as local 
magistrates, presiding over separate tribes 
or districts, and sometimes as the supe- 
rior class, it is likely, acting generally for 
the nation (Deut. xix. 12, xxi. 2, 3, 6, xxxi. 
28 ; Josh. ix. 15, 18-21, xxiv. 1 ; Judges ii. 
7, viii. 14, xi. 5 ; 1 Sam. iv. 3, viii. 4, xvi. 4, 
XXX. 26 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 4, xix. 11 ; 1 Kings xii. 
6, XX. 8, xxi. 11 ; 2 Kings x. 1, 5 ; 1 Chron. 
xxi. 16 ; Ezra v. 5, vi. 7, 14, x. 8, 14 ; Jer. xxix. 
1 ; Ezek. viii. 1, 12). Those who locally ad- 
ministered justice are said to have been 
termed ' elders of the gate ' (Pro v. xxxi. 23 ; 
Lam. V. 14) ; because that was the place 
where a court was often held (Ruth iv. 2, 
4,9, 11). Elders are mentioned in Maccabean 
times, apparently distinct from the sanhe- 
drim (1 Mace. vii. 33, xii. 6) ; and we find 
them in the New Testament history asso- 
ciated with the chief priests and scribes, 
but yet not to be confounded with them 
(Matt. xvi. 21, xxi. 23, xxvi. 59, xxvii. 41) 
And an analogous class yet subsists among 
Arab tribes, viz. their sheikhs, a word im- 
plying • old men.' 

We naturally see officers of the Christian 
church designated by the same title (Acts 
xiv. 23, XX. 17) ; and regulations are given 
in regard to them (1 Tim. v. 1, 17,19). Hence 
our term presbyter, derived from the Greek 
vrord for elder, presbuteros. For a notice of 
their office and position in the church, con- 
sult Bingham, Orig. Eccles.,\)00^ ii. chap. 19. 
See Bishop. 

EL'EAD (whom God praises'). A descen- 
dant of Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 21). 

ELEA'LEH (whither God ascends). One of 
the cities assigned to the tribe of Reuben, 
which they built or fortified (Numb. xxxiL 
3, 37). In later times it was occupied by 



eleasa] 



252 



Moab (Isai. xv. 4, xa^. 9; Jer. xTviii. 34) 
The ruins of it, now called el-A al, stand 
on an eminence within two miles of Hesh- 

^^e'lE'ASA a Mace. ix. 5). A place where 
Judas Maccabeus encamped shortly before 
his defeat and death. Its position is uncer- 

^^ELE Al'SAH (whom God made) —1. One of 
Judah's descendants (1 Chron. ii. 39, 40) —2. 
A man of Saul's posterity O^iii. 37, ix. 43). 
This name is identical with Elasah. 

ELEA'ZAR (whom God helps).— 1. The 
third son of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23-25, xxvui. 
1) After the death of his brothers ^adab 
aiid Abihu, he was placed at the head of the 
Levites (Numb. iii. 32), and subsequently 
succeeded his father as high priest (xx. 28). 
He was then united with Moses in the di- 
vine communications (xxvi. 1), and with 
Joshua, who was solemnly inaugurated be- 
fore him (xxvii. 18-23). Eleazar entered 
Canaan, and, in conjunction with Joshua, 
divided it among the tribes (Josh. xLv. 1, 
xvii 4 xxi. 1). His death is mentioned 
(xxiv. 33), but not the time of it : perhaps 
it was near that of Joshua. He was suc- 
cepded as high priest by his son Phinehas. 
—2 The son of Abinadab of Kirjath-]earim, 
• sanctified' or appointed to take charge of 
the ark after its restoration by the Philis- 
tines (1 Sam. vii. 1).— 3. A son of Dodo, and 
one of David's chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 
9 ; 1 Chron. xi. 12).— 4. A Levite of the fa- 
mily of Merari, who had no sons, only 
daughters (xxiii. 21, 22, xxiv 28).— 5. A Le- 
vite who helped to weigh the vessels that 
Ezra brought to Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 33).— 
6 One who had married a foreign wife (x. 
25) _7. A priest who took part in the dedi- 
cation of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 
42).— 8. A person named among our Lords 
ancestry (Matt. i. 15). , 

ELEA'ZAE.—l. One of the Maccabean 
family, son of Mattathias (1 Mace. ii. 5, vi. 
43-46). He is called in one place Avaran, in 
another Savaran.— 2. The father of one of 
the envoys whom Judas Maccabeus sent to 
Rome (viii. 17).-3. An aged scribe martyred 
in the persecution of Autiochus Epiphanes 
(2 Mace. vi. lS-31). ^ ^ 

ELEA'ZURUSa Esdr. ix. 24). A corrup- 
ted form of Eliashib (Ezra x. 24). _ 

ELECTION. A choice. It is not inten- 
ded to discuss here that theological doc- 
trine on which so much difference of 
opinion has existed, but simply to note, m 
a few instances, the fact that God, as the 
great Ruler of the world, has thought 
proper to choose certain of his creatures 
for defined purposes and ends. Thus he 
selected Abraham to be the progenitor 
of a nation among whom he would espe- 
ciallv make himself known. He selected 
Saul' a Sam. ix. 17, x. 1), and afterwards 
David (xvi. 1-12), for the sovereignty of 
Israel. Israel was God's chosen seed, 
entrusted, because of his choice, with 
special privileges, which for their sins they 
forfeited: the Gentiles being chosen m 
their stead (Rom. x. 11, xi. 11-25). Hence 
Gcd's people, whether Jews or Gentiles, are 
called 'a chosen generation,' 'a peculiar 
people 'XI Pet. ii. 9, v. 13). And so individual 



believers are said to be ' chosen in Christ ' 
(Eph.i. 4), 'elect according to the foreknow- 
ledge of God the Father, through sanctifi- 
cation of the Spirit unto obedience and 
sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ' (1 
Pet. 1. 2 : comp. Rom. viii. 28-39). So also 
the holy angels are called ' elect' a Tim. v. 
21), indicating that the blessedness of those 
happy spirits they owe entirely to God's 
favour. We fallen men are specially to 
remember this : it is of divine grace we 
have any good gift, and by divine strength 
alone we can do any good thing (John xv, 
5 ; James i. 17). 

The privileges and prerogatives we have 
attained must not make us presumptuous 
or self-confident : any view of doctrine 
which produces this effect can hardly fail 
to be erroneous: we must rather 'give 
diligence to make ' our ' calling and elec- 
tion sure ' (2 Pet. i. 10). 

ELECT LADY ^2 John 1). It has been 
doubted whether the 2nd epistle of St. 
John was addressed to a church, or to an 
Individual : it is more probable to an 
individual (eomp. 5, 13) ; and then there is 
the further auestion whether either of the 
original words is a proper name. Dr. Alf ord 
is of opinion that Kyria, translated ' lady,' 
is a name ; so that the translation should be, 
' to the elect Kyria ' {Tlie G^-eek Test, Proleg. 
on 2 and 3 John, sect. ii.). 

EL-ELO'HE-IS'RAEL {God, Godof IsraeX). 
The name which Jacob gare to the altar he 
built near Shechem on the ground where he 
pitched his tent, and which he afterwards 
bought (Gen. xxxiii. 18-20). 

ELEMENTS. The original principles of 
things ; sometimes used literally (2 Pet. iii 
12); sometimes figuratively (Gal. iv. 3, 9, 
Col. ii. 20) for rudimentary lessons, i. e. the 
ritualistic observances of Judaism, ana 
perhaps of heathenism ; also in Heb. v. 12 
for the early teachings of the gospel. 

E'LEPH {the ox). One of the cities 
allotted to the tribe of Benjamin (J osh. xviii, 
28). 

ELEPHANT. For 'ivory 'in the text of 
1 Kinffs X. 22, 2 Chron. ix. 21, the margin 
has ' elephants' teeth.' Also for 'behemoth,' 
(Job xl. 15) in the text, the marginal note 
expounds ' the elephant, as some think.' In 
the Maccabean wars elephants were em- 
ployed (1 Mace. vi. 30, and elsewhere). See 
Behemoth, Ivory. , 

ELEUTHEROP'OLIS (/ree-^o«Jn). A city 
of Palestine, but not so called in scripture. 
Shortly after the Christian erait was known 
as a place of importance, the see of a bishop, 
and the capital of a province. But it was de- 
stroved after the Saracenic conquest. It lay 
on tiie border of the Philistine plain, about 
twenty-five miles from Jerusalem. An 
ancient name is said to be Betogabra ; and 
at present as Beit Jitrrin it is a village of 
fifty or sixty houses. There are very 
extensive ruins, and many singular caves 
in the vicinity. See Gath. _ 

ELEU'TSEEUS (1 Mace. xi. 7, xii. 30). A 
river of Syria, most probably the modern 
Kahr el-Kebir. 

ELHA'NAN (whom God hestoiced).—!. A 
warrior who, in David's time, slew a gi- 
gantic Philistine. The two notices of him 



253 



[eliashib 



do not agree (2 Sam. xxi. 19, and 1 Chron. 
XX. 5). In one it is said that Eihanan was 
Che son of Jaare-oregim, and that he slew 
Goliath (the words ' the brother of in our 
version being adopted from the second ac- 
comit). In the other place Eihanan is called 
the son of Jair ; and the person he slew is 
described as Lahmi, the brother of Goliath. 
It is likely that the text in Chronicles is 
accurate ; else the account of David's own 
victory over Goliath would be contradicted. 
Besides, a part at least of the difference in 
Saraiiel may be accounted for. The word 
oregim in the original occurs twice : at the 
end of the verse it is rightly translated 
• weavers.' Perhaps the eye of the copyist 
rested on this, and by mistake he wrote the 
word twice. See Jaare-oregim.— 2. The 
son of Dodo, also one of David's warriors 
[2 Sam. xxiii. 24 ; l Chron. xi. 26). 

E'LI {summit, the highest, according to 
some, adopted of the Lord). A noted high 
priest and judge of Israel. He was of the 
family of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest son ; 
for his descendant Ahimelech or Abiathar 
(1 Sam. xiv. 3, xxii. 20; 2 Sam. viii. 17) is 
expressly said to be of that house (I Chron. 
xxiv. 3). We do not know how or when 
the high priesthood passed from Eleazar's 
family to that of Ithamar ; but it was de- 
clared, on account of Eli's sin in not restrain- 
ing his ungodly sons, that the dignity should 
revert to the elder branch. With the ex- 
ception of this great fault, of which he was 
repeatedly warned, Eli appears to have been 
a holy man. To him was committed the 
charge of Samuel the prophet when a child. 
And his anxiety for the ark of God, carried 
with the Israelitish army to battle, is gra- 
phically depicted in the sacred history. He 
sat watching for news in the open road ; 
and, when he heard the disastrous intelli- 
gence, the death of his two sons, and, worst 
of all, the capture of the ark by the Philis- 
tines, he who could have borne the desola- 
tion of his own house sank down in grief, 
and his neck brake, and he died. He was 
ninety-eight years old, and had judged Israel 
forty years ; some of these years probably 
including the time of Samson (1 Sam. i.-iv.). 
Part of the fulfilment of the threatening 
against Eli's house is noted in 1 Kings ii.27. 

E'LI, E'LI, LA'MA SABACH'THANI (My 
God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me ?) 
The Syro-Chaldaic words which our Lord 
uttered during his deep agony on the cross 
(Matt, xxvii. 46). They are given, with 
Blight variation, preserving more of an 
Aramaic cast, in Mark xv. 34. They were 
cited from Psal. xxii. 1. 

ELI'AB (to whom God is father).—!. The 
prince of Zebulun in the wilderness (Ifumb 

i. 9, ii. 7, vii. 24, 29, x. 16).— 2. A Reubenite, 
father of Dathan and Abiram (xvi. 1, 12 
xxvi. 8, 9 ; Dent. xi. 6).— 3, The eldest brother 
of David (1 Sam. xvi. 6, xvii. 13, 28 ; 1 Chron. 

ii. 13 ; 2 Chron. xi,18). No doubt he is the 
same with Elihu (1 Chron. xxvii. 18).— 4. A 
Levite, ancestor of Samuel the prophet 
(VI. 27). He is called also Elihu (l Sam. i. l) 
and Eliel (l Chron. vi. 34).— 5. A Gadite war- 
rior, who joined David when inhold (xii.9). 
—6. A Levite porter, who was a musician 
on the psaltery (xv. 18, 20, xvi. 5) 



ELI'AB (Judith yiii. l). One of Judith's 
ancestors. 

ELI'ADA (whom God knows).—!. One of 
David's sons, bom in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 
16 ; 1 Chron. iii. 8). But in 1 Chron. xiv. 7 
he is called Beeliada.— 2. A Benjamite, one 
of Jehoshaphat's captains (2 Chron. xvii. 17). 

ELI'ADAH (id.). The father of Rezon, a 
marauding chief who established himself 
at Damascus, and became king there (1 
Kings xi. 23-25). His name is the same with 
the preceding. 

ELI' ADAS (1 Esdr. ix, 28). Elioenai (Ezra 
X. 27). 

ELI' AD UN (1 Esdr. y. 58). 

ELI'AH (my God is Jehovah).—!. A chief 
among the Benjamites (1 Chron. viii. 27).— 
2. A person who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 26). 

ELI'AHBA (whom God hides). One of 
David's chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 32 ; 
1 Chron. xi. 33). 

ELI'AKIM (whom God establishes).—!. A 
distinguished officer in the court of Heze- 
kiah. It was declared of him that he should 
be advanced to a place of the highest dig- 
nity and trust on the degradation of Shebna 
(2 Kings xviii. 18, 26, 37, xix. 2 ; Isai. xxii. 
20-25, xxxvi. 3, 11, 22, xxxvii. 2). Of the 
personal history of Eliakim we know too 
little to say for what services he attained 
his exalted position ; but, as the language 
used in regard to him corresponds with that 
applied to Christ (comp. Tsai. xxii. 22 with 
ix. 6 ; Rev. iii. 7), we may not improbably 
suppose Eliakim in some sense a typical 
character. It has been imagined that he 
was high priest ; but there is no kind of 
proof that this was the case.— 2. The ori- 
ginal name of that son of Josiah who after- 
wards was king of Judah under the name 
of Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiii. 34 ; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 4). See Jehoiakim.— 3. A priest who 
took part in the dedication of the wall of 
Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 41).— 4, 5. Two persona 
in the genealogy of Christ (Matt. i. 13 ; Luke 
iii. 30). 

ELI'ALI a Esdr. ix. 34). 

ELI'AM (God^s people).—!. The father of 
Bath-sheba (2 Sam. xi. 3). He is also called 
Ammiei (1 Chron. iii. 5) ; the signification of 
the two names being the same.— 2. One of 
David's warriors, son of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 34). These two are usually supposed 
to be the same person. See Ahithophel. 

ELIAO'NIAS (1 Esdr. viii. 31). Elihoenai 
(Ezra viii. 4). 

ELI'AS (Matt. xi. 14, xvi. 14, xvii. 3, 4, 10, 
11, 12, xxvii. 47, 49 ; Mark vi. 15, viii. 28, ix. 
4, 5, llj 12, 13, XV. 35, 36 ; Luke i. 17, iv. 25, 
26, ix. 8, 19, 30, 33, 54 ; John i. 21, 25 ; Rom. 
xi. 2; James v. 17). The Greek form of 
Elijah, which see. 

ELI'ASAPH (whom God added).—!. The 
chief of Gad at the census in the wilderness 
(Numb. i. 14, ii. 14, vii. 42, 47, x. 20).— 2. A 
Levite (iii. 24). 

ELI'ASHIB (whom God restores).—!. A 
descendant of David (1 Chron. iii. 24). — 
2. The head of one of the courses of the 
priests (xxiv. 12).— 3. The high priest, 
in the time of Nehemiah (Ezra x. 6 ; Neh. 
iii. 1, 20, 21, xii. 10, 22, 23, xiii. 4, 7, 28) 
—4. A Levite singer who had married a 



ELIASIS] 



254 



foreign wife (Ezra x. 24).— 5, 6. Two other 
persons who had also married foreign wives 
(27, 36). 

ELI'ASIS a Esdr. ix. 34). Apparently a 
corrupt form of Jaasau (Ezra x. 37). 

ELI'ATHAH (to whom God comes). A 
Levite of the sons of Heraan, appointed 
head of a division for the musical service 
of the sanctuary (1 Chron. xxv. 4, 27). 

ELI'DAD (whom God loves). ABenjamite 
commissioner to superintend the allotment 
of Canaan (Numh. xxxiv. 21). 

ELI'EL (to whom God is strengtli).—!. A 
chieftain of Manasseh east of the Jordan 
(1 Chron. v. 24) .-2. A Levite, ancestor of 
Samuel (vi. 34). See Eliab, 4 ; Elihtj, 1.— 
3, 4. Two Benjamite chiefs (viii. 20, 22).— 
5, 6. Two of David's warriors (xi. 46, 47).— 
7. A Gadite captain who joined David in the 
hold (xii. 11) ; he is probably identical with 
No. 5 or 6.-8. A Kohathite Levite in David's 
time (XV. 9, 11).— 9. One of the overseers of 
the offerings in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron, 
xxxi. 13). 

ELI'ENAI {toward Jehovah are my eyes). 
A Benjamite chief (1 Chron. viii. 20). 

ELIE'ZER {God his help). —1. ADamascene 
chief servant of Abraham's household (Gen. 
XV 2, 3). There are two difficulties con- 
nected with this passage. If Eliezer were 
of Damascus, how, it is asked, could he 
have been born in Abraham's house? But 
the original of ' born in my house' is ' a son 
of my house,' i. e. one of my household. Or, 
as Kalisch observes, 'Damascus Eliezer' 
was not necessarily a native of Damascus : 
it might veiT well imply that that was the 
place from which his family descended 
{Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., pp. 363-365). If, 
however, we might adopt the theory that 
Haran, the city where Abraham dwelt with 
his father Terah, was near Damascus, in 
the district belonging to it (see Harax), 
Eliezer might well be a native Damascene, 
and yet born in Abraham's house. Further, 
the expression ' steward of my house ' is 
pointless : it is better, therefore, to render 
' the proprietor of my house,' as Gesenius, 
Kalisch, and others. The meaning is that 
Eliezer would be, not was then, the owner, 
as Abraham anticipated, of his possessions. 
The servant's name who headed the em- 
bassy to Padan-aram (Gen. xxiv.) is not 
given, but it was very probably the same 
Eliezer.— 2. One of the sons of Moses (Exod. 
xviii. 4 ; 1 Chron. xxiii. 15, 17, xxvi. 25).— 3. 
A Benjamite chief (vii. 8).— 4. A priest who 
blew the trumpet before the ark when 
brought from the house of Obed-edom (xv. 
24) _5. A ruler of the Reubenites in David's 
time (xxvii. 16).— 6. A prophet, son of Do- 
davah of Mareshah, who rebuked Jehosha- 
phat for going with Ahaziali, and predicted 
the destruction of his fleet (2 Chron. xx. 
35.37) _7. A chief man sent with others by 
Ezra to prevail on some of the Levites to 
join his caravan (Ezraviii.l6).— 8, 9, 10. There 
persons (the first two a priest and a Levite) 
who had married foreign wives (x. 18, 23, 31). 
—11. An individual in the ancestry of our 
Lord (Luke iii. 29). 

ELIHO'ENAI {toward Jehovah are my 
eyes). One who returned from Babylon with 
Ezra (Ezra viii. 4). 



ELIHO'REPH {God his recompense). One 
of king Solomon's scribes (1 Kings iv. 3). 

ELI'HTJ {whose God is he, 1. e. Jehovah).—!. 
An ancestor Of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. i. 
1), called also Eliab (1 Chron. vi. 27) andEliel 
(34\_2. A chief of Manasseh, who joined 
David as he went from the Philistine army to 
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 20).— 3. One of the Le- 
vite porters of the house of Obed-edom 
(xxvl. 7).— 4. The eldest brother of David 
(xxvii. 19^1, elsewhere called Eliab (1 Sam. 
xvi. 6, xvii. 13, 28 ; l Chron. ii. 13).— 5. The 
son of Barachel the Buzite, one of the in- 
terlocutors in the book of Job (Job xxxii. 
2, 4, 5, 6, xxxiv. 1, XXXV. 1, xxxvi.l). See 
Buz, Job. ^ 
ELI'JAH {my God is Jehovah).—!. That 
most renowned prophet of Israel who, with 
no Introduction as to his birth or parentage, 
or even account of the divine commission 
given to him, bursts forth in sacred story 
as the stern denouncer of judgment on 
apostate Israel, and who, after his marvel- 
lous course of miracle and bold vindication 
of God's authority, is translated without 
tasting death. 

The history of Elijah and Elisha has been 
a great stumbling-block to those critics who 
are inclined to see in any detail of super- 
natural occurrence a mythical element, and 
who theref oi*e, unscrupulously squaring the 
record of what God did by what in their 
mortal judgment He ought to have done, 
coollv pronounce books of scripture 'unhis- 
toricV But the truth of such books is not 
to be so easily set aside. Their credit does 
not rest only on the evidence, strong as it 
is, which may be gathered from their own 
contents. It is corroborated by other 
proofs : it is bound up with the authority 
of the Kew Testament. Repeatedly are the 
deeds of Elijah spoken of by our Lord and 
his apostles ; and we may fairly say that. If 
the first founders of Christianity were so 
weak as to mistake legendary tales for 
truth, we could place little dependence 
upon such men's doctrinal teaching. But, 
if ever there was a time when Jehovah 
misht be expected to interpose by his won- 
derful arm of power, it was when the ten 
tribes had rent themselves from the holy 
service of the temple, had not only set up 
the calves of Dan and Beth-el, but were at- 
tempting solemnly to establish the religion 
of Baal, and constitute it that of the state. 
Warning had been given by a prophet to 
Jeroboam, and had been disregarded. Un- 
less the national covenant was to be broken 
up at once, and no further period of proba- 
tion allowed, stronger means must be used 
to oppose tiie overwhelming flood of evil, 
at least to keep up in Israel a remnant who 
would not bow the knee to idol-gods. Very 
well then has Havernick observed, 'Where 
the templQ was wanting, and image-worship 
took its place, and the priesthood consti- 
tuted an unlaAN-ful caste, the spreading evil 
could be remedied only in an extraordinary 
way. In opposition to the illegality repre- 
sentedby the kingly and the priestly offices 
appeared the prophetic element as the 
representative of the law, and, therefore, as 
a properly-organized fixed whole in a proper 
embodiment of considerable extent in its 



255 



permanent membership. As the only autho- 
rized representative and continuation of 
the law, therefore, this prophetic order was 
armed with the power and majesty of the law 
manifesting itself in miracles : as the spirit 
60 tho wonder-working might of Moses de- 
volved upon Elijah and others ' {Einleitung, 
§ 170, vol. ii. 1. pp. 166, 167). 

Elijah is first mentioned as • the Tishhite, 
of the inhabitants of Gilead ' (1 Kings 
xvii. 1). This term, ' the Tishbite,' Is taken 
to indicate the name of his birth-place. But 
no place so named can be satisfactorily 
identified. Keil considers the prophet a 
foreigner {Comm. on Kings, transl, vol. i. 
pp. 266, 267). And, certainly, in the expres- 
sion 'inhabitants of Gilead,' the Hebrew 
word would seem to denote 'sojourners,' i.e. 
strangers. Further, the original of 'the 
Tishbite ' may be from the same root, and 
may by possibility signify ' the sojourner,' 
as marking specially that this great man 
was an alien. But on this point no certain 
conclusion can be arrived at. 

The incidents of Elijah's career must be 
briefly, and can be but briefly, sketched. He 
is introduced proclaiming that there should 
be neither ' dew nor rain these years,' the 
time being left indefinite, 'but according 
to his ' word,' By his mouth the judgment 
was announced, and from his mouth alone 
should the remission come ; thus effectually 
cutting off all hope of relief from false 
prophets. But he was himself to be cared for. 
By the brook Cherith he might make his 
abode (see Cherith) ; and there sufficient 
food should be brought him. 'And the 
ravens brought him bread and flesh in the 
morning, and bread and flesh in the 
evening.' Other translations of this sen- 
tence have been proposed ; and Dr. Kitto, in 
his Daily Bible Illustrations, forty-fifth week, 
seventh day, inclines to the belief that it 
was by human hands, from Arabs probably, 
that Elijah received his food. Without de- 
ciding this(iuestion( though there are strong 
reasons for holding to the ordinary in- 
terpretation). It is sufficient to say with Keil 
(uM supr., p. 270), 'Whosoever acknow- 
ledges the living God will confide in his 
omnipotence, that he can cause his servants 
to be nourished even by ravens, although, 
according to the fine remark of Winer, 
they are otherwise the most voracious 
of birds.' When the brook Cherith dried 
up, Elijah was commanded to repair to 
Zarephath, where, in a widow's house oc- 
curred the wonder— which has ever since 
brought rich comfort to many a humble 
servant of God— of the barrel of meal never 
wasting, the cruse of oil not failing. Here, 
too, was wrought the miracle of the raising 
of the widow's son to life (1 Kings xvii.). 
Strong was the woman's faith ; but stronger 
still that of the prophet. 

And his faith was to be yet more hardly 
proved. For he was now to present himself 
before the ungodly king, who, prompted by 
his wife Jezebel, had long sought Elijah to 
destroy him, as the author of the country's 
calamitj'. He showed himself, therefore, 
to the astonishment of good Obadiah, and, 
strong in superior power, summoned Ahab 
to his presence, and, while the weak king 



ctuailed at his words, commanded that the 
prophets of idolatry should be collected, and 
the grand contest between their divinities 
and the Lord Jehovah be decided in the 
sight of the gathered people of Israel. Ne- 
ver was there a more magnificent scene, 
never a more triumphant result. Even the 
wavering Israelites were convinced by the 
decision, and uttered the shout that echoed 
far along the slopes of Carmel, ' The Lord, 
he is the God, The Lord, he is the God.' 
Ahab's authority seemed for the time set 
aside; and Elijah directed the execution, 
according to the law, of the idolatrous pro- 
phets; and no man dared to interfere. 
Then rose the little cloud ; and then came 
the mighty rain ; but ere it descended Ahab 
hurried in his chariot to Jezreel sixteen 
miles away ; and Elijah girded up his loins 
like one of the practised runners, and ran 
before the king to the gate of the royal city 
(xviii. : comp. Luke iv. 25 ; James v. 17, 18). 
See Carmel, l. 

Ahab had been cowed ; but Jezebel was 
determined to avenge the false prophets. 
She swore by her gods that she would slay 
Elijah as he had slain them. The only won- 
der is that, instead of acting at once, and 
seizing him on the instant, she sent a 
messenger to tell him what she would do 
on the morrow. Perhaps, furious as she 
was, she had her fears, and thought It 
better to frighten him into exile. If so, her 
plan succeeded, for a time at least. Elijah, 
just before so bold, is now a fugitive. Per- 
haps he expected that Israel would rise in 
national reformation, and disappointed in 
this he lost heart, and fied across the 
territory of Judah, at the last town of which 
he left his attendant, and wandered on 
himself, weary of life, into the wilderness. 
Here he was to witness wonderful things. 
Supernaturally sustained, he travelled forty 
days and forty nights to Horeb, the mount 
of God. And there the storm, and the 
earthquake, and the fire appalled him ; and 
afterwards the Lord's voice was heard : not 
loud was it, but clear and distinct; and its 
tones thrilled through the prophet's heart, 
•What doest thou here, Elijah?' here, far 
away from the land of Israel, where his ener- 
gies ought to have been exerted. He pleaded 
that he stood alone : all was lost, no great 
deliverance wrought, no token of amend- 
ment visible, his life pursued by the 
vengeful queen. But he was told that some 
faithful were yet left ; there was work for 
him to do ; and fresh commissions were 
given him, indicating the vengeance in 
store for the wicked house of Ahab, with 
the calamities that should fall upon apostate 
Israel; but yet that the Lord would not 
want a man to testify to his name and up- 
hold his cause (xix. : comp. Rom. xi. 2-5). 

Ahab might well believe that he was freed 
from his awful monitor for ever. Some 
time seems to have elapsed ; and the king 
had wars and received rebukes, but not 
from Elijah. He was free, then, to indulge 
himself. He coveted Naboth's vineyard, 
and, by Jezebel's unscrupulous tyranny, he 
got it. So he went down to take possession, 
exulting, doubtless, like a humoured child. 
He steps upon the land he had acquired. 



ELIJAH] 



256 



but lo! tbere stands a figure there, he 
could not mistake it, the prophetic dress, 
the stern hearing, the fixed eye. And in 
agony the wretched king exclaims, Hast 
thou found me, 0 mine enemy ? ' Terrible 
was the response, 'I have found thee ; ' and 
so impressive the sentence pronounced 
that even Ahab's careless hardened heart 
was moved to something like repentance ; 
so that the Lord, ever ready to show him- 
self touched with compassion, announced 
a respite : the full vengeance should be 
executed not till Ahab's son's days (xxi. 15- 
29). Happy had it been for Ahab if this 
mercy had affected him as it ought, and if, 
like Manasseh in later days, he had turned 
to the Lord with all his heart and souL 

The subsequent appearances of Eli]ah ^ 
were fitful, as his first had been abrupt. It | 
may be that he busied himself in the es- 
tablishment and training of the prophets' 
schools. At all events intervals elapse ; and 
other prophets there are to admonish or 
rebuke. At last Ahab falls, and is succeeded 
by Ahaziah. And Ahaziah, wicked as his 
father, was laid upon a sick-bed, disabled 
by an accident. With bold superstition he 
sends off to the god of Ekron to know 
whether he shaU recover. But the messen- 
gers meet and are turned back by one who 
bids them tell their master that he should 
die. The king, conscience-smitten, enguires 
who this might be, and is no sooner told 
of his hairy garment and leathern girdle, 
than he exclaims, ' It is Elijah the Tishbite, 
and with desperate purpose, sends company 
after company to seize him. The first two 
bands are destroyed by fire from heaven ; 
but with the last, whose captain had ap- 
proached and spoken in more reverent 
manner, Elijah goes to the king, and in 
person announces to him his doom. And so 
Ahaziah died (2 Kings i.). The judgments, 
It must be understood, that befel the troops 
despatched to apprehend Elijah were not 
the personal resentment of the prophet, but 
the vindication of the Lord's honour against 
an ungodly people, who in molesting him dis- 
honoured the great God (Exod. xvi. 8; 1 
Sam. viii. 7 ; Luke x. 16). For the misap- 
prehension of the apostles grounded on 
this fact, and our Lord's rebuke to them, 
see ix. 53-56. . , , , , 

There is one more scene m the eventful 
drama. The time was come when Elijahs 
ministry on earth should end. And, as he 
passed from place to place accompanied by 
Elisha,the prophets in the schools he visited 
seemed to have had some intimation of 
what was to happen. At length, having 
crossed the Jordan by miraculous power, he 
asked his successor what he should do /or 
him ' Let a double portion of thy spirit be 
upon me,' was the reply, claiming the heir- 
ship of his gifts and authority; for the 
first-bom had by right a double portion of 
the father's goods. If he saw his master 
when he was taken away, that is, continued 
his attendance to the last, it should be 
granted. And, while they were talking, 
there appeared a chariot of fire and horses 
of fire, parting the two, and Elijah was 
carried by a whirlwind into heaven, lue 
cry which Elisha uttered, 'My father, my 



father, the chariot of Israel and the horse- 
men thereof,' and the rendin g of his clothes, 
evinced the sense he had of the loss. But 
he gathered up the prophetic mantle which 
fell from Elijah as he rose, the symbol of 
his own succession, and felt that his peti- 
tion was gi-anted. For far longer time did 
he exercise the sacred office ; and his In- 
fluence, taking up the work at the point to 
which Elijah had carried it, became more 
extensive, and was exercised, for the most 
part, more in deeds of mercy than in those 
of judgment (2 Kings ii. 1-14). 
1 Of course there are men who attempt to 
explain away the miracle of Elijah's trans- 
lation. But God ' giveth no account of his 
; matters.' He had high reasons for exempt- 
ing the great prophet from the death 
; which, generally speaking, passes upon all 
' men. And the remarks of Keil are well 
worth consideration (ubi supr., p. 349). 
' Moses, the lawgiver, goes in the way of 
the law, which works death as the wages ol 
sin (Rom. vi. 23, vii. 13), from the earthly 
life. Elijah, the prophet, who is ordained 
for correction to future times, to pacify the 
wrath before the judgment, to turn the 
heart of the father to the son, and to re- 
store the tribes of Israel,is taken from this 
world as the forerunner of Christ (Mai. iv. 5, 
6; Matt. xi. 10, 14) without tasting death, 
predicting the ascension of the Lord, who, 
by his resurrection from the dead, taking 
the sting from death and the victoiy fi'om 
hell (1 Cor. xv. 55), as the abolisher of the 
curse of sin and conqueror of death and the 
I grave, ascends into heaven to the right 
hand of the Father on high.' 

There is a remarkable statement (2 Chron 
xxi. 12-15) that a writing came from Elijah 
to Jehoram of Judah, threatening judgment 
for this king's evil deeds. It is generally 
supposed that this must have been after 
Elijah's translation. If so, we may well 
conceive that by the spirit of prophecy it 
was prepared before Elijah was taken up. 
Some have imagined, however, that the 
translation was not till after Jehoram_ be- 



LraDSiaX/lUU was uuu bm a^v^i. 

gan to reign, and that the events of 2 Kings 
iii, occurred in Elijah's life on earth. It 
maybe so : the matter is not easy to decide. 
Tet it is obviously a mistake to imagine 
(Smith's Diet of the Bible, vol. i. p. 530) that 
the theorv of Jehoram's sharing his father's 
throne will solve the difficulty. It was not 
till after Jehoshaphat's death that Jehoram 
slew his brethren (2 Chron. xxi, 4). But 
these murders are alluded to in EKjah'g 
' writing.' , ' . 

The character of Elijah made a deep im- 
pression upon the Jews. He was expected 
to return to earth as the forerunner of 
Messiah ; an expectation encouraged by the 
remarkable prophecy (Mai. iv. 5, 6) already 
referred to. The prophecy was indeed 
fulfilled, but not in the way they imagined. 
John Baptist, though not personally Elijali 
(John i. 21), was to go before the Messiah in 
the spirit and power of the ancient prophet 
(Luke i 17) ; and thus our Lord himself eX' 
plained the matter to his disciples (Matt; 
xvii 10-13). There was, it is true, a personal 
appearance of Elijah with Moses, when the 
' two in glory stood beside the transfigured 



257 



[elisha ' 



• Saviour on the holy mount, and talked with 
him of his coming death— a proof how both 
the law and the prophets pointed to a Re- 
deemer suffering ere he was triumphant 
(1-8 ; Mark ix. 2-8 ; Luke ix. 28-36). 

There are those who believe that the 
prediction of Eh'jah's coming has not 3'et 
had i':s full accomplishment; and they 
expect, before the second appearing of the 
Lord, that the old stern prophet of Gilead, 
who never died, will tread the earth 
again. Such a question, however, cannot 
be discussed here. For some interesting 
views of Elijah's character and history 
see Kitto's Daily Bible Illustrations, weeks 
forty-five to forty-seven. 

2. A priest who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 21). 

ELIJA'HTJ (id.) (1 Kings xvii. 1, marg.). 
A form of the name Elijah. 

ELI'KA {pelican of God 1 God of the congre- 
gation 2). One of David's mighty men (2 
Sam. xxiii. 25). 

E'LIM (trees, perhaps palm-trees). The 
second station of the Israelites after they 
had passed the Red sea. They found here 
twelve wells or springs of water and three- 
score and ten palm-trees (Exod. xv. 27, 
xvi. 1 ; Numb, xxxiii. 10). There are several 
valleys which descend from the mountain 
range et-Tih towards the sea ; and one of 
these must be Elim, probably Wady Ghur- 
undel, or else Wady Useit. Both are said to 
be fringed with trees and shrubs, among 
which are wild palms. See Stanley, Sinai 
and Palestine, pp. 37, 68, 4th edit. 

ELIM'ELECH (God his king). A man of 
Beth-lehem, who, in the days of the judges, 
went in a time of famine to sojourn in 
Moab with his wife Naomi and his sons 
Mahlon and Cbilion. He died there, and his 
sons also, leaving no posterity. Naomi 
afterwards returned into Palestine with one 
of her daughters-in-law, Ruth (Ruth i. 2, 3, 

ii. 1, 3, Iv. 3, 9). 
ELIO'ENAI (toward Jehovah are my eyes). 

—1. One of David's descendants (1 Chi'on. 

iii. 23, 24).— 2. A chieftain of Simeon (iv.36). 
—3. A Benjamite head of a house (vii. 8).— 
4. A Levite of the family of Korah, one of 
the porters (xxvi. 3).— 5. A priest who had 
married a strange wife (Ezra x. 22) ; perhaps 
he is the person who took part in the dedi 
cation of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 
41).— 6. Another person who had married a 
foreign wife (Ezra x. 27). 

ELIO'NAS.-l. (1 Esdr. ix. 22). Elioenai 
(Ezra X. 22).— 2. (l Esdr. ix. 32). Perhaps 
corrupted from Eliezer (Ezra x. 31). 

ELI'PHAL (whom God judges). One of 
David's warriors (1 Chron. xi.35). In 2 Sam. 
xxiii. 34 he is called Eliphelet. 

ELIPH'ALAT (1 Esdr. ix. 33). Eliphelet 
(Ezra X. 33). 

ELIPH'ALET (God his deliverance). One 
of the sons of David born in Jerusalem 
(2 Sam V. 16 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 7). In iii. 8 it is 
Eliphelet, 

ELIPH'ALET (1 Esdr. v iii. 39). Eliphelet 
(Ezra via. 13). 

ELI'PHAZ (God his strength).— I. A son of 
Esau : he was the father of Teman (Gen 
^^,^^•4, 10, 11, 12, ]5, 16 ; 1 Chron. i. 35, 36).' 
—2. One of the three friends of Job : he is 



called * the Temanite : ' he was therefore, 
perhaps, a descendant of No. 1 (Job ii ii 
iv. 1, XV. 1, xxii. 1, xlii. 7, 9). See Job! 
The Book of. 

ELIPH'ELEH (whom ^God makes distin- 
guished). A Levite, called a 'porter, but 
appointed by David to play on the harp 
(1 Chron. xv. 18, 21). 

ELIPH'ELET (God his deliverance). ~1. 
One of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 34\ 
called Eliphal in 1 Chron. xi. 35.— 2. A son 
of David, born in Jerusalem (iii. 6). In 
2 Sam. v. 15 he is omitted, and in 1 Chron. 
XIV. 5 called Elpalet.— 3. Another son of 
David (iii. 8). He is called Eliphalet in 2 Sam. 
V. 16 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 7.-4. A descendant of 
Saul (viii. 39).— 5. One who returned to Jeru- 
salem with Ezra (Ezra viii. 13).— 6. A man 
who had married a foreign wife (x. 33). 

ELIS'ABETH (God her oath, q. d. wor- 
shipper of God). The wife of Zacharias 
and mother of John the Baptist. She was 
of a priestly family, and also the cousin of 
the Virgin Mary. She is described as being, 
with her husband, a person of piety, 'walk- 
ing in all the commandments and ordi- 
nances of the Lord blameless' (Luke i. 
5-66). 

ELISE'TJS (Luke iv. 27). The Greek form 
of Ehsha. The name appears in this form 
in the Apocrypha (Ecclus.xlviii.l2). 

ELI'SHA (Godhis salvation). One of the 
most distinguished prophets of Israel, the 
minister and successor of Elijah. Theacts 
of his earlier ministry are related at consi- 
derable length. Some have thought fit to 
call his history fragmentary, and have even 
accused the sacred writer of possessing but 
an inadequate conception of the great pro- 
phet's function. But such critics only betray 
their own inadequate conception of the cha- 
racter of the sacred word. The histories of 
all the persons— not excepting our Lord him- 
self—mentioned in scripture are in a certain 
sense fragmentary; but just those traits of 
them are preserved, and those circum- 
stances of their lives narrated, which most 
fully bring out that kind of instruction 
which the wisdom of God intended that the 
church should treasure for warning for en- 
couragement, as examples of faith and pa- 
tience. It is so with the accounts of Elisha 
His predecessor Elijah had been very jealous 
for the Lord of Hosts. He had predicted 
judgnients and had executed judgments. 
He had always had to be in stern opposition 
to ungodly kings, never sought for, shrunk 
from, feared, and hated. It was an impor- 
tant work that the awful Tishbite performed 
And he made a deep impression. But this 
impression was to be rendered yet deeper 
and wider and more effectual bv one who 
though he would vindicate the respect due 
to his office, was by his multiplied miracles 
of mercy to gain an influence over even irre- 
ligious princes, to be the bulwark of the land 
against foreign foes, to be a witness for God 
known among the neighbouring nations' 
letting them learn that the only true Deity 
was Jehovah, God of Israel, to foster the 
prophetic schools and thus to preserve a 
nucleus of piety, blessing and blessed in the 
nation, where, doubtless, many more than 
the 7000 of Elijah's time there were, who 



elishah] 



258 



had never bowed the knee at any idol- 
shrir^ From the glimpses we have of 
llfsha's ^v^ork, of the willing oflenngs that 
the Deople made (2 Kmgs iv.42), of the 
expSg societies where God was wor- 
shfpped and honoured (vi. 1). we iW have 
some notion of tlie largeness of efiect pro- 
duced hy this prophet's ministry. See Keil, 
Comm. on Kingsjransl, vol. i. PP- 364-3 0 

He is first mentioned as the son of Shaphat 
the agriculturist of Abel-meholah in the 
valley of the Jordan. While occupied m 
4idiug the plough he received tjie call of 
EU^i^^^ and appears ever after to have at- 
tptided on him (1 Kings xiK. 16, 19-21 , 2 
K ngs iii in. And how deep the affection 
^as with 4hich he regarded his master the 
rarrative of Elijah's last days on earth siif- 
flciStly testifies. At his translation Elisha 
double portion of the departing 
Prophet's spirit, secured his falling mantle 
Td'had S^edilyfull Proof that the Lord 
i God of Elijah was with him (ii. 
' though a voung man, was bald. There ^ eie 
i evil^di-posed persons in plenty to make a 
; plrscnml defect the suhject ^of sai^casm. 
^ Tinr their malice ftew higher (Luke x. io;. 
?liev moSa the great miracle^just per- 
formed Why should not the hald-head go 
i uD Sfter his master? the world would he 
\ ^^hoth^^Suchpi^fani^ 



faith was in divine protection, when his 
fttendint trembled at the hostile band 
specially sent forth to seize and destroj 
When the time was come for the predicted 
vengeance upon Ahab's house f l^f 
divinely moved to anoint Jehu to be ung 
ovpr Israel To have proceeded on the 
enSnd himself would ^^^ve been to excite 
attention, and Perhaps cause Jora n to t^ke 
measures for defending his peison and 
crown. Accordingly one of the sons of ti e 
nrnnhpts is sent to Ramoth-gilead . he is 
L'7mioVcl?hewordoftheL^^ 
form the symbolical act ; but he is to take 
no part in the actual revomtio i . T^ie ^^ 
nnmicement was enough: Jehu, an araoi 
tZs man readily seized the opportunity : 
he conSired against his sovereign.; and 
{he Pioifhecya^iinst Ahab's house is ful- 
filled to the very letter (ix.). ^,.nnhet 
The life and ministry of this Viovhet 
lasted long, in four reigns at least. HeA\as 
called b? Elijah while Ahab was on the 
throne and it would seem that Eli]ah was 
•InSated when Joram -^s klng-m wha^ 
vpnr we know not. Kow Jehu and nis son 
Fehoahaz reigned together forty-five years, 
^ui EIlSi ^^^B still alive wh^nJoa^^^^^^^^ 
reeded Jehoahax ; we cannot tneieiore 
fpposehisminist^TafterElijali'sasce^^^ 
11 rid of botu. bucu yiui-a^^'-o ■ — r \ m have been less than between 50 ana bu 
' an instant si^niiflcant punishment. And at to h j e^een j - ^^^^^.^^^^^^^ 
i ?Se wo?d of Ihe prophet, speaking m God s Jja^=\,e-^47fa,.e of God's heritage was still 
name wild beasts destroyed a ninnber of \ne ]s e^a ^^^^ ^^^^ 

?hS|' mockers (2 Kings ii. 23-25). ^^^ny dear to hin^^^^^ 
i ^oufd hear and fear, and learn to reverence SwUh^heverf words which M^^^^^ 
^^T^ferra^f'ew chronological notes ^jA^^^^^^^ 

t^^'X^!^ r eve?rn?u^5 ! ^^^oo. It^ya^a symbolh^cti^n. 
have been when the three kings of Israel 

hosnapndL >a T^ii-ioh's ascension (ni. 



JSes^y^rEfd^s^ensionaii.): 
Sid theS succeeds a continuous narrative 
of wonderful works (iv., v., vi., vn., vm l-lo) 
grouped with the most consummate skill- 
fust as Matthew wove afterwards that mar- 
Sous chapletof divine parables _m Matt 
xm.-^Snt not naming the kings in whose 
reiins these works were wrought . We have 
no fSthoritv, therefore, for crowdmg them 
Slimto the single reign of Joram ; more 
Specially as it is clear, fi-om the seven years 

S\^e^S« Sp'lfcT- 
S of the^^^doVs olrth^^ raising of the 
irnammlt's son, the 1-aUng of the poi- 

H^aefto exhibit the wonderful work of 



arrows ana snoot, it wcis c. .^ f^Va Vi over 
and implied the victories of Israel o\er 
|?ria T e monarch did not understaiid, or 
he hadlittle faith in the command: he smote 
Tinrm the ground but thrice; and Elisha 
was gneved, and told him he should now 
Jmitf the Syrians but thrice ; had he been 
more eSlr'getic, he might have ntt^^^^^^^^^ 
stroyedthe Syrian power, /t was therefore 
with a gloomy P^spect for hi. country 

^'S'ufGod wou^rS^^^^^^^^^ on his 

=e?vant^ hI was buried ; and af terwai-ds, 
whin Moabite bands were ravaging the 
iountrv, and some one was to be carried to 
?he tomb, the attendants, surprised by the 
spoilers hastily thrust the corpse into 
fliWs' sepulchre. But ^^-'IZes ttiu 
touched the great prophet s bones than 
the dead man lived again c^O, 2ij. 

Tritly bv all these wondrous works it was 
abundantly proved that there was a God in 

Greeks Womm- on the Old Test. Gen., PP. .242. 
reS'nST^lUa. are mention^ 



?ee"by-inciaental remarks how ujep^^^^^^^ 1 1^--;^.-- '^tich Mue and PUrPl? 
'^lrs% t?eTourft"r?. alXbo'^'S'l £s 1 carried toTyr^(Ezek^^-^^ 



259 



confirms his view above adverted to, that 
Elishah was Hellas, Greece, by the fact that 
the shell-fish from which the purple dye 
was obtained abounded on the coasts of 
Peloponnesus. 

ELI'SHAMA (whom God hears). — !. 
Prince of the tribe of Ephraim in the wil- 
derness (Numb. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48, 53, x. 22). 
He appears to have been the grandfather of 
Joshua (1 Chron. vii. 26, 27).— 2. One of the 
sons of David born at Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 
16 ; 1 Chron. iii. 8, xiv. 7).— 3. The grand- 
father of that Ishmael who killed Gedaliah 
(2 Kings XXV. 25 ; Jer. xli. 1). He was of the 
• seod royal.' He is by some identified with 

4. A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 41).— 

5. Another son of David born in Jerusalem 
I (iii. 6). He must have been identical with 

Elishua (2 Sam. v. 15 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 5).— 

6. A priest whom Jehoshaphat sent with the 
book of the law to teach the people (2 
Chron. xvii. 8).— 7. Ascribe, called one of the 
princes, in Jehoiakim's reign (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 
20, 21). Perhaps he was the same with ]^o. 
3 or 4. 

ELI'SHAPHAT (whom God judges). A 
captain whom Jehoiada associated with 
himself for tbe overthrow of Athaliah (2 
Chron. xxiii, 1), 

ELI'SHEBA {God her oath). A daughter 
of Amminadab of the tribe of Judah, whom 
Aaron married (Exod. vi. 23). 

ELI'SHTJA {God his salvation). One of 
David's sons born at Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 
15 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 5). He is called also Eli- 
ohama (iii. 6). 

ELFSIMUS (1 Esdr. ix. 28). Eliashib (Ezra 
X. 27). 

ELI'U (Judith viii. 1). An ancestor of 
Judith. 

ELI'UD {God of Judah, or God his pi-aise). 
i One in the genealogy of Christ (Matt. i. 14, 
15). 

ELI'ZAPHAN (whom God protects).—!. A 
Levite appointed chief of the Kohathites 
(Numb. iii. 30 ; 1 Chron. xv. 8 ; 2 Chron. xxix. 
13). He is called also Elzaphan(Exod. vi. 22 ; 
Lev. X. 4).— 2. A chief of Zebulun, selected 
to assist Joshua in the allotment of Canaan 
(Numb, xxxiv. 25). 

ELI'ZUR (God his rock). The prince of 
the tribe of Reuben at the time of the cen- 
Bus in the wilderness (Numb. i. 5, ii. 10, vii. 
30, 35, X. 18). 

ELKA'NAH (whom God created.—!. One 
of the sons or grandsons of Korah, whose 
children did not perish in his rebellion 
(Numb. xxvi. 11), of the family of Kohath, 
Levi's son (Exod. vi. 24 ; 1 Chron. vi. 23).— i 
2. The father of the prophet Samuel, a 
Levite of the family of Kohath, through 
, Korah. Elkanah lived at Ramathaim- i 
I zophim, and had two wives, Hannah and 
I Peninnah, but no children by Hannah till ' 
her earnest prayer at the sanctuary. He ' 
appears to have been a man of prudence and 
piety, going up to Shiloh every year to < 
eacrifice. More of his history we know not j 
: than is mentioned in the account of Samuel's " 
j birth and childhood (1 Sam. i., ii. i-21\ His 
! genealogy is given at length in 1 Chron. vi. 1 
; 26-28, 33-38.-3, 4. Two Other Levites of the ( 
j same line (25, 36 ; and 26, 35). It is not 
easy to disentangle the genealogy here, or i 



: to see exactly which Elkanah is meant.—s. 
; Another Levite at a later date (ix. 16).— 6. 
! One called a Korhite, who joined David at 
: Ziklag (xii. 6).— 7. A door-keeper-f or the ark 
(XV. 23).- 8. A high officer in the reiga of 
, Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 7). 

EL'KOSH (God my bow). There are two 
places which have borne this name, one in 
Galilee, the other in Assyria, not far from 
Nineveh. It was at the first, most probably, 
that Nahum was born or resided. See Na- 

HUM. 

EL'KOSHITE. The designation of the 
prophet Nahum (Nah. i. l), from the place 
where probably he was born, Elkosh. 

EL'LASAR (the oak, or heap of Assyria). 
The country of which Arioch was king (Gen. 
xiv. 1, 9). There have been various conjec- 
tures as to this region ; some confounding 
it with Thelasar (2 Kings xix. 12) ; and others 
putting it in very improbable places. It 
was, according to Rawlinson, most likely 
Larsa or Larancha, a city of Lower Baby- 
lonia, about half-way between TrandErech. 
Old inscriptions show it to have been a very 
ancient city. It is now Senkereh. 

ELM (Hos. iv. 13). The word here ren- 
dered 'elms' is that which is commonly 
translated ' oak : ' see Oak. 

ELMO'DAM (perhaps extension, a Greek 
form of Almodad). One in the line of our 
Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 28). 

ELNA'AM {God his delight). The father 
of two of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 46). 

ELNA'THAN (^whom God hath given).—!. 
The father-in-law of Jehoiachin (2 Kings 
XXIV. 8). He is probably the same with that 
son of Achbor, who vainly interposed to 
prevent Jehoiakim from burning the roll of 
Jeremiah's prophecies (Jer. xxvi. 22, xxxvi. 
12, 25).— 2, 3, 4. Three persons whom Ezra 
sent to prevail on some Levites to accom- 
pany him to Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 16). 

ELO'I. A Syro-Chaldaic form of Eli 
CMark xv. 34). See Eli, Eli. 

E'LON {an oak).—!. A Hittite, the father 
of one of Esau's wives, Adah orBashemath, 
(Gen. xxvi. 34, xxxvi. 2).— 2. A son of Zebu- 
lun (xlvi. 14 ; Numb. xxvi. 26).— 3. A judge 
of Israel ; who is called the Zebulonite. His 
administration lasted ten years : he was 
buried in Aijalon, in the country of Zebu- 
lun (Judges xii. 11, 12). 

E'LON {id.). A city in the territory of 
Dan (Josh. xix. 43), It may possibly be the 
same with 

E'LON-BETH-HA'NAN (oak of the house of 
grace). A place or district over which, with 
other places, one of Solomon's commissariat 
officers v/as appointed (! Kings iv. 9). 

E'LONITES. A family of Zebulun, de- 
scendants of Elon, 2 (Numb. xxvi. 26). 

E'LOTH {a grove, perhaps palm-grove) 1 
Kings XX. 26 ; 2 Kings xvi. 6, marg. : 2 
Chron. viii. 17, xxvi. 2. See Elath. 

ELPA'AL {God his wages). A descendant 
of Benjamin, whose sons built Ono and Lod, 
and the neighbouring towns (1 Chron. viii. 
11, 12). 

EL'PALET {God 7iis deliverance). One of 
the sons of David born in Jerusalem (1 
Chron. xiv. 5). In iii. 6 the name is Eliphelet. 

EL-PA'RAN {the oak of Paran). A spot 
marking the most south-western point to 



tlLTEKEH] 



200 



v.-hich the confederate kings advanced (Gen. 
xiv. 6). See Paiia>-. 

EL'TEKEH {God its fear). A city of Dan 
(Josh. xix. 44), aUotted to the Kohathites 

^^L'TEKOX {God its foundation). A city 
in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 59). 

ELTO'LAD {God its generation, or iorn of 
God). A city first allotted to Judah, and 
afterwards transferred to Simeon (Josh, 
XT 30 xix. 4). It is doubtless identical with 
Toiad (1 Chron. iv. 29). Wilton would place 
it in the Wady el-Tlioula or Lussdn, where 
there are a few remains of rude walls and 
foundations {Tlie Xegeb, pp. 177-181). 

■ELZT.' {nought, vain). SeeMo^THS. 

ELU'ZAI {God is my praises, i. e., the ob- 
ject of mv praise). One of the Benjamite 
warriors who joined David at Ziklag (1 
Chron. xii. 5). . . ^. 

ELTMA'IS (Tob. ii. 10). A province of the 
Per-ian empire. There does not appear to 
have been a town of the name a 2klacc. vi. 1): 
=ee TViner, Bibl. EWB. art. ' Elam.' 

EL'TM\S (wise man, sorcerer). The Ara- 
bic designation of the Jew, Bar-jesus, who 
re^^sted Paul and Barnabas iu Cyprus,before 
the proconsul Sergius Paulus. He was 
miraculouslv struck blind (Acts^xiii. 6-12). 

FLY^IE'AXS (Judith i. 6). The Elamites. 

EL'ZAB\D (whom God liaih given).-!. A 
Gadite captain, who joined David when in 
hold (1 Chron. xii. 12).-2. A Levite of the 
sons of Korah, appointed one of the portei's 

^^EL'Z^PHAN" (whom God protects). A Le- 
vite chief of the Kohathites (Exod. vi. 22 ; 
Lev X. 4). He is also called Elizaphan 
.^'umb. iii. 30 ; 1 Chron. xv. 8 ; 2 Chron. xxix. 

i3) 

EMBALMING. A process by which dead 
bodies are preserved from decay. Wu en Ja- 
cob died in Egypt, 'Joseph commandea his 
servants the phvsicians to embalm his 
father, for burial in Canaan.' The process 
occupied fortv days. Joseph also was him- 
self embalmed, that his mumDiy mignt be 
carried with the children of Israel when i 
ihey leftEgrpt for Palestine (Gen. 1. 2, 3, 
26). The embalmers were, we are told, a 
distinct class of persons, regularly trained 
for their art ; but there is nothing unrea- 
sonable In supposing that some of tuis 
class were attached to Joseph's household ; 
or if not, the whole body of them would be 
readv enouerh to consider and call them- 
selves the servants ' of so powenul a 
vicerov 

Acco'rdins: to the accounts given by Hero- 
dotus (lib. li. 86-88) and Diodorus Siculus 
lib i. 91), three modes of embalming were 
practised in Egypt. The first was the most 
expensive : its cost being a talent of silver, 
or about 250Z. The brain was first extracted, 
^0 far as possible, by an iron or bronze hook, 
through the nostrils, and the rest destroyed 
bv anlniusion of caustic drugs. The dis- 
sector tnen, with a sharp Ethiopian stone, 
•uade a deep incision about five inches long, 
in a part previously marked by a scribe in 
the left side. It was a crime to mutilate a 
human bodv; and therefore this dissector, 
havine done his work, ran hastily away. 
A-f terwards the embalmer extracted through 



. the incision which had been made all the 
I intestines, except the heart and kidneys : 
everv part of the cavity was then rinsed 
with palm-wine, and sprinkled with pow- 
dered perfumes. The body was next filled 
with pure mvrrb. cassia, and other aroma- 
tics, but not frankincense, sewed up, steeped 
in natron for seventy days, then washed 
and enveloped in linen bandages covered 
with gum. This was a perfect mode of 
embalming : the features, and the hair of 
the eve-brows and eye-lids were preserved. 




BandagiBg a mummy. From a painting. 



Th^ second mode cost twenty mma?, or 
about 81L The bowels were not taken out, 
nor generallv were incisions made, thougu 
in some cases existing mummies show them. 
But oil of cedar was injected by means of 
svringes, and the body steeped innatronfor 
seventv davs. When the oil was drawn off, 
the intestines came out in a state of dissolu- 
tion ; and, tlie natron having consumed t ie 
flesh, onlv the skin and hones remained. The 
cheapest" mode was a mere rinsing of the 
abdomen with syrmtea (a purgative liguid, 
composed, it is said, of an infusion of senna 
and cassia), and then steeping the t)oay m 
natron for seventy days (see Kalisch, Comm. 
on Old Test. Gen., pp. 763, 769). _ 
: N'ow it will be observed that m all the^e 
: cases seventv days are required for the pro- 
cess • wherea= in the embalming of Jacob 
the time of forty days is specified. But 
there is no occasion to be disquietea at the 
discrepance. The accounts oi Herodotus 
and Diodorus differ in several materia) 
points. And, if it be alleged that they wrote 
in different ages, a similar reply is amp y 
sufBcient, ^-Iz., that the book or_ Genesis 
describes a practice of embalming long 
anterior to the earliest of these Y'^^';^' 
Existing mummies, while they confirm in 
«ome re=riActs the account of Herodotus, 
show in others a great variaxion. We may 
■ therefore well suppose that in the conrse of 
centuries different modes of embalming 
were in u=e It is impossible to distinguish 
in the mummies now existing all the three 
kinds described above. Those who have 
made the most careful investigations dis- 
tribute mummies into but two c.asse= ,each 
with some sub-divisions), one ^^l^J^^' 
tral incisions, and others ^^^^ 
' Mummification was customary till the Mrh 
centurv of the Christian era ; hut from that 
time it fell gradually into disuse. The 



261 



[emmaus 



modern Egyptians wasli their dead 
thoroughly in water in which leaves of the 
lote-tree have been boiled, and use in that 
operation the fibres of the palm-tree, stop 
up with cotton every aperture, as the nos- 
trils and ears, shave the body and remove all 
hair, sprinkle the corpse with a mixture of 
water, pounded camphor, dried and pounded 
leaves of the lote or other trees, with rose- 
water, aloe, and similar perfumes ; and they 
then bind together the ankles, and place 
the hands upon the breast. If the deceased 
was a man of property, the body is after- 
wards wrapped in muslin, in cotton cloth of 
a thicker texture, striped stuff of silk and 



a variegated texture ; the ' cunning work' 
patterns with design. Thus this last is said 
to be 'with cherubims' (xxxvi. 8, 35). 
Neither kind exactly answered to the notion 
of modern embroidery. For further dis- 
cussion and other opinions the reader is 
referred to Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. i. pp. 547, 548. 

EMERALD. One of the precious stones 
of the high priest's breast-plate (Exod. 
xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11). It is said to have 
been imported into Tyre from Syria, and to 
have been used there as an ornament (Ezek. 
xxvii. 16, xxviii. 13). In the margin of the 
last-named passage ' chrysoprase ' appears ; 




A mummy with its inner and outer wrappers. 



cotton intermixed, and a kashniere shawl : 
white and green are the usual colours • blue, 
or what approaches it, is generally avoided. 
The body of a poor man is simply surrounded 
with a few pieces of cotton, or put into a 
kind of bag ' (Kalisch, ibid. p. 774 : see pp. 
771-775, for interesting further details of 
embalming, and of mummies). 

It does not appear that the Hebrews 
practised the systematic embalming of the 
Egyptians. Still some process was employed, 
tending to soothe surviving friends by 
arresting or delaying natural corruption. 
Thus Asa was laid in a bed ' filled with sweet 
odours and divers kinds of spices prepared 
by the apothecaries' art ' (2 Chron. xvi. 14). 
Also the women who had followed Jesus 
'bought sweet spices, that they might 
come and anoint him ' (Mark xvi. 1 ; Luke 
xxiii. 56) ; and Nicodemus 'brought a mix- 
ture of myrrh and aloes,' and 'wound' the 
body ' in linen clothes with the spices, as the 
manner of the Jews is to bury' (John xix. 
39, 40). In some instances, too, the later 
Jews embalmed a body in honey, after hav- 
ing covered it with wax (Josephus, Antiq., 
lib. xiv. 7, § 4 : comp. Strabo, Geograph., lib. 
xvt. 1, § 20). 

EMBROIDER, EMBROIDERER, EM- 
BROIDERY. We find the work of the 
'embroiderer' spoken of (Exod. xxviii. 39, 
XXXV. 35, xxxviii. 23) in reference to the 
priestly vestments and the preparation of 
the tabernacle, also 'broidered' (xxviii. 
4). But it is very doubtful whether the 
words are properly used. It seems pro- 
bable that the production called ' cunning 
work' (xxvi. 1 : comp. 31, marg.) was more 
like embroidery than the 'needle-work' 
(36) which the embroiderer is said to have 
made. The* needle-work' perhaps may mean 



and other interpretations have been sug- 
gested. But there would seem no suffi- 
cient ground for disl>elieving that the gem 
intended was really emerald. The rainbow 
round God's glorious throne is likened to an 
emerald (Rev. iv. 3) ; and this stone is de- 
scribed as one of the foundations of the new 
Jerusalem (xxi. 19). 

EMERODS. A disease (Deut. xxviii. 27, 
ISam.v. 6, 9, 12, vi. 4, 5, 11). There has been 
some difference of opinion on the subject; 
but the more probable belief is that the 
' emerods ' were hoemorrhoidal tumours, or 
bleeding piles, a disease which is said to be 
very common in Syria at the present time. 
The images that the Philistines made must 
have included the parts affected, 

E'MIM (terrors, terrible men). A gigantic 
race of men, whose seats appear to have 
been on the eastern side of the Dead sea. 
They were smitten by Chedor-laomer and 
his confederates, as well as other gigantic 
tribes, probably of the same stock with the 
Emim (Gen. xiv. 5). They occupied the 
country to the south of the Arnon, from 
which the Moabites afterwards expelled 
them, and gave to this particular tribe of 
giants the name Emim (Deut. ii. 10,11). Miss 
Corbaux supposes Sodom their ancient me- 
tropolis, and that after its destruction the 
royal seat was transferred to Heshbcn. (See 
Journ.of Sacr. Lit, April 1852, pp. 55-80.) 

EMMAN'UEL {God with us) (Matt. 1.23). 

See IMMANUEL. 

EMMA'US {hot springs). The name of a 
village to which two of the disciples were 
going on the day of the resurrection, when 
the Lord appeared to them on the way (Luke 
xxiv. 13-35). According to the received text 
Emmaus was sixty fiirlongs, between seven 
and eight miles, from JerusalPin ; but some 



262 



MSS. read 160. This last distance would 
nearly correspond witli the position of an- 
other Emmaus (see next article), which 
various ancient writers, and. of the modern. 
Dr. Robinson, have supposed to he the vu- 
lage intended here. But the circumstances 
of the narrative forhid the supposition. 
The day was far spent when the party 
reached Emmaus. They had then their 
evening meal ; and afterwards the disciples 
returnid to Jerusalem, which they certainly 
could not have reached by midnight from 
a place more than twenty miles off Dr 
Thomson {TJie Land and the Book, p. 534) 
is inclined to identify Emmaus with Kuritt 

EMMA' US (1 Mace. iii. 40, 57, iv. 3, ix. 50) 
A town in the Philistine plain, where Judas 
Maccabeus gained a victory. ^ 
place of some importance under the Romans 
but was burnt by Varus. Early in the third 
century it was re-built by Julius Africanus 
the Christian writer, and was then called 
Nicopolis ; by which name it is frequently 
mentioned by Eusebius, Jerome, and others. 
The modern village 'Arnicas occupies its 
site (Dr. Thomson, uU supr.). 
EM'MEE (1 Esdr. ix. 21). Immer (Ezra x. 

^^EM'MOR (an ass). The New Testament 
form of Hamor (Acts vii. 16). See Ha^ior. 
A discrepancy has been supposed between 
what Stephen says and the Old Testament 
history (Gen.xxiii. 16-18, 1. 13; Josh. xxiv 
32). Dr. Lee solves it by pointing out the 
way in which Stephen repeatedly alludes t^ , 
the national history, combining different 
Facts in a single phrase ; which would be 
enough t? conley to the Jews all he meant 
to say. See Lee. Insp. of H. Script., pp. 533, 

^^ENA'JIM (Gen. xxxviii. 14, 21, marg.). 
See next article. , 

E'NA^I (the double spring). A t ovm m 
the plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 34). 
It could not have been very far from Tim- 
nah ; and it is possible that this town may 
Srm'eant in Gen. xxxviii 14. The render- 
ing there is in the text of our version m 
an open place,' but in the margin ' the door 
of eves, or of Enajim.' Taking the word as 
a proper name (see the Septuagmt) the lite- 
ral meaning is, 'at the doorway' or en- 
trance of Enajim,' i.e. Enam. 

E'NAN (haviJig eyes). The father of 
prince of Naphtali (Numb. i. 15, ii.29,vii.78, 

^^'^A'SIBUS a Esdr. Ix. 34). Perhaps a 
corruption of Eliashib (Ezrax. 36). 

ENCAMPMENT. The order m which the 
Israelites encamped in the desert was 
specially prescribed by divine command. 
The tabernacle was placed in the centre; and 
immediately round it were the tents of the 
house of Levi (Numb. i. 53) in four divisions; 
Moses and Aaron, with the priests, on the 
east side (iii. 38), the Gershonites ^es™d 
2^) the Kohathites southward (29), and 
the Merarites northward (35). _ The great , 
host, also in four divisions encircled these. ! 
Three tribes lay to the east, Judah the chief, : 
and in the camp of that tribe Issachar and i 
Zebulun (ii. 2-9). On the south were three 
other tribes. It was the camp of Heuben : 



Reuben first, then Simeon, then Gad, com- 
posed it (10-16). The three tribes of J oseph s 
house lay to the west; Ephraim,Manasseh, 
and Benjamin (18-24). And on the north 
side was the camp of Dan, in the order of 
Dan. Asher, and Naphtali (25-31). And, when 
they were on march, these mustered at the 
sound of the silver trumpets (x._ 5, 6). in 
the same order under their respective stand- 
ards : Judah, with his two associate tribes, 
leading ; then the Gershonites and the Mer- 
arites bearing ; the tabernacle ; next the 
host of Reuben ; then the Kohathites with 
the sanctuary ; and afterwards the host of 
Ephraim ; and the rear-guard, the host of 
Dan (ii. 17, x. 13-28). . 

The form of this encampment is generally 
supposed to be square ; but soraehave main- 
tained that it was circular. Practically we 
may mostreasonablyconclude, it was neither 
the one nor the other : the nature of the 
ground in the different halting-places m the 
desert would modify its f orm ; and it is 
enough to believe that the prescribed distri- 
bution was as far as possible observed with- 
out imagining that there could be always per- 
fect regularity. We read of gates to the camp 
,Exod. xxxii. 26, 27) : the dead were buried 
outside these (Numb. x. 4, 5) ; also lepers, 
and various unclean persons, and captives, 
at least for a while, were to be there (Ley 
xiii. 46, xiv. 3 ; Numb. v. 1-4, xii. 14, 15, xxxi. 
19 24 ; Josh. vi. 23). The skins, &c„ of 
victims were burnt there, and ashes poured 
out and uncleanness removed thither, and 
criminals executed there (Lev. iv 11, 12, vi. 
11 viii.l7, xxiv. 14 ; Numb. xv. So, 36 ;Deut. 
' xxiii 10-12). Not that any reasonable man 
supposes that there was one great line of 
circumvallation round the whole encamp- 
ment of the nation, which was always to be 
passed for these purposes ; but obviously 
that places for the occasions specified were 
to be selected apart from and out of the 
different clusters of tents, which together 
formed the vast Israelitish camp. 

It was, no doubt, after the model of this 
that ordinary encampments were made. It 
is hardly necessary to say that they were 
pitched where there was a good supply of 
water (Judges vii. 1 ; 1 Sam. xxix. 1), or m a 
place of natural strength, as on a hill (xvii. 
3) • for armies of all nations, at all times, 
take similar precautions. They also sur- 
rounded a camp with some defence, a 
'trench' (xxvi. 5, 7) : either an embank- 
ment, or a barrier of waggons. They placed 
sentinels, at least by night (Judges yu. 19 ; 
2 Kings ix. 17 ; Ezek. iii. 17, xxxiii. 7, 8, 9). 
The beasts of burden, too, were properly 
secured (2 Kings vii. 10). An encampment 
sometimes gave name to a place, as Ma- 
haneh-dan, ' the camp of Dan ' (J udges xyui. 
12) : just as many of our own towns derive 
their names from camps, e.g. Gloucester, 

Enchantment. This word is variously 
used in our version, and is the rendering of 
several Hebrew terms. In the case of the 
Egyptian magicians it describes the means, 
trick or otherwise, by which they pretended 
to emulate Moses, and deceived Pharaoh 
(Exod. vii. 11, 22, viii. 7). The 'enchant- 
ments' (a different original word) which 



263 MihU WiliaMttSQt, L^nginb 



Balaam went to seek were no doubt some 
kind of omens (JSTumb. xxiv. 1). This term 
frequently occurs elsewhere. There is an- 
other word rendered ' enchantment' (Eccles. 
X. 11), where the charming of serpents is 
meant. Then again the 'enchantments' 
(yet another Hebrew term is used) noticed 
in Isai. xlvii. 9, 12 are magical spells. ' The 
enchanters' in Jer. xxvii. 2 is the transla- 
tion of the word elsewhere rendered * ob- 
served times' (2 Kings xxi. 6): it is explained 
by some of predicting from the clouds, and 
would seem to imply a kind of idolatrous di- 
vination. All these various enchantments 
were prohibited by the Mosaic law (Lev. 
xix. 26 ; Deut. xviii. 10); almost all the words 
which have been referred to being found 
in those passages. See Divination, Magic. 

END-IRONS (Ezek. xl. 43, marg.). This, 
With the addition of ' the two hearth-stones,' 
is for 'hooks 'in the text. End-irons are 
the irons, on which the spit rests, at the 
ends of a grate. 

EN'-DOR (fount of the dwelling). A place 
territorially in Issachar, but assigned to 
Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 11). It seems that 
the rout of Sisera and Jabin extended to 
En-dor (Psal. Ixxxiii. 9, 10). It was here 
that Saul consulted the woman that had ' a 
familiar spirit,' and was warned by the ap- 
pearance, which startled the woman, and 
which the scripture calls Samuel, of 'his 
approaching fate (1 Sam. xxviii. 7- 25). En- 
dor retains its ancient name. It is on a slope 
facing Tabor, at about four miles distance, 
and is seven or eight miles from Gilboa. 
I r. Thomson (The Land and the Book, pp. 445, 
446) describes it as now ' a most wretched- 
looking place.' The declivity of the moun- 
tain is perforated with caverns ; and most 
of the habitations are merely walls built 
round the entrances to these. The cattle 
are stalled in them as well as the owners. 

EN-EGLA'IM (fountain oftioo calves, or of 
tivo pools). A place somewhere near the 
Dead sea, but of which nothing is known 
(Ezek. xlvii. 10). Some would identify it 
with Eglaim ; but then one of the letters of 
the original word must be changed. 

UN-GAD' DI (Ecclus. xxi v. 14). En-gedi. 

EN-GAN'NIM (fountain of gardens).— 1. A 
town in the plain country of Judah (Josh. 
XV. 34).— 2. A city in the territory of Issachar 
(xix, 21), but allotted to the Levites (xxi. 29) ; 
for which we find in 1 Chron. vi. 73 Anem 
substituted. There can be no doubt that En- 
gannim is the modern Jenin, still sur- 
rounded by gardens, a place with about 
2000 inhabitants, under a governor. It 
deals largely in the products of the country ; 
but the people are fanatical and unruly. 
With En-gannim may probably be identified 
Beth-hag-gan, which see. 

EN'-GEDI (fountain of the kid). A place, 
originally called Hazezon-tamar, in the 
wilderness of Judah (Josh. xv. 62). It stood 
about the middle of the western shore of 
the Dead sea, on a gentle slope from the base 
of the mountains extending to the water. 
The fountain bursts from the limestone 
rock at an elevation of 400 feet above the 
sloping plain, fertilizing the soil around. 
But the spot is little cultivated. There 
is no habitation except the tents of a few 



Arabs; and ruins mark the site of the ancient 
city. The neighbouring cliffs are full of 
natural and artificial caves and sepul- 
chres. In these strong-holds of En-gedi 
David at one time dwelt, eluding the pursuit 
of Saul. And here flourished the camphire 
and the vine ; and still the wild goats, from 
which thename was derived, are found upon 
the rocks of 'Ain Jidy (1 Sam. xxiii. 29, 
xxiv. 1 ; 2 Chron. xx. 2 : Sol. Song i. 14, 
Ezek. xlvii. 10). 

EN-HAD'DAH (swift fountain). A town 
of Issachar (Josh. xix. 21). 

EN-HAK-KO'RE (fountain of tlie crier) 
The spring which burst forth in Lehi on 
Samson's cry to God after the slaughter of 
the Philistines (Judges xv. 19). See Lehi. 

EN-HA'ZOR (fountain of the village). A 
town of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 37). 

EN-MI SH'PAT (fountain of judgment) 
(Gen. xiv. 7). See Kadesh. 

EN-RIM'MON ( fountain of the pomegran- 
ate). A place which the children of Judah 
inhabited after their return from Babylon 
(Neh. xl. 29). There can be little doubt that 
this was a town in the south country of 
Judah ; though the constituent parts of the 
name appear in Josh. xv. 32, xix. 7, Ain arid 
Rimmon or Remmon, as distinct places : 
comp. 1 Chron. iv. 32, and see Ain. Mr. 
Wilton has carefully examined the matter, 
and finds En-rimmon in the modern name 
Urn er-Bumdmtn (Tlie Negeb, pp. 229-233). 
This place is perhaps the Rimmon of Zech. 
xiv. 10, 

EN-RO'GEL (fountain of the scout, or 
fuller's fountain). A fountain on the bound- 
ary-line between Judah and Benjamin (Josh 
XV. 7, xviii. 16). Here Jonathan and Ahi- 
maaz waited for intelligence which they 
might convey to David, at the time of Ab- 
salom's rebellion (2 Sam. xvii, 17) ; and here 
Adonijah made his feast when he aspired 
to the crown (1 Kings i, 9). Thus En-rogel 
must have been close to Jerusalem, and it 
is gen-erally supposed to be the modern well 
of Job or Nehamiah, Bfr Eyuh, just below 
the junction of the valleys of Hinnom and 
Kedron, a little south of the pool of Siloam ; 
though some would identify it with the 
fountain of the Virgin, afew hundred yards 
more north. See Sunday at Home, vol x. 
pp. 441-444, for account of a descent into Bir 
Eyiib ; which was found to be a true spring. 

EN-SHE'MESH (fountain of the sun). 
This spring appears to have been on the 
border-line of Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 
XV. 7, xviii. 16, 17). Being between En- 
rogel and 'thegoingup of Adummim,'it 
must have been to the east of Jerusalem, 
beyond the mount of Olives. There is still 
a spring a mile below Bethany, which may 
with much probability be believed identical 
with Bn-shemesh. 

EN-TAP'PUAH (fountain of Tappuah, or 
the apple-tree). A place or point in the bor- 
der of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 7). See Tap- 
puah, 

ENE'AS (Acts Ix, 33, 34). See ^NEAS. 

ENEMES'SAB (Tob, i. 2, 13, 15). A cor- 
rupt form of Shalmaneser. 

ENE'NIUS (1 Esdr. v. 8). 

ENGINE. This word is used exclusively 
wivh reference to military matters. The 



engrave] 

Jews are"said to have invented engines for 
propelling arrows and great stones m Vz- 
ziali's time (2 Chron.xxvi. 15), probably by 
means of a strong spring. It is a conflrma^ 



264 




weapons. It differed considerably from the 
more familia;rIy-knownram employed by the 



Egyptian testudo. Champollion. 

tion of this statement, that, according to 
Pliny (vii. 56), the balista, a machine for 
throwing stones, was devised in Syria ; and 
besides, no such engines are figured in the 
Assyrian or Egyptian monuments. The 
engines of Ezek. xxvi. 9 were most likely 



^6 

fffiM 





Engines of war. Battering-rams. From 
Nineveh marbles. 

battering-rams, mentioned under the name 
of rams (iv. 2, xxi. 22). Those used by the 
Assyrians appear to have consisted of a 
strong frame-work on wheels, so covered as 
to protect the soldiers working it, and 
armed with one, or sometimes two, pointed 



Battering-ram and moving towers. From 
Nineveh marbles. 

Romans. * Engines of shot ' are mentioned 
in Jer. vi. 6, marg., xxxii. 24, marg. ; Ezek. 
xxvi. 8, marg., but incorrectly. 

ENGRAVE, ENGRAVER, ENGRAVING. 
In some places where one of these words is 
u^ed, carving or stone-cutting is intended. 
But it is evident that the art of engraving, 
properly so called, was practised at a very 
early period among the Egyptians and other 
nations. Thus some device or words were 
engraven on signet rings (Gen. xxxviii. 18, 
xli. 42) ; the names of the twelve tribes on 
the stones in the high priest's breast-plate, 
and the shoulde .-pieces (Exod. xxviii. 9-12, 
21, xxxix. 6, 14) ; and' Holiness to the Lord 
upon the golden plate of the mitre (xxvni. 
36 xxxix. 30). VTe also have the mention of 
graving with an iron pen upon a rock (Job 
xix. 24). . . . , . , 

E'NOCH (initiating or initiated, i.e. dedi- 
cated).— 1. A son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17,18). 
—2 One of the most eminent of the ante- 
diluvian patriarchs, the son of Jared, and 
father of Methuselah. He has this remark- 
able testimony ' that he walked with God ; 
an expression denoting near communion 
with the Lord, and conformity to his 
will And • he was not ; for God took him, 
that is, like Elijah in subsequent times, ' he 
was translated that he should not see death 
His life was, for the age in which he lived, 
a short one upon earth, 365 years ; but it 
was a life of faith, pleasing in the eye of 
his Maker (Gen. iv. 18-24 ; Luke in. 37 : Heb. 
xi 56) St. Jude cites a prophecy of Enoch 
(14). See next article. Inl Chrom i.3, Enoch 
is called Hanoch. 

E'NOCH, THE BOOK OF. There is apro- 
phecy cited in the epistle of St. J ude ascribed 
to Enoch ' the seventh from Adam' (Jude 14). 
It is questioned from what source St. Jude 
obtained this. Now there is nothing in- 
congruous in believing that a sacred writer 
might state a fact perfectly known to him 
from an authentic source, though not men- 
tioned in any previous inspired book. Id 



265 MihU mxmUtSQt, 



deed there are examples of this. Thus St. 
Paul appealed to the Ephesians as knowing 
' the words of the Lord Jesus, how he said, 
Tt is more blessed to give than to receive' 
(Acts XX. 35). But these words of the Lord 
are not recorded hy any of the evangelists. 
Again, the same apostle, addressing Timo- 
thy.speaks of Jannes and Jambres withstan- 
ding Moses (2 Tim. iii. 8). But no such 
names are found in the Mosaic history. See 
also Heb. xi. 24, xii, 21. Well-known words 
of Enoch, then.may have been handed down; 
and the inspired apostle may have been 
moved to embody them in his epistle. There 
is, however, an apocryphal composition, 
styled the Book of Enoch ; and in it the 
words appear. Perhaps St. Jude cited them 
from this work. He would give no sacred 
impress to it by his citation, any more than 
St. Paul did to Aratus, Menander, and Epi- 
menides, heathen poets, by his quotations 

i from them (Acts xvii. 28 : 1 Cor. xv. 33 ; Tit. i. 

1 12). 

j The book of Enoch was well known to the 
, early Christian fathers ; and certain frag- 
1 ments of it were preserved. But, asa whole, 
it was for long supposed to be irrecoverably 
I lost, till, in 1773, Bruce brought from Abys- 
sinia three manuscript copies of it in the 
Ethiopic language. Archbishop Lawrence 
printed first an English translation in 1821, 
and then the Ethiopic in 1838. Since that 
time the Ethiopic text has been published 
by Dr. Dillmannat Leipsic, 1851, and a Ger- 
man translation in 185.3. The Ethiopic ver- 
sion appears to have been made from the 
Greek. But the most competent scholars be- 
lieve that the book was originally composed 
in Hebrew or Aramaean; especially as it is said 
that a Hebrew book of Enoch was known to 
the J ews down to the thirteenth century. 
It is divided into five parts, comprising 
various revelations alleged to have been 
made to Enoch, visions, and parables, and 
addresses given by him to his children. 
• No apocryphal book,' says Mr. Westcott, ' is 
more remarkable for eloquence and poetic 
vigour; and the range of subjects which it 
includes is as noble as its style. In its pre- 
sent form the book aims at little less than 
a comprehensive vindication of the action 
of providence, both in the physical and the 
moral world ' (Introd. to the Study of the Gos- 
pels, chap, ii . p. 92) . It points specially to the 
! judgment reserved for sinners, the triumph 
I prepared for the righteous, and Messiah the 
! divine instrument of the twofold issue. The 
i following is the passage which it is asserted 
j that St. Jude cites : ' Behold he comes 
[with ten thousands of his saints, to exe- 
1 cute judgment upon them, and destroy the 
, wicked, and reprove all the carnal, for every- 
I thing which the sinful and ungodly have 
done and committed against him.' 

There is considerable difficulty in ascer- 
taining the real date of this book. Ewald 
Is inclined to believe that it consists of four 
fragmentary compositions, of which the 
earliest was written in the first years of 
John Hyrcanus, 144 B.C., that the remaining 
three followed one the other at intervals of 
a few years, and that it assumed its present 
shape as a whole during the first half of the 
century before Christ. Dillmann attributes 



[eN03 



the greater part to an AramaBan writer, 
about 110 B.C., but thinks that certain addi- 
tions were afterwards made. Mr. Westcott 
regards it *as describing an important 
phase of Jewish opinion shortly before the 
coming of Christ' (Dr. Smith's Die*, of the 
Bible, vol. i. p. 557). But Professor Volkmar, 
of Zurich, has undertaken to show that the 
book was produced at the time of the sedi- 
tion of Bar-cochebas, about 132 a.d., and 
imagines that it was written by one of the 
followers of rabbi Akiba. He tries also to 
show that, assuming that the book of 
Enoch is cited In Jude, the epistle ascribed 
to Jude must have been of later date. But 
he fails, as Dr. Alford observes, to prove 
* that the passage cited is so interwoven into 
the apocryphal book as necessarily to form 
a part of it, and that it may not itself have 
been taken from primitive tradition, or even 
from the report of that tradition contained 
in our epistle' (T/ie Greek Test, proleg. on 
Jude, sect. v.). This, then, upon the whole, 
seems the most probable opinion, that St 
Jude incorporated into his epistle a pro. 
phecy known to have been uttered by Enoch, 
and that the writer of the apocryphal work 
introduced afterwards the same into his 
own composition. But it is freelj? 
admitted that the question is one of consi- 
derable difficulty. The reader who desires 
more information may consult Moses Stu- 
art's Christology of the Book of Enoch, in the 
American Bibl. Eepos., Jan. 1840, pp. 86-13/, 
with the dissertations of Mr. Westcott and 
Dr. Alford, already cited, and the books re- 
ferred to by them. 

E'NOCH (id.). A city built by Cain, and 
called after the name of his son (Gen. iv. 17). 

E'NOGH (2 Esdr. vi. 49, 51). A name used 
for Behemoth. 

E'NON (John iii. 23). See ^non. 

E'NOS {man). One of the antediluvian 
patriarchs.the first-born of Seth (Gen. iv. 26, 
V. 6, 7, 9-11 ; Luke iii. 38). The name is given 
as Enosh in 1 Chron. i. 1. In the days of 
Enos, we are told, • men began to call upon 
the name of the Lord.' Expositors have 
differed as to the interpretation of these 
words. Kalisch imagines that the earliest 
worship was only sacrifice ; but that sacri- 
fice was afterwards enhanced and dignified 
by prayer. So that, when men began to in- 
voke the name of the Lord, either in private 
prayer or public supplication, a great step 
in spirituality was taken {Comm. on Old 
Test. Gen., pp. 153, 154). Bush, doubtful 
whether the rendering of the text, or that 
of the margin, ' to call themselves by the 
name of the Lord,' is preferable, sees here 
a more distinct gathering of God's worship- 
pers, inasmuch as evil was more decidedly 
manifesting itself {Notes on Gen., iv. 26). 
Tyler.believing that the promised deliverer, 
' He who shall be,' was not at first expected 
to be a divine Person, whence Eve supposed 
that Cain was he (Gen. iv. 1), imagines that 
now it was discovered that Jehovah was a 
name of God {Jehovah the Redeemer God, 
pp. 23-25), and remarks that it is hence clear 
that the early patriarchs were acquainted 
with the name, and that it is observable tliat 
the next who speaks of God uses it (Giten 
V. 29). 



enosh] 



266 



E'JsOSH (man). (1 Chron. i. 1). A form of j 

^ E^NSIGN In almost all the passages 
where we have this word in our version 
(Psal. Ixxiv. 4 is an exception) the Hebrew 
is nes; which properly means something 
lifted up and conspicuous. Hence it is trans- 
lated ' pole ' in Kumb. xxi. 8, 9 ; and it ap- 
pears to have indicated the signal, either 
a hare pole or something attached to 
It exhibited on a mountain-top or other 
prominent position, to give an alarm, or to 
call the people together (Isai. v. 26, xi. 12, 
xviii 3). We find the word occasionly ren- 
dered in our translation ' banner ' or ' stand- 
ard' (Psal. Ix. 4) ; but it does not mean a 
militarv flag. It has, indeed, been thought 
by some to be a flag in Isai.xxxiii. 23 ; Ezek. 
xxvii. 7 ; but perhaps our version, ' sail, is m 
both these passages accurate. The adjunct 
verb Implies expanding; and this would 
hardly suit the notion of a flag, still less 
that of a mere image or device, probably 
then used on ship-board instead of a flag. 
For military ensigns see Standaed. 

EP'APHRAS (contracted from Epaphro- 
ditus), A Christian, perhaps a Colossian 
bv birth, who had ministered at Colosse, and 
probably founded the church there (Col. i. 7, 
iv 12) He was with St. Paul at Rome 
when the letter to the Colossians was 
written, and he is styled 'fellow-prisoner 
CPhilem. 23). We know nothing more of 
nim certainly. Tradition makeshim bishop 
of Colosse, and martyr there. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS iVenus-like, leaidijuV). 
A Christian who was sent from Philippi 
with contributions for St. Paul while pri- 
soner at Rome. There he was sick ; and a 
delightful view is afforded of the apostle s 
tenderness of spirit by the way in which he 
speaks of one so dear to himself, so dear to 
the Philippian believers (Phil. ii. 25-30, iv. 
18) He was the bearer of the epistle to 
Philippi. Some have imagined him identi- 
cal with Epaphras, because the one name is 
a contract form of the other ; but we have 
no sufficient grounds for coming to such a 
conclusion, . . ^. 4. 

EPE'NETUS (praise<D. A Christian to 
whom being at Rome St. Paul sends a saluta- 
tion, calling him ' the first-fruits of Achaia, 
or of Asia, which seems the preferable 
reading, ' unto Christ' (Rom. xvi. 5). 

E'PHAH (^darkness)—!. One of the sons of 
Midian (Gen. xxv. 4: 1 Chron. i. 33). Ko 
tribe has been identified as descending from 
him ; but it may be fairly concluded (from 
Isai. Ix. 6, 7) that there was some connec- 
tion between Ephah's posterity and the 
Midianites and Ishmaelites.— 2. One of the 
concubines of Caleb the son of Hezron 
(1 Chron. ii. 46).— 3. One of Judah's posterity 
(ii. 47). 

E'PHAH (from the Egyptian, a measure, 
spec, of corn). See Measures. 

E'PHAI {weary). A Netophathite whose 
sons joined Gedaliah (Jer. xl. 8). 

E'PHER (a calf).— I. A son of Midian (Gen. 
xxv. 4 ; 1 Chron. i. 33).— 2. A descendant of 
Judah (iv. 17).— 3. A chief of Manasseh east 
of the Jordan (V. 24). 

E'PHES-DAM'MIM (boundarii or cessation 
0/ blood). Aplace where the Philistines en- 



camped before the combat of David with 
Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 1). It is also caUedPas- 
dammira (1 Chron. xi. 13). 

EPHE'SIAIsS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. 
That the epistle so designated was really the 
composition of the apostle Paul cannot be 
reasonably doubted. It is true that some mo- 
dern critics have chosen to question it, but 
upon utterly-unsubstantial grounds. For the 
very earliest andmosttrustworthy Christian 
writers either name St. Paul as the author, 
or substantially acknowledge his author- 
ship of the letter by referring to it as 
canonical scripture. Of these, to say no- 
thing of Ignatius (Ad Eplies. 12), and Poly- 
carp {Ad Philip. 1, 12), we have the express 
testimony of Irenreus {Adv. Hcbt., lib. i. 8, 5, 
lib V. 2, 3), of Clement of Alexandria (Pasd., i 
lib i. cap. 5, p. 108 ; Strom., lib. iv, pp. 592, 593, ! 
edit. Potter), of Tertullian {De Prcesc. Hoer., 
36 : Adv. Marcion., lib. v. 11, 17), and of many 
others (see Aif ord. The Greek Test, vol. 111. 
prolog, chap. ii. sect. 1) ; even heretics not 
denying its genuineness. 

No doubt can be felt as to the time and 
place of writing. The apostle repeatedly 
calls himself a prisoner (Eph. iii. 1, iv. 1, vi. 
90) and yet he was not, it would seem, pre- 
eluded from preaching the gospel (vi. 19, 20). 
These circumstances suit better with his 
confinement at Rome, when all who chose 
had access to him (Acts xxviiL 30, 31), than 
with that stricter durance in which he was j 
held at Ctesarea, where merely his acquaint- j 
ances might visit him (xxiv, 23). We may I 
therefore date this epistle from Rome in j 
the earlier and less severe part of his im- 
prisonment there, about 61 or 62 a.d. j 
There has been much discussion as to the 1 
church or persons to whom this letter was ! 
addressed. It has been thought strange 
that, if writing to the Ephesians, among 
whom the apostle had himself so dihgently 
laboured, he should have conveyed no 
personal greetings. But analogy tells the 
other way. There are no express saluta- 
tions in several of the epistles to churches 
(eg. 2 Cor., Gal., Phil., 1 and 2 Thess.) 
where St. Paul had preached and resided : 
there are such salutations to those (e.g. 
Rom , Col.), which it is known he had not at 
the time of writing visited. Again, it is 
said that he speaks only by hearsay of the 
faith and love of those he was addressing; 
which could not be made to agree with the 
circumstances of the Ephesian church. 
The reply is very natural. St. Paul had 
heard much of the Ephesians since he had 
last been with them, just as he had ' heard 
of the faith and love of Philemon, to whom 
nevertheless he had been a spiritual father 
(Piilem. 5, 19). In fact, internal evidence 
speaks strongly for the Ephesians as the 
church addressed. For, not to insi st on the 
peculiar proprietv of a figurativereferenceto 
a temple (Eph. ii. 20-22) to persons who dwelt 
where there was a temple the wonder of the 
world, there are delicate, yet very note- 
worth v, resemblances between the address 
to the'Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. 
18-35) and expressions in this epistle. Ex 
amples are given by Dr. Altor d {idn supr 
=ect 2) It is, however, urged that the 
words 'atEphesus' (Eph. i. P are omitted 



267 



or supplied in a later hand, in the margin of 
some Important manuscripts, such as the 
Vatican and the recently-discovered Sinai- 
tic codices. Some of the ancient fathers, too, 
are supposed not to have had these words 
in their copies. But the grammatical con- 
struction of the text would he most pecu- 
liar, hardly defensible at all, if the words in 
question, or similar ones, were not found 
there. Hence, as the heretic Marcion con- 
sidered the epistle written to the Laodi- 
ceans, two theories have found support ; one 
that this was the epistle referred to in Col. 
iv. 16. But this Is merely conjectural, and 
is contrary to the whole current of ancient 
testimony. For, whether or no the words 
' at Bphesus' should he inserted, antiquity, 
with the single exception of Marcion, 
agrees in the belief that the epistle was 
intended for the Ephesians. The other hy- 
pothesis is that theletter was a circular, and 
that * at Ephesus,' ' at Laodicea,' or the like, 
might appear in different copies, according 
to the places to which they were respec- 
tively transmitted. Many eminent critics 
regard this hypothesis with favour ; and it 
must be confessed that it would solve some 
part of the diflaculty. But it is probable 
that, had the apostle intended this epistle 
for the immediate use of seA^eral churches, 
he would simply have added a direction, as 
be did to that to the Colossians, that it 
should be read elsewhere. On the whole 
the most reasonable conclusion is that it 
was addressed, according to the general 
belief of the church, to the Christians at 
Ephesus. 

This letter was written at the same time 
with those to the Colossians and to Phile- 
mon, and despatched by the same messenger. 
It is very similar in many respects to the 
epistle to the Colossians. Yet there is a 
marked difference— for the one is controver- 
sial, in the other the apostle teaches the most 
sublime truths with little or no reference to 
the enemies who would debase the gospel. 
We may fairly believe, then, that, having 
first, according to the circumstances of the 
church of Colosse, delivered the needful 
instructions and warnings, he was prompted 
with a more enlarged scope to exhibit to 
those, to whom he had for so long testified 
'publicly and from house to house' with 
tenderest love, the widest view of the 
great mystery of godliness. 'He might 
pour forth to his Ephesians,' Dr. Alford 
well observes, ' all the fulness of the Spirit's 
revelations and promptings, on the great 
subject of the spouse and body of Christ. 
To them, without being bound to narrow his 
energies evermore into one line of contro- 
versial direction, he might lay forth, as he 
should be empowered, their foundation in 
the counsel of the Father, their course in the 
satisfaction of the Son, their perfection in 
the work of the Spirit.' 

As the subject of this epistle is great, the 
style is animated and lofty. There are two 
principal divisions, (1) the doctrinal portion 
(i., ii., iii.), and (2) the practical (iv., v., vi.). 

I. In the first, after a short address to the 
faithful in Ephesus (i. 1, 2), the apostle 
breaks forth into an ascription of praise to 
the Father who had chosen his people in 



[ephesus 



Christ, and introduced them to the privileges 
of his family ; it being his will to unite all 
in Christ, in whom those who believed were 
sealed for their eternal inheritance by the 
Spirit to God's glory (3-14). He then prays 
that they might be enlightened to know 
fully the hope of God's calling, the riches of 
the glorious heritage he bestows, and the 
mighty power displayed in raising Christ to 
the headship of the church, which is his 
body (15-23). He proceeds to remind them 
that they were delivered from the death of 
sin to the living fellowship with Christ by 
God's grace, not of their own desert (ii. I-IO) ; 
they must, therefore, remember their for- 
mer state, and that it was by the blood of 
Christ they were brought nigh, in whom as 
the Peace both Jews and Gentiles were 
united, and built into a noble temple which 
God by his Spirit would deign to inhabit (11- 
22), Knowing, then, the gracious call to the 
Gentile world, which, once hidden, was now 
revealed, and which the apostle, in spite of 
opposition, was to proclaim, they were not 
to be discouraged at the troubles he on that 
account endured (iii. 1-13) ; indeed he prayed 
that they might have inward strength to 
know the love of Christ, and be filled with 
the fulness of God (14-19). A doxology con- 
cludes this part (20, 21). 

II. In the second part the apostle intreata 
believers to walk worthy of their calling, 
showing how they, though each had his se- 
veral place, were to be one body for mutual 
edification in love (iv. 1-16). They were to 
walk in ne^vness of life (17-24), in all holy 
conduct and christian joy (25-v. 21). He then 
enforces relative duties (22- vi. 9) ; and, after 
a noble exhortation to war a good warfare 
(10-20), he notices the coming of Tychicus 
(21, 22), and concludes with a double bene- 
diction (23, 24). 

Among the commentators on this epistle 
may be specified Harless, Comm. iiber den 
Brief an die Ephes., Erlang. 1834; Stier, 
Ausleg. des Brief, an die Ephes., Berlin, 1848 ; 
Eadie, Comm. on Ephes., Glasg., 1854 ; EUi- 
cott, Comm. on Ep. to Ephes., Lond. 1855, 1864. 

EPH'ESUS. A very celebrated city, the 
metropolis of Ionia, and of proconsular Asia 
under the Romans. It was seated in a fer- 
tile alluvial plain, south of the river Cayster, 
not far from the coast of the Icarian sea, 
between Smyrna and Miletus, distant from 
the first-named city 320 stadia, or near forty 
miles. The plain was about five miles from 
east to west, with a breadth of three miles, 
bounded on three sides by steep precipi- 
tous hills, mount Gallesius to the north, 
mount Pactyas to the east, mount Coressua 
to the south : on the west it was open to 
the sea. Ephesus lay on the south of this 
plain ; its buildings partly ascending the 
hills. Ephesus under the Roman government 
was a free city, with its own magistrates 
and other officers (the ' town-clerk ' is spe- 
cially mentioned in Acts xix. 35), and legal 
assemblies : thus it was what might be called 
an assize-town, with court-days : we also 
read of ' deputies.' i.e. proconsuls, there (38) 

Ephesus, in a rich country, and advanta- 
geously placed for commerce, with a care- 
fully-constructed port, Panormus, became 
the great emporium of trade for the Asiatic 



^l)t Crea^urg of 



268 



regions. The inhabitants were m conse- 
qnen ce luxurious and dissolute. Magic was 
studied and practised here: see Magic. 
But the great characteristic of the city was 
its devotion to Artemis or Diana. The 
temple of this goddess stood at the head of 
the harhour. It was hurnt hy Herostratus 
the night Alexander the Great was horn, 
355 B.C., hut was re-huilt with amazing 
splendour. This structure was 425 Greek 
feet in length, 220 in breadth ; and 127 pil- 
lars, each 60 feet high, embellished and 
sustained it, the roof being of cedar beams ; 
so that it was reckoned one of the seven 
wonders of the world. From its devotion to 
its goddess, Ephesus had the title of neoko- 
ros, 'temple-keeper' (35, marg.), or warden 
of Diana ; and a lucrative trade was driven 
bv those who made 'shrines' (24\ or small 
aiodels of the temple with Diana's statue, 



phorus (2 Tim. i. 18),the mission of Tychicus 
(iv. 12), and the apocalyptic epistle to tho 
Ephesian church, which had then declined 
from its first love (Rev. ii. 1-7). Trophimus 
was an Ephesian (Acts xxi. 29) ; and the 
apostle John is believed to have made 
Ephesus his residence during the later part 
of his life. The ruins of this city still exist 
of great extent ; and there is a Turkish vil- 
lage, Ayasahik, on the site. (Winer, Bibl. 
RWB., art. 'Ephesus.') 

EPH'LAL {judgment), A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 37). 

ETHOD {vestment, that which is girded 
071). A chief of Manasseh, father of one 
appointed to superintend the allotment of 
Caanan (^^umb. xxxiv. 23). 

EPHOD. A vestment appropriated to the 
high priest (Exod. xxviii. 4-35). See High 
PRIEST. An ephod is said to have "been 




Coin of Ephesus, exhibiting the head of the emperor Nero, and on the reverse the temple of Diana 
-with neokoron underneath. 



which were eagerly purchased by visitors, 
who caiTied them home and set them up in 
their houses. Games were also held in 
honour of Diana ; and officers calledAsiarchs, 
rendered in our version 'the chief of Asia' 
(31), superintended them. 

Ephesus, the civil and ecclesiastical cen- 
tre of Asia minor, the meeting-point of 
oriental religions and Greek culture, would 
naturally be looked at by the apostle Paul 
as one of the most important places where 
the gospel could be planted. There were 
manv Jews there in whose synagogue he 
might first preach. Accordingly we find that, 
on his second missionary journey, he paid a 
short visit to this city. Whether there were 
any believers already there we know not : nor 
is anything related of Paul's success. He left, 
however, Aquila and Priscilla at Ephesus ; 
and they instructed an eloquent Jew of 
Alexandria, ApoUos, who knew only of 
John's baptism, but preached boldly in the 
«vnaa:ogue (xviii. 19-28). Paul afterwards, 
• having passed through the upper coasts,' 
the higher land in the interior to the east, 
re-visited Ephesus. Of his residence and 
his labours there, extending over a space of 
between two and three years, and termina- 
ted bv a popular tumult, we have a distinct 
notice (xix.). He afterwards, on his way to 
Jerusalem, summoned the elders of the 
Ephesian church to Miletus, and there bade 
them farewell (xx. 16-38\ Other references 
to this citv are found in the charge given to 
Timothv there (l Tim. i. 3), the service ren- 
dered to the apostle when there by Onesi- 



worn bv Samuel a Sam. ii. IS), by the ordi- 
nary priests (xxii. 18), and by David (2 Sam. 
vi. 14 ; 1 Chron. xv. 27) ; but this vesture 
differed from the high priest's, both in the 
extraordinary ornaments of the latter, and 
also in the material. The linen of the high 
priest's ephod is described by another 
and peculiar word. When idolatrous wor- 
ship was set up, ephods were sometimes 
made for it (Judges viii. 27, xvii. 5, x.viu. 
14, 17, 18, 20). 

EPH'PHATHA {le opened). A Syro-Chal- 
daic word, pronounced by our Lord when 
miraculously curing a deaf and dumb person 
(Mark vii. 34). ^ . 

EPH'RAIM (douNe land, two-fold in- 
crease, very fruitfull). The second son of 
Joseph, born in Egj-pt before the famine 
(Gen. xli. 50-52), and therefore upwards of 
twentv at Jacob's death. Joseph, when he 
was apprised of his father's sickness, was 
anxious to obtain the recognition of hi? 
sons Manasseh and Ephraim as interested 
in the covenant blessing. And Jacob ac- 
cordinglv, outstripping Joseph's anticipa- 
tion, adopted them as patriarchs, or heads of 
tribes, equally with his own sons. But he 
placed the younger, Ephraim, before the 
elder, Manasseh, 'guiding his hands wit- 
tinglv,' in spite of Joseph's remonstrance 
and prophetically declaring that the pos- 
terity of Ephraim should be far greater ano 
more powerful than the posterity of Manas- 
seh (xlviii.). The descendants of any other 
sons that Joseph might beget were not to 
be ranked separately, but to be ' called after 



269 



the name of their brethren in their inheri- 
tance.' We can hardly doubt that Joseph 
did have other sons ; and their posterity, 
perhaps, were sometimes deemed Ephraim- 
ites, and sometimes Manassites, according 
as they chose to locate themselves. And 
this may account for the reproach once 
thrown upon some Gileadites, as fugitives, 
belonging justly neither to the one tribe 
nor to the other (Judges xii, 5). 

Of Ephraim personally we know little 
more. Three of his sons are enumerated as 
beads of families in the wilderness (Numb, 
xxvi. 35). But he had more sons, according 
to the pedigree preserved elsewhere(lChron. 
vii. 20-27). There Is indeed some difficulty 
in arranging this pedigree. Perhaps the 
solution proposed by Mr. Birks {Exodus of 
Israel, chap. v. pp. 59-61) may be regarded 
as satisfactory. He supposes, first, the de- 
scents of Ephraim traced through his son 
Shuthelah (1 Chron. vii. 20) ; then those from 
another son, Zabed, not mentioned in the 
enumeration of Numb, xxvi., because he 
and his family were cut off in the raid 
they made from Egypt on the men of Gath 
(1 Chron. vii. 21). Deeply grieved was their 
father Ephraim at this catastrophe; and, 
when afterwards another son was born to 
him, he named him, with reference to the 
calamity, Beriah. Beriah's descendants are 
next given to Telah inclusive (22-25). Then, 
lastly, the line of Tab an, another son of 
Ephraim is chronicled (25-27), through Eli- 
shama, prince of Ephraim at the num- 
bering (Numb. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48-53, x. 22), 
to Joshua (Comp. a somewhat-different 
explanation in Browne's Ordo Scecloru7n, 
part i. chap. vi. § 286, pp. 304-307). 

At the first census in the wilderness, the 
number of the tribe of Ephraim was 40,500. 
Their encampment was to be on the west 
side of the tabernacle, and on march 
they were to head the third division (Numb, 
i. 32, 33, ii. 18, 19\ At the second census 
they had diminished to 32,500 (xxvi. 37). 
But we may well believe that this 
numerical deficiency was more than coun- 
terbalanced by the fact that the great cap- 
tain, under whose guidance the Israelites 
entered the promised land, was an Ephraim- 
ite. And, besides, as above noticed, some 
of the posterity of Joseph's other sons 
may have transferred themselves to Ma- 
nasseh. 

The tribes of Judah, Ephraim, and Ma- 
nasseh first took their inheritance ; and the 
boundaries of Ephraim's territory are given 
in Josh. xvi. (comp. 1 Chron. vii. 28, 29). 
But, from our imperfect knowledge of some 
of the places mentioned, we are not able to 
crace very exactly the boundary-line. The 
territory abutted on the Jordan to the east, 
and on the Mediterranean to the west : in the 
south it was contiguous to Benjamin's lot, 
and probably a part of Dan ; the frontier 
runnin g from near Jericho in a nor th-easter- 
ly direction to the neighlxjurhood of Japho 
or Joppa ; while in the north it was sepa- 
rated from Manasseh by the river Kanah, 
and a line extending thence to the Jordan 
by Tappuah (Josh. xvii. 8-10) : see Smith's 
Joshua and his Times, chap. xiv. pp. 214-216. 
Mr. Grove estimates the district allotted to 



[ephraim 



Ephraim and western Manasseh • at 55 miles 
from east to west by 70 from north to south, 
a portion about equal in extent to the coun- 
ties of Norfolk and Suffolk combined ' (Dr. 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 567). It 
was a rich and fertile territory, admirably 
situated in the heart of Palestine. Wliat was 
called ' mount Ephraim ' (perhaps extending 
across the border of Benjamin) consisted of 
rounded limestone hills, among which were 
valleys and plains, well-watered, yielding 
abundantly, as Moses had predicted, ' the 
precious things of the earth and fulness 
thereof (Deut. xxxiii. 16). The tribes were 
not at first contented with the size of their 
allotted portion, but were told by Joshua 
(not without a touch of irony) that, if they 
were, as they called themselves, a great 
people, they ought to go boldly and occupy 
the adjacent mountain and woodland coun- 
try (Josh, xvii. 14-18). 

Not only was Ephraim located in the 
centre of the land, but the tabernacle was 
set up within their territory at Shiloh 
(xviii. 1), where it continued through the 
time of the judges. The influence of the 
tribe was thereby increased ; and we find 
it bearing itself very haughtily. Examples 
of this we have in the remonstrance made 
to Gideon after his first victory, which that 
leader judged it prudent to pacify by a 
fiattering answer (Judges vii. 24, 25, viii. 1-3). 
They jvere still more incensed with Jeph- 
thah, because they said he had not solicited 
their assistance. Jephthah,however, was not 
the man to yield : he boldly attacked and 
defeated them, and when they fied inter- 
cepted the fugitives at the passages of Jor- 
dan, so that there perished in that disastrous 
quarrel 42,000 (xii. 1-6). It is evident, how- 
ever, in spite of this heavy blow, that a 
rivalry prevailed between Ephraim and the 
great tribe of Judah. The Ephraimites did 
not at first submit to the authority of 
David (2 Sam. ii. 8, 9) ; and, though after the 
death of Ish-bosheth, a large body of them 
went to Hebron to join David (1 Chron. 
xii. 30), and that monarch could speak of 
Ephraim as the strength of his head (Psal, 
Ix. 7), yet the jealousy sometimes broke out 
(2 Sam. xix. 40-43). David had his ruler in 
Ephraim (1 Chron. xxvii. 20), and Solomon 
his commissariat oflicer (1 Kings iv. 8). 
Still the spirit and weight of the tribe were 
so great that Rehoboam found it necessary 
to repair to Shechem, a city within its bor- 
ders, for his inauguration (xii. 1). And there, 
on his foolish refusal of their demands, the 
ten tribes revolted, established a different 
mode of worship; and ever after Ephraim 
was the main support of a northern king- 
dom, which came to be designated by its 
name,^ and the re-union of which with Judah 
was the hope of the prophets as the fulfil- 
ment of Israel's glory (Isai. vii. 2, xi, 13 ; 
Ezek. xxxvii. 15-22 ; Hos. iv. 17). The sub- 
sequent history of Ephraim was that of the 
kingdom of Israel. 

It maybe observed that some peculiarities 
of dialect seem to have characterized the 
Ephraimites (Judges xii. 6). 

EPH'llAIM (id.).— I. The place by which 
was Baal-hazor, where Absalom had a sheep- 
farm (2 Sam. xiii. 23). It was most likely a 



EPHEMM, GATE Of] CVgajgUtl) Pf 



270 



town of the name, rather than the terri- 
tory of the tribe ; hut its locality, or iden- 
tity with any other Ephraim, can merely be 
conjectured.-2. A city to which our Lord 
withdrew after the raising of Lazarus, and 
the counsel then taken hy the priests and 
rulers to put him to death (John xi. 54). It 
is described as near the wilderness, that is 
perhaps the wild hill-country north-east of 
Jerusalem, towards the yalley of the J ordan. 
Robinson believes it the Ophrah of the Old 
Testament, and would identify it with tbe 
modern et-Taiyibeh, five or six miles east of 
Beth-el, and about sixteen from Jerusalem, 
seated on a conical hill, and commaudnig 
a view of the Jordan valley and the Dead 

^^EPH'RAIM, GATE OF. One of the gates 
of Jerusalem (2 Kings xiv. 13 ; 2 Cbron. xxv. 
23; Neh. viii. 16. xii. 39). It must have 
been in the northern wall of the city, per- 
haps near the modern gate of Damascus. 

EPH'RAIM, MOTTisT. See Ephraim, 
Mountain. _ 

EPH'RAIM, WOOD OF. The place where 
the defeat of Absalom occurred (2 Sam. 
xviii. 6). It must have been east of 
the Jordan, not far from Mahanaim, 
where David's head-quarters were. But 
it is difficult to account for the name 
Ephraim being applied to such a locality. 
It has indeed been suggested that tae 
slaughter of the Ephraimites at the passes 
of Jordan by Jephthah and the Gileadites 
(Judges xii. 1-6), migh^have left some such 
memorial. But Mahanaim was a considerable 
distance, perhaps too far, from the river. 

EPH'RAIMITE. A descendant of Ephraim 
(Josh. xvi. 10 ; Judges xii. 4-6). 

EPH'RAIN {the tico fawns). A city which, 
with some dependent villages, Abijah took 
from Jeroboam (2 Chron. xiii. 19). It may 
be the same with Ophrah. 

EPHRA'TAH {land, region, or perhaps 
fruitful). The wife of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 50, 
iv. 4), called also Ephrath. ^ ^ 

EPHRA'TAH {id.).-l. A name of Beth- 
lehem,called also Ephrath (Ruth ir. 11 ; Mic. 
V. 2). See Beth-lehem, Caleb-epheatah. 
—2. The word occurs in Psal. cxxxii. 6, 
where, according to Gesenius, it means Eph- 
raim. If so, the reference may be to the 
abude of the ark in Shiloh. , ^ 

EPH'RATH {id.). The wife of Caleb the 
son of Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 19), called also 
Ephratah (50, iv. 4). 

EPH'RATH {id:). An ancient name of 
Beth-lehem (Gen. xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7). 

EPHRA'THITE, This designation ap- 
pears to be used both for an inhabitant of 
Beth-lehem, and for an Ephraimite. In 
Ruth i. 2 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 12, it manifestly 
means Beth-lehemite : in Judges xii. 5, it 
as manifestly indicates Ephraimite, and is 
so rendered in our version. It is less easy 
to decide in other cases. One occurs in 1 
Sam. i. 1. But the probability is that the 
word here shows some connection with 
Beth-lehem ; as a member of a family of 
Levites (such was Elkanah) would hardly 
be described (even if locally resident in 
Ephraim) as an Ephraimite. Jeroboam is 
called an Ephrathite (1 Kings xi. 26). But 
there is little to connect him with Ephraim. 



It is true he was made 'ruler of all the 
charge of the house of Joseph' (28); Zere 
da, however, his city, was in Manasseh. As 
little is recorded connecting him with Beth 
lehem. Iso certain decision, therefore, can 
be made. , „ , 

EPH'ROX {fawn-like). The son of Zohar, 
a Hittite, to whom Abraham applied for the 
purchase of a field and cave in Machpelah, 
for a burying-place. Ephron responded to 
the application in oriental fashion, that he 
would give the field and cave. But this 
was understood to be an ordinary respectful 
compliment ; and Abraham paid 400 shekels 
of silver for the purchase (Gen. xxni. 8-18, 
xxv.9,xlix.29, 30, 1. 13). 

EPH'RON {id.). The cities of mount Eph- 
ron are mentioned on the north-western 
border of the territory of Judah (Josh. xv. 
9). The 'mount' is supposed to be the 
heights west of the Wadij Beit-Sanina. 

EPH'RON (1 Mace. v. 46 ; 2 Mace. xii. 27). 
A place east of the Jordan. 

EPICTJRE'ANS. A philosophic sect, which . 
derived its origin from Epicurus, of Athe- 1 
nian descent, but born in Samos 341 B.C. He I 
lived much in Athens, where he had a gar- i 
den in which he delivered his lessons to hia 
disciples : he died 270 B.C. He divided the 
whole field of knowledge into canonics, 
physics, and ethics ; the first two being : 
subordinate to the last. Canonics treated 
of the means by which physical and ethical 
knowledge might be obtained, and of the 
conditions or criteria of truth. Physicallj' i 
he taught that the universe consists of 
matter reducible to atoms, and space in i 
which matter moves according to a natural 
I tendency, thus forming the different bodies 
which exist. In his ethics Epicurus denied 
that there was a Creator of the world ; still 
I he believed that there were gods, to be wor- 
shipped for the excellence of their nature : 
they hved in quiet, and did not interfere with 
the government of the universe. He made 
good and evil depend on the increasing of 
pleasure and diminishing of pain, or the re- 
verse ; esteeming the pleasures and pains of 
the mind superior to those of the body, so 
that a happy life must be a virtuous life. The 
soul, he taught, was indissolubly connected 
with the body. Hence it will be seen that 
the dogmas of Epicureanism, which in 
many degenerated into mere sensualism, 
were strongly in opposition to the truths of 
the gospel. Consequently the Epicureans at 
Athens, though difEering from the Stoics in 
the rejection of absolut-e destiny, and on 
other points, yet equally with them ridicu- 
led the doctrines of St. Paul (Acts xvii. 18). 

EPIPH 'ANES. (1 Mace. i. 10, x. 1). See 
A:NTIOCHirS. 3. 

EPISTLE. Epistles, or letters, are not 
likely to be often written or despatched in 
early phases of society. The art of writing 
is not widely extended ; nor would there 
be much facility in sending from place to 
place. Anciently we hear little of letter- 
writing ; nor is it by any means so common 
even at the present day in the east as among 
ourselves. We therefore find, in scripture 
history, intelligence conveyed bv messen- 
gers (Gen. xxxii. 3-6 ; Numb. xxiv. 12 ; J udges 
xi. 13 ; 1 Sam. xi. 9 ; 2 Sam. xi. 23, 25 ; l Kmgf 



271 



[esae-haddois 



XX. 5 ; Job 1. 14, and elsewhere) ; though it 
Is not by any means improbable that, m 
some of the cases just referred to, the mes- 
sengers might bear letters with them. In 
the time of David epistles are first no- 
ticed (2 Sam. xi. 14) ; and other instances 
follow (e.g. 1 Kings xxi. 8, 9 ; 2 Kings v. 5-7, 
X 1-6 ; 2 Chron. ii. 11-16, xxi. 12-15 ; Isai. 

xxxvii. 14, xxxix. 1 ; Jer. xxix. 1, 3). Special 
messengers were sent to carry the letters; or 
advantage was taken of travellers proceed- 
ing to the place to be communicated with. 
The Hebrew kings sometimes dispersed 
their proclamations by runners or couriers ; 
an establishment of these being probably at- 
tached to the court. There was such an 
establishment more fully organized in Per- 
sia (Esth. viii. 10); of which Xenophon 
gives an account (Cyrop., lib. viii. cap. vi, 
17,18). At present letters themselves are ge- 
nerally unsealed in the cast, but, if sent to 
persons of distinction, they are enclosed in a 
handsome sealed bag : in scripture we find 
letters sealed (2 Sam. xi. 14 ; 1 Kings xxi. 8 : 
comp. Job xxxviii. 14). The seal was often 
a ring, on which perhaps the name was en- 
graved, or some other known device (Gen. 

xxxviii. 18 ; Exod. xxviii. 21 ; Esth. iii. 12, 
viii. 10). An unsealed letter seems to have 
been regarded as a mark of discourtesy 
(Neh. vi. 5). 

The epistles of the New Testament, speci- 
ally so called,form a part or division of that 
sacred book, which may be termed the doc- 
trinal part. They contain the record of 
apostolic teaching. Pre-supposing the facts 
delivered in the historical books, and often 
appealing to them, they are a kind of in- 
spired comment upon tbem, and show how 
the principles of Christian truth have their 
influence, and are exemplified in the daily 
life of believers. Growing errors were thus 
confuted, practical difficulties solved, dif- 
ferences composed, abuses reformed, men 
stirred up to holy zeal in Christ's service, 
and encouraged to steady perseverance un- 
der the trials which beset the infant church. 
The principles thus applied are those which 
are always to guide professing Christians ; 
and it is manifest that the epistolary form 
in which the apostolic instructions are 
conveyed exhibits the working life of those 
times more vividly than if any other mode 
of teaching had been adopted. This rela- 
tive position of the Gospels and Epistles 
must always be borne in mind. Misapprehen- 
sion will thus be avoided ; and the one will 
not be set against the other, but both be re- 
garded as necessary parts of a whole, each 
having its assigned office and occupying 
its fitting place. 

The Epistles of the New Testament are 
twenty-one ; fourteen of which are generally 
ascribed to St. Paul, all these bearing his 
name,except that totheHebrews.respecting 
the authorship of which there is a question. 
The other seven are from the pens of James, 
Peter, John, and Jude. These are called 
catholic or general epistles ; either because 
they were not (the most of them) directed 
to particular churches or persons, or be- 
cause, while the authority of some of them 
was at first questioned, the first of Peter 
and the first of John were at once acknow- 



ledged, and the rest obtained afterward the 
same general sanction. An epistle usually 
begins with the names of the writer and of 
the persons addressed. Principles are then 
laid down ; and afterwards the resulting du- 
ties are enforced. A benediction closes the 
whole. St. Paul commonly used an amanu- 
ensis, and subjoined only his autograph au- 
thentifi cation. In one case the amanuensis 
sends his salutation (Rom. xvi. 22). 
Commentaries on the Epistles are of course 
to be found in those on the New Testa- 
ment generally.. Bengel's Gnomon may be 
noted as very valuable; Macknight's Covi- 
mentary on the Epistles is useful ; and there 
are many later expositions on one or more 
separately. Some of these are noted in the 
articles on the various Epistles. 

Commendatory epistles from one church 
to another, in favour of an individual, are 
sometimes mentioned (Acts xviii. 27). 

ER (watchful).— 1, The eldest son of 
Judah, who, because of his wickedness, was 
cut off by God's judgment (Gen. xxxviii. 3-7, 
xlvi. 12 ; Numb. xxvi. 19 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3).— 2. 
A descendant of Judah by Shelah (iv. 21). 
—3. A person named among our Lord's air 
cestors (Luke iii. 28). 

E'RAN {id.). One of the descendants of 
Ephraim (Numb. xxvi. 36). 

ER'ANITES. A family of Ephraim, des- 
cended from Eran (Numb. xxvi. 36). 

ERAS'TUS (amiable). A Christian, 
chamberlain or treasurer of Corinth (Acts 
xix. 22 ; Rom. xvi. 23 ; 2 Tim. iv. 20). It is 
impossible to say whether these references 
all belong to the same person. 

E'RECH (length). One of the cities of 
Nimrod's kingdom (Gen. x. 10), in southern 
Babylonia. Formerly it was supposed iden- 
tical with Edessa ; but that is in the north, 
near the sources of the Chaboras. Erech is 
therefore, with more reason, believed to be 
the Orchoe of Ptolemy, among the marshes 
formed by the canals of the Euphrates, cor- 
responding with the modern Wurka. It is 
eighty-two miles south, and forty-three 
east from Babylon on the Euphrates ; a vast 
mound called el-Assagah (the place of pebbles), 
or Irka and Irak, covering the vicinity. It 
is thought to have been a city consecrated 
to the moon, and is a kind of necropolis, 
great numbers of tombs and coffins having 
been found here. To Erech belonged the 
Archevites (Ezra iv. 9). For interesting 
notices of the ruins and excavations at 
Wurka, see Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 258, 293. 

E'RI (watching, i. e., worshipping JeAW'^rt^), 
One of the sons of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16 ; Numb, 
xxvi. 16). 

ER'ITES. A family of Gad, descended 
from Eri (Numb. xxvi. 16). 

ESAI'AS (Matt. iii. 3, iv. 14, viii. 17, xii. 17, 
xiii. 14, XV. 7 ; Mark vii. 6 ; Luke iii. 4, iv. 17 ; 
John i. 23, xii. 38, 39, 41 ; Acts viii. 28, 30, 
xxviii. 25 ; Rom. ix. 27, 29, x. 16, 20, xv. 12), 
The Greek form of Isaiah, which see. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON (gift of fire). A powerful 
king of Assyria, son and successor to 
Sennacherib (2 Kings xix. 37 ; Isai. xxxviii. 
38). It has been supposed that this prince 
was placed by his father at Babylon aa 
viceroy ; but there is no sufficient proof of 



ESAU] 



272: 



this. -Nothing, therefore. Is certainly known 
of Esar-haddon till his accession to the 
throne of the empire, ahout 680 B.C.; nor 
are we able to say whether he was Senna- 
cherib's eldest son. He was one of the 
mightiest of his race. He waged war with 
the tribes of Media : he extended his au- 
thority over the regions of Asia, between 
the Armenian mountains, the Persian gulf, 
and the Mediterranean: he was styled the 
conqueror of Egypt and Ethiopia ; and he 
alone of the Assyrian kings did not entrust 
Babylon to a vassal prince, but reigned 
there himself, making it his residence al- 
ternately with Kineveh. This lasted for 
thirteen years : whether that was the whole 
length of his reiom, or whether, retiring to 
Nineveh, he then placed a feudal chief at 
Babylon, has not been ascertained. It is 
probable, however, that his reign lasted in 
all about twenty years. Esar-haddon loca- 
ted Assyrian colonists in Samaria (Ezra iv. 
2); and it can hardly be doubted that it was 
he who, as king of Assyria at Babylon, held 
Manasseh prisoner there, but afterwards 
released him (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11-13). This 
monarch built a palace at Babylon ; bricks 
from which have been obtained, bearing his 
name. He built other palaces elsewhere, 
and thirty temples ; and inscriptions have 
been discovered in which he boasts of the 
masniflcence of his works. The south-west 
palace at Nimroud is said tobe the best pre- 
served of them. It is a remarkable struc- 
ture, but has suffered by fire. Esar-haddon 
would seem to have been succeeded by his 
Bon Asshur-bani-bal. 

E'SATJ {hairy). One of the twin sons (the 
eldest) of Isaac and Rebekah : he received 
his name from his being at Ms birth red, 
covered as it were with a hairy cloak (Gen. 
XXV 24-26). It had been foretold to Rebekah 
that the elder of her sons should serve the 
younger (23). Isaac, nevertheless, placed 
his chief affection upon Esau. For he was 
a bold and successful hunter, of an impul- 
sive nature, with many of the aualities 
vrhich have in all ages made a daring youth 
the darling of a parent's heart (27, 28). Of 
the spiritual blessing to be inherited by 
Abraham's seed Esau recked little: hence he 
is called ' profane' (Heb. xii. 16). He came 
in faint one day from the chase, and saw 
Jacob preparing lentile-pottage. He de- 
manded it to satisfy his hunger ; and Jacob, 
always calculating, and no doubt aware of 
the prediction, thought it a good opportu- 
nity to obtain a recognition of his title to 
the"" birth-right. Esau heedlessly complied. 
A special covenant appears to bave been 
made, and a new name imposed on Esau, 
viz., Edom, which was borne by his posterity 
(Gen. XXV. 29-34). After this he continued his 
roving independent life, at forty maiTymg 
two females of the daughters of the land, 
to the grief of his parents (xxvi. 34, 35), and 
not improbably fixing very soon his chief 
residence in Seir (xxxvi. 6-8) ; that wild 
rock>' country just suiting an Arab cbief of 
habits sucb as his. Isaac stiU treated Esau 
as his first-born, and feeling the weight of 
years detemined to pronounce on him a 
solemn blessing. He summoned him to his 
presence, bade him prepare materials for a 



feast, and promised then to bless him • be- 
fore the Lord.' The histoi-y of Jacob's 
deception and his brother's disappoint- 
ment may be read in xxvii. Full of wrath, 
Esau determined on the first favourable 
opportunity to kill the deceiver. But, when 
Jacob was sent for safety to Padan-arara, 
on the plea that there was danger that he 
too misht marry a heathen, Esau, whose 
naturaf affection for his father was strong, 
thought to gratify him by taking also a 
daughter of Ishraael (xxviii. 8,9). Esau 
now' crew very rich and powerfulin Seir ; 
and, when Jacob returned to Canaan, and 
sent a humble message to bim, he received 
liim eeuerously, affectionately ; his former 
wrath being aU forgotten (xxxiii. 1-16). 

Of Esau's personal history, we have only 
the further notice that he joined with Jacob 
in burying their father (xxxv. 29). For a 
notice of his posterity see Edom. 

E'SAU (1 Esdr. v. 29). A form of Ziha 
(Ezra ii. 43). 

E'SAT (2 Esdr. ii.l8 ; Ecclus.xviii. 20-22). 

■^^S&DJJAi^'i 03/ (Judith vii. 3). Identical 

with 

ESDEAE'LON. This is the more generally- 
used name of the plain or valley of Jezreel 
(Josh. xvii. 16) ; of which it is a Greek form, 
used in the Apocrypha (Judith iii. 9, iv. 6) 
with the variations of Esdraelom and Es- 
drelom (i. 8). It is also termed in scripture 
the valley of Megiddo, that town being on 
its southern border (Zech. xii. 11), and by 
Josephus the great plain. The plain of 
Esdraelon (excluding branching offshoots) 
is of triangular shape ; the north side, abut- 
ting on the hills of Galilee, is thirteen or 
fourteen miles in length ; the south-west 
botmdedbv the highlands of Samaria, about 
twenty ; while the east from En-gannim to 
the hiilsbelowNazareth is perhaps eighteen. 
It is bvno means 'a dead level,' says Dr 
Thomson, 'the western half having a de- 
cided dip toward the sea; while its different 
parts roll up in long swells like gigant-ic 
waves, terminating in Jebel ed-Duhy (Little 
Hermon) in the centre, and the rocky 
ridges of Zer'in and Em Gabileh toward the 
south {Tlie Land and the Book, p. 477). Be- 
sides its main extent, three great arms 
are thrown out eastward between Gilboa 
and Little Hermon. That most to the north 
runs up between Tabor and Little Hermon : 
into it Barak descended (Judges iv. 14) : 
that in the centre is properly the valley of 
Jezreel : it reaches to the banks of the Jor- 
dan, embracing Beth-shean to the east. 
Here were the Midianites whom Gideon 
attacked (vii. 1); and here Saul suf- 
fered his fatal overthrow (l Sam. xxix. 1, 
xxxi) The southern branch is between 
Gilboa and En-gannim : Ahaziah fled across 
it from Jehu (2 Kings ix. 27). This portion of 
the country belonged specially to Issachar ; 
but it is generally renowned as the great bat- 
tle-field, in one or other of its parts, of Israel- 
iti^h history; some examples of which have 
been already given. Chariots and cavalry, 
of little use in the hill-country, availed m 
' the comparative level of Esdraelon ; and 

Canaanites, Midianites, Araalekites, Philis- 
tines, and Syrians, in earlier or later tunes, 



273 



[eshcol 



occupied it ; till at last Josiah met here 
the Egyptian hosts (xxiy. 29), and re- 
ceived his death-wound. In spring and 
early summer this plain is covered with 
luxurious vegetation ; the cultivated por- 
tions producing the richest crops ; hut it is 
desolate, with scarcely a village in it, swept 
over hy the wild Arab tribes in search of 
plunder. Round the borders, however, of 
the plain of Esdraelon were many of the 
most noted places in bible history, Nain, 
Nazareth, &c.; and through itran theKishon. 
It is now called Merj ibn 'Amir, the plain of 
the son of Amir. 

ES'DEAS. The Greek form of Ezra (1 Es- 
dras viii. l ; 2 Esdr. i. 1, and elsewhere). 

ES'DRAS, THE BOOKS OF. Of the ca^ 
nonical authority of these books there is no 
occasion to speak. For, though there is 
some respect paid to them by ancient 
writers, and one at least may have been in- 
cluded iu some of the old catalogues, yet 
they are not received even by the churcli of 
Rome, being excluded from the canon as 
settled by the council of Trent. In the 
sixth article of the church of England they 
are denominated 'the third and fourth 
books of Esdras '; as the canonical Ezra and 
Nehemiah were, according to old nomencla- 
ture, the first and second books. 

The first apocryphal book is for the most 
part a translation of the genuine Ezra, pre- 
faced by the last two chapters of Chronicles, 
with a piece of Nehemiah at the end. The 
order, however, of Ezra is departed from : 
the reading of the law, toOj is placed at an 
earlier date.with no reference to Nehemiah; 
and the translator took great liberties with 
the original text ; if, indeed, his copy was 
conformable to that Avhich we have. But 
one part (iii. 1— v. 6) is original, narrating a 
contest said to have taken place before 
Darius on the question, What was the 
strongest ? Zorobabel was the victor, and 
as a reward had permission for the Jews to 
return and re-build their city and temple. 
There are contradictions discoverable ; and 
it seems likely that the book In its present 
state is fragmentary and incomplete. The 
compiler is supposed to be a Greek-speaking 
Jew or Hellenist, resident in Palestine. 
And, as JosephUs was acquainted with it, 
and followed it, the book may probably be 
assigned to the first century before Christ. 
The style is good; but the work is of no 
historical but only of some philological and 
critical value. There are several versions 
extant, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian. 

The second book of Esdras is a curious 
specimen of what is called the Jewish apo- 
calyptic literature. It well deserves atten- 
tion as illustrating the state of the Jewish 
m.ind in special reference to their Messianic 
anticipations. It consists of an introduc- 
tion (i., ii.), then a series of visions (iii.-xi v.), 
concluding with an appendix (xv., xvi.). 
j But the introduction and appendix have no 
real connection with the intermediate chap- 
ters, and are, there is every reason to be- 
lieve, of later date. The original portion is, 
as has been said, a series of visions, in 
which the writer, who assumes to be Ezra, 
IS Instructed in certain mysteries of the 
moral world, and receives assurance that 



the righteous will finally triumph. A va- 
riety of extraordinary legends are included. 
Mr. Westcott contrasts Esdras with the 
book of Enoch of possibly an earlier date : 
'The fundamental difference of tone be- 
tween the two'— the earlier expressed joy- 
ous anticipation—' appears to explain their 
divergences in detail. The burden of Esdras 
is throughout, " How long, OLord?" The 
present world is utterly corrupt : a few only 
shall share in the promised redemption. 
Fasting and tears are the preparation for 
his visions ; and the seer no longer looks 
upon the mysteries of heaven, but listens 
to them as they are revealed by the minis- 
try of angels. Everywhere the language is 
that of an exile among the foul corruptions 
of Egypt, to whom the promised land is no 
longer the gathering-field of nations, " the 
joy of the whole earth." The " woes of the 
Messiali " are described with a terrible ful- 
ness which is hardly exceeded by the des- 
pairing traditions of the Talmhd ' (Introd. to 
the Gospels, chap. ii. pp. 102, 103). The date 
of this colhposition is undetermined. Some 
place it in the first century before Christ 
(from 40 to 25 B.C.); others long after (94 or 
95 A.D.). Perhaps the earlier date is more 
probable. But the introduction and appen- 
dix are clearly of Christian times ; and 
there Is much reason to believe that in the 
visions some interpolations have been 
made bya Christian pen. Afriend suggests, 
for some portions at least, the date of Ma- 
crinus : comp. xi., xii. with Gibbon, Bed. 
and Fall, chap. vi. The original appears to 
have been in Greek : this, however, is lost ; 
and the Latin version was for a long time 
the only one known. An Arabic text of 
uncertain date, and not yet printed, was 
discovered in two Bodleian MSS. in the 17th 
century; likewise an Ethiopic text, not 
older than the fourth century, found also 
in a Bodleian MS., was printed by the late 
archbishop Lawrence in 1820. These Arabic 
and Ethiopic texts do not contain chaps, i., 
ii., XV., xvi., or the interpolations supposed 
to be of Christian origin in the visions. 
There are some other slight variations. All 
the book was written in Egypt. 
ESDRE'LOM (Judith i. 8). See Esdraelon, 
ES'EBON (Judith v. 15). Heshbon. 
ESEB'RIAS (1 Esdr. viii. 54). Sherebiah 
(Ezra vii. 24). 

E'SEK {strife). A well in the valley of 
Gerar, so called because, when Isaac's ser- 
vants had digged it, the herdmen of Gerar 
strove with them for it (Gen. xxvi. 19, 20). 

ESH'-BAAL ( fire of Baal, or perhaps Baal's 
man). One of the sons of Saul (l Chron. 
viii.33, ix. .39). He is doubtless identical with 
ISH-BOSHETH, Which see. Baal and Bosheth 
or Besheth (shame) are often interchanged 
in proper names. 

ESH'BAN {reason, or man of understand- 
ing). One of the descendants of Seir the 
Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 26; 1 Chron. i. 41). 

ESH''COL {a cluster). An Amorite chief- 
tain dwelling at Hebron, who, with his two 
l)rothers Aner and Mamre, joined Abraham 
in his attack on the confederate kings (Gen. 
xiv. 1.3-24). 

ESH'COL (id.). The spies sent into Canaan 
explored a valley or wady thus named, and 

T 



eshean] 



271 



brought from it to the camp a cluster of 
grapes so weighty that it was carried be- 
tween two men on a staff (Numb.xiii. 23, 24, 
xxxii. 9; Deut. i. 24). Eshcol w^as most 
probably not far from Hebron. _ 

ESH'EAN (prop. suppoH). A town m tne 
mountainous district of Judah (Josh. xr. 
52) 

E'SHEK {oppression). A Benjamite, de- 
scended from Saul (1 Chron. viii. 39). 

ESHKALO'NITES. The inhabitants of 
Ashkelon (Josh. xiii. 3). 

ESH'PAR. A Hebrew word found only 
in 2 Sam. vi. 16 ; 1 Chron. xvi. 3 ; where m 
our version ' a good piece of flesh.' It is more 
likelv a measure of wine, or other drink. 

ESH'TAOI- (possibly retreat). A city in the 
plain country, first assigned to Judah (Josh. 
XV. 33) and afterwards to Dan (xix. 41). It 
was in this neighbourhood that Samson 
first began to show his mighty strength, 
and here between Zorah and Eshtaol he 
was buried (Judges xiii. 25, xvi. 31). From 
these places went the band of Danites who 
attacked and occupied Laish (xviii. 2, 8, 11). 

ESH'TAULITES. The inhabitants of Esh- 
taol (1 Chron. ii. 50). 

ESHTEMO'A {obedience). A person, called 
the Maachathite, in the genealogies of 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 19). . 

ESHTEMO'A (_id.). A city m the moun- 
tains of Judah, called also Eshtemoh (Josh. 
XV. 50), allotted to the priests (xxi. 14; 
I Chron. vi. 57). This was one of the places 
which David used to haunt; and to the in- 
habitants of which he sent presents (1 Sain 
x\x. 28). In 1 Chron. iv. 17 Ishbah is said 
to be the father, i. e. founder or first He- 
brew settler, of Eshtemoa. It is still called 
Semu'a, a large village seven miles south of 
Hebron, where are considerable ruins. 

ESHTEMOH' (id). (Josh. xv. 50). Identi- 
cal with Eshtemoa. . 

ESH'TOjST {womanish, vxorious). A ae- 
B«endant of Judah (1 Chron. iv.ll, 12), \ 
ES'LI (perhaps v> horn Jehovah reserved}, a 
person in the genealogy of Christ (Luke in. 
25). 

F.SO'RA (Judith iv. 4). 

ESPOUSE. See Marriage. 

^S'i2ri (1 Esdr. ix. 34). ... 

ES'HOM (Matt. i. 8 ; Luke m. 33). The 
Greek form of Hezron. 

ESSE'NES. There is no express mention 
of the Essenes in scripture. They were, 
however, an important body among tne 
Jews, one of the three most noted sects ; 
and it is possible that, though not named, 
they, or persons influenced by their princi- 
ples, may be referred to in Matt. xix. 11, , 
Col. ii. 8, 16, 18, 23. , 

The learned are by no means agreed 
as to the derivation of their name: it is 
useless, therefore, to transcribe mere con- 
jectures. Of their origin. also, little is known. 
Men of a devout cast would naturally 
cherish desires after perfect purity ; and it 
is likely that those, who in or before the 
Maccabean times had fled into deserts and 
caves to escape persecution, persuaded 
themselves that sanctity would be promoted 
by retirement from the world. Such notions 
are sure to become gradually more strict ; 
and so each successive generation refined 



i upon the practice of its predecessors, till a 
system of ascetic mysticism was fully de- 
I veloped. Those who wished to join thera 
I had to pass through two periods of proba- 
tion They were admitted to certain privi- 
: leges at the end of a twelvemonth ; but it 
' was not till their manners had been tried 
! for another term of two years that they were 
received altogether into membership. The 
actual tenets of the sect did not differ greatly 
from those of the Pharisees : it was in the 
I rigour of their life that theystood out distin- 
guished from them. They honoured Moses 
next to God, and observed the sabbath with 
peculiar strictness. They did not offer sacri- 
: flees at Jerusalem, on account of their own 
special rules of purity, but they sent their 
gifts thither. They admitted the immortality 
of the soul, but are said to have denied the 
resurrection of the body. They maintained 
the absolute power of God, and disapproved 
of dialectics and the various forms of natu- 
i -al philosophy. They employed themselves 
chiefly in agriculture, regarding slavery, 
! war, and commerce as decidedly unlawful, 
i They were devoted to contemplation and 
silence ; and it was only those who had 
not quite withdrawn from association with 
other men who tolerated marriage. The 
i Essenes, properly so called, were limited to 
! Palestine and Syria, and were reckoned by 
1 both Philo and Josephus at about 4000. But 
there was a still further development of 
' mysticism. The TherapeutcB, as the Egypt- 
ian ascetics were denominated, relinquished 
I the bodily labours, in which their Palesti- 
nian brethren employed themselves, and be- 
came exclusively contemplative. The law 
they considered altogether allegorical, and 
dedicated their whole time to the studyof its 
inner meaning. After the Jewish war the 
Es'senes disappear from the page of history. 

A large account of the Essenes may be 
found in Prideaux, Connection, vol. ii. pp. 
291-309 To the information contained 
there later Avriters have added little ; see, 
however, Westcott, in Dr. Smith's Diet, of 
\ the Bible, vol. i. pp. 581-583 : see also a no- 
' tice of the variations of modern authors 
respecting their origin in Gieseler, ^irc/iew- 
;8c/i., vol. i. § 15, pp. 49, 50, note 9. 
ES'THER (a star, the planet Venus). A 
Hebrew maiden, the daughter of Abihail, 
of tlie tribe of Benjamin. At the death of 
her father and mother she was adopted by 
her cousin Mordecai, the descendant of a 
Jew who had been carried away captive 
with Jehoiachin. Mordecai resided at Shu- 
shan, or Susa. See Mordecai. On the 
repudiation of Vashti, Ahasuerus (that is 
Xerxes : see Ahasuerus, 2), king of Persia, 
ordered a large number of young virgins to 
be collected throughout his realm, and 
brought into his harem. Esther or Ha- 
dassah was distinguished among these, and 
was chosen by Xerxes to bear the title of 
queen By her influence the plot of Ham an 
to destroy the Jews was frustrated . Haman 
was hanged : the Jewsrevenged themselves 
on their foes ; and Mordecai was advanced 
to a high place in the empire. It seems im- 
possible to identify Esther with any wife of 
Xerxes mentioned by profane historians. 
Some have imagined her the ferocious 



275 



[ether 



Araestris ; but there are insuperable objec- 1 22. The composition, therefore of the 



tions to such a notion. It was common 
with Persian kings to have many wives ; 
and Esther was one of these ; whether of 
the liighest class may be questioned. 

ESTHER, THE BOOK OP. This book is so 
termed because Esther is the principal figure 
in it, not from any notion that she wrote it. 
It has generally been held in high estimation 
among the Jews, who class it with Ruth, 
Ecclesiastes, Solomon's Song, and the La- 
mentations, as the five megilloth or rolls, and 
solemnly read it at the feast of Purim. Ob- 
jections have been made to the truthfulness 
of the history ; and Bleek (JEinleit. in das 
A. T., pp. 406, 407) enumerates a variety of 
particulars— the decree that every man 
should bear rule in his own house, the pro- 
mulgation of the edict against the Jews, 
&c., &c.— which he conceives not at all likely 
to have occurred : he supposes, therefore, 
that there was at the most but some ground- 
work of fact. It would be easy to set aside 
all history, if its records are to be judged 
of by what may appear likely or unlikely to 
this or that individual. But the truth is 
that what we know of Xerxes from other 
sources, his mad and unprincipled conduct 
on various occasions, will point hira out as 
just the person to act in the way which is 
represented in this book. Besides, there 
was the institution of the feast of Purim, 
in order to commemorate the deliverance 
of the Jews, a feast which we know (2 Mace. 
XV. 36) was ol)served at no great distance 
from the time when the events occurred, 
and which is ol)served to the present day. 
The observance of this feast is the very 
strongest proof that the history is true ; it 
l^eing manifestly far more improl)able than 
any of the improbabilities Bleek has sug- 
gested, that a whole nation should ob- 
serve for ages a solemn festival, to com- 
memorate the incidents of a romance. 

With regard to the writer of this book 
nothing certain can be said. Some have 
ascribed it to Mordecai, or to Mordecai and 
Esther jointly, grounding their notion on 
Esth. ix. 20, 23, 32. But the statements there 
made refer, not to the authorship of the 
book, but to the circular letters sent to the 
Jews. That it was written by a resident in 
Persia may very well be allowed. There is 
a thorough acquaintance evinced with 
Persian customs (see i. l, lo, 14, 19, ii 9 
ill. 7, 12, 15, iv. 11, viii. 8). The diction 
closely resembles that of Ezraand Nehemiah, 
mixed with some Persisms, just such as we 
might suppose a contemporary of theirs 
likely to use. The arguments employed by 
some critics to bring the composition down 
to a late date, grounded on the language, 
are therefore of little Aveight. Neither is 
the alleged spirit of revenge pervading the 
narrative, nor the supposed formalism in 
religion, worth mentioning. The spirit of 
revenge is not in the writer, but, if any- 
where, in the persons whose deeds are chro- 
nicled. And, as revengeful deeds have 
hoen committed in all ages, the occurrence 
of them cannot be taken as a chronological 
mark. Neither is more stress laid on fast- 
ing than in other times of Hebrew history • 
comp. Judges xx. 26 ; 2 Sam. xii. 16, 17, 21' 



book may most reasonably be placed about 
or soon after the time when the facts 
occurred. But there is one great peculiarity 
of the history. The name of God does not 
occur in it. Various hypotheses have been 
devised to explain this fact. A very pro- 
bable one is that, as the history of the 
reigns of Persian kings was duly chroni- 
cled (Esth. ii. 23, vi.l, x. 2), and the events 
here narrated were of course recorded in 
the annals of the empire, this book may 
be a translated extract from those annal^ 
There would be nothing more strange in 
such an extract's being preserved in the 
sacred canon than in Dan. iv. being, as it 
is, a decree of Nebuchadnezzar. 

ES'THER, THE BEST OF THE BOOK 
OF. There are certain additions in the Greek 
and Vulgate bibles to the canonical book 
of Esther. Of the Greek there are two 
texts. These additions are by the churcli 
of Rome included in the sacred canon. But, 
as they are not extant in Hebrew, and did 
not form part of the Jewish canon, they 
are deservedly rejected by protestants. 
They were probably the work of a Hellen- 
istic Jew. 

E'TAM {place of ravenous beasts).—!. A 
nam.e found in the genealogies of Judah (1 
Chron. iv. 3), most probably indicating a 
place, that perhaps which Rehoboara forti- 
fied (2 Chron. xi. 6). It has been identified 
as 'Urtas, not far from Tekoa.— 2. A place in 
the territory of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 32). 

E'TAM (id.). A rock to which Samson 
retired after one of his exploits against the 
Philistines. It seems to have been in the 
tribe of Judah (Judges xv. 8-11) : it is there- 
fore likely that it was some cliff near to the 
town mentioned above, no. l. 

ETERNAL, ETERNITY. See Everlast- 
ing. 

E'THAM (boundary of the sea?). The se- 
cond station of the Israelites as they were 
leaving Egypt (Exod. xiii. 20 : Numb, xxxiii. 
6, 7, 8). 

E'THAN (perpetuity, flrmness).—!. A man 
of Judah, celebrated for his wisdom : he 
was of the family of Zerah, or Zarah, and 
thence called the Ezrahite (1 Kings iv. 31 ; 1 
Chron. ii.6).— 2. A Gershonite Levite (vi. 42), 
called also Joah (21).— 3. A Levite singer 
of the family of Merari (vi. 44, xv. 17, 19). 
Psalm Ixxxix. is in the title ascribed to 
Ethan ; but then the designation ' the Ezra- 
hite ' is added. Also Ethan the singer has 
been supposed to be the same with Jedu- 
thun : comp. 1 Chron. xxv. 1, 6. There is no 
certain evidence to decide these points. 
ETHA'NIM (flou'ivg brooks). See MoxTHS. 
ETH-BA'AL (with Baal, i.e. enjoying 
Baal's favour). King of the Zidonians, 
whose daughter Jezebel Ahab married (1 
Kings xvi. 31). He is said to have reigned 
over the Tyrians also ; and, having been 
priest of Astarte, to have assassinated 
Pheles the king, and succeeded to his 
throne. He reigned thirty-two years, about 
940-908 B.C. He is known in secular history 
by the name Ithobalus. See Winer, Blbl. 
RWB., art. ' Ethbaal' 

E'THER (abundance). A town originally 
allotted to Judah (Josh. xv. 42), afterwaris 



ETHIOPIA] 



276 



transferred to Simeon (xix. 7). Tqchen ap- 
pears instead of Ether in 1 Chron iv 32 

ETHIOTIA (region of hurnt faces i. e., 
dark-complexioned people). The breek 
aame by ^ylIich the Hebrew Cush is nsually 
rendered. In its largest sense the term 
Ethiopia sometimes denoted all the African 
lands south of Egypt.. More definitely 
eastern Ethiopia, or Ethiopia abo^eEg^pt, 
comprised the modern Isubia, Sennaar, Kor- 
dofan and part of Abyssinia. It ^\as 
Sonnded by Egypt, on the north Syene 
being the point of junction ; but its other 
limits are more indeterminate. It may hojy- 
ever be said that it was washed on the east 
by the Red and Indian seas, that on the 
west it extended to the Libyan desert, and 
reached on the south to the Abyssin)an 

'^^We^have various notices of this country 
in scripture, of its geographical charac- 
ter its inhabitants, and its natural pro- 
ductions. Thus it is described as a we - 
watered region (Isai. xviu. 1 ; Zeph. m. 
10) : and we know that it was traversed 
by the two branches of the ^lle and 
bv the Astaboras, now Tncazze. Of its 
ueople some characteristics are given under 
the word CCJSH, which see. As to its produc- 
tions, Ethiopian precious stones are men- 
tioned in Job xxviii. 19 ; and it would seem, 
from the reference to its merchandize m 
[sai. xlv. 14, that it must have had some 
commercial intercourse with Syria. 

But there was a yet more limited sense in 
which the term Ethiopia must sometimes 
be taken,as just the kingdom of Meroe,^- , 
tending from the confluence of the two 
hranches of the Isile to Egypt. This country | 
was closelv connected with Egypt, often 
united with it under the same sceptre. 
Thus Sesostris (probably Osirtasen I.) is 
said to have ruled Ethiopia. At a much 
later period, Shishak (Sheshonk) had 
Kthiopian troops in his army (2 Chron. xii. 
3); and Zerah is called 'the Ethiopian' 
( xiv 9 xvi. 8) : he is thought to be Osorkon 
I siiishak's successor : these two,therefore 
must have had Ethiopia under their sway. 
Sometimes, on the other hand, Ethiopian 
kinsjs have possessed Egypt. The sover- 
eigns of the twenty-fifth dynasty, three m 
number, Ethiopians, whose capital was 
Napata, were masters of Upper Egypt, and 
sometimes, it would seem, of Lower Egypt 
al=:o So or Sebichus, and Tirhakah or Teh- 
rak (2 Kings xvii. 4, xix. 9), were two of 
these (see Trevor's Anc. Egypt, pp. oll-3l3). 

Prophetic threateuings were directed 
against Ethiopia (Isai. xx. 3-5 ; Jah. m. 8- 
10) • and these were most probably fulfilled 
iu the concLuest of it by Esar-haddon. Cain- 
bvses subjected Meroe ; but the Ptolemies 
held only a partial sway iu Ethiopia. ^ e 
ave mention of it in the New Testament. 
There had been dynasties of native sove- 
reigns ; and some of these were feraales.with 
the official title of Candace (f^fs yui 2<). 
See Winer, Bihl. BWB., art. ' .Ethiopien, 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 588, 589. 

ETHIO'PIAK (Snmh. xii.l ; 2 Chron. xii. 3, 
xiv. 9 ; Jer. xiii. 23, and elsewhere). An in- 
habitant of Ethiopia ; more proper^- Cushi te 
- ETH'MA a Esdr. ix.35). ^el)0 (Ezra x. 43). 



ETH'NAN (a gift, hire, - e. g. of a harlot. 
One of Judah's descendants (1 Chron. iv. /) 
ETH'NI (viunificent). A Levite of the 
family of Gershon (1 Chron. vi. 41). . 

EUBU'LUS iprudent). A Christian at 
Rome from whom St. Paul conveys a greet- 
ing to Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 21). 

EUEB'QETES (benefactor). A title not 
unfrequently given to i^rinces aud states- 
men. Two kings of Egypt, Ptolemy III., 
and Ptolemy VII., bore it (Ecclus. 2nd Prol ). 
Our Lord probably alludes to this title 

1 ^^Il^Ite^J^I a Mace. viii. 8). The second 
of the name, king of Pergamos, 19/-lo9 

^'^EUXA'TAN (1 Esdr. viii. 44). Eluathan 
(Ezra viii. 16). . ^ * 

EUNl'CE {happily conqneririg). A faith- 
ful Jewess married to a Greek, and mother 
of Timotheus or Timothy (Acts xvi. i; i 

EUJfUCH This word, derived from the 
Greek, implies bed-keeper or chamberlain. 
But in its ordinary meaning it is an emas- 
culated person. The practice ^yas forbid- 
den to the Hebrews (Deut. xxiii. 1) ; ne- 
vertheless, we cannot doubt that the use 
of eunuchs was common under the Hebrew 
monarchy (1 Sam. viii. 15, marg. ; 2 Kings 
ix 32) : though they might oe forcignert, 
and not native Israelites. Eunuchs, have 
in all ages had great influence in oriental 
courts : they had access to the secrets of 
the palace, to such the care of harems 
being confided, and were thus brought into 
close intercourse with the sovereign. 
1 Hence we find them placed in various 
offices, occasionally in military commands. 
Thus Rab-saris, the chief eunuch, is 
named as one of the Babylonian princes at 
the sack of Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. o). But 
perhaps the word is sometimes improperly 
used, and may signify merely an officer. Foi 
it is applied to Potiphar, who was mar- 
ried (Gen. xxxvii. 36, marg.) , whereas, see 
Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, vol. ii. p. 61, it doea 
not seem that literal eunuchs were employed 
in Egypt. Eunuchs are to this day common 
iS the east : see Winer, Bcbl. BWB., art. 
' Verschnittene.' . • ^. 

EUO'DIAS (prospering). A Christian wo- 
man at Philippi, more properly Euodia, 
whom St. Paul exhorts to be of one mmd 
with another, Syntyche (Phil. iv. 2). 

EUPHRA'TES (sweet water, or the abound- j 
ing river). A noted river of Asia. It has ; 
two principal sources in the Armenian ^ 
mountains. The most northern branch, , 
the Frat, or Kara-su (black riyer) rises : 
about twenty-five miles north-east of Er- ; 
zeroum ; the other, which is the chief, called ; 
the Murad-ciiai (river of desire) rises on the ' 
northern slope of the Ala-tagh,not far from i 
Ararat. They meet after a course of 270 and : 
400 miles respectively, at Kebban Maden, in 
392 east long. The combined stream is 
here about 120 yards wide : its course is at 
first nearly south : it then turns south-east, 
pursuing its long course to the sea. Jomed 
bv the Tigris at Kuruah it is called Shat-el- 
Arab, and ultimately falls into the Persian 
gulf Its entire length is about 1780miles , 
more than two-thirds of which is navl 



577 



gable for small steain-ves«els. In the latter 
part of its course from Hit, the Euphrates 
flows through a low alluvial plain, where it 
often spreads and forms marshes ; its width 
therefore varies and is said to he greatest 
about 700 or 800 miles from its mouth. 

The Euphrates is first mentioned in scrip- 
ture as one of the streams of Eden (Gen. ii. 
14). Afterwards it was promised to Abra- 
ham that his seed should possess the land 
from the river of Egypt to the river Euphra- 
i tes (XV. 18), a promise frequently repeated 
! to Israel (Deut. i. 7, xi. 24; Josh. i. 4), and 
i subsequently fulfilled, when David ex- 
! tended his conquests to this stream (2 Sam. 
' viii. 3 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 3), when Solomon 
had dominion over all the kings 'on this 
I side the river ' (1 Kings iv. 24), and when the 
' pastoral tribe of Reuben occupied the 
I country up to it with their flocks and herds 
! (1 Chron. v. 9). Euphrates is again men- 
•■ tioned in the struggle between Pharaoh- 
nechoh and the Babylonian king (2 Kings 
xxiii. 29, xxiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 ; Jer. 
: xlvi. 2, 6, 19). But perhaps it derives its 
greatest consideration from the fact that 
Babylon was built upon its banks, and was 
in a manner defended by it (li. 63). It 
may be said to have had a part in the catas- 
trophe of her fall, as it failed to keep out the 
foe (1.38) ;for it was by diverting the course 
of the Euphrates that Cyrus entered the 
Imperial city. It is often called ' the great 
river,' or emphatically 'the river' (Ezra iv. 
10, 16, 20 ; Psal. Ixxii. 8), as being far larger 
than the small streams of Palestine. The 
name is sometimes used symbolically (Rev. 
ix. 14, xvi. 12). 
i EUPOL'EMUS (1 Mace. viii. 17 ; 2 Mace. iv. 

11). One of the ambassadors sent by Judas 
i Maccabeus to Rome. 

i EUROC'LYDOK The name given to the 
. hurricane which seized the ship in which 
St. Paul was voyaging to Italy, while off 
the south coast of Crete (Acts xxvii. 14). 
Several particulars are mentioned by the 
i sacred historian. There was, it appears, a 
; sudden change in the direction of the wind : 
! the change was accompanied by a violent 
i squall : and, looking at the course along 
! which the ship was driven by it, the Eurocly- 
; don must have blown ENE. The gale, too, 
; lasted for a very long time, and was accom- 
i panied at the time of the wreck on Malta 
I with rain (xxviii. 2). All these particulars 
1 are confirmed by the frequent experience 
j of modern voyagers. See Smith, Voyage 
I and Shipwreck of St. Paul, pp. 94, &c., 154, 
! &c. In some MSS. the name of the wind is 
I Euroaquilo. 

! EU'TYCHUS (foftunate). A young man at 
Troas who, sitting in a windoAV while Paul 

I was long preaching at night, fell through 
drowsiness from the third story into the 

1 court below. He was killed by the fall, but 

1 was miraculously restored by the apostle 

1 (Acts XX. 7-12). 

! EVANGELIST. * Evangelists were presby- 
ters of principal sufficiency, whom the apos- 
I ties sent abroad, and used as agents in eccle- 
; Biastical affairs, wheresoever they saw need. 
I . . . And concerning evangelists afterwards 
j in Trajan's days, the history ecclesiastical 
noteth that many of the apostles' disciples 



[eyu 



and scholars which were then alive, and 
did with singular love of wisdom affect the 
heavenly word of God, to show their willing 
minds in executing that which Christ first 
of all required at the hands of men, they 
sold their possessions, gave them to the 
poor, and, betaking themselves to travel, 
undertook the labour of evangelists, that 
is, they painfully preached Christ, and de- 
livered the gospel to them, who as yet had 
never heard the doctrine of faith ' (Hooker, 
Eccles. Pol, book v. 78). The * work of an 
evangelist ' (2 Tim. iv. 5) would seem to 
have been specially the carrying of the 
gospel-message to persons and places pre- 
viously unacquainted with it. Hence, one 
bearing another office might be an evan- 
gelist. Thus Philip, ' one of the seven,' is 
called an ' evangelist ' (Acts xxi. 8). Evan- 
gelists are distinguished from 'pastors and 
teachers,' and placed before them in Eph. 
iv. 11, as being itinerant ; whereas pastors 
and teachers belonged more to a settled 
church : they are omitted in the list of 
1 Cor. xii. 28 ; because no reference was 
there made to missionary extension of the 
church, but rather to its internal organiza- 
tion. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist, lib.iii.37, speaks 
of evangelists as both preaching Christ and 
circulating the record of the holy Gospels. 
Hence, probably the ordinary usage of the 
word evangelists to denote the writers of 
the four Gospels. 

EVE (life). The wife of Adam, and mother 
of mankind. Her formation, her yielding 
to the tempter, and inducing Adam to join 
her in disobedience to the-divine command, 
the promise in respect to her seed, and the 
names she Imposed on three of her sons, 
indicating her expectations and feeling in 
regard to them, are narrated in Gen. ii., iii., 
iv. See also 2 Cor. xi. 3 ; 1 Tim. ii. 13, 14. 

EVENING. The evening, after sunset, 
was the beginning of the Jewish day. For 
explanation of the phrase, ' Between the 
two evenings' (Exod. xii. 6, marg., and else- 
where), see Passover. 

EVERLASTING. The kindred words 'ever- 
lasting,' 'eternal,' are used in scripture 
sometimes in their full and stiict meaning, 
as when applied to the Deity (Gen. xxi. 33 ; 
Deut. xxxiii. 27 ; Psal. xii. 13, xc. 2), imply- 
ing duration without beginning or end ; 
sometimes to denote a long or indefinite 
period. Thus we have ' the everlasting hills ' 
(Gen. xlix. 26), stable and deeply-founded ; 
'an everlasting priesthood ' in the family of 
Aaron and of his grandson Phinehas (Exod. 
xl.l5 ; Numb. xxv. 13) : because, through the 
whole Jewish polity, the Levitical priest- 
hood should last on ; the type, too, of that 
still more excellent priesthood which Christ 
would exercise. The word is applied to the 
future condition, happy or miserable, of 
men in another world. See Punishment. 

E'VI (desire, or dxoelling). One of the 
kings or chiefs of Midian slain by the 
Israelites (Numb. xxxi. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 21). 

EVIL. There is natural evil ; and there 
is moral evil. Natural evil may be and some- 
times is the penalty of moral evil or sin ; as 
wlien the raging elements were roused to 
overfiow tJie ancient world and destroy the 
guilty population. Or it may be caused for 



EYIL eye] 



^\)t Crtas'xiry nt 



27a 



ateneflcial purpose; as the storm which 
mutilates the trees of the forest clears off 
the noxious exhalations which produced 
disease and death. Hence God the great 
Ruler lays upon his people the cross of 
affliction— an evil in itself— hut intended to 
refine and purifv them as gold from the fli-e 
(John XV. 2 ; 1 Pet. 1. 6, 7). Moral evil, the 
departure from the perfect standard, exists, 
we see, and is propagated in the world. It 
entered in and marred the condition in 
which man was created (Rom. v. 12), intro- 
ducing innumerahle natural evils. But 
this was not its primary origin. Hoav it 
at rst appeafired in the universe scripture 
is silent. And why he who is himself most 
pure permitted it we know not. It is a 
problem which no man has explained. But 
even from moral evil we may sometimes see 
good results. Some of the highest moral vir- 
tues could not have heen in exercise, had 
moral evil not existed. Indeed it is hard to 
see how else there could have been any pro- 
bation of moral agents. We need not, how- 
ever, involve ourselves in speculations 
which, with our present limited knowledge, 
must necessarily he futile. We must be 
content to confess that there are some 
things too hard for us to understand. But 
of this we may be assured, that God tempt- 
fcth no man to evil (James i. 1'^), and that 
he will one day vindicate the equity of his 
government : the great Judge will be seen to 
have in ail things done right (Gen. xviii. 25). 

EVIL EYE (Prov. xxiii. 6). The envious 
or covetous who grudges the meat he sets 
before a guest. In the same sense elsewhere 
(Deut. XV. 9 ; Matt. xx. 15). It is curious to 
note how much power an evil or malignant 
eye is supposed in Syria to have at the pre- 
sent day. So ridiculously afraid are the 
people of a hlight from this cause, that, ' if 
you merelv look at a child, especially if it be 
pretty, you must repeat the name of the 
prophet, of God, or of the Virgin, with a 
brief petition for protection, or at least say 
7ndshallah (an exclamation of admiration or 
praise to God). If you extol the heauty of 
a horse, you must immediately spit on_ it ; 
and the same is done sometimes to a child ; 
more frequently, however, they merely 
blow in its face, and repeat a charm. The 
bright red or white figures made on fig- 
trees are designed to attract the eye from 
the fruit, lest it should wither and fall' 
(Thomson, The Land and the Book, p. 

''"^^E'VIL-MER'ODACH (Merodach's fool; 
but perhaps some name of Persian or As- 
syrian origin underlies this). The son and 
successor of Kebuchadnezzar. He reigned 
two years, 561-559 B.C., and was murdered 
hyNergal-sharezer or Neriglissar, who had 
married his sister, and who seized his crown. 
He treated Jehoiachin with kindness ; and 
possibly his mildness of rule may have given 
opportunitv to the treason which cut him 
off (2 Kings XXV. 27-30 ; Jer. lii. 31-34). But 
some authorities report him to have heen 
luxurious and intemperate. 

EWE (Gen. xxxii. 14; 2 Sam. xii. 3; 
Psal. Ixxviii. 71, and elsewhere). See 

EXCOMMUNICATION^. There were three 



degrees of excommunication In use among 
the Jews. The lightest was called niddai. 
According to the rabbinical wTiters this 
could be inflicted for twenty-four different 
causes. It involved various disabilities ; 
as for example no person was to come 
within four cubits of the excommunicated 
man; and, if such a man died without re- 
pentance, a stone was placed upon the hier 
to indicate that he deserved to he stoned. 
It is supposed that this censure is referred 
to in Luke vi. 22 ; Jc ;inix.22. The sentence 
lasted thirty days : if the man was impeni- 
tent, it was prolonged to sixty, and then to 
ninety ; and, if he still persisted in his fault, 
he then incurred the second degree of 
punishment, called hherem, which was of a 
much graver character. The sentence was 
pronounced in a solemn assembly or court : 
no one was to eat with the person so sen- 
tenced, no association was to he had, no 
business was to he transacted with him ; 
nor could he purchase anything but food. 
Perhaps this censure may be referred to by 
St. Paul in 1 Cor. v. 11 ; though the cessation 
of private and social intercourse, not any 
public sentence, is what he seems to intend: 
see also 2 Thess. iii. 14: comp. Ezra x. 8. 
Shammatta^as the severest form of excom- 
munication, in which the offender was 
solemnly devoted to destruction, as in the 
case of Achan (Josh. vii.). It is said, how- 
ever, that even this curse might be revoked 
upon repentance. St. Paul is thought to 
allude to it in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. The word he 
there uses, Maran-atha, is similar in mean- 
ing to Shammatta, 'The Lord cometh.' 
Full information on these various degrees 
of excommunication is given by Buxtorf, 
Lex. C?iald. Talm. et Babb., cols. 827-829, 
1303-1307, 2466-2470. 

EXECUTIONER. The word so rendered 
in the Old Testament denotes first an exe- 
cutioner, and then a guardsman ; since the 
sovereign's hody-guard in the east act as 
executioners. The captain of the guard 
is the chief of the executioners (Gen. 
XXXV li. 36, xxxix. 1). Hence, Potiphar 
had a prison in his house (xl. 3). Nebuzar- 
adan held this office (Jer. xxxix. 13), also 
Arioch (Dan. ii. 14\ under the king of Baby- 
lon. And we find men of high rank, the 
very captains of the guard themselves, 
personally performing an execution (livings 
ii. 34). The executioner In Mark vi. 27 was 
one of Herod's guard. 
EXILE. See Captivity, Punishments. 
EX'ODUS, THE BOOK OF. This is the 
second book of the Pentateuch : the name 
by which we commonly distinguish it is 
that attached to it in the Septuagint ver- 
sion, being a Greek word significant of the 
principal transaction recorded, viz. tbe de- 
»a?twre of Israel from Egypt. The Jews gene- 
rally designate it by the two initial words, 
or, more shortly, by the second of them. 

In Hebrew bibles it is divided into eleven 
verashioth or chapters, and twenty-nine 
sedarim or sections : in our own it is dii? 
tributed into forty chapters. 

The contents of the book of Exodus may 
be regarded as comprising (1) historical, and 
(2) legislative matter ; the first may be 
considered as extending from i. 1 to xix. 2 



279 



the second from xix. 3 to xl. inclusive. But 
there is some legislation intermixed with 
the former, and some narrative with the 
latter part ; we may, therefore, note some 
subdivisions. I. In the first part we have 
(1) the condition of Israel in Egypt before 
their departure (i.) with the events prepara- 
tory to that deliverance, such as the birth 
of Moses and his settlement in Midian (ii.), 
the commission given him to liberate the 
people, and his announcement of this to 
them (iii., iv.), the negotiations with 
Pharaoh and infliction of the plagues, to- 
gether with the institution of the passover 
(v.-xii. 30); (2) the thrusting out of Israel 
by the Egyptians, the departure, the passage 
of the Red sea, with the song of victory, 
and the march under the divine protection 
to Sinai (xii. 31-xix. 2). II. In the second 
part we find the preparation for the estab- 
lishment of the theocratic covenant (xix. 
3-25), the promulgation of the moral law 
(XX.), ordinances chiefly of a judicial kind 
(xxi.-xxiii.), the ratification of the covenant, 
with the summoning of Moses to receive 
directions for ceremonial worship (xxiv.), 
the orders for the construction of a sanc- 
tuary with things pertaining to it, apd the 
selection of a priestly caste (xxv.-xxxi.), 
inten-upted by the apostasy of Israel,and 
Moses' intercession for them (xxxii., 
xxxiii.), with the resumption of the divine 
directions, and the construction of the 
tabernacle in obedience thereto (xxxiv.-xl. 

The book of Exodus is closely connected 
with that of Genesis, yet it has a distinct 
character. Through the former book the 
large history of the human race was con- 
tinually narrowing into that of a family to 
De separated from other nations as the 
chosen depository of divine truth, whose 
fortunes should exhibit the outlines of the 
di vine dealings, to be filled up in the future 
trials and triumphs of the church. And 
branch after branch of that family is divi- 
ded off, till a single nucleus is reached, to 
whom the promise of extended blessing 
was committed. The book of Exodus takes 
up the narrative of that family so circum- 
scribed, and follows out its development 
in the increase of a household into a people, 
in the consolidation of vague promises into 
an orderly covenant, with its sanctions, 
and its regulations, and its priesthood, all 
pointing forward again to something still 
more substantial and more sulBcient, when 
the teachings of a long minority should 
have ended, and the shadows of a tedious 
night have been succeeded by the bright 
rising of the Sun of Righteousness. Taken 
by itself, wi th out ref eren ce to wh at preceded ; 
and what followed, the book of Exodus 
would be a riddle : viewed in its right 
proportion as but a part of the great co^nsel 
of God, it is luminous with instruction and 
encouragement. This topic is well Illus- 
trated in Macdonald's Introduct. to the 
PentatencU, book 1. chap. ii. §§ 2, 3, vol. 1. 
pp. 72-85. 

Tlie time comprised in this book is gene- 
rally believed to be about 145 years, from 
the death of Joseph to the erection of the 
tabernacle. This is of course on the suppo- 
sition that the sojourn of Israel in Egypt 



[exorcisi 

was for 215 years; the 430 (Exod. xii. 40) being 
computed from the giving of the promise 
to Abraham (Gal. iii. 17). Some able writers 
take a different view (see Kurtz, Hist, of the 
Old Covenant, transl, vol. ii. pp. 133-147) ; but 
it would be difficult on the larger calcula- 
tion to reconcile the statement that Joche- 
bed was Levi's daughter (Numb. xxvi. 59), 
with the fact that she was Moses' mother. 

The authorship of Exodus has through 
long ages been ascribed to Moses. But 
modern critics have disputed this ; and 
have imagined tfcat they discover the inter- 
twining of certainly two leading documents, 
moulded into the shape in which we have 
the book by some comparatively-late edi- 
tor. The question cannot be discussed here. 
See Pentateuch. 

The credibility of the history has also 
been assailed. The book is said to be of a 
mythic or legendajry character ; and various 
parts of it have been declared to be impos- 
sible, if they are taken as literal narratives. 
Such are the vast increase of the Israelites 
(see Census), the infliction of the plagues 
(see Plagues op Egypt), the passage of 
the Red sea (see Sea, Red sea), &c. Seve- 
ral of these particulars are noticed in the 
articles Just referred to. But the real ob- 
jection to each and all of these narratives 
is that they assert or imply supernatural 
interference ; and it is held that God does 
not, or cannot, interfere with the natural 
laws, which are imagined, by his disposition 
at the first it may be, or else by some 
strange inherent power of establishing and 
executing themselves, uninterruptedly to 
govern and control the universe (see Mira- 
cles). Only a few brief general observa- 
tions can be made here. Exodus is bound 
up with the rest of the sacred volume. If 
this one stone be taken out as unsound, the 
whole structure is, to say the least, endan- 
gered. For all succeeding scripture writers 
go upon the presumption that the history 
of Exodus is fact. The following passages 
are but a sample of those which may be 
found in the Old Testament referring to 
events related in Exodus (Josh. ii. 10, iii. 3, 
xviii. 1 : Judges xix. 30; 1 Sam. iv. 3-8, x. 
18, xii. 6, 8, xxviii. 6; 2 Sam. vii. 2, 6 ; 1 
Kings viii. 9, 16, 51, 53, ix. 9 ; 2 Kings xvii. 
7, xxi. 15; 1 Chron. vi. 1-3, 49, xvii. 21; 2 
Chron. v. 7, 8, 10, xxx. 18, xxxv. 6 ; Neh. 
xiii. 15 ; Psal. Ixxvii. 20, Ixxviii. 12-16, 23-25, 
43-53, cv, 23-41 ; Isai. xi. 16, Ixiii. 11-14; Jer. 
vii. 22, 25, xxxii. 18-21 ; Dan. ix. 15 ; Hos. xi. 
1 ; Mai. iv. 4). Besides which, twenty-five 
passages, according to Rivet, are quoted in 
express words from Exodus by our Saviour 
; and his apostles ; and nineteen allusions 
to the sense are made in the New Testa- 
ment. This number is enlarged by Gough, 
New Testament Quotations, pp. 26-56. The 
credit of this book is therefore well sus- 
tained by competent authority. 

For replies to many particular objectiona 
Birks's Exodus of Israel, London, 1863, may 
be advantageously consulted ; and for some 
notice of the miraculous departure of the 
Israelites, see Israel, Red sea. 

EXORCIST. One who professed to cast 
out devils. We are told that there were 
vagabond Jews, exorcists, at Ephesus, who 



mile ^^naMtiSQt. 



EXPIATiON] 



280 



took upon thera to use the name of Jesus 
over those that were possessed with evil 
spirits (Acts xix. 13-17). That in our Lord s 
time devils were actually cast out by the J ews 
can hardly admit of doubt: else he would 
not have made the appeal he did, had their 
practice been merely a juggle (Matt. xu. 27 : 
see Dr. Alford's note ou that place). But, 
doubtless, there were impostors also who 
pretended to a power which -they did not 
really possess ; and to the class of these the 
sons of Sceva belonged. It is well to ob- 
serve that the terms ' exorcist and exor- 
cise' are never applied to miracles of 
Christ, or to the powers which he bestowed 
on his apostles. 
EXPIATION (Numb. xxxv. 33, marg.). 

See ATONEMENT, SACRIFICE. 

EYE EYES. The practice of putting out 
the eyes as a mode of punishment has been 
both anciently and in modern times very 
common in the east. Captives in war, and 
those who might be supposed likely to head 
re])ellions against the sovereign Avere fre- 
quently thus treated (Judges xvi. 21 ; 1 Sam, 
xi. 2 ; 2 Kings xxv. 7). ^ , • 

Tlie painting of the eye was and is usiial 
among eastern women. This was what Je- 
zel)el did (ix. 30, marg.: comp. Jer. i_v. 30 ; 
Ezek. xxiii. 40). A peculiar brilliancy is im- 
parted to the eye. and a languishing amorous 
ca^t given to the whole countenance, ihe 
evelids and evebrows are thus painted with 
! what is called fcuM. ' The powder from which 
\ kohl is made is collected from burning _al- 
i mond-shells, or frankincense, and is in- 
tensely black. Antimony and various ores 
of lead are also employed. The powder is 
kept in phials or pots, which are often dis- 
posed in a handsomely-worked cover or 
case ; and it is applied to the eye by a small 



and the Book, p. 461). It is a great object to 
lengthen the eye and bring it to an almond 
shape. , 

The eye is figuratively or symbolicallj 





Putting: out the eye of a ccptive. 
Nineveh Marbles. 

probe of wood, ivory, or silver, which is 
railed meel, while the whole apparatus is 
named viikhrdy' (Dr. Thomson. The Land 



Egyptian Eye (from a painting) ; and P'^^f'^nt inode 
of painting the eye, with a vase contains? kohl 
and the instrument used for applying it. 
used to denote activity and vigilance (Ezek. 
i i« Y 12- Rev. iv. 6,8). So at ine rei 
sian ?oun there was an officer called the 
"Sng's eye.' And, as the expression of the 
eve Scates various emotions bmmlity 
efivv, &c., these are often ascribed to the 
eye itself '(Job xxii. 29, marg^; Prov ^n. 
mnrcr Txviii 22; Isai. m. 16, J^^zeK. xxi\. 
16? 2Ti Matt.\x. 15 ; 2 Pet. ii. 14 ; 1 John u. 

^^E'ZAR {treasure). (1 Chron. 1. 38.) See 
^^iz'BAl (hairv, or, according to another 
derivatto'n^; spoil). The father of erne of 
David's warriors (1 Cl'ron. x . 37). In the 
parallel list (2 Sam. xxiii. 3d) we ha\ e tor 
^ FZ^BON (t'^owir, otherwise weU-forwed) . 
1. "^On^e'i? arsons' of Gad (Gen xlyi 16). 
ke is also called Ozni (^^■^^^^f^'-t 

^irS^^^tiSrand^c^r,^!^^ 
been hazarded that he was adopted into 
Benjamin from another tnbe -_„_„^t 
EZECni'AS. 1 ClEsdr.ix 14). A coirupt 
form of Jahaziah (Ezra x. 15). 2. (2 Esdi. 
'^%fEcFllfii^rA..^Z-). Hilkiah (Neh. 
^ EZEkl'AS (Matt. i. 9, 10). The Greek 

^""'^W^^fSor^ God mal-essirong). A 
prS ^id prophet, the son of Buzi, ^^;ho 
?vSramong the captives carried a^^^^^^^ 
Jehoiachin 599 B.C., and who Prophes^^^^ 
in Chaldea at Tel-abib by the Chebab 

"^The wOTd of the Lord came to him in the 
fifllfyea? of tlae captivity : andhismiinstry 
fas ed, to long as we l^ave any account to 
thp twentv-seventh year (Ezek. i. 2, 3, xxix. 

^"ether he lived beyond this time, or 
how ^'>ere he died, tbe^e^s no certainty 
According to Jewish tradition he was put 
foTeath by the prince of he Jews, who was 



r 



281 



[ezekiel 



an idolater, and could not endure the pro- 
phet's censures. No dependence can he 
placed on this tale. We know little more 
of his history, save that he was married ; 
this domestic relationship, as in the case of 
other prophets, heing made subservient to 
his public teaching. His wife died ; and 
the behaviour charged upon him was to be 
a sign to his people (xxiv. 15-24). Ezekiel 
was a man of marked and energetic charac- 
ter. Of a priestly family, he had been 
trained in the ritual lore, the symbolic and 
spiritual import of which he could well dis- 
cern. His fancy was rich, and he was ac- 
customed to utter words that burned. He 
attained a vast influence over those of his 
nation who were around him ; for the 
people used, we are told, to assemble in his 
house, to hear the word of the Lord by him 
(xxxiii. 30-32). Such a man was an instru- 
ment well fitted to stand against the power- 
ful Babylonian spirit of the time. 

EZEKIEL, THE BOOK OF (595-573 B.C.). 
The collection of Ezekiel's prophecies. This 
book divides itself into two halves : L The 
first, comprising prophecies and visions 
before the fall of Jerusalem (i-xxiv.) : these 
are placed in chronological order, from the 
fifth year of the captivity, to the ninth (i. 
2, xxiv. 1). IL The second is occupied with 
prophecies and visions after Jerusalem was 
taken (xxv.-xlviii.) ; including (1) denunci- 
ations against seven heathen nations 
disposed in the following order (xxv.- 
xxxii), Ammon, Moab, Edom, the Philis- 
tines, Tyre, Zidon, and Egypt, (2) predic- 
tions of the re-establishment of the 
theocracy (xxxiii.-xlviii.), an oracle against 
Seir being included (xxxv.) : these, too, 
though dates are but sparingly noted, seem 
to be placed chronologically, the whole 
i being, no doubt, arranged by the prophet 
himself. 

It is only of late years that the authorship 
of Ezekiel's prophecies has been at all ques- 
tioned ; and most of the objections urged 
against the ordinary belief are so obviously 
baseless that it would be a waste of time to 
refute them. Zunz's arguments deserve a 
little more notice (Die Gottesdienstl Vortrdge 
der Juden, pp. 157, &c.). He conjectures 
that the book belongs to the Persian pe- 
riod, because there is, he says, no trace 
of Ezekiel's imagery in his alleged contem- 
porary Jeremiah ; because he does not 
seem to have rightly comprehended the 
shape of the cherubim ; because his style 
has an Aramaic colouring, and betrays in 
several places an imitation of Jeremiah ; 
and more particularly because there is a 
specialty in his predictions (e.g. xii. 12, &c.) 
which does not belong to a true prophet. It 
will readily be seen that these are but weak 
reasons , and they have been satisfactorily 
met by Hiivernick {Einleit.in das A.T., § 232, 
vol. ii. 2. pp. 271-273) ; but it is well to 
protest against that irreverent spirit which 
carps at particular predictions ; as if the 
Deity, before whom all future things lie 
spread, could not, and might not if he 
pleased, communicate by his servants the 
prophets tlie definite knowledge of an 
i event about to happen. Objections on such 
[ a princii)le are of the earth, earthy. 



The forms of Ezekiel's composition are- 
varied. Sometimes the strain is didactic, in 
which proverbial expressions are inter- 
woven (as in xii. 22, 23, xvi. 44, xvii. 1-10, 
xviii. 2), and extends itself in long-drawn 
sentences, with oratorical fulness and lyric 
spirit. Then, again, we find allegorical 
representation, unfolding a vast richness 
of majestic Ideas and colossal symbols 
(illustrated, it may be said, by late Assyrian 
discoveries), including not unfrequently 
symbolic actions. Hence, as observed by 
Jerome, there is much that Is dark and 
mysterious in his prophecies. Thus the 
symbolic cherubim are variously explained. 
It is enough to say of them here that, 
described as working one within another, 
they may be taken to symbolize the 
awful and mysterious providence of God, 
ministered by angelic beings, instinct with 
spiritual life. And the later chapters (xL— 
xlviii.) have caused great difference of 
opinion. They have been referred to the 
restoration of the Jews after the Babylonish 
captivity : they have been supposed to 
depict by symbols the times of Messiah ; 
and there are those who, regarding them as 
prediction yet unaccomplished, expect that 
at some future period tine temple in the 
proportions here delineated will rise again, 
and the rites and regulations so minutely 
recorded be literally in force. These theories 
are lucidly described by Dr. Fairbairn, in his 
valuable 'Exposition' of Ezekiel. Such 
matters cannot be argued here They be- 
long rather to the province of the com- 
mentator. 

But it may not be Improper to give a 
summary of the view entertained by Hiiver- 
nick of the purport of the prophet's vision. 
' In the gospel times,' he thinks, ' there is to 
be, on the part of Jehovah, a solemn occu- 
pation anew of his sanctuary, in which the 
entire fulness of the divine glory shall dwell 
andmanifest itself. At the last there is to rise 
a new temple, diverse from the old, to be 
made every way suitable to that grand and 
lofty intention, and worthy of it ; in parti- 
cular of vast compass for the new com- 
munity, and with a holiness stretching 
over the entire extent of the temple ; so 
that in this respect there should no hmger 
be any distinction between the different 
parts. Throughout, everything is subjected 
to the most exact and particular appoint- 
ments : individual parts, and especially 
such as had formerly remained indetermin- 
ate, obtain now an immediate divine sanc- 
tion ; so that every idea of any kind of 
arbitrariness must be altogether excluded 
from this temple. Accordingly, this sanc- 
tuary is the thoroughly-sufficient perfect 
manifestation of God for the salvation of 
his people (xl.— xliii. 12). From this sanc- 
tuary, as from the new centre of all 
religious life, there gushes forth an un- 
bounded fulness of blessings upon the 
people, who in consequence attain to a new 
condition. There come also into being a 
new glorious worship, a truly-acceptable 
priesthood and theocratical ruler; and 
equity and righteousness r>5ign among the 
entire coram.unity, who, being purified 
from all stains, rise Indeed to possess the 



ezel] 



282 



life that Is in God (xliii. 13— xlvii. 12). To 

the people who have become renewed hy 
such blessings the Lord gives the land of 
promise : Canaan is a second time divided 
among them, where, in perfect harmony 
and blessed fellowship, they serve the 
living God, who abides and manifests him- 
self among them (xlvii. 13— xlviii.). See 
Journ. ofSacr. Lit, Jan. 1852, pp. 434-447. 

Ezekiel's style is characterized by a mass 
of peculiar and frequently-recurring ex- 
pressions andforms ; and, though he shows 
a dependence on earlier models, on the 
Pentateuch in particular, he has words, 
together with Aramaisms and corruptions, 
anomalies and grammatical incorrectnesses, 
testifying to the decline of the Hebrew 
l:in«-ua!;e, and confirming the belief that the 
writer ^was residing in a foreign land. 
Some of his peculiarities are the constant 
use of the phrase ' son of man ' as applied 
to himself (ii- 1. 3, 6, 8, iii. 1, 3, 4, and else- 
where), the designation of the people as 
' a rebellious house' (ii. 5, 6, 7, 8, iii. 9, 26, 
27 xii. 2, 3, 9, xvii. 12, xxiv. 3, xliv. 6) ; with 
many others, which Keil has enumerated 
{Ehdeit. § 79). 

There is a somewhat-perplexing statement 
of Josephus U^nig., lib. x. 5, .§ 1) that 



the kingdom of David by the conquest of 
Edom. Solomon made it the station of his 
navy that traded to Ophir (1 Kings ix. 26 ; 
2 Chron. viii. 17) : and here Jehoshaphat's 
fleet was 'broken' or wrecked (1 Kings 
xxii. 48; 2 Chron. XX. 36, 37). Josephus de- 
scribes E'ziou-geber as not far from the 
city ^lana, i.e.Elath, and called Berenice 
{Antig., lib. viii. 6, § 4). There is now no 
trace of it; and the site can be only con- 
jectured. Dr. Robinson is inclined to be- 
lieve that anciently the gulf ran up farther 
into the country, and that Ezion-geber may 
have been in a wady with brackish water 
called el-Glmdi/dn, a few miles north of 
Akabah. 

EZ'JsITE (2 Sam. xxiii. 8). See Jashobeam. 
EZ'llA (help)- 1- One of the posterity of 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17). 

2. A celebrated scribe and priest, de- 
scended from Hilkiah the high priest in 
Josiah's reign (Ezra vii. 1). Of his early 
life we know nothing, nor how he ac- 
quired the influence he evidently nad at 
the Persian court. In the seventh year 
of Artaxerxes Longiraanus we find a 
large commission granted him to return 
from Ba1iylon at tlie head of a body of 
Jews, and to take upon him the administra- 



Ezekief wrote two books. The most general tion of affairs at Jerusa em (vii vui ) 
exTlan ition is that ^ii ,,ot a mere error on One of his first steps on his airival was to 
the ma t of the Jewish historian) he divided I remedy the unhallowed marriages which 
the book we have into two parts, making i had been conti acted by the Jews with Gen- 
tat which contains a description of the tile unbelievers (ix x.). These were to ])e 

Luai ~- ' -broken off; and the whole business, it 

would seem, was settled in about eight 
months (vii. 9, x. 9, 17). Whether Ezra con- 
tinued at Jerusalem is a question : it is 
generally assumed that he was in office till 
Nehemiairs arrival twelve or thirteen years 
later ; but it seems hard in that case to 
account for the state of declension and 
confusion in which IS'ehemiah found the 
people. It is more likely, therefore, that 
Ezra's commission M as temporary, that he 



returned to Babylon, and that shortly after 
iS'ehemiah's appointment as governor he 



temple (xl.—x!viii.\ a distinct treatise, as 
altogether apart from the preceding por- 
tion of his writings. 

Among the numerous commentaries on 
this prophet n-ay be mentioned those of 
Venema, 1790, Greenhill, 1G50 (re-pul)!ished 
IbG3), Henderson, 1855, Fairbairn, 1851, &c. 

E'ZEL idcpiniure). A stone or stone- 
heap by which D:ivid and Jonathan parted 
{I Sam. XX. 19). Some conjectural emenda- 
tion of TV. 19, 41 have been proposed ; but, 
as they rest on the text of the Septuagint, 

adoi?4d i a.ain- proceeded to Jerusalem ; where we 

E'ZE^i (hone, strength). A city of Simeon (1 ' find him then very active (K eh. viii.) 
Chron iv 29) In Josh. xix. 3 it is called The sealing of the covenant occurred at ; 
A7PnV i-iiou= . I this time; and good men have indulged m 

E'zkn (treasure). A descendant of Seir ; unsatisfactory conjectures why Ezra's; 
the Horite one of the 'dukes' in the land ; name is not found attached to it. It ha^, 
rf Seir (Gmrxxxvi 21, 27, 30 ; 1 Chron. i. been said, for instance, that he probably 
40) He is clued Ezar in 1 Chron. i. 38. was ill, or that, as he hadbeen the principal 

E'ZEll (heln) 1. A descendant of Judah person in (as we should say) getting it up, 
a Cbron iv 4) t One of the sons of , no further ratification on his part was 
Enhraim^lainbvthe men of Gath, whose thought necessary. But if we look at ! 
cattle they attempted to seize (vii. 21). the record (x. 1-27), we shall _ see reason 
f A Gaditechief who joined David in the : enough to believe that few oi the names. | 
wilderness (X 19) 4. A Levite who helped : if any (with the exception of Nehemnili the - 

0 repair thi w^^^^^ (Ifeh. iii. 19). governor), were the signatures of men as | 

^'^BI'A a Es^r. Viii. 1). Azariah (Ezra : are^^ cnly ™ ^S^; 

^^^EZFAS (1 Esdr viii 2). Azariah (Ezra ; if we examine the lists of those who re- 
.fii^^ (i ii-sar. z;. I turned with Zerubbabel and with Ezra (Ezra 

E'ZION-GA'BER or GE'BER (tlie gianfs ' ii., viii 1-14) we ^^^^11 ^ 
backbone) A port of Edom on the Elaniric clans; for example, of the childi en of Azgad, 
gulf of the Pt^ed sea. It was one of the 1,222 were in Ze.nhbabel's caravan. IIO n 
encampments of the Israelites in their Ezra's ; of the chi dren of Bebai^^ 
jouriieV through the wilderness (^'umb. Zerubbabel's 28 _in Ezras &c., ^c.^ B^^ 
Wxiii. 35.36:Deut.ii. 8), and was attached to Azgad and Bebai are ;^oiong the signa 



283 



[face 



tures to the covenant. Surelj"- it was in 
each such case as the representatives of 
a large body that there were these particu- 
lar names ; and it is expressly said that 
the rest of the people ' clave to their bre- 
thren ' (Neh. X. 28, 29), that is, acknowledged 
themselves bound by what their chiefs, 
their representatives, had done. Ezra, 
then, we may well believe, though most 
eminent as an individual (specially called 
* the scribe'), yet as a priest had his place 
in some particular class, the whole of which 
was included under the signature of its 
representative. 

We find him again mentioned in xii. 26, 
36 ; but not after the close of Neheniiah's 
first term of office. Probably he did not 
long survive. To him the Jews attribute, 
among other things, the institution of the 
great synagogue which settled the canon of 
scriptui'e, and also the authorship of many of 
the sacred books,with the revision of the en- 
tire scriptures; and Christian writers have 
been too ready to follow them and to say, 
when they came upon an explanation or no- 
tice in any book which they thought not like- 
ly to belong to the author, that it was no 
doubt'inserted by Ezra. As ' a ready scribe in 
the law of Moses,' we may well believe that 
he would take care to spread a knowledge of 
the law, and to circulate accurate copies of 
the holy books ; but more can hardly be 
with any confidence asserted of Mm. See 
Canon. 

3. A priest or head of a course of priests 
who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 
1, 13) : comp, x. 2, where Azariah is perhaps 
the same person. 

EZ'RA, THE BOOK OF. This book com- 
mences with a notice of the edict of Cyrus 
permitting the exiled Jews to re-occupy 
their own country : it narrates the return 
of a large body under Zerubbabel, with 
their proceedings till the temple was re-built 
and dedicated : it gives an account also of 
Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, upwards of 
half-a-century later, and of the reformation 
effected by him. The books of Ezra and 
Nehemiah were reckoned by the Jews as 
one volume. Portions of Ezra (viz., iv. 8— 



vi. 18, and vii. 12-26) are written in Chaldee: 
the rest is in Hebrew. It is questioned 
whether the whole is from Ezra's pen. 
Some critics maintain the affirmative : 
others, with greater apparent reason, dis- 
sent. Several of the arguments alleged are 
of no great weight ; but perhaps, on a full 
consideration, we may divide the book into 
two parts: 1. i.— vi.; 2.vii.— x., and may as- 
cribe vii.— x.to Ezi-a. It is true that :nvii.l-26 
and X., the writer uses the third person ; but 
this fact does not seem conclusive against 
Ezra's authorship. The former chapters 

i. — vi. are probably from different sources. 
Chap. i. is a continuation of 2 Chronicles 
the last two verses in that book being 
identical with the first two in Ezra. Chap. 

ii. , iii. is a document inserted with sliglit 
variation in Neh. vii. The portion iii. 2 — 
vi. 22 (with the exception of iv. 6-23, possi- 
bly by a later hand) has been ascribed, 
from the similarity of style, diction, &c., 
to the prophet Ilaggai : see Lord A. C. Her- 
vey in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, art. 'Ezra,_ 
Book of.' Be this as it may, Ezra, it is 
likely, had the preceding portions before 
him, and combined them with his own 
narrative ; or it might be that the author 
of Chronicles was the final editor of those 
books, and of the books of Ezra and Nehe- 
miah. The zeal and piety of Ezra are admir- 
ably illustrated in the transactions that are 
here recorded. And, though some have ob- 
jected to certain particulars, and impeached 
the credibility of the history on account 
of them, such objections are groundless. 
The canonical authority of this book is 
beyond dispute. It may be added that it 
comprises In its history a period of about 
eighty years. 

EZ'RAHITB. Two persons are thus de- 
signated, Et-han (1 Kings iv. 31 ; Psal 
Ixxxix. title), and Heman (Ixxxviii. 
title). But in 1 Chron. ii. 6 they are both 
said to be sons of Zerah, i.e. Zerahites, or 
Zarhites ; of which Ezrahites is probably 
another form. 

EZ'RI {help of Jehovah). The superinten- 
dent of David's agricultural labourers 
(1 Chron xxvii. 26). 



F 



FABLE. A vehicle used, by the adoption 
of fictitious narrative, for the exhibition or 
illustration of some truth. In a fable the 
qualities or actions of a higher class of 
beings are attributed to a lower, as those of 
men to brutes or inanimate things. We 
thus see a great distinction between a 
fable and a parable; for in the latter, if 
brutes are introduced, they never contra- 
dict the law of their nature. So our Lord 
mtroduces sheep into his parables, but he 
never represents the sheep as speaking or 
doing anything but what sheep naturally 
do. 'The parable,' says archbishop Trench 
I {Xotes on the Parables, 2nd edit. chap. i. p. 



10), • differs from the fable while it moves 
in a spiritual world, and never transgresses 
the actual order of things natural.' There 
are two examples of fable, properly so called, 
in scripbure, those of Jotham (Judges ix. 
8-15), and of Jehoash (2 Kings xiv. 9) ; and 
they- the first at least— are older than any 
known to be produced by heathen au- 
thors. The 'fables' against M'hich St. Paul 
utters a warning (1 Tim. i. 4, iv. 7 ; 2 Tim. 
iv. 4; Tit. i. 14) mean the Jewish unau- 
thorized traditions, or simply untruths. 

FACE. Most of the combinations into 
which this word enters are intelligible 
enough. It may be observed that, as to seek 



FAIR H-IVENS] 



284 



any one's face is to seek his favour, or 
admission to bis- presence (-Psal. xxvn. 8 ; 
Prov vii. 15), so to see bis face is to see 
him in person (Gen. xlviii. to have en- 
trance to his court, if he be of high rank, as a 
king (xliii. 3, 5 ; 2 Sam.xiv.24, 28, 32): hence 
this phrase denoted the royal favour, 
ditrnitv, or privilege (Esth. i. 14). So to 
see God's face is to find him propitious, to 
have nearness of access to him (Job xxxiu 
26 • Psal xvii. 15) ; and this is specially said 
to 'be the privilege of the holy angels that 
they see God's face (Matt, xviii. 10 ; Luke i. 
19) 

F\IR HAA-EXS, THE. A harbour or 
roadstead off the south coast of Crete, men- 
tioned in Acts xxvii. 8, but in no other 
ancient writing. It has been lately identi- 
fied and described by Mr. Smith of Jordan- 
hill (see his Voyage and Shipicreck oj St. Paul, 
Lond 2nd. edit. 1856). This harbour still 
retains its old Greek name, and is situated 
four or five miles to the east of cape Mata- 
la and about the same distance to the Avest 
of cape Leonda. It is a fair winter harbour, 
thoui^h bv no means so good as that of 
Phenice. about forty miles farther west- 
Avard After passing cape Matala the coast 
trends to the north ; hence the danger, if a 
northerly gale sprung up, of the vessels 
being driven out to sea; and lence the 
advice given by St. Paul to lie still at the 
Fair Havens, instead of making for 
Phenice (Acts xxvii. 9, 10, 21). The advice 
was not taken : a gale did spring up, and 
caught the ship, which dritted across the 
Bca^tiU it was wrecked on the coast of 

^fSrS. The word occurs repeatedly in 
Ezek. xxvii. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27 ; but it is 
verv doubtful whether there were fairs at 
Tvre in the sense in which we understand 
the term. Tarshish is said to have traded 
In the 'fairs' of Tyre (12) ; but the Tynans 
rather resorted to Tarshish than the peo- 
ple of Tarshish to Tyre. Also we can hardly 
understand how the 'fairs' could ' fall into 
the midst of the seas' (27). The word 
rather signifies 'gains' accruing froin 
traffic, and is sometimes translated wares 
(33) ; possiblv it might be well to preserve 
that translation in all the places m which it 

^'^F^UTH A dependence on the veracity 
of another, or belief on testimony. In 
scripture the testimony which is the ground 
of faith means generally the divme testi- 
monv, announced either by hod himself, oi 
bv his accredited messengers. Thus ^oah 
credited the warning which the depraved 
antediluvians disregarded, and used the 
means which God pointed out to him for 
deliverance from the approaching deluge 
fHeb xi 7). Faith is distinguished from 
credulity in that it does not accept any- 
thing as true which is not based on suffi- 
cient evidence: it is contrasted with un- 
belief in that it accepts whatever is pro- , 
po^ed to it when the testimony thereof is i 
adeauate. ^e are informed that faith may i 
be dead, if it be merely in the understand- i 
ine, admitting facts as true, but not realiz- 
ing their bearing upon ourselves Such a 
I fafth is that historical faith, wh^ch credits 1 



the narrative of our Lord's passion and j 
death, but seeks not, through that, remis- i 
sion of personal guilt. The faith of devils ' 
goes farther than this; for they 'believe 
and tremble' (James ii. 19); but they find 
no means of release from their apprehended 
doom. True ' faith is the substance (oi 
realizing) of things hoped for, the evidence 
(or sure persuasion) of things not seen' 
(Heb xi. 1;. Vf'ith such a faith 'Abraham 
believed God ; and it was counted unto him 
for righteousness ' (Gen. xv. 6 ; Rom. iv. 3 : 
Gal iii. 6). So those who believe in Christ, 
accepting his offered mercy, relying on his 
never-forfeited word, are for Ins sake re- 
garded as God's children. Hence men are 
said to be 'justified by faith' (Rom. iii. 23- 
'■^6 V. 1). See JUSTIFICATION. Faith, if 
genuine, will work by love (Gal. v. 6), yield- 
ing the fruits of a holy life and conversa 
tion (Matt. vii. 20 ; James ii. 26). 

There are various shades of meaning be- 
longing to the word 'faith' in scripture, 
whTch mav be sought in commentaries- 
it must be enough here to say that it 
sometimes means the gospel revelation 
(Acts vi. 7 ; Rom. x. 8). . 

The precious gift of faith and the in- 
crease thereof should be earnestly sought 
in humble prayer (Luke xvii. 5 ; Phil. i. 29). 

FAITHFUL, FAITHFULNESS. This 13 
an attribute often ascribed in scripture 
to God, to denote the certainty of his pur- 
pose, word, and covenant : see Dent. vii. 9 ; 
Psal. xxxvi.5, xl. 10, Ixxxviii. 11, Ixxxix. 1, 
2 5 8, 24, 33, xcii. 2, cxix. 75, 90, cxliii. 1; 
I'sai. xi. 5. xlix. 7; Jer. xlii. 5 ; Lam. iii. 23 ; 
Ho«. ii. 20; 1 Cor. i. 9, x. 13; 1 Thess. v. 24 : 
♦> Thess. iii. 3 ; 2 Tim. ii. 13 ; Heb. ii. 17, m. 

X "3 xi. 11 ; 1 Pet. iv. 19 ; l John i. 9; 
Rev i 5 Iii. 14,xix.ll. Hence God's word or 
covenant itself is often called ' faithful,' as 
in P<al. cxix. 86, 138; Isai. xxv.l; 1 Tim. 
i 15 ; Rev. xxi. 5, xxii. 6. The term is also 
used to designate God's people, as in Numb, 
xii 7 ; Neh. vii. 2 ; Psal. xii. 1 ; Matt. xxv. 
21 ; 1 Cor. iv. 17 ; Eph. i. 1 ; 2 Tim. ii. 2 ; Rev. 
xvii. 14, and frequently elsewhere. 

FALLOW-DEER. An animal whose flesh 
misht be used for food (Dent xiv. 5; 1 
Kiuss iv. 23). It was a species of deer of a 
reddish colour, with serrated horns, casg 
every year, most probably Cervus dama, 
which 'is found in western and southern 
\s\su Kitto, however (Plct Bible, note on 
beut. xiv. 5), supposes the animal intended 
to be the Oryx leucoryx ; and a writer in Dr. 
Smith's Diet of the Bible, app. p. xlix., holds 
it to be the Alcelaphus bubalis, the wild ox 
of North Africa, called by the natives bek- 
}:er -el-wash. „ 

FALLOW-GROUND (Jer. iv. 3 ; Hos. x 
\'>) See Jubilee, Year sabbatical, 
"familiar SPIRIT iLev. xx. 27, and 
elsewhere). See Divixatiox. 

FAMINE. The usual proximate causes of 
famine in Egvpt are failure in the regular 
inundation of the Nile ;in Palestine, a want 
of rain affecting both the pasture-lands and 
the harvests. Several famines are noted in 
the scripture history. Two are mentioned 
as occurring in Canaan in the days of Abra- 
ham and Isaac, compelling those patriarchs i 
to remove to Egypt and to Gerar (Gen. xu I 



285 



10, xxvi. 1). Then succeeded that remark- 
able famine which Joseph was enabled to 
predict, and which extended widely over 
Egji^t and various other regions (xli. 
53-57). A scarcity in Pjilestine was once 
occasioned (Judges vi. 4-6) by the invasion 
of the Midianites, and another (or the same) 
is referred to in Ruth i. 1. Others are noted, 
sometimes caused by war or l)y locusts 
(2 Sam. xxi. 1 ; 1 Kings xvii. 1, 7, xviii. 2 ; 
2 Kings iv. 38, viii. 1, 2 ; Lam. v. 10; Joel i. 
10-12, 17, 18 ; Acts xi. 28). Famine is called 
one of the Lord's 'sore judgments' (Ezek, 
xiv.21), and is often threatened as a punish- 
ment of sin (2 Sam. xxiv. 13). But it is ob- 
servable that, even when not specially said 
to be inflicted for judgment, it is yet de- 
clared to be ' called for 'by the Lord (2 Kings 
viii. 1 ; Psalm cv. 16) ; whence we learn that, 
though second causes are in operation, yet 
God administers his own sovereignty, not 
leaving events to an independent law, but 
guiding all things for his own wise ends. 

Famine is sometimes used in a figurative 
sense ; as when a worse destitution is de- 
scribed than that of bread, a sorer thirst 
than tuat for water— even a famine of the 
divine word, a thirst because the living 
streams of mercy flow out no more (Amos 
viii. 11-18). 

FAN. An agricultural Implement (Tsai. 
XXX. 24 ; Jer. xv. 7 ; Matt. iii. 12 ; Luke iii. 17). 
The' shovel' in Isaiah is probably the same 
with the ' fan ' in the other passages. It was, 
no doubt, a broad scoop by which the corn 
was thro\vn against the wind, often perhaps 
during the evening breeze (Ruth iii. 2), in 
order that the chaff might be blown away. 
The word translated * fan' in the first place 
above referred to has been thought to mean 
something of a similar kind, as afork, said to 
be still used in Palestine. It was more likely 
a measure, or basket, in which to receive 
the grain. ' Very little use,' says Dr. Thom- 
son, ' is now made of the fan ; but I have 
seen it employed to purge the floor of the 
refuse dust, which the owner throws away 
as useless' (The Land and the Book, p. 540). 

FARM, FARMING (Matt. xxii. 5). See 
Agriculture. 

FARTHING. There are two words which 
are thus translated. In Matt. v. 26 ; Mark 
xii.42, the coin meant was the quadrans or 
fourth of a Roman as. It contained two 
lapta, mites, and was in value about three- 
fourths of our farthing. In Matt. x. 29; 
Luke xii. 6, the word is assarion, or small 
as, that is, three farthings of our money. 
See Money. 

FAST. The only fast ordained by the 
Mosaic law was that of the day of atone- 
ment, on the 10th of the seventh month, on 
which the people were to afflict their souls 
(Lev. xxiii. 26-32). This appears to have 
been ever solemnly kept, and was ' the fast ' 
mentioned in the narrative of St. Paul's 
voyage to Italy (Acts xxvii. 9). See Atone- 
MKNT, Day of. But there were other 
fasts afterwards instituted on account of 
great national calamities; and these ap- 
pear to have had prophetic sanction. They 
are enumerated as the fasts of the fourth, 
tlie fifth, the seventh, and tenth months 
:Zech. vii. 3-5, viii. 19). The fast of the 



[fast 



fourth month was on account of the break- 
ing up of Jerusalem by the armies of 
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. Iii. 6, 7). The modern 
Jews couple with this event thebpeaking of 
the tables of the law by Moses rExod. xxxii. 
19). The fast of the fifth month commem- 
morates the burning of the temple and the 
houses of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar 
(Jer. Iii. 12, 13), and afterwards by Titus, on 
the same day of the same month. It is now 
kept by the Jews with greater rigour than 
any other. The fast of the seventh month 
is for the murder of Gedaliah (xli. I-IO). 
That of the tenth month was instituted be- 
cause the Chaldean army then laid siege to 
Jerusalem (Iii. 4). 

Extraordinary general fasts were not un- 
frequently appointed in consequence of 
some calamity, or to obtain God's blessing 
for the averting of some danger. Such 
were those of which we read at various 
times (Judges xx. 26 ; 1 Sam. vii. 6, xxxi. 13 ; 

1 Kings xxi. 12 ; 2 Chron. xx. 3 ; Ezra viii. 
21 ; Esth. iv. 15-17 ; Jer. xxxvi. 9 ; Joel i. 14, 
ii. 15-17). Such fasts are also mentioned in 
the Maccabean times (1 Mace. iii. 47 ; 2 Mace. 

xiii. 12) ; and in later ages we know that 
fasts were appointed when the seasons 
were unfavourable, or on other occasions 
of distress. 

For individual fasts there was no com- 
mandment of the Mosaic law. There is, 
however, a reference to such in Numb. xxx. 
13 ; where the force of a vow to fast by a 
married woman is made dependent on her 
husband's allowance of it. And private 
fasts were not uncommon (1 Sam. i. 7 ; 

2 Sam. i. 12, xii. 16 ; 1 Kings xxi. 27 ; Ezra 
X. 6 ; Neh. i. 4 ; Dan. ix. 3, x. 3). Of course 
from this enumeration must be excluded 
the fasts of Moses upon Sinai (Exod. xxiv. 
18, xxxiv. 28 ; Deut. ix. 9, 18), and the fast 
of Elijah as he travelled to the mount of 
God (1 Kings xix. 8). These were not self- 
imposed, nor were they endured by mere 
natural strength. After the captivity, the 
practice of individual fasting appears to 
have been Stricter and more frequent. The 
Pharisees and others made a show of fast- 
ing, and believed that they purchased God's 
favour thereby (Matt. vi. 16, ix. 14; Luke 
xviii. 12) ; the two days in the week on 
which they ordinarily fasted being (accord- 
ing to the Talmud) tlie fifth, because Moses 
that day went up Sinai, and the second, 
because on that day he came down. 

But there are fasts spoken of in the New 
Testament of a better kind. Such was the 
practice of ti e prophetess Anna (ii. 37), 
And our Lord himself, who at the beginning 
of his ministry fasted forty days in the 
desert (Matt. iv. 2), regulated the use of it 
(vi. 17, 18), and spoke of it as needful in 
order to the performance of certain won- 
drous works (xvil. 21). Accordingly there 
were solemn occasions on which we find 
fasting in the Christian church (Acts xiii. 3, 

xiv. 23 ; 1 Cor. vii. 5). The history of fasting 
in later days does not belong to this place. 
Large information respecting it, the times 
when it Avas practiced, and the mode of it, 
may be found in Bingham's Orig. Uccles., 
book xxi. 

The Jews appear to have joined with fast 



FATJ 



280 



ing the putting on of sackcloth, and other 
usual signs of [distress (1 Kings xxi. 27). 
Sometimes they abstained altogether from 
food, from one evening to another ; while 
at other times, especially when the fasts 
were of long duration, they ate food, but 
only of the plainest kind. They did not fast 
on the sabbath, or on festival-days. See 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Fasten.' 

FAT. There were certain prohibitions m i 
the Mosaic law in regard to the eating of 
fat Pure fat was intended, that about the 
entrails, kidneys, <tc. ; this, in the case of 
sacrifices- especially sin-oflering, trespass- 
offering, peace-offering— was to be solemnly 
l)urnt as presented to the Lord (Lev. iii. 3-5, 
9-11, 14-17, iv. S-10, 19, 26, 31, 35, vii. 3-5, 23-25, 
30, 31, viii. 25 ; Numb, xviii. 17). Sometimes 
the word is used as including all the parts 
of an offering which were to be consumed 
bv fire (1 Sam. ii. 15, 16). The fat was holy : 
it was the best and richest part of the ani- 
mal ; and therefore it was fitting that it 
should be offered to God (See Fairbairn, 
Ti/poL of Script., book iii. chap. iii. sect. 7, 
vol. ii. p. 343). The prohibition did not extend 
to other parts than those above specified, 
or to that of animals not sacrificed ; for we 
frequentlv meet with commendations of 
stall-fed and fatted cattle as specially eaten 
at feasts (1 Sam. xxviii. 24 ; 1 Kings iv. 23 ; 
Prov. XV. 17 ; Jer. xlvi. 21 ; Luke xv. 23, 30); 
and the 'fat' is spoken of in Neh. viii.lO, as 
a dainty. It may be, however, that not fat li- 
terallv, but the choicest food is there meant. 

FAT. This word appears in its uncom- 
pounded form only in Joel ii. 24, iii. 13. 
The original is in other places rendered 
•wine-fat' (Isai. Ixiii. 2), 'press-fat' (Hagg. 
ii. 16), &c. It is properly applied to the vat 
or receptacle into which the must, or new 
wine, flowed from the press. An equivalent 
Greek word is translated ' wine-fat' in Mark 
xii. 1. See Wine-press. 

FATHER. The word is continually used 
initsliteralandproper sense. The father of two aspects m 
a family in early times had great authority 
over his children and descendants, represen- 
ting to them, in a certain sense, the Deity. 
He was often the head of blessing to his 
race, when they followed his faithful ex- 
ample (Gen. xviii. 18, 19 ; 2 Sam, vii. 12-16, 
19). Or, if he trained his children in evil 
paths, so that they inherited his sinfulness 
as well as his blood, the judgment on a 
father extended to the children (1 Kings 
xiv. 10-13). It was not that the son should 
bear the responsibility of the parent's sin 
(Deut. xxiv. 16 ; Ezek. xviii. 14-18, 20) ; but 
the children too often copied the parent's 
faults; and it was natural— we see ex- 
amples everv day— that a man's ill-con- 
duct should affect his children's welfare m 
the world. The greatest respect was en- 
forced to a father by the divine law (Exod. 
-XX. 12 ; Eph. vi. 1-3) : the blessing or the 
curse of a father was regarded as of the 
weisrhtiest force (Gen.ix. 25-27, xxvii.,xlviii., 
xlix'') ; and there are numberless illustra- 
tions in scripture of the duty of honouring 
a father, and of the sin of disobeying him 
(Lev. XX. 9 ; Deut. xxi. 18-21 ; Prov. xiii. 1; 
I^ai.xlv. 10 ; Mai. i. 6; 1 Tim. i. 9; 2 Tim. 
Iii. 2, and elsewhere). The word is also 



used, in the sense of originator, for any an. 
cestor (1 Kings xv. 11 ; Isni. xliii. 27), for 
the founder of a tribe, nation, or city, or 
the first of a class who have practised some 
art or profession (Gen. iv. 20, 21, x. 21, xvil 
4, 5, xii. 37, 38 ; 1 Chron. ii. 50-52 : comp. 
Rom. iv. 11, 12, 16), or the former or maker 
of any thing (Job xxxviii. 28). Also, as a 
father shows affection to and care for his 
children, some figurative senses of the 
word implT such affection and care. Thus 
the word signifies a benefactor (xxix. 16; 
Isai. xxii. 21), a teacher (Judges xvii. 10, 
xviii. 19) in the same sense as when we 
speak of the fathers of the church, i.e. great 
doctors, a counsellor (Gen. xlv. 8), and any 
intimate relation or ally (Job xvii. 14) 
There are also other very similar modes 
In which the ideals introduced, as when a 
speaker, addressing a grave assembly,would 
show them deep respect (Acts vii. 2, xxii. 1). 

The most beautiful application of the 
word is to the Deity, who condescends to 
hold the relation of father to his creatures, 
and especially to his redeemed people, whom 
he has both formed as their Maker, and 
received into his fami>y by adoption and | 
grace (Deut. xxxii. 6 ; Luke iii. 38 ; Rom. 
viii. 14-17). To his throne then, as his dear 
children, believers may humbly resort 
through faith in Christ (Matt, vi 6, 9). But 
let those who cast off this relationship re- 
member whose children they then become 
(John viii. 44). Repudiating the service 
they owe to God, they degrade themselves 
to the condition of Satan's slaves. 

The term is also properly applied to the 
First Person in the Trinity : see Trinity. 
FATHOM (Acts xxvii. 28) : see Measures. 
FEAR. This word is sometimes, by a 
fic-ure of speech, applied to the Deity. Jacob 
sware by 'the Fear of Isaac' (Gen. xxxi. 
42, 53), i.e. by the Being whom Isaac feared 
and worshipped as the omnipotent Lord 
(see Isai. viii. 13). Fear is regarded under 
cripture. There is the 
awful dread of impending evil generated 
bv a sense of guilt (Prov. i. 26, 27). From 
this God's people are delivered (Rom. viii. 
15 ; 1 John iv. 18) by a sense of his pardon- 
ing love in Jesus Christ. There is also the 
reverent fear which we are taught to 
cherish (Mai. i. 8) ; and this is so eminently 
a spiritual grace that it is frequently the 
appellation by which real piety is dis- 
tinguished (Prov. i. 7 ; Mai. iii. 16 ; Acts ix 
31, X. 2 ; 1 Pet. ii. 17). 
FEAST. See Banquet, Festival. 
FEAST OF CHARITY. A meal in which, 
in primitive times, Cliristians were accus- 
tomed to join as a symbol of loving fel- 
lowship. St. Paul had occasion to censure 
certain abuses which prevailed in the Co- 
rinthian church in regard to the eucharist. 
A feast was held before or at the time of 
the celebration, in which excesses occurred 
(1 Cor. xi. 20-22). In these, called love-feasts 
or agapa, persons— the richer especially- 
brought food from their own houses, of 
which, according to the principle of the 
thine, all were equally to partake. But the 
object, as St. Paul shows, was often lost 
sight of: the poor were neglected and ex 
eluded from what the wealthier had fur 



287 



[fenced cities 



nisbed. Subsequently these feasts were 
always held after the reception of the 
Lord's supper, and apparently distinct from 
it. But there were still objections to thera. 
The abuses which began in apostolic days 
increased in the course of time. And, though 
Pliny in his celebrated letter to Trajan 
alluded to the Christian feasts as unobjec- 
tionable, yet, as they were held in the 
churches, it was obvious that those sacred 
places were put to an improper use ; and, 
when corruptions had multiplied, the im- 
propriety became yet more glaring, so that 
at last various councils prohibited the prac- 
tice. There are canons against it by the 
councils of Laodicea, 361 a.d., the third of 
Carthage, 397 a.d., the second of Orleans, 
541 A.i)., that of Trullo. 692 A.D., till the 
love-feasts were entirely suppressed. See 
Bingham, Orig. Eccles., book xv. chap. vii. 
6-10. St. Jude refers to these love-feasts 
(Jude 12). 

FEET. There are many cases in which 
the term foot or feet is used figuratively 
In scripture. The meaning generally is 
plain enough. Thus ' the place of the feet ' 
(Isai. Ix. 13) is easily understood when it is 
recollected that God calls the earth his 
'foot-stool' (Ixvi. 1). Such phrases, too, as 
the feet sliding (Deut. xxxii. 35), need no 
explanation. Others, strange to us, are in- 
telligible when the climate and domestic 
habits of the Hebrews are remem1)ered. 
Walking barefoot or in open sandals, the 
feet of the traveller were necessarily soiled : 
hence the custom of offering water for the 
feet, which came afterwards to signify 
generally the exercise of hospitality (Gen. 
xviii. 4, xix. 2, and elsewhere ; 1 Tim. v. 10). 
So the shoes were taken off out of respect 
on approaching a superior ; and sacred 
offices seem to have been performed bare- \ 
foot (Exod. iii. 5 ; Josh. v. 13). Moreover, to 
go barefoot expressed mourning or grief (2 i 
Sam. XV. 30 ; Isai. xx. 2-4 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23). 
It is easy from what has been said to un- 
derstand Isai. lii. 7 : however defiled by | 
dusty travel the feet of the messenger, i 
^they would appear beautiful to those to \ 
whom he brought such happy tidings. 
To fall at the feet is to pay homage (1 
Sam. XXV. 24 ; Rev. xix. 10) ; to follow at 
the feet to obey (1 Sam. xxv. 27, 42) ; to 
sit at the feet, to receive instruction 
(Luke X. 39; Acts xxii. 3). Watering with 
the foot (Deut. xi. 10) probably refers to 
irrigation by machinery. From the usual 
position at meals, it was easy to anoint 
our Lord's feet (Lnke vii. 38). And there 
are expressions in which the word is in- 
troduced for delicacy's sake (Deut. xxviii. 
57 ; Judges iii. 24, marg., and elsewhere). 

FELIX (happT/). Antonius Felix, afreed- 
man of the emperor Claudius, was appointed 
procurator of Judea, according to Josephus, 
on the banishment of Ventidius Cumanus, 
52 A.D. He was brother to Pallas, who had 
great influence over Claudius, and also 
with Nero : Felix was consequently con- 
tinued in his government after Nero's ac- 
cession. He cleared the country of banditti 
and impostors— the ' worthy deeds' alluded 
I to by Tertullus (Acts xxiv. 2)— but he was 
I In general a cruel and oppressive goyernor. 



He was superseded by Porcius Festua 
about 60 or 61 a.d.; and charges from the 
Jews followed him to Rome ; but he escaped 
punishment by means of his powerful 
brother. He married Drusilla, daughter of 
Herod Agrippa I., having induced her to 
abandon her„liusband Azizus, king of Emesa, 
His conscience therefore might well atarm 
him when St. Paul, who had been accused 
before him, reasoned of righteousness, 
temperance, and judgment to come (xxiii, 
23-xxiv. 27). 

FELLOWSHIP (1 John i. 3\ See Com- 
munion. 

FENCED CITIES. Three classes of places 
are enumerated in l Chron. xxvii.25, ' cities, 
' villages,' and ' castles.' Cities were those 
that were walled : villages were open : the 
castles were probably towers, under the 




Ancient keep or watch-toAver in the wilderness 
of Edom. 



shelter of which habitations, r.ot enclosed 
with walls, were gathered. They may be 
those elsewhere called 'towers of the 
watchmen ' (2 Kings xviii. 8, and elsewhere) 




Portion of ancient wall of Jerusalem. 



The cities in Palestine were fortified by 
walls, on© or more, Avith battlemented para 
pets. Towers occurred at intervals: on(. 
called the 'tower of Hananeel' is men 
tioned as belonging to the defences of Je 
rusalem (2 Chron, xxxii. 5; Neh. iii. 1, 11. 




eecured with l^olts and bars (Judges i. 
I - 1 Sam icxiii. 7 ; 2 Chron. xiv.7 ; Neb. lu 
?'3 6 i3-l5). on the towers watchmen 




Egyptian fortress, ChampoUiou. 

place of refuge (Judges ix. 44-51). , Sucb wa. 
the castle of Antouia at Jerusalem. Aud 



-Wall of TirvTis in Argolis, mentioned by 
Homer, Iliad ii. 559. 

kept ward ; and missiles were thrown from 
them (Judges ix. 52. 53 ; 2 Sam ^^i"- 24 ' 2 
Kin-six. 17 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 15). A moat or 
ditch formed the outermost defence, with 




Assyran fortress on a hilL 



at an earlier period the strong-bold or c^^^^^^ 
del of Zion was gamsoned by Jebusites lor 



289 



[festiyax 



some generations, till David took it, and 
thus mastered tlie wliole city of Jerusalem 
(2 Sain. v. 6-9). Cities so defended occasion- 



I which it feeds (Bihl. Nat. Science, voL ii. p. 
09). 

i FERRY-BOAT. The reading of 2 Sam. 




Adijrian foctifled city, Nineveh marbles. 



illy hold out long against even a power- 
ful invader. Thus Samaria was besieged 
rliree years by the Assyrians before it fell 
,2 Kings xviii. 9, 10). The fortifications 
I if foreign cities, Babylon, &c., are often 
referred to by the sacred writers (e.g. 
27 ; Jer. li. 58). In some of the Assyrian 
sculptures there are representations of 
fortified places. It may be further observed 
that the word ' l)uiid ' is often used for to 
' fortify ' a town (2 Chron. xi. 5-12, and else- 
where). 




Assyrian fortress on the sea-shore. 



FERRET. The word, rendered 'ferret* 
m Lev. xi. 30, signifies a wailing cry. The 
animal so called, described as unclean, is 
supposed to be a species of the lizard genus. 
For there are some lizards which utter a 
land of moan. Dr. Duns is inclined to 
suppose tliat the fan-foot, or house-gecko 
■"Idtydactylus gecko, is intended. It is very 
.loundant in Egypt : it utters a croaking 
sound, softer than that of a frog, as it runs 
about in search of the insects, &c , on 



xix. 18, where in our version ' ferry-boat* 

occurs, has been thought doubtful : cer- 
tainly some of the ancient translators give 
a different rendering. Josephus imagines 
that a bridge, possibly of boats, was thrown 
across the river. But it is not at all unlikely 
that a ferry-boat or raft was used. The 
ancients had shallow flat-bottomed boats, 
suited to such riv^ers. The Hebrews must 
have been accustomed to the floats em- 
ployed for crossing the Nile ; and according 
to some travellers rafts are at present so 
used upon the Jordan. 

FESTIVAL. This word may include, if 
understood in its largest sense, all the 
solemnities celebrated nationally or reli- 
giously by the Israelites. The application of 
the term is not, however, in every case 
quite proper ; as some religious celebra- 
tions, e.g. the great day of atonement, were 
rather fasts than festivals. 

The most important yearly festivals were 
three— the passover, the feast of pentecost, 
and the feast of tal)ernac.les. These were 
times when the males were to appear be- 
fore the Lord, that is, at the place where 
the tabernacle or the temple stood (Exod. 
xxiii. 14-17, xxxiv. 18-24; Dent. xvi. 1-17). 
Sometimes the women accompanied their 
husbands (1 Sam. i. 7, 21-23, ii. 19; Luke ii. 
41). It is, however, doubtful whether prac- 
tically even the more religious Israelites 
visited the sanctuary always three times 
within the year. The passover was the 
greatest gathering; and most would assem- 
ble then : at the other feasts the attendance 
was more optional. Elkanah seems to have 
contented himself with but a single yearly 
visit to Shiloh. So, when Hezekiah and 
Josiah were carrying out their reforms, 
they invited the people to the passover (2 
Chron. XXX., XXXV. 1-19) ; but we read of no 
special calls to the other festivals. And, 
when the feast of taljernacles was solemnly 
kept with a large concourse after the cap- 
tivity (Neh. viii.), the ceremonial appears 



FE5TU5J 

to liave been of an exceptional kind But ! 
unauestionably those ^no most delif^^ied 
in the Lord .vould be found mo=i xre- 
QuentlT treading the coarts of hou=e 
And there were doubtless devout men who 
Rejoiced to avail themselves of every oppor- 
tunitv of holy service. These three festi- 
vals commemorated events in the national 
historv, the deliverance from bondage the 
Kivini of the law, and the dwelling m 
booth" or tents: this last, indeed, not so 
much an event as a stare, that of their ril- 
erim-life. They had also an agricultural 
?haracter The passover was at the begm- 
n Sg of the vear ; and the Srst-fruits were 
offei-ed then (Lev. xxiii. 10-U) : atp^itecost 
wa* the feast of harvest : the corn wa= now 
made into bread, and so was presented to 
i God (1*^,17) : the feast of tabernacles ^ as at 
i the time of final in-gathering, when a 
i the productions of the earth had been 
i housed, and the people were to rejoice 
i before Uie Lord. Yet further, there was a 
' EDirirual significance, which the ancient 
Hebrews but dimly discerned, but which we 
under clearer light may contemplate with 
intellieent gladness. ' Christ our passover 
was sacrificed for us at that especial festi- 
val- at pentecost he shed forth the Spirit on 
the infant church : redemption and tlie gif 
of the Spirit, being thus symbolized what 
the third festival to indicate but that da} 
of holv rejoicing, when the church, gathered 
nto her eternal home, looks back upon her 
pilgrim-state when she dwelt in eai'thly ta- 
bernacles, and is glad with unutterable ]o> 
that =he has now a sure habitation whence 
she =hall ^o forth no more for es'er? 

There were two other yearly celebrations, 
the feast of trumpets, and the day of atone- 
ment : the five are sometimes noted together 
fLev xxiii. ; >'umb. xxviii.,xxix.). The^e 
all were sacred seasons. There were, in- 
deed, necessarily certain days during the 
lonSer feasts on which ordinary employ- 
meut= might be carried on ; but on the days 
of what were called ' holy convocation all 
work was to cease CExod. xii. 16 ; Lev. xxiu. 
21 ''4 "5, 27, 35, 36, 37). 

Besides the yearly festivals there were 
others The beginnings of the months 
were marked by special sacrifices and trum- 
net-blowings (Xumb. x. 10, xxviii. ll-lo- , 
and feasts were then held (1 Sam. xx. 5 ; 
I Kin-- iv "3). There was also the sabbath 
7vxod\x.\ 8-ll\ the sabbatical year, and 
thfyear S jubilee ,Lev xxv. 1-13)- ^An^ Jt 
is remarkable how much the cycie of feasts 
wa^made to depend on and be developed 
out of the sabbath, at least how irequently 
the number seven and multiples of se^ en 
recurred in the arrangements. 

ipart from the religious aspect of these 
various festivals, and the occasions thej^ 
provided of solemn worship, they were or 
national value as binding the tribes to- 
gether brinelne them into fellowship, 
knitting the several communities into_ one 
bodv, having each a share in and a tie to 
that place which the Lord had chosen to 
put his name there. Jerusalem with its 
temple was not merely the political capita, 
j but the religious home of the nation _ Ana 
80 Jeroboam felt, when he devised his fes- 



290 



tlval- to keep his subjects from resorting 
to the citv of David (l Kings xii 2(5-33). 
There were also festivals ordained from a 
better motive, though as it appears by no 
divine command, such as the feast of Pun m 
fE-th ix 20-32', the feast of deoication 
(iMacc. iv. 56-59\ which our Lord himself 
observed (John x. 22). 

In addition to the set festivals to be con- 
tinuallv observed, there were occasionally 
come for special purposes ; as when Davia 
brought up the ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam. , 
vi 1'''-19) And some there were altogether 
secular,' "as at the weaning of a child (Gen. 
xxi. 8), at sheep-shearing (1 Sara. xxv. o6), 
on a birth-day iJob i. 4, 5 ; Matt. xiv. 6), &c. 

For a more particular account of each 
festival, see the different articles under 
their respective names. , 

FES'TUS. Porcius Festus was appointed 
bv Xero to succeed Felix a? procurator of Ju- 
dea, about 60 or 61 a.d. He is said to have 
been on the whole a just and active magis- 
trate, clearinsrhis province very energeti- 
callv of the robbers and murderers who in- 
fested it. Before him St. Paul had to defend 
himself, but removed his cause from the 
provincial tribunal by appeal to Cssar (Acts 
xxlv ''7 XXV., xxvi.\ Festus administered 
his government less than two years, and 
diedln Judea. 

FETTERS. Chains and rings to confine 
the feet. In Judges xvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii._34 ; 
9 king- xxv. 7 ; 2 Chron.xxxiii. 11, xxxvi. 6 ; 
Jer.xxxlx. 7, marg., lii. 11, marg., the origi- 
nal word is dual, and signifies the material 
u=ed-a pair of brazen fetters. In Psal. cv. 18, 
cxlix 8, the material is said to be iron : the 
word is singular, and possibly means a nng 
or link. The term in Job xxxvi. 8 is more 
u=uallv rendered ' chains.' Its radical idea is 
that of bindins,and it does not seeni m any 
special way to apply to the feet. In Mar^^ 
V 4 (twice) ; Luke viii. 29, we have fetters 
given as the translation of a Greek word 
Occurring in only three places of the > ew 
Testament, and signifying exactly that 
which binds the feet. 

FEVER There are several Hebrew words 
in Lev. xxvi. 16 ; Deut. xxviii. 22, which, 
implvins heat or inflammation, may be 
taken to sienlfv fever. Our translators, by 
the words thev employ, have endeavoured to 
express the inflammatory nature of the 
maladv. Burning fever, with ague or 
' ricrours,' is still a common disease in Pales- 
tine The word used in the >'ew Testament 
al=o signifies fiery heat (Matt. viii. 14, lo; 
^ark i.^30, 31 ; Luke iv. 38, 39). Fever often 
accompanies dysentery (Acts xxviu. S\ 

FIELD. The Hebrew word generally so 
translated signifies the open fields or 
countrv Iving unenclosed, as is stiU tne 
custom' in the east; being pretty near^ , 
analogous to ' the common field, wdl un- | 
der=tood in England some years ago before ; 
enclosures were so generally made. It in- 
cludes tiUed land, and pasture (Gen. xxxi. 4, 
xxxvii 7), mountainous ground, and wood- 
land (judges ix. 32, compared with 36 ; 
psal cxxxii. 6\ So hamlets, or the houses 
of countrv-people not surrounded by a wall, 
were reckoned as open fields (.Lev. xxv. 31). 
'A man of the field" (Gen. xxv. 27) was a 



291 



hunter, living in the open air ; ' the beasts 
of the field' (Deut. vii. 22), wild beasts. ' The 
field ' is used as in contrast with cities or 
camps (Gen. iv. 8, xxiv. 63 ; 1 Sam. xx.5, 11); 
also with vineyards, which were fenced ofE 
(Exod, xxii. 5 ; Lev. xxv. 3, 41) ; and again 
for the land, as distinguished from the 
ser (Ezek. xxvi. 6, 8). The field of a city 
was the open country round about (Gen. 
xli. 48) : a town in the field was a country- 
place, as opposid to the metropolis (1 Sara, 
xxvii. 5, where there is the same Hebrew 
word). Field also means a country or ter- 
ritory (Gen. xxxii. 3), especially a level 
country (Psal. Ixxviii. 12 ; Hos. xii. 12, 
• country' In our version) ; and the word is 
often so used in the plural number (Ruth 
\. 1, where literally ' fields of Moab ' ). 

FIG, FIG-TREE. This, Ficus carica, was 
a tree very common in Palestine (Deut. viii. 
8). Mount Olivet was famous anciently for 
fig-trees ; and still some are to be found there. 
The first notice we have of this tree is when 
Adam and Eve endeavoured to clothe them- 
selves with leaves (Gen. iii. 7). Whether 
the leaves they used were those of the or- 
dinary fig-tree may be questioned ; but the 
practice of fastening leaves together for 
various utensils, as baskets, &c., is common 
In the east to the present day. 

Not only was the fresh fruit of the fig- 
ti-ee valued, but also cakes of figs are men- 
tioned in scripture (e.g. 1 Sam. xxv. 18, xxx. 
12). These were made either by simple 
cojnpression, or by pounding them into a 
mass, sometim.es together with dates. They 
were then cut into cakes, often similar to 
bricks, and hardened by keeping. 

Twice the fig-tree is mentioned in the New 
Testament, on occasions that deserve notice. 
Our Lord, shortly before his passion, being 
hungry, sought fruit from a fig-tree, and, 
finding none, cursed it (Matt. xxi. 18-20; 
Mark xi. 12-14, 20). It was early in the season, 
not the ordinary time for figs ; but yet, as the 
fruit precedes the leaves, and there were 
leaves on this tree, figs might naturally 
have been expected on it ; and, as there 
were then none, there was proof enough 
that thepretentioustree was worthless. See 
Thomson's The Land and the Book, pp. 349, 
350. The parable of the fig-tree spared at 
the intercession of the dresser of the gar- 
den (Luke xiii. 6-9) is easily expounded, and 
is full of instruction. There is, it may be 
added, an expressive phrase in which the 
fig-tree is introduced ; when men are said to 
sit under their own vine and their own 
fig-tree (1 Kings iv. 25 ; Zech. iii. 10), a state 
of general peace and prosperity is indicated. 
FIGURE. See Type. 
FILE. The word rendered • file' in 1 Sam. 
xiii. 21, properly signifies the being notched, 
bluntness. Perhaps, therefore, the passage 
might be better translated, • The Israelites 
went down to the Philistines,' &c., ' when 
the edge of the plough-shares,' &c., 'was 
notched or blunted.' 
FINER (Prov. xxv. 4). See Refiner. 
FINES. According to the Hebrew law a 
money compensation was to be paid for cer- 
tain defaults ; and even some criminal acts 
might be visited and satisfaction made by a 
rtiiR Thus a thief was to restore four or 



five-fold (Exod. xxii. 1). And commuta- 
tion was thus made for injuring a woman 
or a servant, for the mischief done by an ox, 
for careless digging of a pit into which 
another's ox or ass had fallen, for damage 
by fire, &c. (Exod. xxi. 18-36, xxii. 5, 6 ; Lev 
xxiv. 18; Deut. xxii. 19, 28, 29). Dedicated 
persons or things, also, might often be 
redeemed by fines (Lev. xxvii. 1-27). 

FINGER. Some notices of the finger occu. 
in scripture, which may be enumerated. The 
pointing with the middle finger was a ges- 
ture of contempt (Isai. Iviii. 9) . Hence, in clas- 
sical writers, this finger was called in/amis 
digitus, Pers., Sat. ii. 33: comp. Martial, ii. 
28, 2. A finger was sometimes used for a 
measure : see Jer. Iii. 21 : four fingers were a 
hand-breadth, or palm, and twelve a span. 
The finger of God signifies his interference, 
operation, or power. Thus the Egyptian 
magicians, w^hen compelled to admit that 
the signs given by Moses and Aaron were 
supernatural, said, ' This is the finger of 
God' (Exod. viii. 19; comp. xxxi. 18; 
Deut. ix. 10 ; Psal. viii. 3 ; Luke xi. 20). The 
sprinklings enjoined by the law were to be 
with the finger of the priest (Lev. iv. 6, 17. 
25, 30, 34, viii. 15, ix. 9, xi V. 16, 27, xvi. 14, 19 '; 
Numb. xix. 4). And there is a remarkable 
physical peculiarity noted in an individual, 
which must not be passed over. One of the 
Philistine giants slain had six fingers on 
each hand (2 Sam. xxi. 20 ; 1 Chron. xx. 6). 

FIR, FIR-TREE. The Hebrew word thug 
generally rendered in our version implies 
cutting up, i.e. into boards, planks, Szc. Its 
wood was employed for various purposes, 
for the fioors, ceilings, and doors of the 
temple (1 Kings vi. 15, 34; 2 Chron. iii. 5) ; 
for the decks of ships (Ezek. xxvii. 5) ; for 
spear-shafts (Nah. ii. 3) ; for musical instru- 
ments (2 Sam. vi. 5). It is not agreed what 
tree is intended ; but very probably rather 
a class of trees than a single species may 
be meant. Thus the Finns sylvestris, or 
Scotch fir, the Finus &rwttm, Calabrian pine, 
Abies larix, larch, Cupressus sempervirens, 
cypress, have been suggested. But most of 
these are not found in Syria or Palestine. 
The Finus halepensis and Juniperus excelsa 
both grow on Lebanon ; and their wood 
would serve well for the purposes mentioned 
above. The fir-trees are finely personified 
in Isai. xiv. 8 ; Zech. xi. 2. 

FIRE. Fire was of course used for culi- 
nary purposes among the Hebrews : see 
Bread, Cookixg. It was also sometimes 
necessary in Palestine for personal warmth. 
For this a hearth was constructed, on which 
wood was burned ; or pans of charcoal were 
used (Jer. xxxvi. 22 ; Luke xxii. 55 ; John 
xviii. 18). There were various uses of fire ; 
and regulations, sacred, municipal, and 
domestic, in regard to it must be briefly 
specified. Fire was employed religiouslj^ 
' partially or entirely to consume sacrifices. 
There can be little doubt that Abel's offer- 
I ing was made by fire ; for evidently the 
animals he brought were killed, as the 'fat' 
of them is specified (Gen. iv. 4). Noah is 
I distinctly said to have ' offered burnt-offer- 
i ings' (viii. 20) ; and after his time the prac- 
tice is frequently noticed. But no mention 
is made of fire from heaven for these 



292 



sacrifices till after tlie giving ol the law 
rT e V ix "4) The sacred fire was to be kept 
ever 'Wiling (vl. 9, 13). This which came | 
'from before the Lord' was to consume a ' 
biirnt-ofleriiiff ; for no common fire was to 
be Ssed f or a burnt-offering or for burning j 
incense; and for their offence m the ast 
respect Isadab and Abihu were Pnnished 
with death ex. 1, 2). Probably, ni the time, 
of confusion which followed apostasy and ! 
^n, ?lie sacred fire was lost ; tor we find it 
aAin kindled from heaven on the dedica- 
tion of the temple c2Chron. vii 1). Instances 
also are recorded when God vouchsafed 
supernatural fire at the 
viduals (Judges vi. 21; 1 Kings xviii 38 , 
I chron. xxi.le). Fire was, with something 
of a relisious aspect, used as a means of 
purification (Nuinb xxxi, 22 23: comp. 
Zech xiii. 8, 9 ; 1 Cor. ni. 13-lo). Hence 
that 'which would not abide t^^e m-e was re- 
garded as worthless. So devoted idolaU ous 
ffties were to be burnt with fire cDeut. 
xii. 3, xiii. 16) ; a doom ^-^ecuted on certain 
Canaanitish cities (Josh.vi. 24, vm- 28, xi. 13) 
And occasionally criminals were burnt, but 
T^ot some have though t.among the Hebrew^, 
Ull Sh by some Sther mode Jad been in- 
flicted (vii. 25 : comp. Jer. xxix. 22). -Dy^i^ne 
Slosaic law a fire was not to be kindled on 
Uie sabbath (Exod. xxxv. 3). There was 
also a provision for the making good the 
damage occasioned to a neighbour's cornby , 
kindling a fire (xxii. 6). Such a provision is 
veJy needful in a dry climate, where, too, 
wheat is suffered to become dead ripe before 
^ s cut (see Dr. Thomson, The Land and 
tie Book, PP 342, 343). Fire had, besides, a 
filufative meaning. The fire of God some^ 
times denotes lightning (Exod. ix. 23, 2 
Kin-'s i 12 ; Job i. 16). 

Fire is the svmbol of the divine presence 
fFxod iii. 2, xix. 13, xxiv. 17 ; Deut. iv. 36 ; 
Hpb iii 29), The purifying influence, too, 
of the Holy Spirit is implied by fire (Matt. 111. 
11) Moreover fire symbolizes what is inju- 
rious (Prov. xvi. 27 ; Isai. ix.l8), severe afliic- 
tion (1 Peter iv. 12), and the eternal pum.h- 
raent of the wicked (Matt. v. 22 ; Mark ix. 
43-48 ; Pev. XX. 14, 15). For notice of chil- 
dren passing through the fire ^^^^^^.^f^?.' 

FIRE-PA2? (Exod. xxYii. 3, xxxMii. 3, 
2 Kings xxY. 15; Jer. lii. 19). This was 
one of the vessels of the tabernacle 
and temple service : the original word is 
not uniformly rendered, m our version: 
sometimes, as in Lev. xvi. 12, it is a cen- 
ser' The utensil meant seems to have 
been a pan or chafing-dish, in which live 
coals might be carried for burning incense. 
^PP CENSER It is occasionally found m 
tl p^Satts in Exod.. xxv. 38, 
mimb. iv. 9 ; where it is translated snuff- 
dishes,' meaning then some vessel used for 
trimming the lamps. ^^^^a 
FIRKIN (John ii. 6). See Measures. 
FIRMAMENT. This word, derived from 
the Latin firmarnentum, ^ioes not ^ ell ex- 
press the Hebrew rdkia, which propeily 
si-nifles expanse (Gen. i. 6-8, 14,15 1<, 20 , 
F7Pk i •'•''-26 X. 1), and does not necesbaulj 
hivolVe'the' idea of solidity.. Saalschiitz 
(Arch, der Hebr., cap. 45, vol. u. PP. 6-, 6S, 
note) very well maintains the true meaning 



of the word, pointing to the use of the 
kindred verb, rightly translated in our 
version ' that stretched out the earth i^Psal. 
cxxxvi 6\ and showing that the rising of 
the mist (Gen. ii. 6) would be inconsistent 
with the notion of a solid vault which water 
could not penetrate. It is true some critics 
«trenuouslv contend that the Hebrews b^ 
lieved the firmament to be a material solid 
arch, in which the heavenly bodies were 
fixed like nails, which had windows and 
door^ through which the rain and the snow 
descended, and which, constructed with 
beam==, was supported on the mountains at 
the edee or rim of the earth's disk. (See 
Mr Bevan in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
art. 'Firmament.') The Hebrews must 
have been a sinffularly-obtuse people, if they 
received such a theory as this. But it is 
certainlv rather hard upon them to tie down 
the svmbolical expressions of their poetry 
to an exactly-literal signification. Were 
^uch a principle of interpretation admit- 
ted manv modern writers might equally 
l^e convicted of the ignorance of imagining 
that the sky is supported by pillars This 
view is satisfactorily refuted by Dr. M Caul, 
Aids to Faith, Essay v. 15, who furnishes 
abundant proof 'from the "sage of the 
biblical writers, the uniformity of the Jew- 
i=h tradition, and the LXX., that themean- 
ine of r&kid is an expanse, and not a solid 
vault ' ; in which fowls certainly could not 
flv as thev are repeatedly said to do m the 
heavens. 'With cutting but deserved re- 
proof Dr. M'Caul adds : ' With equal reason 
inisht these wise interpreters say that the 
Hebrews believed that there were bottles m , 
heaven and that the celestial ocean, or part ; 
of it, was first bottled off before the earth j 
could be supplied with rain, or that the j 
waters are bound up in a garment (Prov. j 
XXX 4) or that the ocean has bars and doors 
(Job xxxviii. 10,17), or that the shaaow of 
death and the womb have doors (Job 111. 10), 
?or all these are spoken of. If these are 
figurative, so are the windows and dooi= ot 
hSaven. As in Job xxxviii. 37, Who can 
number the clouds in wisdom ? or who can 
™ the bottles of heaven?" bottles are 
parallel to and explained by clouds, so m 
p4i Ixxviii. 23 there is a similar explana- 
torv" parallelism, " Though he had com- 
manded the clouds from above, and opened 
Sie doors of heaven ; " and f e^ cliildren m a 
Sundav or national school would take bottles 
or dours literally. The common people 
aJ-e not so dull as Gesenius and some 
other intellectual wonders of the day think. 

FIRST-BORN. To the first-born son spe- 
cial privileges belonged. See Birth-right. 
In consequence of the preservation of the Is- 
raelites, when the Egyptian first-born, of 
man and beast,were destroyed, the first-born 
of Israel were regarded as holy to the Lord, 
his special property (Exod. xii. 12, 13, 29, xm 
1) perhaps intending those only born after 
the command was given at the time of the 
departure from Egypt : see Cexsus. The 
tribe of Levi was, however, subsequent y 
taken in exchange (Mimb. 111. 12, 13, mii- 
17 18) • and a money payment was made tor 
273 more than the number of the Levitea 
(iii. 44-51). Also, ever after the first-born 



293 M^\t WiXXOMt^Qt. 



were to De redeemed at the price of five 
shekels each. With regard to beasts, the 
firstlings of those that were unclean were 
to he redeemed : of those which might he 
sacrificed, as of a cow, a goat, or a sheep, 
the firstlings were not to be redeemed, but 
offered to the Lord. Various special regu- 
lations were made for the carrying out of 
these commands (Exod. xiii. 12, 13, xxxiv. 
19, 20 ; ]Srumb. xviii. 1.5-17). If the animal 
was not redeemed or exchanged, then it' 
was to be killed. 

The term ' first-born,' or 'first-begotten, 
is sometimes used without reference to any 
other succeeding births. It was simply a 
term of highest preeminence (Job xviii. 13 ; 
Isai. xlv. 30). Thus it is applied to Christ 
(Col. i. 15 ; Heb. i. 6). 

FIRST-FRUITS. As the first-born of men 
and firstlings of beasts, so the first-fruits 
of the increase of the land were regarded as 
holy to the Lord. A testimony was thus 
given of thankfulness, and an acknowledg- 
ment made that all good things proceed 
from the divine bounty. This, indeed, was 
a practice common among other nations, as 
Winer instances in respect to Egyptians, 
Greeks, Romans, and others (Bibl. ItWB., 
arc, ' Erstlinge ' ), But there were special 
regulations prescribed to the Israelites ; 
and, from the halntual recurrence of such 
offerings, the word first-fruits had a sig- 
nificance which made it of frequent use for 
illustration among the sacred writers (Rom. 
viii. 23, xi. 16 ; 1 Cor. xv. 20, 23, xvi, 15 ; 
James i. 18 ; Rev. xiv. 4). 

One remarkable provision of the law was 
that the Hebrews must not for three years 
touch the produce of any fruit-tree they 
planted. Three years the fruit was con- 
sidered uncircumcised, the fourth year of 
bearing it was consecrated as the first-fruits 
to the Lord (Lev. xix. 23-25): in the fifth year 
it was free for the owner's use. This rule is 
not supposed to have applied to the trees 
the people found on entering Palestine. 

There were general commands as to the. 
offering of the first-fruits (Exod. xxii. 29, 
xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26), and also specified 
times Avhen such offerings were to be pul)- 
liciy made. The first-fruits of the harvest 
in the sheaf were tobepresented at the feast 
of the passover, on the morrow after the 
sabbath (Lev, xxiii. 9-14). Till this was done, 
no harvest-work was to be proceeded with, 
Jewish writers give various particulars of 
the way in which, as they tell us, the sheaf 
was to be selected (of barley according to Jo- 
sephus, Antig., lib. iii. 10, § 5), and the offer- 
ing to be made. At the feast of pentecost the 
flrst-fruits of the completed harvest in the 
shape of two loaves made of -the new flour 
were to be presented (Exod. xxxiv, 22 ; Lev, 
xxiii. 15-17; Numb, xxviii. 26). Besides 
these public and national oblations, there 
were others of a more private and indi- 
vidual kind. Such were the flrst-fruits 
of the dough (xv. 20, 21), and of the 
threshing-floor, which Jewish writers dis- 
tinguish into two kinds, the first including 
wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegi-anates, 
olives, and flgs ; the second oil, wine, and 
other produce which supported human life, 
also the first of the fleece and the hair of 



[fish 



goats. No rule was laid down in scripture 
as to the proportion the offered flrst-fruits 
ought to bear to the whole produce ; but 
one-sixtieth is said to be the least : some- 
times one fortieth or one thirtieth part 
was presented (see Winer, ubi supr.). The 
address which the offerer was to make to 
God is prescribed in Deut. xxvi.L-11, Doubt- 
less in times of national declension less re- 
gard would be paid to the law of the flrst- 
fruits ; but we find that during the various 
reforms they flowed in abundantly (2 Chron, 
xxxi. 5 ; Neh. x. 35, 37 : com p. Ezek. xx. 40, 
xlviii. 14), The flrst-fruits generally became 
the portion of the priests and Levites, to be 
eaten by them and their families (Numb, 
xviii. 12 ; Deut. xviii. 4 ; Ezek. xliv. 30). In 
Israel after the schism they were sometimes 
offered to the prophets (2 Kings iv. 42). 

FISH, PISHING. The word ' fish ' is used 
in scripture for any inhabitant of the 
waters (Gen. i. 20-22, 26-28, ix. 2 ; Numb. xi. 
22 ; Deut. iv. 18 ; 1 Kings iv. 33 ; Psal. viii. 8). 
There is, however, a kind of classification 
made in Gen. i. 20, 21, where the great 
monsters, in our translation ' whales,' in- 




Fishing-nets and tackle, from the Nineveh 
Marbles. 

eluding also perhaps some land, or at least 
amphibious, creatures, are distinguished 
from those moving or creeping in the 
waters, that is, having no feet. Fish, like- 



fish] 



wise, were divided into clean and unc^^^^^^^ 
Those that had fins and scales might be 
eaten - others were considered an abomi- 
^nHr^r,* rT Pr xi 9 12 ; Deut. xiv. 9, 10 : 
?o™rMatt xiU 4?: 48) hence the Jews at 
Jws dav do not touch shell-flsh. It may he 
added that fish without scales are now 
?hoSght generally unwholesome m Egypt 
(Lane, Mod. Egypt, 5th edit. p. 2o, note). 




Egyptian fisherman, from a painting. 

While the Israelites were in Egypt, fish 
was a common and favourite article of diet 
(the Egyptian priests, however, not using 
it • for thev specified this in their murinur- 
ngs for food in the wilderness (Mimh 
vi 5) We find afterwards notice of fish 
brought from Tyre to Jerusalem (Neh. xni. 
16) • and in the 2sew Testament there is re- 
peated mention of fish as readily procured 



294 



known : that already noted brought up 
from Tyre must have been salt fish. And 
we may not unreasonably suppose that 
Siere was a regular fish-market at Jeru- 
salem - as we find one of the city-gates de- 
nomTn'at'ed the fish-gate (2 Chron. 14 ; 

Keh iii 3 xii. 39 ; Zeph. i. 10). wnetner 
fish were bred in ponds and reservoirs 
among the Hebrews we have no Informa- 
? n The « fish-pools of Heshbon' (Sol. Song 
Yii 4) were, so far as the original of the 
passage informs us, simply pools. 
^ The" allusions to the modes of catching 
fish are numerous in scripture Thus, "v^e 
have the mention of angling: the hooR 
like a thorn) and the l^^.^^.^f XVe • ingfe 
xW 1 • Isai xix. 8 ; Hab. 1. 15 ; where angie 
fn our vei^ion is the hook) ; but nothing is 
c^aid of a rod Fish were sometimes speared 
fjob xli 7)Tbut the most common process 
atsliln J^vould seem tol-ve beenby ne s^^ 
both the casting-net and tlie ^ar-er ara„ 
net, which required the ^^se of boats being 
employed (Isai. xix. 8 ; Ezek. xxv^- 5. 14, 
Tlvii 10- Hab. i. 15; Matt. iv. 18, 20, iv, 
xi i 47- Mark i. 16, 18, 19, and elsewhere ; 
and if is'observable that ^jstmc^ word 
occur in the original m t^f. ^^^"^^^"^ 
Places indicating: accurately the sort ot 
S^el einployed. It is ^aid also that a kind of 
weir was sometimes used ; the flsn uemg 
cauKht in an inclosure of reeds or canes : 
fh?s was forbidden on the lake of Genne- 
saiet oil account of the damage done by 
stakes fishermen's boats (Lightfoot on 
Matt. iv. 18, vol. ii. p. 132). 




Egyptian fishing-net, from a painting, Champollion. 



.nd constantly eaten C^fatt. iv 18-20 xiv 
The ^Mle abounded m fish : and tntre 
fore that iudgment,whicli turned its waters 
f Jo blood and destroyed life therein, must 
fare been grievously felt by the Egyptians 
-|?Tnd vii 19-21). In the Red sea and in 
Kedi'eriLean (Eze^. -Ivii 10) there 

:T^^%3 'here werete oJlub! 
Sr/ArS GamJisH species' of bream, 
Se lilZus which, as having no true scales, 
Sould be^'4nk\d among the dean kinds 

a^Snhtp^reSUreri 



According to the accounts of travellers 
these ancient modes of fishing are stili 
practised. That by 'the hand-net,' says 
Dr Thomson, ' is beautiful and picturesque. 
You see it to best advantage along the coast 
from Beirut to Sidon. The net is In shape 
like the top of a tent, with a long cord fas- 
tened to the apex. This is tied to the arm, 
and the net so folded that, when it is 
thrown, it expands to its utmost circum- 
ference around which are strung ^eads of 
lead to make it drop suddenly to the bot^ 
torn ... Away goes the net, expanding as 
it flies ; and its leaded circumference strikes 
the bottom ere the sil^y Ash \s aware that 
, its meshes have closed around him. By the 



295 MhU Bnotoletrff^^ 



aid of his cord the fisherman leisurely 
draws up the net, and the fish with it. . . . 
Then there is the great drag-net, the work- 
ing of which teaches the value of united 
effort. Some must row the boat, some cast 
out the net, some on the shore pull the rope 
with all their strength, others throw stones 
and heat the water round the ends, to 
frighten the fish from escaping there ; and, 
as it approaches the shore, every one is ac- 
tive in holding up the edges, drawing it to 
land, and seizing the fish. This is that net 
which "gathered of every kind" (Matt.'xiii. 
47,48). ... I have watched this operation 
throughout ahundred times along the shore 
of the Mediterranean. Again, there is the 
bag-net and basket-net, of various kinds, 
which are so constructed and worked as to 
enclose the fish out in deep water. I have 
seen them of almost every conceivable size 
and pattern ' (The Land and the Book, p. 402). 
The best time for fishing is generally the 
night (Luke v. 5 ; John xxi. 3) ; and at pre- 
sent, according to the same writer, the night 
is always chosen for certain kinds of fish- 
ing. It may be added that on Gennesaret 
fishing has almost entirely ceased. The 
habits of the modern Arab are not adapted 
to such an employment. 

Very frequently scriptural allusions to 
fishing have a figurative meaning (Eccles. 
ix. 12 ; Jer. xvi. 16 ; Ezek. xxix. 4 ; Amos iv. 
2). So our Lord, in calling his disciples who 
were fishermen, promised to make them 
' fishers of men' (Mark i. 17). 

Fish are remarkably prolific. Possibly 
from this fact the Hebrew word for a fish is 
dag, which implies increase. And it may 
have been as embodying the principle of 
fecundity that fish became objects of wor- 
ship ; against which superstition the Israel- 
ites were warned (Deut. iv. 18) : Dagon, the 
Philistine idol, was represented with a fishy 
stump. See Dagon. 

Of the particular fish mentioned in scrip- 
ture that which swallowed Jonah may be 
specified : see Joijah. The kind of that 
spoken of in Matt. xvii. 27 we can but 
guess at. 

Among our Lord's miracles there are 
recorded on two separate occasions won- 
derful draughts of fish (Luke v. 4-9 ; John 
xxi. 4-11), also the multiplication of a few 
fish with some loaves for the feeding of 
several thousand people (Matt. xiv. 15-21, 
XV, 32-38; Mark vi. 34-44, viii. 1-9; Luke ix. 
12-17 ; John vi. 5-13). 

FISH-GATE. One of the gates of Jerusa- 
lem (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14 ; Neh. iii. 3, xii. 39 : 
Zeph. i. 10). 

PITCHES. This word occurs in Isai. 
xxviii. 25, 27. It would seem to be the black 
cnmnnu, Nigella sativa, used for both food 
and medicine. The seed is aromatic, and of 
a sharp taste. This plant was beaten out 
with a staff, because the heavy drag would 
have crushed the seeds. The * fitches' of 
Ezek. iv. 9 was Spelt, which see. 

FLAG. There are two Hebrew words 
which are rendered 'flag' in our version. 
One, of Egyptian origin, occurs in Gen. xli. 
2, 18 ; Job viii. 11. In the first-named two 
places it is translated ' meadow.' Some have 
Identified it with the Cyperus esculentus, or 



[flesh 



the Butomus umheUatus ; but perhaps it may 
more generally signify marsh-grass, bul- 
rushes, sedge, everything green which 
grows in wet ground. Another word, oc- 
curring in Exod. ii. 3, 5 ; Isai. xix. 6, is that 
which gives name in Hebrew to the Red 
sea, literally 'weedy sea.' See Sea, Red 
SEA. It designates in these places a water- 
plant grovk^ing by the river-side, probably 
the Alga Nilotica ; but it may sometimes be 
used in a more general sense. 

FLAGOISr. This word is found in 2 Sam. 
vi. 19 ; J Chron. xvi. 3 ; Sol. Song ii. 5 ; Hos. 
iii. 1 ; where the original term means grapes 
compressed in to cakes: these were, it seems, 
an article of food, and were sometimes, as 
the passage from Hosea proves, offered to 
idols. The word * fiagons' is found again in 
Isai. xxii. 24, as the translation of a Hebrew 
terra signifying a skin-bottle, any vessel, 
also an instrument of music. ' Flagons' very 
well expresses the meaning here. 

FLAX. A well-known annual plant, Li- 
num perenne, the fibres of which are spun 
into thread, and woven into linen cloth. It 
has a green stem, one and a half or two feet 
high, and a blue flower, svicceeded by a cap- 
sule containing ten o])long fiat brown seeds, 
from which linseed oil is expressed. There 
are several varieties of fiax. It was culti- 
vated in Egypt (Exod. ix. 31 ; Isai. xix. 9), 
especially in the Delta and the neighbour- 
hood of Pelusium ; and the stalk of Egyp- 
tian flax is said to have grown to the 
lieight of more than three feet and to 
the thickness of a reed. It is questioned 
in what state the flax was when smitten by 
the plague of thunder and hail. The more 
probable opinion is that of Gesenius that it 
was in the calix, i.e. in flower. Flax was very 
early cultivated in Palestine. Interpreters, 
however, differ in respect to the rendering 
of Josh.ii.6 ; but ' the stalks of flax ' of our 
version may be taken to give the true 
meaning of the sacred writer. The drying of 
the stalks was therefore one part of the pro- 
cess in the flax or linen manufacture, next 
came the separation of the fibres, for the 
Hebrew word implies separation, and then 
the combing (see Henderson, Isaiah, note 
on xix. 9). Tow made from the coarser 
fibres of the plant was known to the He- 
brews (Judges xvi. 9 ; Isai. i. 31). Besides 
other uses it was employed for wicks (xliii. 
17) : perhaps also a wick is to be understood 
in xlii. 3, the last faint flicker of the expir- 
ing light. Little flax in comparison with 
cotton is now grown in Palestine. See Cot- 
ton, Linen. 

FLEA (1 Sam. xxiv. 14, xxvi. 20). In the 
only places in which this insect is men- 
tioned in scripture, David likens himself to 
it, while addressing Saul, out of humility. 
Pleas are very abundant in the east, to the 
great annoyance and piteous complaints of 
travellers. 

FLESH. For flesh in its ordinary signifi- 
cation see Food. But the word is frequently 
used in a figurative way. Sometimes it 
signifies every thing living (Gen. vi. 13, 17, 
19) ; sometimes mankind (vi. 12) ; sometimes 
the body as distinguished from the soul or 
spirit (Col. ii. 5 ; 1 Pet. iv. 6). By the Word's 
being made flesh we understand the incar- 



flies] 



296 



nation of the Son of God (John 1. 14\ And 
bv ' flesh' very generally is expressed tlie car- 
nal nature of the unrenewed man (Rom. vii. 
5, vlii. 1, 5, 8, 9 ; Gal. v. 17, 19 ; Eph. ii. 3). 
FLIES. See Fly. . , 

FLINT. The word we translate flmt m 
Deut. viil. 15. xxxii. 13 ; Job xxviii. 9, marg. ; 
Psal. cxiv. 8 signifies a hard stone, with the 
primary idea of smoothness. In Isai.l. 7 it 
is used fleuratively to signify uncompro- 
mising firmness. In Ezek. lii. 9 our version 
has 'flint' for a Hebrew word frequently 
translated 'rock,' and united with 'flint' 
in some of the passages first referred to. 
A kindred word occurs in Isai.v. 28. 

FLOCKS. See Fold, Sheep, Shep- 
herd. , . , 

FLOOD, THE. TVe have a very brief ac- 
count of the early history of the world 
from Adam to Noah. Arts and sciences were 
cultivated ; and there was always a holy 
seed which walked with God. But, as men 
multiplied, they became more and more 
corrupt ; till at length in vindication of his 
righteous moral government it became 
uecessarv for God to sweep away from the 
earth that depraved race. He declared, 
therefore, that he would bring a flood of 
waters upon it. The catastrophe is narrated 
in Gen. vi. 9-viii. 22. Let us review the cir- 
cumstances. . , 

First of all the coming judgment was , 
revealed to Noah, ' a just man,' who was 
ordered to construct a large vessel or ark, 
300 cubits loiisr, 50 broad and 30 high, in i 
which he and his family might be pre- 
«;erved He was also to take in living crea- i 
tures in pairs, and to provide store of food, j 
The preparation would occupy a very con- | 
siderable space of time, it has been thought 
a century or upwards. Afterwards, when , 
all was complete, Noah received another and | 
more particular direction. Of clean beasts i 
lie was to take seven pairs, of those ^-hich ! 
were unclean severally a single pair ; and of | 
birds in like manner. And within seven i 
davs he was warned the desolating ram j 
would commence. There is no contradic- j 
tion between the two commands respecting j 
animals. It was sufficient at first to say | 
that thev should be preserved in pairs, with I 
which the specification long after fiven i 
that of some kiuds there should be l 
several pairs is a supplemental command j 
thorouffhlv consistent. And in pairs we are . 
cubsequentlv told they did enter the ark. j 
After this last intimation Noah commenced j 
the embarkation. Some critics, disposed to : 
find fault with everything, have complained 
that Noah was ordered to go into the arlJ 
seven davs before tfie rain would des- , 
cend ; while shortly after it is said that ' in i 
the self-same day,' viz. on which the ram 
be^an, Noah and his family went m. 
Such critics only proclaim their own folly m 
supposing that such an embarkation could 
be completed in a single day. Seven days' , 
notice was given. All was immediately , 
a^tir • the selected animals were led into 
the ark, where perhaps many of the stores 
were alreadv accumulated. Seven days 
were doubtless thus fully occupied ; and, ; 
when all had entered, and Noah and his 
I family had gone in too, and were secured 



there by the Lord's protecting hand, then 
immediately after this last act, on that very 
dav, the rain descended. It came with a 
j sudden burst upon the careless ungodly 
! world (:\tact. xxlv. 37-39), and lasted forty 
davs and forty nights. ' The fountains of 
the great deep,' moreover, were broken up. 
We are also told that 'the waters prevailed 
upon the earth an hundred and fifty days. 
This statement has puzzled certain critics, as 
if It were inconsistent with the fact that 
the rain lasted for but forty days; since they 
have adopted the opinion, Avhich unfortu- 
nately for their notion ordinary experience 
I does not confirm, that, the instant rain 
' ceases, with no reference to other causes, 
Ian inundation must subside. It was one 
' hundred and fifty days before any sensible 
diminutionof the flood was perceived. And 
five months afcer the rain commenced, that 
is, on the seventeenth day of the seventh 
month, the ark grounded on Ararat. But 
it was not till the expiration of above 
two months more that the tops of the moun- 
tains were seen. Tet forty days Noah still 
waited, and then sent forth a raven and a 
dove ; of which the last alone returned to 
him. He sent her out again, after seven 
davs ; and she brought him back an olive- 
lea'f. As-aiu seven days, and he let her fly 
aeaiu ; but she returned no more. Then on 
the flrst dav of the first month Noah re- 
moved the covering of his ark and saw that 
the earth apparently was dried. But till 
the Lord commanded him to come forth 
he would not quit his secure refuge ; and it 
was not till the twenty-seventh day of the 
second month that the command came. 
Then all the human family and the animals 
and fowls preserved came f(U-th ; and Noah 
offered sacrifice to the Lord, and received 
an assurance that no such catastrophe 
should again befal the world. , . ^ , 

Solemn, indeed, must have been his feel- 
ings as he trod once more the ground and 
fr.und himself the lord of a world which 
iniquitv had utterly emptied, another head 
of mankind from whom again the earth 
wa=to be peopled. It was in faith that he 
had builded his ark, and while by his 
obedience he condemned the world he 
became the 'heir of the righteousness 
which is by faith ' (Heb. xi. 7). 

Such is the scripture narrative. It has 
remarkable confirmation in the traditions 
of almost every nation. Two or three of 
these shall be briefly noticed. The god 
Kronos appeared to king Xisuthros, warned 
him of a destructive flood, and commanded 
him to write a comprehensive history of 
thinss and to bury it, and to make a vessel 
In which he and his friends might be pre- 
served. Xisuthros obeyed ; and, when the 
flood had somewhat abated, he sent out 
some birds a first, second, and third time. 
As thev did not then return, Xisuihros, 
findiug'that the ground was dry, with some 
of his party quitted his vessel, which was 
stranded on the side of an Armenian 
mountain, offered sacrifices to the gods, and 
disappeared. The rest of the company, as 
their friends did not return, also left the 
ship, and were admonished by a voice from 
heaven to repair to Babylon, to dig up the 



297 



[flood 



writing that was buried, and to live piously. 
This story is found inafragraent of Berosus 
(see Cory's Ancient Fragments, pp. 29-31). 
Again in China there is a tradition that a 
certain Fah-he was preserved from an 
overwhelming deluge. He had a wife, three 
sons, and three daughters ; and from them 
the world, was replenished with people (see 
Hardwick, Christ and other Masters, vol. ii. 
p. 18, edit. 1863). There is also an Indian 
story, in various forms. Brama, in one, is 
stated to have warned Manu, a righteous per- 
son, to build a ship, and place in it seven 
holy beings, and all kinds of seeds, as a flood 
was imminent. The ship is ultimately made 
fast to a lofty summit of the Himalaya 
mountains ; and Manu is the parent of a 
new race of men (ibid., vol. i. pp. 312-319). 
Nor are such traditions unknown in 
America. Coxcox or Tezpi is said to have 
preserved his wife and children, with certain 
animals and grain, during a deluge, in a 
large vessel. When the Avaters were abating, 
he sent out various birds, of which one 
alone, the humming-bird, returned with a 
leafy branch. Coxcox landed near the moun- 
tain Colhuacan {ibid., vol. ii. pp. 166, 167). 

It is impossible to refer here to more of 
these traditionary stories, which have been 
handed down in widely-separated regions of 
the earth, preserved sometimes in pictorial 
representations, or corroborated by coins— 
as in the medal struck at Apamea in Phrygia, 
about the time of the Roman emperor Sep- 
timius Severus, in the third century after 
Christ, which not only commemorates the 
deluge, but exhibits Noah's name— interwo- 
ven with religious observances, or worked 
into the literature of a people, found to exist 
among those least civilized, and those most 
so. Collections of these histories may be 
found in Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 
202-205 ; H. Miller, Testimony of the Rocks, 
lect. vii. pp. 268-286. 

But, when a tradition so largely prevails, 
when in the oldest memories of almost every 
people a similar belief is found to adhere, 
modified indeed according to circumstances, 
but identical in the main fact, it is hard to 
believe that so many independent struc- 
tures of fancy could exist, if there were no 
foundation, if there were not really some 
great event which has impressed itself 
through all the generations of mankind ; 
the traces of which, as we find them, bear 
strong witness to the truth of what the 
scripture unfolds. 

Heretofore there were supposed to be 
other testimonies scattered over the face 
of the earth. The marine deposits, the 
shells, the various fragments into which 
rocks are found broken, were belioA^ed to be 
irrefragaljle proofs that the waters of the 
ocean had at no very distant date rolled 
over tlie whole world. Closer and more 
scientific examination has shown that there 
are no existing evidences in the state of the 
earth's crust of such an universal inunda- 
tion. And the question must be fairly put, 
Does the scripture necessarily imply that 
the inundation was universal? It implies 
that the existing race of men were, with 
the exception of eight persons, swept off. 
But we have no proof that population had 



then spread over the entire world. It 
might amount to a vast many millions, and 
yet their seats have been in a comparatively- 
limited district, so as to be desolated by an 
extended but partial flood. It is true that 
• all the high hills that were under the 
whole heaven ' are said, to have been 
'covered' (Gen. vii. 19). But analogous 
phrases occur in other parts of the sacred 
book (e.g. Dent. ii. 25 ; Acts ii. 5 ; Col. i. 2.3), 
where certainly no one ever dreamed that 
the whole world literally was meant. And 
then as to the 'high hills' being covered, 
can the inspired writer intend by these 
words the Alps, the Andes, the great Hima- 
layas ? can he mean even those lower peaks 
and ridges, as Lebanon, which were better 
known to the Hebrews? Look at the nar- 
rative. The ark grounded on the seven- 
teenth day of the seventh month. But it 
was not till the first day of the tenth month 
that the tops of the mountains appeared, 
that is, seventy-three days were required for 
the subsiding of the few feet of water, 
which, running off after the ark grounded, 
would leave the mountain-tops bare. And 
yet in three months, ninety days, more, the 
rest of the water was gone ; and the earth 
was dry on the first day of the first month. 
We cannot imagine that the record means 
that within those ninety days 15,000, 10,000, 
8,000, or 6,000 feet of water dried off. Surely, 
then, lower hills are intended. Besides, if 
the water during these last ninety days de- 
creased so rapidly, how was it that forty 
days after the mountain-tops were seen the 
dove found no rest for the sole of her foot ? 
and yet in seven days more an olive-tree 
was left uncovered, the olive being known 
not to grow even on mountain-slopes, but 
at a much lower elevation than many other 
common trees. 

But to examine the whole matter fairly 
we must not forget the fact, sufficiently 
patent, that each region of the earth has its 
appropriate fauna and flora, that is, the 
animals and plants found in one country 
differ from those of another. Does the 
command to Noah, then, to take of the va- 
rious creatures mean that he was to collect 
the animals of America as well as Asia ? and 
that these, after the flood was over, we:e 
transported back to their own peculiar lo- 
cality ? or does it not rather mean those of 
the wide region around his own settle- 
ments ? 

There are other considerations— the im- 
mense numbers of the separate species of 
mammals, birds, and reptiles, far exceeding 
what naturalists, evenafew years ago, were 
inclined to rate them at, the vast amount 
and the unlimited variety of food neces- 
sary for them, the destruction of marine 
animals, as also of fresh-water flsh, which 
must have occurred, Noah not being di- 
rected to take any of these with him, the 
fact that cones of volcanic ashes and scoriie, 
of the remotest antiquity, may still be seen, 
! with no mark whatever of having l:ieen 
I washed over — these and similar conside- 
i rations have led many to conclude that tlie 
{ deluge was not universal, and that the sup- 
! position of its being but partial is not con 
; tradictory to the inspired narrative. 



flood] 



298 



Among the writers who have adopted 
these views, one of the most note-worthy is 
Hugh Miller. In his excellent book entitled 
The Testimojiy of the Eocks, there are two 
^Surfs spe?L devoted to the Noachian 
deluge His arguments upon the subject are 
very ingenious. A brief description of his 
theorv shall be given here. . 

Hugh Miller sets out by observing that, 
thoulh we commonly speak of the s able 
earth and the inconstant sea, the land is far 
mJre liable to changes of level than the 
waters. There is no evidence to ^^^ow that 
the sea-level has varied during at lea.t the 
a-es of the tertiary formations ; while there 
is abundant proof that within the same pe- 
riod continents have sunk mountain- 
chains been elevated to a vast height, ^ay, 
such changes, and on a considerable scale 
are occurring in our own times, in ibiy, a 
gi eat region: comprising 2,000 square miles 
fi countrj' in the delta of. the Indus, sunk 
so much as to become an inland sea And 
a few years later, an area greater than our 
own island, lying between tj?. f ^f.l.^",^ 
the Pacific ocean, was elevated from two to 
cevenfeet. Inhabitants would not be able 
by tl^eir ordinary sensations to distinguish 
between the sinking of the land and the 
ri^i g of the sea. So that, if a spectator 
were placed securely on a lofty peak m the 
mid^t of a country which was gradually 
Sb^ding, to his eye the spectacle would be 
renreJeuted of the water advancing day by 
davrsooding first the lowlands, covenng 
then the lower hills, advancing up the sides 
of moun ains, till at length the spot where 
Se Sood would be the only speck above the 
da=;hing waves of a mighty sea. May we 
then suppose that the flood was produced 
bv a somewhat-similar depression of the 
land through a great region of the earth t, 
lurface ° "There is a remarkable portion 
of the globe,' savs Miller, ' chiefly m the 
AsSttc continent, though it extefs into 
Europe, and which is nearly equal Jo all 
Europe in area, whose rivers (some of them 
. of great size) do not fall into the ocean, 
or into any of the many seas which com- 
munlcatt with it.. They -re, on the con- 
trary. all turned iincards, if I may so ex 
press myself, losing themsehes, m the 
eastern parts of the tract, m the lake= of a 
Sess district, in which they supply t>ut 
the waste of evaporation, and ling, lu 
the western parts, into seas such as the 
Casp7an and the Aral. In this region there 
arl extensive districts still under the level 
of the ocean The shore-line of the Caspian, 
?Jr instS?^.is rather more than eighty-three 
feet beneath that of the BlacK.sea; and 
some of the great flat steppes which spread 
JuTlround it, such as what is known as the 
steppe of Astracan, have a mean leve of 
Sfout thirty feet beneath that of the Baltic. 
We?e therl a trench-like strip of country 
thit communicated between the Caspian 
and the gulf of Finland to be depressed 
Seneath the level of the latter sea, it would 
s! open up tM fountains of the great deepj^ 
to lay under water an.extensive and popu- 
lous region, containing the cities of As- 
Scaii^dAstrabad, and many other owns 
and villages. Nor is it unworthy of re- 



mark, surely, that one of the depressed 
steppes of this peculiar region is known as 
the 'Low Steppe of the Caucasus,' and 
forms no inconsiderable portion of tlie 
great recognized centre of the human fa- 
mily ' (PP. 344, 345). Miller goes on to con- 
sider Avhat would be the result, both really 
and to appearance, if a gradual depression 
of the region indicated, like the depression 
in America in 1821, were to occur, the land , 
sinking low^er and lower for forty days and ; 
drenching incessant rains at the same time j 
falling 'The depression, which, by ex- , 
Snd ngtotheEuxiue sea and the Pers^ian ^ 
gulf on the one hand, and to the gulf of 
Finland on the other, would open up by : 
three separate channels the fountains of i 
the great deep, and which included, let us , 
suppose, an area of about 2,000 miles each 1 
way. would at the end of the fofieth day 
be sunk in its centre to the depth of 16,000 | 
feet-a depth sufficiently profound to bury i 
the loftiest mountains of the^district ; and 
vet, having a gradient of dechnation of ; 
but sixteen feet per mile, the contour of 
its hills and plains would remain apparent y 
.1 1,:,^ K^r^v i->oforp tbft doomed in- 



its hills and plains would remain apparent y 
what thev had been before, the doomed in- \ 
habitants would see but the water rising i 
along the mountain-sides, and one refuge 
after another swept away, till the ast wit- 
ness of the scene would have perished, and 
the last hill-top would have disappeared | 
And when, after a hundred and fifty day s had 
come and gone, the depressed ^ol ow wou^d 
have begun slowly to rise, and when, after 
the fifth month had passed, the ark would 
have grounded on the summitof mount Ara- 
rat, all that could have been seen from the 
upper window of the vessel would be sim- 
ply a boundless sea, roughened by tides, 
Sow flowing outwards with a reversed 
course towards the distant ocean, by tae 
three creat outlets which, during the pe 
riod of^depression, had given access to the 
waters. Koah would of course perceive 
that " the fountains of the deep were 
stopped," and " the waters returning from 
off ^the earth continually;" but whe her 
the deluge had been partial or universal he 
could neither see nor know ^pp. 347, 

It does not become any one to speak posi- 
tively and dogmatically of what actual y 
took place at this great catastrophe , nor 
must he be so in love with Ins own theory 
as to maintain that that, and that alone, 
would satisfactorily account ^or the pheno- 
mena. But there is certainly souaething m 
Miller's theory which, while he treats the 
scripture record with deepest revereii.ce 
does seem to meet the difficulties which 
1 have been advanced on scientific and other 
grounds, and to show how the catastrophe 
1 mieht have been produced in a way most m 
' accx)rdance with the Deity's usual course of 
working. It is not necessary to insist on 
all the details, or that the depressi on was to 
the depth supposed ; but, generaUy speak- 
ing this theory well demands attention, and 
should not lightly be rejected. The present 
writer, therefore, while speaking on the 
subject with diffidence, is inclined to admit 
the great likelihood of its truth. 
The construction of the arkhas not yet been 
touched on. If the cubit be reckoned at 21 



299 



[flower 



inches, the dimensions will be 525 feet in 
length, 87 feet 6 inches in breadth, 52 feet 6 
in height. The proportions are those of the 
human body ; and they are admirably adapt- 
ed for a vessel required, like the ark, to 
float steadily with abundant stowage. This 
is proved by modern experiments. Upv^'ards 
of 200 years ago a vessel was built by one 
Jan sen a Dutch merchant, 120 feet long, 20 
wide and 12 deep. She was not a quick 
sailor, but was found most convenient for 
stowage. 

The ark was made of * gopher-wood,' pro- 
bably cypress ; and it w^as to be divided into 
•rooms' or 'nests,' that is, furnished with 
a vast number of separate compartments, 
placed one above another in three tiers. Light 
was to be admitted by a window, not impro- 
bably a sky-light, a cubit broad, extending 
the whole length of the ark. If so, however, 
there must have been some protection from 
the rain. A 'covering' is spoken of (Gen. 
viii. 13) ; but several writers have believed 
that some transparent or translucent sub- 
stance was employed, excluding the weather 
and admitting the light (see Saalschutz, 
Arch. derHebr., cap. xxix. vol. i. p. 811, note). 
It is observable that the ' window ' which 
Noah is said to have opened (Gen.viii. 6) is not 
in the original the same word with that oc- 
curring in vi. 16. Perhaps one or more di- 
visions of the long sky-light were made 
to open. There was a door also, through 
which the persons and the animals would 
enter and pass out. 

It is very likely that to a certain extent 
the instinct and habits of the animalsmight 
be modified and controlled ; so that those, 
otherwise hostile, might for a time herd 
peaceably together. But there exists, as 
already said, more than one difficulty in 
supposing that all the living creatures 
throughout the world were collected into 
tlie ark. And, whereas it is sometimes asked 
why Noah should have been commanded to 
preserve the fowls of only a single region, 
seeing that after the desolation they would 
flock into it from contiguous districts, the 
reply is that this Is not naturally the case. 
If certain kinds of birds are exterminated 
from a country, those of the same kind do 
not re-people it, though no physical obstacle 
exists to their migrating from other coun- 
tries. Proof of this fact is evident in the 
disappearance here of many birds once com- 
mon in England. 

A reverent mind will not presume to limit 
the power of the Mightiest. Hard and easy 
lose their respective proprieties when ap- 
plied to him. He that makes a single blade 
of grass to grow can as readily cause all that 
breathes upon the face of the earth to tend 
to a single spot, and afterwards to find their 
way back to fitting abodes. We need not 
stand aghast therefore at what men are 
sometimes pleased to call the stupendousness 
of some particular miracle. But still we may 
reason upon the ordinary workings of God 
when employing extraordinary power. He 
produces the effect he designs by the least 
possible departure from the regular opera- 
tion of natural laws. And, if by a partial 
flood he could sweep off all an offending 
race, we hardly have a right to suppose that 



he would extend the Inundation to regions 
uninhabited by men, producing thereby 
additional coniplications. But further re- 
search may throw greater light on this 
catastrophe. Men may strongly maintain 
what is evidently proved ; but let them not 
venture to substitute crude speculation for 
solid proof : let them rather reverently wait 
the further lifting of the curtain which at 
present veils so much from their eyes. 

The ark is said to have rested on the 
mountains of Ararat. If those which now 
bear the name be meant, we must suppose 
that the resting-place was on the side, not 
upon the peak of Ararat. But some lower 
chain of hills may be intended. On this 
point also opinions should be formed and 
maintained with modesty and forbearance. 
FLOOR. See Threshing. 
FLOUR. See Bread, Mill. 
FLOWER. Many flowering plants are 
described by travellers as growing in Pales- 
tine. It must, however, be remem])ered 
that these vary in different parts of the 
country. The altitude and temperature 
differ; and consequently each region has 
its peculiar flora. The low A^alleys, rocky 
hills, plains, and sea-board are for half the 
year, from Christmas to midsummer, cov- 
ered with vegetation, which is afterwards 
destroyed by the heat ; so that for the other 
months the landscape is bare and apparently- 
sterile. The mountains, on the other hand, 
rather yield alpine plants, mosses, lichens, 
&c. Very beautiful are many of the flowers 
of Palestine ; and In the districts first men- 
tioned, through spring and early summer, 
tulips, squills, poppies, pinks, geraniums, 
campanulas, irises, &c., give the country, 
with their rich and delicate colours, a most 
showy aspect. 

Dr. Hooker has furnished an elaborate 
account of the botany of Palestine, in 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 683-689. 
He observes that in western Syria and Pa- 
lestine about 2000 or 2500 plants occur ; of 
which probably 500 are British wild-flowers. 
The most abundant natural families in this 
region are 1. LeguminoscB ; 2. Compositce; 3. 
LabiatcB ; 4. CrucifercB ; 5. Umbelliferce ; 6. 
Caryophyllece ; 7. Boraginece ; 8. Scrophula- 
rinece ; 9. GraminecB : 10. L'iliacece. Dr. 
Hooker enumerates also other families less 
common, and remarks upon the showy cha- 
racter of the herbage mentioned above. In 
eastern Syria and Palestine (excluding the 
mountain-country east of the Jordan and 
Syrian desert, of the plants in which scarcely 
anything is known), the vegetation has 
more of a tropical character ; and round the 
Dead sea saline plants appear. In the Jor- 
dan A^alley are tamarisks, the Acacia Far- 
nesiana, of which the yellow flowers yield a 
delicious scent ; while the superb misletoe, 
Loranthus acaciw grows upon it, ' whose 
scarlet flowers are brilliant ornaments to 
the desert during winter, giving the appear- 
ance of flame to the bushes.' The common 
caper-plant, Capparis spinosa, is very com- 
mon, and various others. In the middleand 
upper mountain-regions, there are varia- 
tions at different heights. Hawthorn, dog- 
rose, honeysuckle, jasmine, primrose, &c., 
occur at an elevation of 4000 feet. Higher 



flue-net] 



300 



up are a few boreal and many cryptogamic 

^^Our\ord condescended to illustrate some 
of his discourses by a reference to flowers, 
as to the lilies (Matt. yi. 28, 29) An d figura- 
tively the term is often very appositely 
used to indicate the fading character of 
something that soon passes away (Job xit. 
2 ; Psal. ciii. 15 ; Isai. xxviu. 1, xl. 6-8). 

FLUE-NET (Hab. 1. 15, marg.) This is for 
• drag ' in the text. See Fishing. 

FLUTE A musical instrument, thought 
to be composed of a number of pipes (Dan. 
iii 5 7 10, 15), possibly equivalent to tliat 
which in our translation is called ' organ 
iGen. iv. 21). See Pipe. 

FLUX, BLOODY. The dysentery (Acts 
xxviii. 8). This was probably the disease 
of which king Jehoram of Judah died (2 
Chron. xxi. 15, 18, 19). See Blood, Issue 

^^LY The • flies ' which were sent as one 
of the plagues of Egypt have been supposed 
a mixture of noxious insects (Exod. yiu 21, 
22 24, 29, 31 ; Psal. Ixxviii. 45, CV. 31). BUC 
it is quite as likely that some definite spe- 
cies of fly is meant : some have thought it 
the beetle {Blatta orientalis), some the gad- 
fly. But the beetle is a nocturnal insect. Mr. 
Gosse suggests some kinds of the Tabamdce, 
which spare neither man nor beast, gorging 
themselves with blood, and infusing an irri- 
tating venom {Imp. Bible Diet, vol i. p. 597). 
But even the common flies, MuscidcB, wouia 
inflict an intolerable plague. There is an- 
other Hebrew word rendered ' fly in Eccles 
X 1 • Isai vii 18. Henderson {Isaiah, note 
on v'ii. 18) considers that ' not only flies are 
meant there, but mosquitos, gnats, &c., 
which are found in immense multitudes in 
the marshes adjacent to the mouths of the 
Nile' And he cites an account of the 
swarms, like volumes of smoke, of poi- 
sonous flies on the Danube, attacking every 
species of quadruped, covering every vul- 
nerable part, and torturing to death A 
more apt metaphor could not have been 
employed by which to describe the nu- 
merous army of Pl^araoh-necho. 

FOAL (Gen. xxxii. 15, xlix. 11 ; Zech. ix. 9 , 
Matt. xxi. 5). The young of the Ass and 
Horse, which see. ^^^vc ^af^ 

FOLD An enclosure for flocks. See 
Pasture, Pasturage, Sheep-fold, llie 
word is sometimes used figuratively (e. g. 

"^^FOOD^^It would seem most probable 
that animal food was not allowed to the 
antediluvian inhabitants of tbe earth (Gen 
i 29 ii 16, 17, iii. 18, 19). But after the 
deluge there was a permission that animals 
Reneraily might be eaten, ' even as the 
Ireen herb,' with the single Pi-pl^i'^,' 
flesh with the life thereof, that is, the blood 
ax 3 4) Of course, though there was no 
religious injunction, there must have been 
theii some distinction of meats ]ust as 
with ourselves, since, while we have free 
choice among the productions of the earth, 
common sense and experience teach us that 
there are some, animal and vegetable, 
which are pleasant and wholesome, ana 
.=;ome that are unpalatable and injurious 
The difference of climates occasions also a 



difference in the diet of men. In w arraer 
regions lighter and in colder grosser ali- 
ment is suitable. Besides, the products of 
some lands are unknown in others ; and 
naturallv the staple food of the mass of the 
population must everywhere be that which 
is cheapest and most plentiful. The rarer 
dainties can be procured for the most part 
only by the rich. . . 

"We have much information m scripture 
as to the food generally consumed by the 
patriarchs and the children of Israel. 

That derived from the vegetable world 
may be first considered. Of this, bread was 
the principal ; the use of it being compara- 
tively greater than among ourselves. This 
was called the ' stay,' or the ' staff ' (Lev. 
xxvi 26 ; Psal. cv. 16 ; Isai. iii. 1) ; and the 
phrase to «eat bread' meant generally to 
make a meal, even though animal food was 
a part of the provision (Gen. xliu. 16, 25, 
31 32 ; Exod. ii. 20 ; Luke xiv. 1, 15). Ordi- 
nary bread was leavened; but, at certain 
times, unleavened bread was to be eaten 
(Exod xii. 15-20). For some account of the 
kinds of bread in use see Bread. Bread 
was dipped in the common light drink 
(Ruth ii. 14), or in the gravy of meat (Jolm 
xiii 26: comp. Judges vi. 19), with salt (Job 
vi 6), with some of those vegetable acconi- 
paniments (Exod. xii. 8) which will be af- 
terwards noticed, or perhaps with some- 
thing like that kind of sauce now so much 
used in E^ypt (Lane, Jfod. Egypt, 5th edit, 
pp 134 192). Corn was also in itself an 
article 'of food, either as rubbed from the 
ears (Deut. xxiii. 25 ; Matt. xii. 1), parched 
(Kuth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17), or bruised 
probably kneaded into a kind of cake and 
eaten with oil (Lev. ii. 14-16 ; Prov. xxrn. 
22) Many other vegetables, besides cereals, 
are mentioned, such as lentiles, of which, 
as well as of other herbs, pottage was made 
(Gen XXV. 29-34), cucumbers, leeks, onions, 
garlic (Numb. xi. 5), * mallows ' or sea-purs- 
laine (Job xxx. 4), besides the ' bitter 
herbs' (Exod. xii. 8), and ' herbs ' (2 Kings iv. 
39) ' juniper-roots' or broom (Job xxx. 4), 
&c!, eaten only in times of scarcity. Cori- 
ander, cummin, mustard, anise or dill, 
mint, and rwe (Exod. xvi. 31 ; Matt xm. 31, 
xxiii 23; Luke xi. 42) were probably used 
as condiments. But a mere dinner of herbs 
was considered very homely fare (Prov.xv. 
17) 

Of fruits, figs and grapes were most 
abundant. Figs were eaten ripe (Hos. ix. 
10) also dried and made into cakes (1 tsara. 
xxV. 18, xxx. 12) ; grapes, both fresh (Deut. 
xxiii. 24), dried as raisins (2 Sam. xvi. 1), 
and also as made like figs into cakes 
(vi 19 where our version renders ' flagons 
of wine'). The 'summer-fruits' (xvi. D.too, 
were probably cakes of figs. These fruit- 
cakes are a common article of diet now ; 
and a refreshing drink is made by dissolv- 
ing them in water. Pomegranates are 
mentioned (Sol. Song viii.2 ; Hagg. ii. 19) : a 
kind of wine seems to have been obtained 
from them; also apples or citrons (Sol. 
Song ii. 5), mulberries (Luke xvii. 6, where 
our translators give ' sycamine-tree ), the 
sycamore-flg (1 Kings x. 27 ; Amos vn. 14). 
also 'nuts and almonds' (Gen. xlin. H) 



301 



[fob© 



Dates and olives were doubtless eaten; 
though there is little mention of them in \ 
scripture ; and olives were chiefly used for 
the oil. They are, however, continually 
eaten as a fruit at present, 'The berry 
pickled forms the general relish to the far- 
nier's dry bread. He goes forth to his work 
in the field at early dawn, or sets out on a 
journey,with no other pro vision than olives 
wrapped up in a quantity of his paper-like 
loaves ; and with this he is contented ' 
(Thomson's The Land and the Book, p. 55). 
The Egyptians cultivated melons (Numb, 
xi. 5). 

Animal food is not even at the present 
day eaten so largely in Palestine as it is 
with ourselves. Nevertheless, the Hebrew 
people had full permission to enjoy it ac- 
cording to their pleasure ; and it was one 
part of the blessing promised to their 
obedience in the land of Canaan that they 
should have abundance (Deut. xii. 5-7, 15, 
20-22). Oxen, stall-fed and from the pasture, 
sheep, calves, lambs, kids (only not seethed 
in the dam's milk), harts, roe-bucks, and 
fallow-deer, are specially noticed as used 
for food, with various kinds of fowl (Gen. 
xviii. 7, xxvii. 9; Numb. xi. 31, 32 ; Judges 
vi. 10 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 20, xxvi. 20, xxviii. 24 ; 
2 Sam. xii. 4 ; 1 Kings i. 9, iv. 23 ; Neh. v. 18 ; 
Psal. Ixxviii. 27 ; Pro v. xv. 17 ; Isai.xxii. 13 ; 
Amos vi. 4 ; Matt. xxii. 4 ; Luke xv. 23, 29). 
Locusts also were eaten (Matt. iii. 4) ; and 
flsh, both brought from the sea (Neh. xiii. 
16), and fresh from the lakes (Matt. xiv. 
17-19, XV. 34, 36 ; John xxi. 9). From many 
kinds of animal food, however, the Hebrews 
were prohibited ; of which lists are given 
(Lev. xi. ; Deut. xiv. 1-20). We may suppose 
that there were good reasons for these pro- 
hibitions; possibly that certain kinds of 
flesh were in that climate less wholesome. 
Blood, moreover, as noted above, v/as not 
to be eaten (Gen. ix. 4), nor that which died 
of itself, or was torn of beasts ; the first 
prohibition being binding upon all men, the 
latter relaxed in the case of strangers (Lev. 
xvii. 10-16, xix. 26; Deut. xii. 23, xiv. 21; 
1 Sam. xiv. 32, 33). Neither was the sinew 
in the thigh, nervns ischiadicus, eaten, in 
remembrance of Jacob's confiict with the 
angel (Gen. xxxii. 25, 31, 32), nor the fat 
of sacrifices (Lev. iii. 9-11, 14-16, vii. 23-25; 
1 Sam. ii. 15, 16 ; 2 Chron. vii. 7). Perhaps 
* fat ' in Neh. viii. 10 meant, a diiferent 
word being used in the original, choice 
portions: see Fat. The only restriction 
in regard to food which we find in the 
New Testament^ was that blood, things 
strangled, and nieat offered to idols were 
not lawful (Acts xv. 20, 29, xxi. 25 ; 1 Cor. 
viii,). This, however, was mainly that 
reasonable ground of offence might not be 
given to the Jews, or to those who were 
likely to be scandalized (x, 19-33), as if 
honour to the idol was thereby shown. 

Some other articles of food may be enu- 
merated, such as eggs, milk, both fresh, and 
In its sour state, in which it is so commonly 
used at i^resent (see Milk, butter), or co- 
agulated milk (see Butter.Cheesb), honey; 
butter and honey sometimes implying good 
fare, or perhaps the spontaneous produce of 
a thinly-populated country (Isai. vii. 15, 22). 



oil, &c. (Gen. xviii. 8, xliii. 11; Judges iv. 
19, V. 25 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 27, xvii. 18 ; 2 Sam. 
xvii. 29 ; 1 Kings xiv. 3, xvii. 12-16 ; Proy. 
xxi. 17 ; IsaL x. 14, lix. 5 ; Luke xi. 12). 

Of course in times of distress or famine 
variovis articles were used as food, from 
which men would have ordinarily shrunk 
(2 Kings vi. 25-29) ; and prison diet was 
meagre enough (1 Kings xxii. 27 ; Jer. 
xxxviii. 9). 

As to drink, water was commonly used, 
also sour milk, vinegar, or sour wine (Ruth 

ii. 14), wine moreover, and strong drink. 
See EsHPAR, Wine. 

Modern Jews observe as nearly as they 
can the precepts of the law in regard to 
food. Of course their diet must vary ac- 
cording to the custom of the country in 
which they dwell. But they still make the 
distinction between clean and unclean ani- 
mals. Thus, they abstain from swine's 
flesh, as forbidden in the law (Lev. xi. 71), 
and, because of the fish tiibe those only 
that have fins and scales are lawful (9-12), 
the Jews do not eat shell-fish. They do not 
partake of flesh and butter at the same 
meal ; nor must these be placed on the 
table at one time ; so that, when meat is 
eaten, from two to three hours must elapse 
before they take butter. This practice is 
grounded on Exod, xxiii. 19. Similarly they 
will not touch cheese made by Gentiles. 
There are special rules for slaughtering 
beasts ; and, after the butcher or shohhet 
has done his work, the meat is examined 
and sealed by a shomer, inspector, who care- 
fully takes out the sinews of the thigh : see 
Mills, British Jews, part i. chap. iii. pp. 61-65.^ 

FOOL. This term implies moral pravity. 
The fool is not merely an unreasonaUe, he 
is a sinful person (2 Sam, xiii. 13 ; f sal. 
xiv. 1 ; Prov. xix, 1, 29, xx. 3, xxvi. 4, 5; 
Matt, xxiii, 17 ; Rom, i. 21, 22), Hence the 
censure of one who unjustifiably cast so 
great a reproach upon a brother (Matt. v. 22). 

FOOT, See Feet. 

FOOTMAN. This is sometimes the trans- 
lation of a Hebrew word taken in a military 
sense (e.g. Judges xx, 2), to distinguish in- 
fantry. Again, it is used for the runners of 
the royal guard (1 Sam. xxii. 17), who were 
designated by a different Hebrew term. 
It was a high commendation of a man to 
call him swift (2 Sam, i, 23, ii, 18); and we flad 
that the services of the king's runners were 
often required (1 Sam. viii. 11 ; 2 Sam, xviii 

' 21). A body of these appears to have been 

I regularly kept up (1 Kings xiv, 27, marg.). 

FOOT-STOOL. This was a necessary ap- 
pendage to a throne (2 Chron. ix. 18). Hence 

1 the bowing down to the foot-stool ; which 
expression is figuratively applied to divine 

I worship (Psal. xcix. 5, cxxxii. 7). Indeed 
the ark over which the divine glory rested 
was regarded as God's foot-stool (l Chron, 
xxviii. 2). And elsewhere, as heaven is said 
to be his throne, the earth is appositely 
called his foot-stool (Isai. Ixvi. 1 ; Matt. v. 
35). Conquerors trod upon their vanquished 
enemies (Josh, x, 24), And so Messiah's foes 
are to be made his foot-stool (Psal. ex. 1 ; 
1 Cor. XV, 25), 
FORD (Gen. xxxii, 22 ; Josh, ii. 7 ; Judg3S 

iii. 28, xvi, 5 ; Isai, xvi, 2;, See Buidqe. 



FOBEHEA.D] 



302 



Thus we read of various forests, not Indeed 
as if the country were unbrokenly covered 
with trees, but, in the more proper sense as 
understood amongst ourselves at home, 
woods interspersed with open ground. These 
woods were probably for the most part in 
the valleys ; sometimes we find them in 
higher situations (Josh. xvii. 15, 18). The 
principal woods and forests mentioned in 
scripture are (1) The forest of cedars in 
Le])anon (1 Kings iv. 3.^, v. 6, 9, 14), formerly 
far more extensive than at present: see 
Cedars. The house of the forest of Leba- 
non (vii. 2) might either be a country palace 
among the mountains, or perhaps was so 
called as constructed with cedar pillars. 

(2) The forests v)f oaks in Bashan (Isai. ii. 13 ; 
Ezek. xxvii. 6; Zech. xi. 2): see Bashan. 

(3) The wood or forest of Ephraim (Josh, 
xvii. 15-18). This is supposed to have been 
verv extensive. It must not be confounded 
with (4) The wood of Ephraim, east of the 
Jordan, near to the city of Mahanaim 
(2 Sam. xvii. 6): see Ephraim, Wood of. 

(5) The forest of Hareth (1 Sam. xxii. 5) : 
this was probably in the south of Judah. 

(6) The wood in the wilderness of Ziph 
(xxiii. 15), south-east of Hebron. (7) A 
nameless wood, through which Saul pur- 
sued tlie Philistines (xiv. 25, 26) ; probably 
on the slopes leading to the Philistine plain. 
(8^ There were woods also about Kirjath- 
jearim, a city of Judah, near upon the Phi- 
listine border (vii. 1,2:2 Sam. vi. 2 ; Psal. 
cxxxii. 6). (9) Perhaps the forests in which 
Jothara built castles were in the same 
neighbourhood (2 Chron. xxvii. 4). (10) The 
wood of Beth-el (2 Kings ii. 24) was pro- 
bably part of the great (western) wood of 
Ephraim. , ^^ ^^ 

Forests sometimes imply symbolically 
kingdoms, or eminent persons, devoted to 
ruin (Isai. x. 17-19, 33, 34; Jer. xxi. 14; Ezek. 
XX. 46, 47) : they designate also sterility as 
opposed to the fruitfulness of a field (Isai, 
xxix. 17). . . , ^ 

FOri-GIVENESS. The remission of a fault. 
In the gospel of Christ, free forgiveness of 
sins is set forth (Acts v. 31, xiii. 38, 39 ; 
1 John i. 6-9, ii. 12). And the full remission, 
which transgressors have at God's hand for 
Christ's sake, is made the ground and the 
pattern of that forgiving spirit which is to 
be manifested by Christ's true followers 
(Matt. vi. 12, 14, 15, xviii. 21-35 ; Mark xi. 
25, 26 ; Eph. iv. 32, and elsewhere). See 

ATOyEMEXT, JUSTIFICATION, PROPITIA- 
TION 



FOREHEAD. It is customary among 
eastern nations to colour the face and fore- 
head, and to impress marks thereon, for the 
purpose of signifying their devotion to 
«ome deity, or their belonging to some re- 
lio-ious sect. We find allusions to this 
practice in scripture. Thus a mark (a cross, 
it has been thought, because the original 
word is the Hebrew letter Tau, anciently 
formed like a cross) was to be set upon the 
forehead of those who mourned for sm 
(Ezek. ix. 4, 6) : see also Kev. vii. 3, ix. 4, 
xiv 1 xxii. 4. And so the mark of the beast 
was Impressed in the hand or on the fore- 
head (xiii. 16, 17, xiv. 9, xvii. 5, xx. 4). 
Jewels for the forehead (Gen. xxiv. 22, 
mar^. ; Ezek. xvi. 12) were nose-]ewels. It 
is not, however, uncommon for eastern 
women to wear jewels across their fore- 
heads 'Thou hast a whore's forehead 
(Jer iii. 3) mav be explained by the fact that 
a modest woman would cover her face and 
forehead with a veil. ^ ^ ^ ^ 

FOREIGNER (Exod. xn. 45 ; Deut. xv. 3 ; 
Obad. 11 ; Eph. ii. 19). See Alien. 

FORE-KNOWLEDGE. The fore-know- 
ledge of God is repeatedly spoken of in 
scripture (Acts ii. 23; Rom. viii. 29, xi. 2 ; 
1 Pet. i. 2). There are curious and intri- 
cate questions in reference to his fore- 
knowledee, which it would be quite foreign 
to the character of the present work to at- 
tempt to discuss in it. It must be sufficient 
to say that the scripture attributes the 
most perfect prescience to the Deity. It is 
one of those high attributes which place 
him immeasurably above all pretended 
gods (Isai. xli. 22, 23, xiii. 9, xliv. G-8). God 
does not cather knowledge as we do : before 
his eve afl things past, present, or to come, 
are spread with equal clearness : he sees 
all possibilities, those events which may 
happen as well as those which will happen 
(1 Sam. xxiii. 9-13; Jer. xxxviii. 17-23, xlii. 
9-22 ; Matt. xi. 21, 23 ; Acts xxvii. 24, 31). 
Yet this divine fore-knowledge does not 
compel men: it fetters not their free 
action : it does not deliver them from the 
responsibility of their own deeds (Gen. 1. 20 ; 
Isai. X. 6, 7). And, if we are unable exactly 
to comprehend this, we may well remember 
that God's judgments are unsearchable 
(Rom. xi. 33), his ways higher than our 
ways, Ms thoughts than our thoughts (Isai. 
Iv 9) 

*F0 RE -RUNNER. A scout sent before an 
army : one who in a matter of public con- 
cern speeds on to a specified place, to do 
chere so far as he can, what pertains to the 
matter on which he is employed. Thus 
John the Baptist was a messenger who went 
beforehand to prepare the way of the 
Lord (Mark i. 2, 3). And Christ is said to be 
• the fore-runner for us ' (Heb. vi. 20), repre- 
senting and introducing us. For, when 
as a prie«t he entered into the holy place, 
he went thither not for himself merely, but 
as the head and guide of his people, to 
open the way and conduct the whole church 
into his glory. 

FORE-SKIN. See CIRCUMCISION. 

FOREST There is reason to believe that 
tracts of wood-land were more frequent in 
Palestine anciently than they are now. 



FORK (1 Sam. xiii. 21). JLiterally a triad 
of prongs,' i.e. a three-pfonged fork, with 
which hay, straw, and the like are gathered 
up. 

FORM. Christ is said to have been * in 
the form of God ;' by which must certainly 
be understood that he was really God ; for 
it is also said that he 'took upon him the 
form of a servant' (Phil. ii. 6, 7), really be- 
came a servant ; the same word being used 
in both verses. The term 'form' may be 
supposed further to imply something more 
than the divine nature; it may express 
the splendour of it. To the Only-begotten 
belonged that flashing glory (Heb. i. 3) 
which Deity alone can possess ; and of this 



303 



[FEANKINCENS3 



he divested himself when he became man, 
and assumed the humble port of a servant, 
the messenger of his Father, prepared to 
obey his will (x. 7). The contrast is between 
the state of the Son before his incarnation, 
and his state in flesh : he was very God 
and very man. 

FORNICATION (Acts xv. 20, 29). See 
Adultery. 

FORSWEAR (Matt. v. 33). See Oath. 

FORTIFICATION. See Fenced Cities. 

FORTRESS. See CASTLE, FENCED 
Cities. 

FORTUNA'TTJS (fortunate). A Christian 
of Corinth, mentioned in connection with 
Stephanas and Achaicus (1 Cor. xvi. 17). 
Some have imagined him one ' of the house 
of Chloe* (i. 11) : it is more likely that he 
and Achaicus belonged to ' the household 
of Stephanas' (i. 16). 

FOUNDER (Judges xvii. 4 ; Jer. vi. 29, x. 
9, 14\ See Handicraft, Metallurgy. 

FOUNTAIN. A natunvl gush of v,^ater 
from the ground, in opposition to a stand- 
ing or stagnant pool, or an artificial well. 
Several words are used in Hebrew to sig- 
nify a fountain : one of the most common, 
ain, means also an eye; and philologists 
are uncertain whether the eye is so called 
from its resemblance to a fountain, or a 
fountain from its refeemblance to an eye. 
Hence many places took their name, some 
Bpecial spring being in the neighbourhood 
— as En-gannim, fountain of gardens ; En- 
gedi, fountain of the gazelle or kid. It was 
one special feature in the description of Ca- 
naan, that it was 'aland of fountains' (Deut. 
viii. 7), the more alluring when Israel had 
so long dwelt in a region where they often 
wanted water. The springs in Palestine 
now are, as travellers assure us, abundant 
and very beautiful ; so that we can easily 
understand how they express symbolically 
in the sacred writings refreshment to the 
weary, and the spiritual blessings, ever 
fresh and ever flowing, which God imparts 
to his people (Psal, "jxxvi. 9 ; Jer. ii. 13 ; 
Joel iii. 18 ; John i\ 14 ; Rev. vii. 17). A 
multiplied posterity, coo, is sometimes de- 
Bcribed as the watei s running forth from 
the fountain, the progenitor (Deut. xxxiii. 
28 ; Psal. Ixviii. 26). 

FOWL, FOWLING. The Hebrew word , 
'dph includes collectively birds in general, 
frequently with the addition 'of the air' 
(e.g. Gen. i. 21, 30), The Greek word peteina 
has a similarly-extended meaning platt. 
xiii.4; Luke xii. 24). The Hebrew ait de- 
notes generally birds of prey (Gen. xv. 11 ; 
Job xxviii. 7 ; Isai. xviii. 6 ; Ezek. xxxix. 4). 
The corresponding Greek word is oi-nea 
(Rev. xix. 17, 21). The Hebrew tzippor sig- 
nifies specifically a sparrow or other small 
bird (Psal. xi. 1, Ixxxiv. 3) ; it is also used 
collectively for fowl, perhaps of the pass- 
erine order (Gen, xv. 10 ; Psal. viii. 8);^ fowl 
for the table (Neh. v. 18) ; joined with dittor 
birds of prey (Ezek. xxxix. 4). There is 
another word, barbtirim (1 Kings iv. 23), 
which also means fowls for the table, or 
Bpecially, according to Gesenius, geese. 

Birds afforded anciently, as at present, a 
cheap and plentiful article of food (Matt. 
X. 29 ; Luke xii. 6). There are various 



modes of obtaining them. Sometimes a 
stick is thrown, with which the Arabs dexte- 
rously disable the fowl : they then run up 
and seize them, and cut the throat, that the 
blood may not be eaten (Lev. xvii. 13). Nets 
are used, cages also, and traps, and snares. 
Many small birds are taken by loose nets on 
poles. A lantern is carried out at night ; and 
the birds, startled at the glare, fall easily 
into the nets. Cages and snares are fre- 
quently set, and decoy-birds employed to 
allure the game ; a run- being occasionally 
constructed among brushwood, and nooses 
being placed near the decoy (see Psal. 
cxxiv. 7 ; Prov. i. 17), to entangle the legs of 
those that venture near. Large numbers 
of quails are caught at the times of migra- 
tion, when {they abound, by being driven 
towards a centre ; and then, alarmed by the 
shouts of the fowlers, they are easily cap- 
tured by the nets or clothes that are thrown 
over them. Similar modes of taking birds, 
both land and water-fowl, are figured in the 
Egyptian monuments, of which an inte- 
resting description is given by Dr. Kitto 
(Plct. Bible, note on Ezek. xvii. 20 : see also 
illustrations of fowling and fishing in 
Carey's Book of Job, pp. 480, 481). 

FOX. The same Hebrew word which 
signifies ' fox ' seems also to denote a 
* jackal ;' and there can be no doubt that in 
many places jackals are meant where our 
version gives foxes. Thus, jackals being 
gregarious animals, it is far more likely 
that Samson caught 300 of them than of 
foxes, which are not easy to be taken 
(Judges XV. 4). Modern travellers tell us 
how they still abound in Palestine; there 
could therefore be no difficulty in collecting 
a great number of jackals. But in some 
passages the fox is donbtless meant, as in 
Sol. Song ii. 15. The word is also used figu- 
rativelv (Ezek. xiii. 4 ; Luke xiii. 32). 

FRANKINCENSE. Ordinary frankin- 
cense is the produce of the Pinus abies, or 
common spruce flr. Much flner was the 
substance so called in the Hebrew law 
(Lev. ii. 1, 2, 15, 16, and elsewhere). The 
mention of it occurs also in poetry (Sol. 
Song iii. 6, iv, 6) ; and it appears to have 
been brought from distant countries (Isai. 
Ix. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20 ; Matt. ii. 11). It was a 
resinous exudation from some tree, possibly 
growing in Arabia, fragrant and costly. 
The Hebrew term lebdnah (implying white), 
equivalent to the Greek libanns, is nearly 
akin to the word olibanum now in use. But 
the Ara1)ian olibanum or frankincense is at 
present considered of inferior quality : the 
best is from India; so that there must 
be a deterioration in the produce of 
Arabia, or else frankincense was anciently 
imported into Palestine through Arabia, 
and was therefore regarded as coming from 
the last-named country. There is no reason 
to suppose that the trees yielding it ever 
grew in Judea, The passage, Sol. Song 
iv. 14, which has been specially relied on for 
this opinion, more probably refers to aro- 
matic plants generally. Frankincense is 
yielded from some species of Boswellia, a 
genus of the natural order Amyridacecs, or 
incense-trees. Probably the Boswellia $er- 
rata or thurifera may be fixed on as the 



t 






species from which especially the precious 
resin is procured. It grows to the height 
of forty feet, and is found in Anihoyna and 
mountain districts of India. ^ 

Frankincense is chiefly used now m the 
services of the Greek and Roman churches. 

FREEDOM. The right of citizenship : 
see Alien, Citizenship. Deliverance from 
slaverv or servitude : see Servant. Slaves 
were freed among the Romans either per 
censum, when a slave, with his master's 
knowledge or by his order, got his name 
inscribed upon the censor's roll ; per vin- 
dictam, when a master took a slave to the 
praetor or consul and expressed his desire 
that he should be free ; the praetor then 
placed a rod called vindicta on the slave s 
head and pronounced him free, the master 
or the lictor turning him round and giving 
him a blow upon the cheek ; or per testamen- 
tum, when the master gave freedom to the 
slave by will. There were in later times other 
modes of bestowing freedom, but they only 
dischar!7ed from servitude, and did not 
convev the privilege of citizenship. Slaves 
made free used to shave their heads m the 
temple of Feronia,and received a cap or hat 
as the badge of liberty. They were also 
presented with a white robe and a ring by 
their master, whose name they prefixed to 
their own, and with whom certain relations 
continued as patron and client. Afreedman 
who was ungrateful was condemned to the 
mines, or reduced again to slavery. Several 
passages in scripture are hence illus- 
trated (e.g. Rom. vi. 22 ; 1 Cor. vu. 22, 23 ; 

^FREE-WILL- OFFERING (Lev. xxii. 
21 ; Psal. cxix. 108, and elsewhere), bee 
Offering. . ^. ^, 

FRIEND. This word is sometimes used 
in ordinary address (Matt. xxii. 12 xxvi. 
50 • Luke xi. 5). But it more generally im- 
plies affection. The divine condescension 
is shown in regarding liis creatures as his 
friends (2 Chron. xx. 7; Isai. xli. 8; John 
XV. 14, 15 ; James ii. 23). 

FRINGE (Numb. xv. 38, 39; Deut. xxii. 
12). See Hem of Garment. . . 

FROG The original Hebrew word signi- 
fies a marsh-leaper. We find frogs men- 
tioned onlv in connection with the plague 
inflicted upon the Egyptians (Exod. yiu. 
2-14 • Psal. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 30), and for illus- 
tration (Rev. xvi. 13). Naturalists disagree 
as to the species of frogs at present found 
In E°-ypt. Duns {Bibl. Kat. Science, vol. ii. 
p 15^), and Gosse {Imp. Bible Diet, vol. i. 
D 608),marntain that three or four iinds 
are very abundant there ; as the Eana escu- 
lenta, edible frog, the Eanapunctata, dotted 
fro" of an ash colour with green spots, and 
the Eana temporaria, our common English 
fro" • while Houghton (Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible vol. iii. p. 54) strenuously denies that 
anv ■species except the Eana e^culenta is to 
be found in Egypt. Further research must 
decide between these conflicting authori- 

^^^RONTLETS (Exod. xiii. 16; Deut. vi. 8, 
xi 18). See Phylactery. 

FROST There is a greater difference 
between the temi.erature of the day and 
that of the night in western Asia than in 


our own climate. This difference la most 
felt in spring and autumn, when tho alter- 
nation is pretty much as if a day warmer 
than our ordinary summer days were suc- 
ceeded bv one of our winter nights. And 
even in winter the days are warm while the 
nights are frosty. European travellers es- 
pecially feel the alternation ; and the fact 
illustrates Jacob's complaint (Gen. xxxi. 40 : 
comp. Job xxxvii. 10 ; Psal. cxlvu. 16-18 ; 
Jer. xxxvi. 30). , ^ , . 

FRUIT The produce of the tree and of 
the field. We may learn how comprehen- 
sively this word was employed by a refer- 
ence to the regulations for the offering of 
the first-fruits. When the first-fruits and 
the tithes were required, they are described 
as those of corn (or wheat), and wine, and 
oil (Numb, xviii. 12 ; Deut. xiv. 23). The 
same comprehensive terms are used else- 
where (xxviii. 51; 2 Cliron. xxxii. 28; 
Joel ii. 19) ; evidently intended to include 
generally the fruitful productions of the 
ground. Lees (Kitto's Ci/cl. of Bibl. Lit.) 
makes, therefore, a three-fold division of 
fruit : corn-fruit or field-produce, vintage- 
fruit, and orchard-fruit. The first is 
denominated ddgdn, which signifies not 
merely wheat or even corn, but, as Jaiiu 
says (Bibl. Antiq., p. 54), ' different kinds of 
grain and pulse, such as wheat, millet, 
spelt, wall-barley, barley, beans, lentils, 
meadow-cummin, pepper-wort, flax, cot- 
ton, various species of the cucumber, 
and perhaps rice.' Unless the word had a 
comprehensive signification, the spirit of 
the law would have been easily evaded, and 
first-fruits and tithes might have been 
limited to a comparatively-small portion or 
valuable produce. The next Hebrew word, 
trrosh, is generally rendered ' wme, specl- 
ficallv the new wine of the first year. But 
it clearly has sometimes a wider meaning; 
as in Mic. vi. 15, where the ' sweet wine 
could not be literally trodden; hence Hen- 
derson translates 'the grape of the new 
wine' (Minor Propli., p. 261). It may, there- 
fore, siffnifv the fruit of the vine In ge- 
nrral, whether grapes moist or dried, or the 
wine procured from them. The thira word, 
yitzhar, may comprehend, besides olives, 
dates, pomegranates, citrons, nuts, &c., 
generally orchard-fruits ; else, as observed 
with respect to ddg&n, many products woiild 
escape the general law of tithing and offer- 
ing of first-fruits. It may be added that 
we read of ' summer-fruits' (2 Sam. xvi. 1 ; 
Jer xl. 10, 12), by which is probably to be 
understood those adapted to immediate 
consumption. The fruit of trees planted 
in Canaan was not to be eaten for the first 
three years, being counted as ' uncircura- 
ci^ed : ' in the fourth year it was to be holy 
to^the Lord ; in the fifth it might be freely 
used (Lev. xix. 23-25) : see FiReT-FRUiTS. 
Fruit-trees, moreover, were not to be cut 
down for purposes of war ^Deut. xx. 19 20). 

The term ' fruit' is often usedmetaphon- 
callv Thus, children are said to be 'the 
fruiVof the womb' iPsal. cxxvii. 3). Theac- 
tions of men are caueu luc nuii^o _ 
principles (Matt. iii. 8 ; Jolinxv. 8 ; Rom. vi. 
22). Similarly the graces implanted by the 
Spirit are termed ' fruit ' cGal. v 22, 23). 



305 



[FUIiNACTJ 



FUEL (Isai. ix. 5, 19 ; Ezek. xv. 4, 6, xxi. 
2). See Coal. 

FULFILLED. In the quotations by the 
New Testament writers of passages in the 
Old, we have frequently the introductory 
formula ' that it might he fulfilled.' It has 
been questioned how this phrase should be 
understood. Some critics are disposed to 
imagine that citations are merely accom- 
modated to events, that, when circum- 
stances occurred which brought to the 
writer's mind the utterance of an ancient 
prophet, or the narrative of a long-passed 
fact, he coupled it with what was then 
before his eye, and meant merely to say 
that the new occurrence corresponded with 
the old. But this is to deny an actual con- 
nection between prophecy and its fulfil- 
ment, to destroy the reality of any relation 
l)etween a typical fact and the thing it was 
to pre-signify. Indeed, it repudiates pro- 
phecy altogether, and overthrows the basis 
of typical representation. The sound inter- 
preter of scripture must not give counten- 
ance to such an opinion. The phrase ' that 
it might be fulfilled,' grammatically Inter- 
preted, shows that there must be a real 
designed connection between the prophetic 
word and the event it foretells. See Quo- 
tations. 

FULLER. A person whose business it is 
to cleanse and whiten cloth (Mark ix. 3). 
This business was carried on without the 
walls of Jerusalem, probably because of the 
offensive smells occasioned by it. There 
was a ' fuller's field ' : see next article ; and 
Josephus {Bell. Jucl, lib. v. 4, § 2) speaks of 
a fuller's monument to the north of the 
city. There was also a fuller's fountain, 
Ex-ROGEL (which see), to the south- 
east ; and no doubt in these places the 
fullers plied their occupation. The cloth 
was trodden or beaten with heavy clubs, in 
water with which some alkaline substance 
had been mixed, potter's clay, or marl, or 
urine. Nitre also and fuller's soap are men- 
tioned (Jer. ii. 22 ; Mai. iii. 2) as employed 
for cleansing purposes. See Soap. The 
juices of some saponaceous plants and ve- 
getable ashes were probably used. See Wi- 
ner, Bibl BWB., art. ' Walker.' 

FULLER'S FIELD. A place not far from 
Jerusalem, where fullers pursued their 
business. It seems that there was a high- 
way leading either to or by the fuller's 
field ; and in or by this high-way was *the 
conduit of the upper pool.' Here at this 
conduit Rabshakeh stationed himself when 
he came with his hostile message; and here 
Isaiah met Ahaz (2 Kings xviii. 17 ; Isai. vii. 
3, xxxvi. 2). The fuller's field itself must 
have been somewhat farther off, as the sta- 
tions taken were not at it, but in the road 
of it. Possibly It lay to the north of the 
city, the way an invading force would come; 
though it has been observed in the last ar- 
ticle that En-rogel on the south-east was a 
place frequented by fullers. See Williams, 
The Holy City, vol. ii. pp. 471, 472 : see also 
Conduit. 

FULLER'S SOAP (Mai. iii. 2). See Soap. 

FULNESS. This is the translation of a 
Greek word, in regard to which much has 
been written. For the exact understanding 



of the various passages in which it occurs, 
exegetical commentaries maybe consulted. 
It must be enough to say here that its sim- 
pler senses are the thing filled, also, abstrac 
tedly, the effect of filling, and thence the thing 
lohereby the effect of filling is produced. Thus, 
when it is said that ' it pleased the Father 
that In him should all fulness dwell' (Col. i. 
19), that is meant by which the filling is 
effected, that of which Christ was full, that 
amount of complete grace which goes to 
make up the divine character, and which 
entirely and for ever dwells in Christ; as 
it is elsewhere said, ' In him dwelleth all 
the fulness of the Godhead bodily' (ii. 9), 
i.e. the essential being of the Deity. And 
of the abounding and excellent grace 
thus in Christ his believing people re- 
ceive in continual flow (John i. 14, 16); 
so that they are ' filled with all the ful- 
ness of God' (Eph. iii. 19), or ' even to the 
fulness of God,' according to their mea- 
sure, even as God is in his, immeasurably 
full. Then again, on the other hand, where 
the church is said to be 'the fulness of him 
that fllleth all in air(i. 23), we must take 
the sense first indicated : the church is that 
which is filled, the filled receptacle, that 
into which he, agreeably to what has just 
been said, pours of his inexhaustible grace, 
till he has filled it full. See Alford, TJie 
Greek Test, note on Eph. i. 23. 

FUNERAL. See BURIAL. 

FURLONG (Luke xxiv. 13 ; John vi. 19, 
xi. 18 ; Rev. xiv. 20, xxi, 16). See Mea- 
sures. 

FURNACE. There are various Hebrew 
words v/hich are thus rendered : they doubt- 
less describe different kinds of furnaces. 
Thus khibshan, derived from a verb signify- 
ing 'to subdue,' implies a furnace that sub- 
dues metals or whatever is subjected to it 
(Gen. xix. 28 ; Exod. ix. 8, 10, xix. 18), a 
smelting-furnace, and according to Kimchi 
a lime-kiln. KhUr, implying heat, is also a 
smelting-furnace (Prov. xvii, 3, xxvii. 21 ; 
Ezek. xxii. 18, 20, 22). This word Is fre- 




Egyptian furnace. From ChampoUion. 

quently used metaphorically, to indicate 
heavy trial (Deut. iv. 20; 1 Kings viii. 51; 
Isai. xlyiii. 10). Tannilr, used sometimes 
generally (Gen. xv.l7 ; Isai. xxxi. 9), is mor« 
X 



306 



furnitueeJ 

Bpeciflcallv a l)aker's furnace or an oven, as 
it is sometimes rendered (Exod. viii. 3 ; Lev. 
11 4 vii. 9, xi, 35, xxvi. 26 ; Neli. iii. 11, xii. 
38 • Hos vii. 4, 6, 7). It is described as 




Egyptian furnace. From Champollion. 



a kind of large round pot, earthen or of 
other material, tAvo or three feet high. It is 
heated by a fire made within ; and then the 
dough or paste is spread on the sides to 
bake, forming thin cakes. The Chaldee at- 



dwellings, especially In the earlier ages,wa3 
simple : the poorer classes had few but ab- 
solutely-necessary articles. The chamber 
which the rich woman of Shunem furnished 
for Elisha was deemed amply provided 
with ' a bed, and a table, and a stool, and a 
candlestick' ^2 Kings iv. 10) ; for we may 
be sure that, as she intended to do the pro- 
phet honour, she would supply all fitting 
things ; and he was gratified we find at the 
care bestowed upon him (13). Mats or skins 
were probably often used to recline upon ; 
and these, with it may be a mattress spread 
upon them, served for a bed ; while the up- 
per garment was the covering (Exod. xxii. 
25-27 ; Deut. xxiv. 12, 13). The whole could 
easily be rolled up ; hence our Lord's com- 
mand to ' take up ' the bed and carry it to 
the house (ISIatt. ix. 6). The apartments 
even of the wealthier would seem empty to 
an European eye; nevertheless the luxurious 
had rich carpets, couches or divans, and 
sofas ; and sometimes the frames of these 
were inlaid with ivory (Amos vi. 4), and the 
coverings of tapestryand fine linen carefully 
perfumed (Prov. vii. 16, 17). Dr. Thomson 
describes the lack of useful furniture in 
Palestine at the present day. For a dining- 
table 'a polygonal stool' fourteen inches 
high is brought into the room ; and a tray 




Egyptian furnace, shomng the action of blowing. Champollion. 



tUn is a large furnace built like a brick-kiln, 
and, as noted by a writer in Dr. Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, must have had an opening 
at the top to cast in the materials, and a 
door at the ground by which to extract the 
metal (Dan. iii. 6). The punishment of cast- 
ing into a furnace has subsisted in the 
east to modern times. See Kitto's Pict. Bible, 
note on Dan. iii. 6. There are two Greek 
words used in the New Testament for fur- 
nace, kaminos, a smelting or calcinmg-fur- 
nace (Matt. xiii. 42, 50 ; Rev.i. 15, ix. 2) ; kh- 
banos, a baker's oven (Matt. vi. 30 ; Luke xii. 

FURNITURE, The furniture of eastern 



with the provisions set upon It {The Land 
and the Book, p. 126). Silver spoons are 
used by the richer people ; but they have 
neither knives nor forks. And, if any of 
them try to imitate European customs,' the 
knives, forks, and spoons are rusty; the 
plates, dishes, and glasses ill-assorted, dirty, 
badly arranged, and not in sufficient (luan- 
tity : the chairs are rickety ; and the table 
stands on legs spasmodic and perilous' (p. 
128). There is, and no doubt there was, a 
hand-mill in every house : the few necessary 
utensils are made of earthenware, copper, 
and leather ; and the light is obtained from 
lamps fed with olive oil. 



307 



[gad 



G 



GA'AL (loathing). A person who came to 
Shecbein, and stirred up the inhabitants to 
resist Abiraelech. He was worsted in an 
encounter, and was then ejected by Zebul, 
Abimelech's officer (Judges ix. 26-41). 

GA'ASH {earthquake). A hill in the ter- 
ritory of Ephraim by Timnath-serah, Jo- 
shua's inheritance, and the place where he 
was buried (Josh. xxiv. 30 ; Judges ii. 9). 
One of David's warriors is said to be ' of 
the brooks of Gaash ' (2 Sam. xxiii. 30 ; 
1 Chron. xi. 32). 

GA'BA (hill). A city of Benjamin (Josh. 

xviii. 24 ; Ezra ii. 26 ; Neh, vii. 30). It is the 
same with Geba, which see. 

GA'BAEL.—l. An ancestor of Tobit (Tob. 
I. 1).— 2. A person to whose charge Tobit 
entrusted money (1. 14, iv. 1, 20, v. 6, ix. 2, 5, 
X. 2). 

GA'BATHA (Rest of Esth. xii. 1). A cor- 
lupt form of Bigthan (Esth. ii. 21). 

GAB'BAI (tax-gatherer). One of the de- 
scendants of Benjamin (Neh. xi. 8). 

GAB'BATHA (platform, or elevated place). 
A place where Pilate took his seat when he 
pronounced sentence upon our Lord (John 

xix. 13). It appears to have been outside 
the prcetormm or ' judgment-hall ' (9). We 
may suppose, therefore that the iema, or 
regular seat of justice, was in front of the 
prsetorium, on an elevated platform, which 
was floored with a tesselated pavement. It 
could not have been the paved room in the 
temple, as has been sometimes imagined, 
where the sanhedrim sat. 

GAB' DBS (1 Esdr. v. 20). A form of Gaba 
(Ezra ii. 26). 

GA'BRIAS (Tob. i. 14, iv. 20). 

GA'BRIEL (man of God). A name borne 
by one of the angels of God, despatched on 
beneficent errands to men in difl^rent ages 
of the church. It was he that was commis- 
sioned to expound the visions to the pro- 
phet Daniel (Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). It was he 
that announced to Zacharias the birth of 
John, Messiah's fore-runner, and to Mary 
the incarnation of the Messiah himself 
(Luke i. 19, 26). 

GAD (good fortune ?). — 1. One of the sons 
of Jacob by Zilpah, Leah's maid. At his 
birth, Leah exclaimed, ' A troop cometh ' 
(Gen. XXX. 10, 11) ; but the rendering of 
several versions is ' In felicity.' The 
word Gad, then, may be differently inter- 
preted; but, whatever meaning be preferred, 
the name was bestowed as evincing Leah's 
gratitude and confident expectation of yet 
greater blessing. Of the personal history 
of this patriarch no particulars are given : 
we are only told that, when Jacob went 
down with his family into Egypt, Gad had 
seven sons (xlvi. 16). In the prophetic 
blessing pronounced upon him, ' Gad, a 
troop shall overcome him ; but he shall over- 
come at the last' (xlix. 19), or, more ex- 
actly, * Gad, a plundering band presses on 
him ; but he will press upon the heel,' i. e. 
^'ill pursue the flying enemy, the warlike 



character of the tribe effectually repelling 
the forays made upon it is described. The 
benediction of Moses is very similar : 
' Blessed is he that enlargeth Gad : he dwel- 
leth as a lion, and teareth the arm, and the 
crown of the head. And he saw that the 
first part was his ; for there the portion of 
(assigned by) the lawgiver was preserved. 
And he goes at the head (or with the heads) 
of the people : he executes the justice of 
the Lord, and his judgments with Israel' 
(Deut. xxxiii. 20, 21). Gad was to have a 
choice and ample territory allotted, which 
by his boldness he would extend ; nor would 
he fail, though his own possession was se- 
cured, to march with the other tribes across 
the Jordan, executing with them God's 
judgments on the doomed people of Ca- 
naan. Dr. Kalisch, however, takes a dif- 
ferent view of a part of this blessing : he 
considers that the ' portion of the lawgiver' 
implies his burying-place : ' The territory of 
Gad . . . was pre-eminently remarkable, be- 
cause it contained the grave of the great 
general and lawgiver, Moses~a fact which 
so decidedly invested the province with a 
chai'acterof holiness, that, though situated 
on the east of the river, it was regarded as 
one of the most honoured parts of the pro- 
mised land, from which the leaders of the 
people might legitimately arise' (Comm. on 
Old Test. Gen., p. 758). 

At the first census in the wilderness the 
descendants of Gad had multiplied to 45,650. 
They were attached to the second division 
of the Israelitish host, following the stan- 
dard of Reuben, and camping on the south 
of the tabernacle ; Eliasaph, the son of 
Deuel, or Reuel, being their chief (Numb, 
i. 12, ii. 24, 25, iii. 10-16). In the second enu- 
meration in the plains of Moab, this tribe, 
it appeared, had decreased : they amounted 
to but 40,500. "When the Israelites had sub- 
dued the country east of the Jordan, the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad preferred their 
request to Moses to be allowed to settle 
there. It was a land, they said, adapted for 
cattle ; and they had ' much cattle,' Moses 
was at first displeased with the request : he 
thought it would discourage the rest of the 
people, and perhaps bring upon the natio;/. 
a fresh judgment from the Lord. But, on 
being assured that the tribes, if their wish 
was granted, would despatch their able- 
bodied men to aid in the conquest of Ca- 
naan, the great lawgiver assented, and dis- 
tributed the territories of Og and Sihon 
among the Reubenites, the Gadites, and 
half-Manasseh, though the last-named peo- 
ple do not appear to have joined in the 
request when first made to Moses (xxxii. 
1-33). 

It is not easy to give exactly the limits of 
the portion of Gad. It must have comprised 
the central trans-Jordanic districts, the 
mountains of Gilead, extending to Jazer antl 
Heshbon southward, and to the Aroer that 
faced Rabbah of Ammon, the river of Gad 



GAD 



Clje Crta^urp tit 



308 



2 Sam. xxiv. 5) being probably the Arnon, 
south-east; westward it abutted on the 
Jordan, and ran up the Arabah, or Jordan 
valley, in a narrow strip, to the edge or 
extremity of the sea of Chinnereth or lake 
of Gennesaret: it reached to Mahanaim 
northward, being bounded by Manasseh ; 
while eastward no limit is distinctly as- 
signed. Several very i ra portant ci ties were 
included in this territory: among them, 
besides those already named, may be men- 
tioned Ramoth-gilead and Succoth. From 
the allotment of Gad four cities were as- 
signed to the Levites of the family of Me- 
rari, viz. Ramoth-gilead, which was also a 
refuge-city, Mahanaim, Jazer, and Hesh- 
bon, which, though sometimes reckoned to 
Reuben (Josh. xiii. 17), as being on the bor- 
der of the two contiguous tribes, must 
really have belonged to Gad (xxi. 38, 39 ; 
1 Cbron. v. 80, 81). Close upon the Jordan 
the country of this tribe was low ; but far- 
ther eastward it was a high rich table-land, 
of which various travellers, Buckingham, 
Stanley, Porter, and others, speak in terms 
of warm commendation. 'Gentle slopes,' 
says one, * clothed with wood, gave a rich 
variety of tints. . . . Deep valleys, filled 
with murmuring streams and verdant mea- 
dows, offered all the luxuriance of cultiva- 
tion ; and herds and flocks gave life and 
animation to the scenes;' while another 
describes the country as occasionally pre- 
senting the appearance of 'a noble park.' 
A happy inheritance ! a blessed home, not 
to be forfeited but by the unfaithfulness of 
those to whom it was granted. 

The history of the tribe of Gad, after its 
settlement, began well. Faithfully did the 
trans- Jordanic tribes perform their promise 
of aiding their brethren in the conquest of 
Canaan ; and when the land was subdued 
they returned to their own cities with 
Joshua's blessing, and enriched with large 
spoil. There was a misunderstanding, in- 
deed, about their building a memorial altar 
near the Jordan, by which the rest of the 
tribes at first imagined they Intended to 
break away from the holy bond of national 
worship. But this was soon explained ; and 
the circumstance exhibits both parties in a 
most favourable light ; the western Israel- 
ites offering to cede part of their own ter- 
ritory ; their eastern brethren disclaiming 
with loyal earnestness all notion of religious 
or civil schism. In subsequent years we 
have no distinct account of the tribe. But 
Jephthah has been supposed a Gadite : more 
probably (Judges xii. 4) he was of Manasseh. 
Later, the seat of Ish-bosheth's sovereignty 
was established in this territory. For Abner 
brought him to Mahanaim ; and there he 
reigned (2 Sam. ii. 8), and there he' was 
assassinated. The Gadites could not, how- 
ever, have been very enthusiastic in favour 
of the house of Saul ; for many chiefs, bold 
enterprising men, expressing very well the 
general characteristics of the tribe, had 
joined David while in hold (1 Chron. viu. 15). 
And, when a few years later David was 
obliged to flee across the Jordan on account 
of Absalom's rebellion, he found a secure 
position in Mahanaim, while the country 
round manifested their attachment to him. 



and supplied him with abundant stores 
(2 Sam. xvii. 24, 27-29). "We have evidence 
in the time ol Solomon of the richness of 
this province. For, of the twelve commis- 
sariat officers appointed by that monarch, 
three seem to have had more or less to 
do with Gad. There was the son of Geber 
stationed in Ramoth-gilead, Ahinadab in 
Mahanaim, besides Geber, to whom was 
committed the sole charge of the rest of 
Gilead (1 Kings iv. 13, 14, 19). The jurisdic- 
tion of some of these officers extended be- 
yond the original boundaries of Gad. But 
we may observe that the prediction was ac- 
complished : the tribe was ' enlarged.' We 
read that the Gadites. at what exact pe- 
riod is not clear, dwelt in * Bashan unto 
Salcah ' (1 Chron. v. 11), either intermingling 
with the Manassites, or probably (comp. 23) 
pushing them farther northward. In the 
place just referred to the genealogies of 
the tribe are noted till the days of Jero- 
boam II. king of Israel, and Jotham king of 
Judah ; and there is an account of a raid 
made by Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, with 
a force of 44,700, upon the Hagarites of 
Jetur, Nephish, and Nodab, Ishmaelite 
clans, in which they took a vast deal of 
booty, and occupied the country they had 
invaded (17-22). In the division of the king- 
dom. Gad of course fell to the northern 
state ; and many of the wars between Syria 
and Israel must have ravaged its territory 
(2 Kings X. 33). Ramoth-gilead is repeatedly 
mentioned as the centre of engagements 
(1 Kings xxii. ; 2 Kings viii. 28, 29, ix. 14). 
And then the sun that rose so brightly set 
in gloom : for the sins of the people, Tig- 
lath-pileser carried the Gadites and the 
neighbouring tribes away captive into As- 
syria (xvi. 29; 1 Chron. ;v. 26); and it is 
the mournful lament of Jeremiah that 
Ammon occupied the lost cities of Gad (Jer 
xlix. 1). We hear no more of Gad save m 
some of (probably) the yet-unfulfllled utter- 
ances of prophecy (Ezek. xlviii. 27, 28, 34 ; 
Rev. vii. 5). 

2. A prophet, called ' the kmg's seer, 
who joined David when he was in hold 
through fear of Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 5). It 
was he that was afterwards sent with a 
heavy message to the king, on the un- 
justifiable numbering of the people, inviting 
him to choose one of three modes of divine 
judgment (2 Sam. xi. 11-25 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 
9-13). He is also said to have written the 
acts of David (xxix. 29), and to have 
taken part in the arrangement of the 
Levites for the musical services (2 Chron. 
xxix. 25). But this is all we know of him. 
His parentage and tribe are not recorded; 
and no notice is taken of his death. 

3. The name Gad has been supposed to 
be that of an idol worshipped by the Jews 
during the Babylonian captivity (Isai. Ixv. 
11, marg.). But this is unlikely. It does 
not appear that the Jews were idolatrous 
while in Babylon ; rather they were cured 
by that sharp discipline of their idolatrous 
propensities. Henderson (Isaiah, p. 462) 
therefore believes that the prophet, de- 
nouncing persons who prepared a table for 
Fortune (' troop ' in our version is not ad- 
missible), meant to censure those, not literal 



309 



23 tile WinaMztst^e. [galatians 



Idolaters, who, with greedy selfishness, 
make wealth their god (comp. Col. iii. 5). It 
is true that such a deity seems to have been 
worshipped near mount Hermon : see Baal- 
gad ; but perhaps the prophet merely bor- 
rowed his terms from the nomenclature of 
idolatry. See, however, Winer, Bibl. BWB., 
art. • Gad : ' see also Meni. 

GAD'ARA. A strong city, called by Jo- 
sephus the capital of Persa. It was situated 
to the south-east of the sea of Galilee, over- 
agaiust Tiberias, south of the Hieromax, on 
the top of a hill, at the foot of which were 
warm springs called Amatha. Destroyed in 
Jewish civil wars, it was re-built by Pom- 
pey, and added by Augustus to the domin- 
ions of Herod the Great, but subsequently 
to his death it was incorporated with the 
province of Syria. The district around was 
called Gadaritis; and in this district was 
the scene of the miracle narrated in Matt, 
viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke viii. 26-39. 
Gadara has been satisfactorily identified 
with Um Keis, seated near the crest of the 
chain of mountains which bound the valley 
of the lake of Tiberias and the Jordan on the 
east. It is about sixteen miles from Tibe- 
rias, three miles south of the Sheriat el- 
M'a7idh-G,r, the ancient Hieromax, or Yarmuk; 
and at the base of the hill warm springs 
still exist. There are caverns, too, used for 
both habitations and tombs, all round. And 
thus the circumstances of the miracle seem 
admirably illustrated (see Porter in Journ. 
of Sacr. Lit, July, 1854, pp. 286, &c.). But 
Dr. Thomson objects that Gadara Itself is 
too far from the lake ; so that, if the miracle 
were performed there, the swine would have 
had to run for many miles, fording the deep 
Yarmuk, before they could reach the lake 
itself. And he has discovered a pla-f^e very 
near the shore, called Kerza or Gersa, which 
he supposes to be the ancient Gergesa, and 
thinks that it was here the miracle was 
wrought (TJie Land and the Book, pp. 375- 
377). This would be in the district of Gada- 
ritis, and so might well be described as 
' the country of the Gadarenes.' 

GADARE'NES. The inhabitants of the 
city or district of Gadara (Mark v. 1 ; Luke 
viii. 26, 37). In Matt. viii. 28 we find them 
called Gergesenes, which see. 

GAD'DI (fortunate). The spy selected 
from the tribe of Manasseh (Numb. xiii. 11). 

GAD'DIEL (fortune of God, i. e. sent from 
God). The spy selected from the tribe of 
Zebulun (Numb. xiii. 10). 

GA'DI (a Gadite). The father of Mena- 
hem, a king of Israel (2 Kings xv. 14, 17). 

GAD'ITES, Persons of the tribe of Gad 
(Deut. iii. 12, 16, iv. 43, xxix. 8 ; Josh. i. 12 ; 
and elsewhere). 

GA'HAM (perhaps having flaming eyes, or 
sun-burnt). A son of Nahor, Abraham's bro- 
ther (Gen. xxii. 24). 

GA'HAR (lurking-place). One of the Ne- 
thinim, wliose descendants returned from 
Babylon (E/.ra ii. 47 ; Neh. vii. 49). 

GAI'US. A name identical with Caius. 
—1. A Macedonian, one of St. Paul's com- 
panions in travel (Acts xix, 29).-2. Another 
of St. Paul's companions : he was of Derbe 
(XX. 4).— 3. A Corinthian Christian, whom 
Paul calls his • host,' and whom he baptized 



(Rom. xvi. 23; 1 Cor. i. 14).— 4. A person to 
whom St. John addressed his third epistle, 
and whom he commends for his hospitality 
and liberality (3 John 1, 5, 6). This may be 
identical with one of those before named. 

GAL'AAB (Judith i.- 8 ; 1 Mace. v. 9, and 
elsewhere). A form of Gilead. 

GA'LAL (perhaps iveighty, ivorthy).—!. A 
Levite (1 Chron. ix. 15).— 2. Another Levite, 
son of Jeduthun (16 ; Neh. xi. 17). 

GALA'TIA. A province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and 
Bithynia, on the east by Pontus and Cappa- 
docia, from both of which it is separated 
by the river Halys, on the south by Cappa- 
docia and Phrygia, and on the west by 
Phrygia aaid Bithynia. The boundaries, 
however, seem not always to have remained 
the same : thus Lycaonia and Pisidia were 
at one time included in it, so that it then 
reached to Cilicia and Pamphylia on the 
south ; and in fact the kingdom of Galatia 
extended beyond Galatia itself. The inha- 
bitants were of Gallic and German origin. 
Their ancestors, after various wanderings, 
reached Asia Minor, and, defeated about 238 
B.C., by Attalus I., king of Pergamos, settled 
In a district previously Phrygian, which 
obtained from them the name of Galatia, 
or Gallo-gr£ecia, from their mixture with 
the Greeks. This country was subdued by 
the Roman consul Cn. Manlius Vulso, 189 
B.C. ; but the people had still their own 
princes, first called tetrarchs, afterwards 
kings ; the last of whom, Amyntas, the fa- 
vourite of Mark Antony, and then of Au- 
gustus, possessed, besides Galatia and 
Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia also. 
After his death, 26 B.C., Galatia and Ly- 
caonia were placed under the rule of 'a 
Roman governor. The country was fruit- 
ful, particularly near the river Halys. The 
people were of impulsive character, fond of 
war, and had preserved much of their 
ancient German language. Their principal 
towns were Ancyra, made the capital by 
Augustus, Tavium, and Pessinus, both these 
last-named having a good deal of trade. St. 
Paul is said to have twice visited this coun- 
try (Acts xvi. 6, xviii. 23), but he does not 
appear to have taken his post, as elsewhere 
he often did, in any of the principal towns, 
to organize there a central church. At a 
later period he speaks (2 Tim. iv. 10) of a 
visit of Crescens to Galatia. This person is 
nowhere else mentioned in scripture, but is 
traditionally said to have preached in this 
province and elsewhere. 

GALA'TIANS (Gal. iii. 1). Inhabitants of 
Galatia. The word occurs in the Maccabean 
history (1 Mace. viii. 2 ; 2 Mace. viii. 20). In 
the first-named place some have supposed 
the Gauls intended. But the defeat of the 
Galatlans by Vulso (see last article) is more 
likely intended. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., 
art. ' Galatia.' 

GALA'TIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. 
The gospel had been originally preached ])y 
St. Paul to the Galatians, who had received 
it with readiness, and had evinced the most 
remarkable affection for the apostle (Gal. ir. 
14, 15). But when he was absent a chansre 
had occurred. Judaizing teachers had de- 
preciated his apostolic authority, and had 



310 



pndearoured co enforce tlie necessity of : 
circumcision. Tlie Galatians, true to tbeir | 
imimlsive cliaracter, had eagerly given ear 
to the fresii teachers ; the ue^vs of ^viiich 
reaching Paul caused him to ^rite in order 
to check the growing mischief. 

Thi^ epistle mav he distributed into three 
sections : I. (i., ii.). This is apologetic, m 
which he maintains his own position as an 
apostle, independent of those m Jemsalem 
and as havins received the gospel hy special 
revelation, ^vith a peculiar commission to 
preach to the Geutiles. so that he had not 
hesitated, in defence of his principles, to re- 
buke Peter himself when he showed symp- 
toms of wavering. II. The next section 
Ciii i_Y 15) is controversial. Here St. Paul 
argues the question of justiflcation, mam- 
taUis that men cannot be justified before 
God bv works of law, that Abraham's risht- 
eou^ne^^ was bv faith, that his true child- 
ren who inherit his blessing are those who 
are of faith, that the law was given as a 
schoolmaster to lead men to Christ but 
that if they looked to it for justification they | 
cut themselves off from the benefit of j 
Christ's work, for by their circumcision they 
would become bound to keep the whole law. . 
Til A practical and hortatory conclusion ^ 
.V ie-vi. 18\ in which the apostle gives va- 1 
rious admonitions, touches again on the 
main subject of the letter, observes how, , 
contrarv to his custom, he had written (pro- : 
bablv^ the whole with his own hand, and con- , 
vevs his apostolical blessing. . . i 

it will be observed that this epistle is ; 
addressed to the ducrclies of Galatia (1. 2); ; 
it was intended, therefore, for all the be- 
lievin? communities through the province. | 
The date of its composition has been much . 
aue^tioned. It has been placed early by 
manv cSt?cs, not long after St. Paul's first 
visit to the country. The expression so , 
soon removed' (i. 3) countenances this; 
and it must be confessed that it is the ob- , 
vious inference from the passage, ^ever- ! 
thele« bv a careful putting together of 
various hints which are scattered through 
the epistle (i. 9, iih 2-5, iv. 13, 16, v. < , vi b), 
it would seem probable that some time had 
elaii=ed since the conversion of the Gaia- 
tiafis and also that the reference is rather 
to the apostle's second visit than to his 
flr=^t Mauv of t'ne best critics, therefore, 
decide that this epistle could not have been 
written before that residence of tot. Paul at 
Ephesus which is recorded m Acts xix. 
Absolute certainty it is perhaps not possible 
to attain ; but on the whole the halance of 
probabilities would seem m favour 01 thi. 
view And there is another consideration 
which mav have some influence on the ques- 
Son There is a great similarity between 
thisepistle and that to the Romans. In the 
la=t-named. indeed, the subject is treated 
Sore comprehensively, expanded mto a 
Complete theological argument ; ^^l^^e here, 
a= the dealings and the teachings of the Ju- 
daizers furnished the occasion of writing, 
=0 thev are continually met with special re- 
ference to the influence they had acquired 
amonff the Galatians. It is clear, therefore j 
that the epistle to the Galatians precedes 
tSat to the Romans. How long it is not easy 



TO sav. Some have placed them in point 
of time very close together. But St. Paul 
wrote to the Ronians from Corinth, not till 
after his nearlv-three years' residence at 
Ephe=us. To imagine that the letter to the 
Galatians was not composed tiU he reached 
Corinth is certainly not in harmony with 
the expression •' so soon' (Gal. i. 3), already 
referred to. Perhaps, therefore, while still 
connectins this epistle with that to the 
Romans, the latter being the filling out of 
the sketch in the former, we may not im- 
properly suppose that St. Paul addressed 
the Galatians from Ephesus about 54 or 55 
A.D. This letter is composed with great 
force and enersrv of language, mingled with 
touchins pathos. The genuineness and au- 
thenticitv of it have been universally ac- 
knowledged. It is expressly cited by Ire- 
! nffius ; and there are repeated allusions to it 
! by various early fathers. The objections 
j which have been brought against it are 
' quite unworthy notice. 
' Among the commentaries on this epistle 
mav be named the celebrated one of Luther, 
on which see Milner, aiiirch Hist, vol. iv.pp. 
509-5-''4 edit. 1S27, and those of Olshausen, 
Konigsb. 1840, and Elhcott, Lond. 1854, 1859, 

''"^GLA.L'BAXirM. One of the ingredients of 
the sacred perfume (Exod. xxx. 34). It is a 
resinous gum of a brownish-yellow colour, 
generallv occurring in masses, and of a 
strong disasreeable odour. TThen mixed 
with other fi-asrant substances, it made the 
perfume more lasting. It has generally 
been supposed the prod^ict of the Biibon 
nalbamim of Liunceus, which grows in Syria 
and Arabia ; but naturalists now question 
' thi= Probablv the galbanum brought from 
' different countries comes from different 
plants One to which the name OpouUa 
i Qcdbcmifera has been given grows in Persia, 
and yields, it would seem, the Persian gal- 

i ^^G^L'EED iu:mess-heap). The name which 
i Jacob save to the heap of stones raised in 
' mount Gilead for a memorial where he and 
i Laban made a covenant (Gen. xxxi. 46-49). 
i See GILE.U3, Je&ar-sahadutha 
i GAL'GAL (Ezek. x. 13, marg.). Translated 
1 ' wheel ' in the text. _ , n , 

! GAL'GALA (1 Macc. ix. 2). Probably 

i ^ WlL'ILEE (circle, or circuit). The name 
I bv which a region of Palestine was com- 
nionlv knoAvn. TTe find it first of all men- 
tioned to indicate the locality of Kedesh, a 
town of Naphtali (Josh. xT. 7, xxi. 32 ; 1 
Chron vi 76). Probably Galilee was then 
but the district which lay around Kedesh, 
in which were the twenty small cities that 
Solomon proffered to Hiram (1 Kings'ix. 11). 
The=e appear to have been inhabited chiefly 
bv Gentiles, especially by Phcenicians, 
whose country was near : hence the name 
'Galilee of the nations' (Isai. ix. 1: comp. 
1 Alacc V 15, 20-23). It was natural that by 
decrees, especially after that part of the 
country had been subdued and the original 
' inhabitants deported by the Assyrians, 
'itraneers should increase and occupy the 
surrounding territory. Hence the name 
Galilee was given to a region of wider ex 



311 



tent, till in our Lord's time it was one of 
the great divisions of Palestine, embracing 
the possession of the four northernmost 
tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, and 
Naphtali.together with the out-lying portion 
of Dan. 

Galilee was bounded on the west by the 
district of Ptolemais : on the south it 
skirted Carmel and the hills of Samaria by 
Scythopolis to the Jordan : eastward it was 
separated by the Jordan and the lakes of 
Gennesaret and Merom from the regions be- 
yond ; and to the north the border ran from 
ban westward to the territory of Tyre. 

The province was divided into upper and 
lower Galilee. The former comprised the 
mountain-range, a southern prolongation 
of Lebanon, which lay between Phoenicia 
and the upper Jordan. According to Jose- 
phus, it extended from Bersabe on the 
south to the town of Baca bordering on 
Tyre, and from Thelia, a place near the 
Jordan, to Meroth (Bell. J2cd.,lihAn. 3, § 1). 
These places have not been identified, and 
therefore the exact limits cannot be de- 
termined ; but, as Capernaum was in upper 
Galilee, the district must have touched the 
lake of Gennesaret, It was this which more 
especially was 'Galilee of the Gentiles' 
(Matt. iv. 15) ; reaching to ' the coasts of 
Tyre and Sidon' (Mark vii. 31). This region 
is picturesque : much of the table-land on 
the mountain-ridge is wooded and it is 
still well-peopled. 

Lower Galilee was a rich and beautiful 
region, comprehending the plain of Es- 
draelon with the hill-country extending to 
the mountain-range. Josephus says (uM 
supr.) it reached from Tiberias to Chabulon 
in the coasts of Ptolemais, and from Xalfvth 
(perhaps Chesulloth, Josh. xix. 18) to Ber- 
sabe in the north : it would seem, however, 
to have extended south to En-gannim, 
Ginea, or Jenin (Bell. Jud., lib. iii. 3, § 4 ; 
Antiq., lib. xx. 6, § 1). Tiberias, Nazareth, 
and Cana were in lower Galilee. 

From the intermixture of Gentile inha- 
bitants, Galilee was little regarded by the 
Jews (John vii. 41, 52). But it was highly 
honoured by the residence of our Lord ; 
and most, if not all, of his apostles were 
Galileans (Acts ii. 7). In the cities of Ga- 
lilee Christ taught ; and wehave the fullest 
record of the miracles he performed in this 
province. Indeed, the first three Gospels 
are almost exclusively dedicated to the nar- 
ration of his Galilean ministry till the 
approach of the period of the passion, to 
the exclusion of the history of his work in 
Judea. The natives of this region are 
noted for their bold and warlike character : 
their dialect differed from that of Judea 
(Matt. xxvi. 73 ; Mark xiv. 70), of which 
Buxtorf gives some curious examples (Lex. 
Talm. &c., cols. 434-436). After the destruc- 
tion of the Jewish polity, some of the most 
eminent schools of Hebrew learning were 
established in Galilee, especially at Tiberias. 
See Winer, BiU. BWB., art. 'Galilila;' Por- 
ter, Handb. for Syria and Palestine. 

GAL'ILEE, SEA OP (Matt. iv. 18 ; Mark 
i. 16; John vi. 1). See Gennesaret, 
Bea of. 

GALILE'ANS. Inhabitants of Galilee . 



[gamaliei 



The slaughter of Galileans by Pilate (Luke 
xiii. 1, 2) probably occurred at some feast at 
Jerusalem. Pilots were not uncommon 
then. But we have no account of that here 
referred to. 

j GALL. The Hebrew word rdsh, rendered 
• hemlock' in Hos. x. 4, Amos vi. 12, else- 
where generally 'gall,' is some noxious plane 
(Deut.xxix. 18 ; Psal. Ixix. 21), most probably 
the poppy; and thus (Jer. viii. 14) water 
of gall' would be poppy-juice. It stands 
sometimes for poison generally (Deut.xxxii. 
32). There is another word, mererah, or 
merorah, signifying the gall of the human 
l)ody (Job xvi. 13, xx. 25), also that of asps 
(XX. 14), the poison being supposed to lie in 
the gall. The Greek chole means a bitter 
humour of man or beast, taking sometimes 
a more general signification (Matt, xxvii. 
34) : it is used metaphorically in Acts viii. 
23. 

The draught offered to our Lord at his 
crucifixion is said by St. Matthew to be 
mingled with gall, by St. Mark with myrrh 
(Matt, xxvii. 34; Mark xv. 23). If the same 
transaction be intended, Mark specifies the 
ingredient, while Matthew shows that the 
effect was to render the mixture bitter ; as 
we say ' bitter as gall.' 

GALLERY. The word occurs in Sol, Song 
i. 17, marg. : it means, probably, a carved or 
fretted ceiliJig. A nearly-similar word (vii. 
5) means flowing locks : the original terra 
is derived from a root signifying to flow. 
As to the ' galleries ' of Ezek. xli. 15, 16, 
xlii. 3, 5, they may be pillars to support a 
floor, or projections, ledges. 

GALLEY (Isai. xxxiii. 21). See Ship. 

GAL'LIM {fountains). A town, the native 
place of Phalti to whom David's wife 
Michal had been given (1 Sam. xxv. 44). 
The only clue we have to its position is its 
being enumerated in the list of places on 
the line of Sennacheril/s march (Isai. x.30): 
we may hence infer that it was in the terri- 
tory of Benjamin, to the north of Jeru- 
salem. 

GAL'LIO. Marcus Annasus Novatus, 
brother of the eminent philosopher, Lucius 
Anna3us Seneca, was adopted into the family 
of the rhetorician Lucius Janius Gallio, and 
was thenceforth designated Junius Annsus 
Gallio. To him his brother Seneca dedi- 
cated one of his works, De Ira. He was 
proconsul of Achaia under the emperor 
Claudius, about 53 and 54 a.d. ; when St. 
Paul was accused before him (Acts xviii. 
12-16). He resigned his post because the 
climate was injurious to liis health. He is 
described as a man of singularly-amiable 
character. The manner of his death is 
variously stated. Winer (Bihl. BWB.^ art. 
'Gallio') thinks he was put to deatii by 
Nero : Jerome says he committed suicide. 

GALLOWS (Esth. ,v. 14, vi. 4, vii. 9, 10, 
viii. 7, ix. 13, 25). See Punishments. 

GAM'AEL (1 Esdr. viii. 29). Daniel (Ezra 
viii. 2). 

GAMA'LIEL (recompence of Ood).—l. The 
prince of the tribe of Manasseh in the wil- 
derness (Numb. i. 10, ii. 20, vii. 54, 59, x. 23). 
—2. A celebrated Pharisee and doctor of 
the law. He had great authority in the san- 
hedrim. Where he gave the prudent adrice 



QJLMES] 



Crra^ury at 



312 



to let the apostles alone (Acts iv. 33-40). St. 
Paul was liis pupil (xxii. 3). He is doubtless 
the same with Rabhan GamaJiel the aged, 
son of Simeon, and grandson of Hillel. 
Christian tradition asserts that he was bap- 
tized by St. Peter and St. Paul; but the 
Jewish authorities are more likely right, 
when they assert that he died a Pharisee, 
about eighteen years, it is thought, before 
the destruction of Jerusalem. 

GAMES. Of games understood as mere 
amusements of children or young people 
but little is said in the sacred volume. 
There are, however, a few allusions to 
the games which must have been common 
enough ; for, whatever may be the character 
generally of a people— more staid like the 
Hebrews and Arabs, or more mercurial like 
the Greeks— we cannot doubt that boys are 
boys all the world over, thoroughly disposed 
for play and well accustomed to it. And so 
we find freedom for such pastimes men- 
tioned as descriptive of prosperity and 
populousness : ' Tbe streets of the city shall 
be full of boys and girls playing in the 
streets thereof (Zech. viii. 5). Another 
passage of the same prophet (xii. 3) has 
been "supposed to allude to an amuse- 
ment practised by youths, viz. the lifting of 
heavy stones, which it was a trial of strength 
and skill to raise, and which different per- 
sons raised to the knees, to the breast, or 
above the head. St. Jerome declares that 
stones were placed for the purpose in his 
day, and that it ■\s'as a custom that had de- 
scended from ancient times {Comm. in Zach., 



imagined, as of some manly military play 
(2 Sam. ii. 14"), of intellectual contests 
(Judges xiv. 12-19), of fishing, and snaring or 
training birds (Job xli. 1, 5 : comp. Carey's 
note. The Book of Job, p. 407). There were 
also the festal amusements of song, aoid the 
use of floral crowns,of which we occasionally 
read (Psal. xxx. 11 ; Isai. xxx. 29 ; Jer. xxxi. 
13 ; Lam. v. 16 ; Luke xv. 25). But these last 
belong more particularly to private enjoy- 
ment ; and for some notice of them see 
Ba>'Qtjet, Marriage. 

Public games, such as those in which the 
Greeks delighted, were introduced into 
Judea by foreign influence. Thus we find 
the Syro-Macedonian kings promoting 
them. Antiochus Epiphanes built a gym- 
nasium at Jerusalem (1 Mace. i. 14), The 
prevalence, however, of heathen manners 
was deeply felt as a national sin by those 
Jews who 'strictly observed the ordinances 
of the law (2 ]Macc. iv. 12-20). Theatres and 
amphitheatres were subsequently erected 
in many cities of Palestine by the Herodian 
family ; and in these gymnastic contests 
were engaged in. Such contests were fa- 
miliar, too, to the apostles who visited and 
preached in Greek and Roman towns, and 
wrote letters to churches in whose vicinity 
the most remarkable games of antiquity 
were celebrated. It is not surprising, 
therefore, that we meet with frequent allu- 
sion to them in the New Testament. 

The most noted games in Greece were the 
Olympian, the Pythian, the Jsemean, and the 
Isthmian ; at the last of which St. Paul was 




Leaping, from a Greek intaglio. Jlontfaucon. 



Ifb. iii, cap. 12). Another interesting allu- 
sion to street-games occurs In Matt. xi. 16, 
where children are represented as divided 
into two parties, the one proposing to imi- 
tate first the mirth of a wedding and then 
the mourning of a fimeral ; to neither of 
which their companions would agree. Of 
other sports a few faint traces have been 



perhaps present on his first visit to Corinth ; 
near to which city they were held. The con- 
tests here were the pentatlilon (Sxe contests), 
leaping, running, quoltiug (see Discus), 
wrestling, and hurling fhe spear ; and the 
pankration (general trial of strength),wrest- 
ling, and boxing. 
The preparatory exercises of the candi- 



813 MhU ll:T0iDleU50. [games 



dates were painful and long-continued : j Numbers flocked to witness the spectacle, 
a particular diet was enforced ; and the and sat on raised seats at the sides of the 
training immediatelj before tlio struggle 1 oblong area, called the stadium, fixing their 




Wrestlers. From a Greek vase. 



was under the inspection of officers ap- 1 earnest gaze upon the competitors, whose 
pointed for the purpose. To this hard pre- names and country were announced by the 
paration reference is made by St. Paul in [ herald, and whose success was applauded 




Egyptian fencers. Rosellini. 



1 Coi, ix. 25; probably also in 1 Tim. iv. 8. 1 by the vast crowd of observers (Heb. xil. 1). 
Then, when the day was come, a herald pro- Certain regulations were prescribed; the 
claimed the opening of the games : an im- 1 breach of which, by affording an unfair 




Chariot-race. From Monttaucou. 



partial person sat as judge (2 Tim. iv. 8), 1 advantage, would disqualify for the prr/.e 
whose authority decided every question, (2 Tim. ii. 5). The apostle alludes tnereio, 
and assigned the crown to the victor. 1 when he describes his jealous care Icit 



games] 



314 



having proclaimed, like the herald, the con- 
test to others, he, himself heing a com- 
petitor, should he rejected, unsuccessful, 




Athletae. Montfaucon. 

or unworthy of the crown (1 Cor. ix. 26,27: 
comp. Alford's note on the place). 
SC. Paul borrows his figures from hoth 



and altogether overcoming him— such is 
the meaning in the verses just referred to. 
And this effect might well he produced ; for 
the hands of the hoxer were armed with the 
cestiis, leather straps studded with nails or 
bosses. In the race too (the metaphor be- 
ine taken from the foot-race, though there 
were also chariot and horse-races), the 
apostle ran not with vagite uncertainty, but 
as making steadily for the mark in view. 
He 'brings vividly,' says a writer in Dr. 
Smith's Diet, ofilie Bible, ' before our mmda 
the earnestness of the competitor, having 
cast off everv encumbrance, especially any ^ 
closelv-fitting robe (Heb. xii. 1), holding on 1 
his course uninterruptedly (Phil. in. 12), hia , 
ere fixed on the distant goal (Heb. xii. 2, xi. ! 
26), unmindful of the space already passed 
(Phil. iii. 13), and stretching forward with 
bent bodv, his perseverance (Heb. xii. 1), 
his jov at the completion of the course 
(Xct^ XX 24), his exultation as he not only 
feceives (Phil. iii. 12) but actually grasps (1 
Tim. vi. 12, 19) the crown which had been 
set apart (2 Tim. iv. 8) for the victor ' (vol. i. 
p. 65©). 

The prize in the Olympian games was a 
wreath of wild olive, in the Isthmian of 




Boxers. From a Greek vase. 



the boding ana r.o.ng o£ «e .am- ^^^^ g-'.TS ^S^S^V^^S.!^ iT^^ 
S>?on'.™?m''ilwS't?°plin?h"'blow^^^ olive or ^parsley : brandaes ot palm. too. 




Fighting with wild beasts. From Mazois' Pompeii. 



they were delivered with force and preci- 
sion, not at random into the air, but bruis- 
ing so to speak, the face of the opponent. 



were placed in the victors' hands (see 
Rev. vii. 9). . . . 

But these crowns, so fading, were prized 



315 



most highly, and the name of one who con- 
quered became illustrious: how much 
CTeater then should be the patience, the 
perseverance, the exertion of the Christian 
combatant, who gains not a mere perish- 
able chaplet, not just a name m the world, 



[games 

(comp. abp. Trench, Comm. on Epist. to Seven 
Churches, p. 147, who observes that the prize 
is promised not to those that enter the lists 
but to those that persevere). 

There were, besides the games in which 
men might engage or not at their will, con^ 




Gladiators in the arena, Pompeii. 



but a crown incorruptible, and whose glor- 
ious success is a theme of rejoicing through 
eternal ages (1 Cor. ix, 25)! In the earthly 
contest, many must be defeated in spite of 
all their pains ; one alone can receive the 
prize : in the Christian course, all who 



tests to which they were condemned for the 
amusement of the heathen multitudes. 
Such were the shows of gladiators, fighting 
with sAvords, or nets and tridents, &c., and 
the combats of criminals with wild beasts. 
It is true that men occasionally contended in 




Horse-race. Starting for the race. From a fictile vase. 



rightly contend shall obtain (2 Tim. iv. 81 ; 
there are many mansions in the heavenly 
Father's house (John xiv. 2), iox all that 
have faithfully trodden the way thereto (6) ; 
nor does the triumph of one individual pre- 
vent, it rather enhances, the happiness of 
ten thousand times ten thousand others 



these, who, like the bull-fighters of Spain, 
made the dangerous pastime their profes- 
sion. But the compulsion generally used 
had a mournful significance for the early 
Christians, who were repeatedly thrown to 
the beasts in the amphitheatres, as a due 
punishment, it was thought, forwhntwas 



317 



[garland 



called their execrable superstition. St. Paul 
may allude to these contests in 1 Cor. xv. 32 : 
the allusion is,however,there more probably 
a figurative expression. Some other refer- 
ences to them may be found scattered in 
his writings (see iv. Q ; 2 Cor. i. 9 : those 
so condemned were reserved for the 
last and exposed with their sentence ; 2 
Tim. iv. 17). Nero relined upon this mode of 
cruel execution by dressing the victims in 
the skins of beasts (Tacitus, Annal., lib. xv. 
44). 

GA]\IMA'DIMS (Ezek. xxvii. 11). This 
word has given occasion to numberless 
conjectures : see Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 
292. Perhaps it may signify bold warriors, 
watchful guards. The practice of hanging 
shields upon the walls of fortresses is 
illustrated by some of the Assyrian sculp- 
tures. 

GA'MUL {iceaned). The chief of one of 
the courses of the priests (1 Chron.xxiv.l7). 
GAR (1 Esdr. v. 34). 

GARDEN. The Hebrew word so translated 
signifies an enclosed place, hedged or 
fenced around to keep it from trespass or ' 
injury from animals. This is implied in the ? 
description of the happy garden of paradise. | 
It was planted in Eden, garnished with 
tz-ees * pleasant to the sight and good for I 
food,' well-watered also ; ' and the Lord God | 
took the man and put him into the garden, | 
to dress it and to keep it' (Gen. ii. 8-10, 15). 
The care of such a garden would be easy 
and pleasant, in contrast with that hard ' 
labour which after the fall was needed to \ 
make the earth yield her increase (iii. : 
17-19, 23). It must mainly have consisted in i 
the protection of it by fencing, the loosen- 
ing of the soil, and gathering out of stones 
(like that required for a vineyard, Isai. ' 
V. 2), and the careful directing of water to 
the plants and shrubs. This watering was 
essential to the very idea of a garden, i 
Hence we find fruitful districts, well- \ 
watered, described as gardens. Such, before ! 
the destruction of Sodom and the neighbour- ; 
cities, was the plain in which they stood 
(Gen. xiii. 10). Such was Egypt, fertilized by | 
the Nile and by the canals, or by wheels 
worked by the feet, made to convey the 
water to places which the natural inunda- 
tions would not reach (Deut. xi. 10). And, 
as there must be a sufficiency of water, so 
a redundancy must be specially guarded 
against. Hence, when gardens were culti- 
vated on terraces, they must be fenced with 
walls, that the violent rains might not in 
their downward rush carry off the soil and 
leave but the bare rock. 

The trees and plants cultivated in gardens 
of course vary with the situation. Those 
which grow in some countries wild, or need 
but little care, must in others be most caro 
fully tended. In Palestine the gardens were 
supplied with flg-trees (Gen. iii, 7), pome- 
granates (Sol. Songiv. 13), nut-trees (vi.ll), 
ines, olive-trees (John xviii. 1)— those 
places specially appropriated to the vine and 
the olive being called 'vineyards' and 
' ollveyards ' (Josh, xxiv. 13)— and other 
fruit-trees (Jcr. xxix. 5; Amos ix. 14). 
Modern gardens and orchards there are de- 
scribed as stocked with orange, lemon, and I 



mulberry-trees. Fruit-trees were not to 
be felled for purposes of war (Deut. xx. 
19, 20) ; while the quiet enjoyment of them 
indicated a state of security and comfort 
(1 Kings iv. 25 ; Mic. iv. 4). 

Besides fruit-trees, belonging to what we 
should more particularly call orchards, gar- 
dens were embellished with flowers and 
aromatic shrubs (Sol. Song iv. 13, 14, 16, 
V. 1, vi. 2), Dr. Saalschutz, and a Avriteriu 
Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible (vol. i. p. 651), 
infer from Isai. xvii. 10, and the Targum on 
Eccles. ii. 5, 6, that exotics were cultivated. 
There were also kitchen-gardens for culi- 
nary herbs, such as the Israelites longed 
for in the wilderness after tasting them in 
Egypt (Numb. xi. 5 ; Deut. xi. lo ; 1 Kings 
xxi. 2 ; Isai. i. 8 ; Luke xiii. 19). The lodge 
for the watchman or keeper (see Lodge) ds 
sometimes mentioned : also in the Apo- 
crypha we read of a 'scare-crow' (Bar. 
vi. 70). How beautiful these gardens, well- 
cultivated and adorned, were we may judge 
from the comparisons in which they are 
occasionally introduced (Numb. xxiv. 5, 6 ; 
Isai. li. 3 ; Joel ii, 3). The comparison which 
Balaam makes between a garden and the 
good order of the Israelitish encampment 
is the more just, when we remember 
that Egyptian gardens, as we gather from 
the monuments, were laid out in regular 
compartments. This, too, is said by Tal- 
mudical writers to have been the custom 
with the Hebrews, who, in order to observe 
precisely the prohibitions of the law (Lev. 
xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 9), carefully fenced ofl 
these separate divisions. 

Gardens were contiguous to palaces and 
large mansions (Esth. vii. 7). Great care 
was taken in the cultivation of them, for 
which gardeners were employed (John xx. 
15), who were acquainted with the art of 
grafting (Rom, xi. 17-24). They were the 
resort of persons for private meditation or 
social converse (see Getiisemais-e) ; also as 
places of idolatrous worship (Isai. i. 29, Ixv. 
3, Ixvi. 17). Feasts, too, were celebrated in 
them (Esth, i, 5 ; Sol. Song v. 1). They were, 
besides, used sometimes as places of burial 
(2 Kings xxi. 18, 26 ; John xix. 41). 

Solomon pleased himself with planting 
gardens (Eccles. ii, 5) : the position of those 
specially called his is supposed to be in the 
Wady Urtas, to the south of Beth-lehem (see 
Pool), There was also ' the king's garden ' 
repeatedly mentioned (2 Kings xxv, 4 ; Jer. 
xxxix, 4, Iii, 7), It appears to have been 
near the pool of Siloam, where the valleys 
of the Kidron and of Hinnom meet. See 
Saalschutz, Arch, der Hehr., cap. 11, vol. i. 
pp. 117-125, to which this article is much 
indebted. 

GARDEN-HOUSE (2 Kings ix. 27). See 
Ahaziah, 2, Beth-haggan. 

GA'REB (scabby). One of David's warriors 
(2 Sam. xxiii. 38 ; 1 Chron. xi, 40). He is said 
to be an Ithrite. 

GA'REB {id.). A hill near Jerusalem 
(Jer. xxxi. 39), Some have fancied that 
the lepers were placed there. See Winer, 
Bibl. RWB., art. ' Gareb.' 

OABI'ZIM (2 Mace. v. 23, vi, 2). A form 
of Gerizim, 
GARLAND (Acts xiv, 13). It was cus- 



GAELICJ 



318 



tomary at sacrifices to decorate, not only 
victims, but the altars, tlie priests, the very 
doors of tlie houses, with garlands or i 
wreaths. Guests at feasts were occasionally 
crowned with flowers (Wisd. ii. 7, 8). 

GARLIC. One of the Egyptian plants for 
which the Israelites murmured (Numb. xi. 5). 
It is the Allium sativum ; and large quanti- 
ties of it were anciently raised in Egypt. 

GARMENT. See DRESS. 

GAR'MITE. This appellation is given to 
Keilah, apparently the town (1 Chron. iv. 19). 
Nothing can be affirmed with certainty 

^^^GARRISON. The difterent Hebrew words 
BO rendered are from the same root; but 
thev do not all express the sense of our term 
' garrison.' The translation is accurate m 

I Sam. xiii. 23, xiv. 1, 4, 6, 12, 15; 2 Sam. 
xxiii. 14 ; but in 1 Sam. x. 5, xiii. 3 probably 
a pillar or monument was meant, which the 
Philistines had set up to mark their superio- 
rity or some victory gained, and which Jona- 
than threw down. The same word desig- 
nates the 'pillar of salt' of Gen. xix. 26. 
Further, in 2 Sam. viii. 6, 14 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 
13 • 2 Chron. xvii. 2, officers rather than 
garrisons are intended ; and in Ezek. xxvi. 

II pillars (perhaps those of the temple 
of the Tyrian Hercules) are meant. 

GASH'MU (rain) (Neh. vi. 6). A form of 
the name Geshem. . . ^ ^ ^.^ 

GA'TAM {one puny and tlmi). One ot tne 
sons of Eliphaz, Esau's eldest son, reckonea 
among the 'dukes' in Edoiu (Gen. xxxvi. 
11, 16 ; 1 Chron. i. 36). 

GATE, GATE-WAY. Gates and doors are 
the entrances to enclosed places, cities, and 
Duildings; the latter term, doors, being 
more generally applied to houses. 

The gates of cities were intended for se- 
curity and were therefore composed of 
durable materials. Thus we find brazen 
gates and iron bars mentioned (Psal . cyii. 16 ; 
Isai xlv 2), also an iron gate belonging to 
a prison (Acts xii. 10). We may suppose 
that they were sheeted vatli metallic plates. 



of the fortress he was attacking (Judges 
ix. 52 : comp. Neh. i. 3, ii. 17). Gates were 
generally two-leaved, and, as well as the 
gate-ways, were often highly ornamented : 




Sculptured gate-way at Karnak. From a 
photograpla. 

inscriptions being occasionally placed upon 
or over them (Dent. vi. 9, xi. 20). _ 
The gates of the temple were massive, made 
of fir, adorned with carved work, and over- 
laid with gold ; those of the oracle being ol 
I olive-wood, similarly carved and overlaid 
' (1 Kings vi. 31-35 ; 2 Kings xviii. 16 ; Ezek. 
xli. 23-25). There were nine gates Id 




Assyrian gate. From Nineveh marbles. 



Gates or at least doors, seem sometimes to 
have been made of stone. Thus Mr. Porter 
describes the yet-existing houses of Bashan, 
of which • the doors are massive slabs ot 
stone {Joiirn. of Sacr. Lit, July 1854). Pro- 
bably allusion is made to such gates m 
Isai liv 12 ; Rev. xxi. 21. Occasionally 
irates were of wood : this is evident from 
the attempt of Abimelech to burn the gate 



Cyclopean gate of Segni. 
Herod's temple overlaid with gold and sil- 
ver • but the most costly was the great 
external eastern gate, between the upper 
court and the court of the Avomen It was 
probably that called the 'beautiful gate, 
and made of Corinthian brass. The eastern 
gate of the interior sanctuary required 
twenty men to close it (Josephus, Bell. Jud.. 
lib. V. 5, § 3, vi. 5, § 3). 



319 



[gates 



Gates were secured by bolts or bars and 
locks (Deut. iii. 5 ; Judges xvi. 3 ; 1 Sam. 
xxiii. 7 ; 1 Kings iv. 13 ; 2 Ciiron. viii. 5 ; 
Neh. iii. 3, 6, 13, 15 ; Psal. cvii. 16, cxlvii, 13 ; 
Isai. xlv. 1, 2 ; Jer. xlix. 31 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 
11). In an unsettled state of society tliey 
were ordinarily closed : hence the throwing 
of them open signified peace or triumph 
(Psal. xxiv. 7 ; Isai. Ix. 11 ; Rey. xxi. 25). 
There were, however, wickets to afford a 
passage when the great gat;e was shut. 
Sometimes there was an inner and an outer 
gate (2 Sam. xviii. 24) ; and towers or other 
works were constructed to defend the gates 
of a city : watchmen also had the charge 
of them, or were placed on some adjoining 
turret, in order to detect the approach of a 
foe (2 Kings rii. 10, ix. 17 ; Neh, xiii. 22 ; 
EstJa. li. 21; Jer. xxxv. 4, xxxix. 4). Ene- 
mies were of course anxious to possess 
themselves of the gates ; and when these 
were occupied a town was usually regarded 
as taken (Deut. xxviii. 52, 57; Jer. xxxix. 3). 




Gate at Antioch, 



At the gates were places of public resort. 
Persons are therefore represented as sit- 
ting there, or as being likely to be met 
with there, as passing in and out (Gen. xix. 
1, xxiii. 10. xxxiv. 20, 24 ; 1 Sam. iv. 13, 18 ; 
2 Sam. XT. 2 ; Neh. viii. 1, 3 : Psal. Ixix. 12 ; 
Prov. i. 21). Markets were occasionally 
held at the gate (2 Kings vii. 1, 17, 18, 20; 
Neh. xiii. 20, 21), but rather of country pro- 
duce than of manufactured goods. Courts 
of justice, solemn assemblies, pageants, 
&c., were also at the gates (Deut. xvi. 18, 

xxi. 19, XXV. 7 ; Josh. xx. 4 ; Ruth iv. 1-12 ; 
2 Sam. xix. 8 ; 1 Kings xxii. 10 ; 2 Chron. 
xviii. 9 ; Job xxix. 7 ; Psal. cxxvii. 5 ; Prov. 

xxii. 22, xxiv. 7, xxxi. 23; Jer. xvii. 19, 
xxxviii. 7, xliii. 9, 10 ; Lam. v. 14 ; Amos v. 
12; Zech. viii. 16). Sacrifices appear to 
have been offered to idols, or in heathen 
cities, at or without the gates (2 Kings 

xxiii. 8 ; Acts xv. 13). Over gates were j 
chambers (2 Sam. xviii. 23) ; and there were 
probably recesses or places adapted for the 
business usually transacted there. Cri- 1 



minals were executed outside (1 Kings xxi 
13 ; Acts vii. 58) : so it is noted that our 
Lord suffered without the gate (Heb. xiii 

The same customs that we read of in 
scripture still prevail in the east. Thus 




Gate of Damascus. 

Dr. Thomson says, 'Tou observe that the 
gate-way is vaulted, shady, and cool ; that 
is one reason why people delight to as- 
semble about it. Again, the curious and 
vain resort thither to see and be seen. 
Some go to meet their associates ; others to 
watch for returning friends, or to accom- 




Gate called Bab -el-loutouh, Cairo. 

pany those about to depart ; while many 
gather there to hear the news, and to en- 
gage in trade and traffic. I have seen in 
certain places— Joppa, for example— the 
kady and his court sitting at the entrance 
of the gate, hearing and adjudicating all 
sorts of causes in the audience of all that 
went in and out thereat ' (The Land and the 
Book, pp. 26, 27). 

The gates of cities had particular names 
given to them: thus we find those men- 
tioned by which the gates of Jerusalem 
were known: see Jerusalem. This, too, 
is the modern custom: 'Gates have the 
same kind of names now as in ancient 



gath] 

times, generally derived from some acci- 1 
de^ital circumstance connected with them. 
One is Bab el-Bahar, "because it leads to the 
Qea That near which the tanners carry on 
their business is Bab el-DvJjbdgd. Then one 



320 




Gate at Nablus, ancient Shecliem. 

is Bah es-Slmrraiyeh, because the governor's 
palace is near it. And thus, too, the streets 
and difEereut quarters of the city derive 
their names. Those who follow the sanie 
trade congregate in the same street. This 
Is saddlers', the next blacksmiths' street, 




The Goiaen Gate, Jerusalem. 

and so on to the end of the list' (ibid., 
pp. 28, 29). 

The term ' gates' is sometimes used figu- 
ratively : thus we have the ' gates of hell,' 
or * of death ' (Job xxxviii. ] 7 ; Isai. xxxviii. 
10) ; and there was a remarkable promise 



given by our Lord, that the gates of hell 
should not prevail against his church (Matt, 
xvi. 18) ; where, says Dr. Alford on the place, 
' the gates of death, by a well-known ori- 
ental form of speech, are equivalent to the 
power of the kingdom of death. The form 
is still preserved when the Turkish empire 
is known as "the Ottoman Porte.'" The 
figurative expression to 'exalt the gate' 
(Prov. xvii. 19), i. e. to have the opening of 
the gate-way lofty, implies ostentation, 
which is likely to provoke envy, and there- 
f (^re leads often to destruction. It has been 
said that gates and gate-ways are orna- 
mented: this is especially the case with 
ates of palaces, on Avhich is much richness 
of decoration, found also on the doors of 
private dwelling-houses. Ancient Egyptian 
doors, with the modes of fastening them, 
sometimes by bolts or locks (comp. Judges 
ill. 23, 25), and occasionally by sealing them 
with a mass of clay, are represented in the 
sculptures, and serve to illustrate passages 
of scripture in which doors are mentioned. 

It may be added, that it is not uncommon 
in the interior of eastern houses to have 
curtains instead of doors. So there was 
a curtain at the entrance of the tabernacle, 
and also to separate the sanctuary from the 
holy of holies (Exod. xxvi. 31-33, 36, 37). 

GATH (a wme-press). One of the five 
principal cities of the Philistines, first men- 
tioned (Josh. xi. 22) as a place where some 
of the Anakim remained. There was, how- 
ever, a raid yet earlier, in point of time, 
made into the territory of Gath by some of 
the sons of Ephraim who were slain by 
those whom they were plundering (1 Chron. 
vii. 20-22). To Gath in turn the ark of God 
was carried when captive ; and it shared 
with other cities the heavy plague inflicted, 
and joined in the offerings made as atone- 
ment (1 Sam. V. 8, vi. 17). Gath, somewhat 
later, was one of the points to which the 
Israelites pushed their conquests after the 
great day of Mizpeh (vii. 14), The race of 
Anak was for long not extinct in this city. 
For several men of great stature are men- 
tioned as having been destroyed by David 
and his officers (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22 : 1 Chron. 
XX. 4-8), The most noted, however, of these 
was Goliath, whom David himself slew in 
the valley of Elah (1 Sam. xvii.). To Gath 
David fled when Saul sought to kill him. 
It was a strange place of refuge to select ; 
and, though Achish, the king, seems to have 
been willing to receive him, yet the jealousy 
of the people was excited, and David 
feigned himself mad to secure his escape 
(xxi. 10-15), A few years afterwards he 
again resorted to Gath, and was favoured 
by Achish, who exercised kingly rule there 
(xxvii.). And, though it does not appear 
distinctly that this authority extended over 
the whole Philistine country, and his wish 
was resisted of taking David with him to 
invade Isi-ael, yet it does seem as if he had 
a pre-eminence, a kindof suzerainty among 
the other chiefs, who are called but • lords. 
David, when king of Israel, subjected Gath 
(1 Chron. xviii. 1), probably allowing Achish 
some authority there as his vassal. For we 
find the same, or another bearing the like 
title, still called ' king ' in Solomon's reitfn 



•621 



(1 Kings ii. 39-41). Rehoboam fortified Gath 
(2 Chron. xi. 8) : in the reign of Jehoash, 
king of Judali, the Syrians took it (2 Kings 
xii. 17) ; and then it seems to have returned 
under Plillistine occupation. Uzziah, how- 
ever, captured and dismantled it (2 Ohron. 
xxvi.6), but possibly did not retain posses- 
sion ; as in the prophecies of Amos and 
Micah it is regarded as a Philistine city 
(Amos vi. 2 ; Micah i. 10). At what date the 
encounter between the Benjamites and the 
men of Gath, mentioned in 1 Chron. viii. 13, 
occurred, is not easily to be ascertained. 

The site of this celebrated city is uncer- 
tain ; and men most competent to judge, 
who have personally examined the country, 
differ in their conclusions. Mr. Porter tells 
us (in Dr. Smith's Dict.of theBihle,\o\. i.pp. 
655, 656), that, after careful search, ' he came 
to the conclusion that it was placed upon 
the conspicuous hill noAV called Tell es-Sctfieh. 
This hill stands upon the side of the plain 
of Philistia, at the foot of the mountains 
of Judah, ten miles east of Ashdod, and 
about the same distance south-by-east of 
Ekron. It is irregular in form, and about 
200 feet high. On the top are the founda- 
tions of an old castle ; and great numbers of 
hewn stones are built up in the walls of the 
terraces that run along the declivities. On 
the north-east is a projecting shoulder, 
whose sides appear to have been scarped. 
Here, too, are traces of ancient buildings ; 
and here stands the modern village, extend- 
ing along the whole northern face of the 
hill. In the walls of the houses are many 
old stones; and at its western extremity 
two columns still remain on their pedestals. 
Round the sides of the hill, especially on 
the south, are large cisterns excavated in 
the rock.' Mr. Porter then examines the in- 
dications we have in scripture of the posi- 
tion of Gath, and thinks that the spot he 
describes just answers all the conditions. 
Dr. Thomson forms a different judgment. 
He identifies Gath with the afterwards- 
noted Eleutheropoiis, now Beit Jibrtn. ' It 
appears to me,' he says, ' that Bethogabra, 
Eleutheropoiis, Beit Jibrin, and Gath, are 
all one and the same city. Khurbet Get, 
ruins of Gath, is the name now applied to 
one of the heaps of rubbish a short dis- 
tance westward from the castle of Beit 
Jibrin. The Hebrew word Bethogabra and 
the Arabic Beit Jibrin may be rendered 
" house of giants ; " which reminds us of 
Goliath of Gath and his family. And, fur- 
ther, I think that the Mareshah of Josh, xv 
44, which was re-built by Rehoboam, and is 
repeatedly mentioned in connection with 
Gath (2 Chron. xi. 8) was a suburb of the 
great capital of the Philistines. Benjamin 
of Tudela makes Mareshah and Beit Jibrin 
Identical ; and Jerome places them so near 
each other that they may be regarded as 
one and the same place. Micah probably 
wrote Moresheth-gath (Mie. i. 14),inorde{- 
to fix the location of the suburb bv the 
name of the main city' {The Land and the 
Book, pp. TiQA, 565). 

GATH-HE'PHER (wine-press of the well). 
The native place of the prophet Jonah (2 
Kings XIV. 25). It is the same with Gittah- 
nepher, a frontier town of Zebulun (Josh 



[gaza 



xix. 13). It is now called el-Meshhad, a vil- 
lage two miles east of Sefiirieh. 

GATH-RIM'MON (wine-press'of the pome- 
granate).— I. A city in the territory of Dan 
(Josh. xix. 45), afterwards assigned to the 
Levites (xxi. 24; l Chron. vi. 69).— 2. An- 
other city of the same name is also said to 
be allotted to the Levites from Manasseh 
west of the Jordan (Josh. xxi. 25). But per- 
haps this is a copyist's error : in 1 Chron. 
vi. 70 the place is called Bileam. 
GAULANI'TIS. See Golan. 
GA'ZA (the strong),—!. A city in the south- 
west of Palestine, lying on the great road 
from Egypt to Syria. It was a strong place, 
and, from its position, very important : It 
suffered, therefore, many sieges, and was 
frequently taken by conquerors. It is first 
mentioned (Gen. x. 19), in describing the 
extent of the Canaanite frontier. It is af- 
terwards noted, in the detail of Joshua's 
conquests, that he smote the people of the 
land to Gaza (Josh. x. 41) ; and, though it 
was assigned to the tribe of Judah, the 
place was not then conquered, but served 
as a i-efuge for some of the Anakim (xi 22 
xiii. 3, XV. 47). Afterwards Judah stormed 
Gaza (Judges i. 18), but do not seem to 
have retained possession of it. Perhaps it 
was lost in the Midianitish invasion (vi. 4) ; 
at all events M'e find it afterwards a Philis- 
tine town (1 Sam. vi. 1?). There Samson per- 
formed his exploit of carrying off the city- 
gate : thither he was brought a captive ; and 
there (as if it were then the Philistine 
metropolis) was that great exhibition 
of him when he avenged himself by the 
destruction of the house in which they 
were assembled (Judges xvi. 1-3, 21-30). 
Whether it was taken by David we do not 
know ; but Solomon seems to have possessed 
It (1 Kings iv. 24, where it is called 'Azzah ') 
In later times it was again Philistine, 
but was probaljly captured by Hezekiah 
(2 Kings xviii. 8). In the prophets, also. 
It is spoken of as Philistine (Jer. xxv. 
20, where ' Azzah,' xlvii. 1, 5 ; Amos i 6 7 ; 
Zeph. 11. 4 ; Zech. ix. 5). Pharaoh-necho is 
said to have smitten Gaza ; and probably 
this catastrophe is that mentioned by He- 
rodotus, who says that Necho took Cadytis 
(lib 11. 159). Cadytis has been supposed to 
be Jerusalem (see Prideaux, Com??., vol. i. pp. 
49-51) : it is with more reason believed to be 
baza. The disasters of this citv were not 
ended. Alexander the Great took it: it 
continued, however, a strong place, and is 
frequently mentioned in the Maccabean 
wars (e. g. l Mace. xi. 61, xiii. 43). It was de- 
stroyed by Alexander Jannasus, 96 b.c but 
shortly re-built : it was given by Augustus 
to Herod, and after his death included in 
the province of Syria. It was noted also in 
the crusades. We find a mention of Gaza 
(Acts viii. 26) which has caused some dis- 
cussion. Most probably the words ' which 
is desert' were part of the direction of the 
angel to Philip. There were, it seems, two 
roads from Jerusalem to Gaza, one through 
a tract of country desert, or without towns : 
this Philip was commanded to take. See 
Winer, Bibl. RWB., art. «Gaza;' Alford, 
Greek Test, note on Acts viii. 2C>. Gaza, now 
Ghuzzch, is a large town, with 16,000 or 



gazaraJ 



322 



18,000 inhabitants, partly on an oblong liill, 
partly in the valleys north and south. It 
is a little distance from the sea, m which 
there a so-called port, but really an open 
roadstead The commerce of Gaza is consi- 
derabte : corn-flelds are in the neighbour- 
hood : and the grinding of the mill is per- 
petually heard in the city (Thomson, The 
Land and the Book, pp.549, &c.).-2. A city 
named as belonging to Ephrami (1 ^hron. 
vii "8) ; but The name differs in several Mbb. 
It could hardly have been the noted Philis- 
I tine city, 

GAZ'AEA (1 Mace. ix. 52, xiu. o3, xiv. 7, 
34, XV. 28>. Possibly Gezer. 

GA'ZATHTTES. The inhabitants of Gaza 
(Josh. xiii. 3), called also Gazites. 

GA'ZER (a steep place) (2 Sam. v. 2o ; 1 
Chron. xiv. 16). See Gezer. „ , _ „ 
GAZE'BA—l. (1 Esdr. v. 31). Probably a 
corruption of Gazzam (Ezra ii. 48).— 2. (1 
Mace iv 15 vii. 45). Identical with Gazara. 

GA'ZEZ {shearer).—!, 2. The name of two 
persons, the son and grandson of Caleb (1 
Chron. ii. 46). ^ ^ 

GA'ZITES. The inhabitants of Gaza 
(Judges xvi. 2), called also Gazathites. _ 
G -VZ'ZAM {devouring). One of the iSTethi- 
nim, whose descendants returned from Ba- 
bylon (Ezra ii. 48 ; Neh. vii. 51). _ 

GE'BA {MID. A city of Benjamin (other- 
wise called Gaba), afterwards allotted to the 
priests (Josh, xviii. 24, xxi. 17 ; 1 Chron yi. 
60) It was here that, in the early part of 
Saul's reign, the Philistines had ' a garrison 
(1 Sam. xiii. 3); though, most likely, the word 
so translated means a pillar or monument 
tvhich they had set up to commemorate 
Bome victorv. However this may be, Geba 
marks the scene of an exploit of Jonathan, 
5\-here a narrow pass is described between 
two rocks, one over-against Michmash, the 
other over-against Geba; for such, not 
Gibeah, is the word in the original (xiv. 5). 
And this locality seems to have been iden- 1 
tiflcd. There is now a village, Jeba, on the , 
summit of a hill just opposite another vil- 
lage, Mukhmas. The identification is con- 
firmed by the notice of the march of the 
Assyrian army (Isai. x. 28-32): the 'carriages, 
or heavv waggons, had to halt at Michmash : 
the lighter troops passed the ravine, and 
took up their quarters at Geba ; the nature 
of the ground giviug the strongest testi- 
mony to the accuracy of the detail. It was 
from Geba to Gazer, or Gezer, that David s 
pursuit of the Philistines extended (2 Sam. 
V 25^ : the place was fortified by Asa (1 
Kings XV. 22 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 6), and is men- 
•-ioned ;is the northern limit of the king- 
dom of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 8). The nanie 
repeatedly occurs elsewhere (1 Chron. vm. 
6 ; Ezra ii. 26; Keh. vii. 30, xi. 31, xii. 29 ; 
Zech. xiv. 10). . . , , , 

GJB'i? J. (Judith iii. 10). This is probably 
the modern Jeba, a large village on the 
brow of a hill, three or four miles north- 
east of Samaria. 

GE'BAL {mountain).—!. Aname occurring 
in Psal. Ixxxiii. 7, as confederate with 
many enemies of Israel. It is generally 
supposed to indicate the mountainous 
tract extending from the Dead sea south- 
ward to Petra, still munod Jehai. But some 



writers identify it with No. 2, as mentioned 
in conjunction with Tyre. The confederacy 
referred to was probably that against Jeho- 
shaphat (2 Chron. xx. 1, 2). The psalm might 
have been composed on that occasion : it is 
ascribed to Asaph ; and one of the family 
of Asaph was inspired to encourage the 
Jewish king with the assurance of victory 
(14-17).— 2. A place spoken of in con- 
nection with Tyre (Ezek. xxvil, 9), most 
probably the residence of the Giblites, 
and therefore to the north of Palestine 
(Josh. xiii. 5). The Giblites were employed 
as stone-carvers by Solomon at the building 
of the temple (1 Kings v. 18). It appears to 
he the town afterwards known by the name 
Byblos, and now called Jehail by the Arabs. 
It is seated on an eminence near the Medi- 
terranean, north of Beirut. 

GE'BER (a man).—l. One whose son had 
one of Solomon's commissariat districts in 
Argob and the adjacent country (1 Kings 
iv. 13).— 2. A person who himself took 
chare-e of a district in Gilead, south of that 
just named (19). The latter part of thererse 
probablv means that he was the chief, the 
single superintendent of the othertrans-J or- 
danic officers, or of the rest of the country. 

GE'BIM {trenches). A place apparently 
not far from Jerusalem on the north, the 
inhabitants of which are represented as 
preparing to flee on the approach of Sen- 
nacherib's army (Isai. x. 31). 

GEDAEI'AH (whom Jehovah has made 
powerful).— I. The son of Ahikam Jeremiah's 
protector, who, after the taking of Jeru- 
salem, was appointed governor of the land 
under Nebuchadnezzar. He was treacher- 
ously murdered by Ishmael (2 Kings xxv 
22-25 ; Jer. xxxix. 14, xl. 5-16, xli., xliii. 6). 
GedalialVs death was afterwards observed 
as a national fast in the seventh month 
(Zech. vii. 5, viii. 19).— 2. One of the sons of 
Jeduthun, a chief musician (1 Chron. xxv. 
3 9) _3 A priest who had married a foreign 
wife (Ezra x. 18).— 4. One of the princes, 
son of Pashur, who complained of Jeremiah 
to Zedekiah the king (Jer. xxxviii. 1-5) — 5. 
The grandfather of the prophet Zephaniah 
(Zeph. i. 1). 

GED'DUB (1 Esdr. V. 30). Perhaps a cor 
rupt form of Gahar (Ezra ii. 47). 

GED'EOX (Heb. xi. 32). The Greek form 
of Gideon, which see. 

GED'EON. An ancestor of Judith (Ju- 
dith viii. 1). , . 

GE'DER {a waJD. A city, perhaps m the 
south of Palestine, whose king was one of 
those overcome by Joshua (Josh. xii. 13). 

GEDE'llAH {an enclosure, a sheep-fold): A 
town in the plain country of Judah (Josh. 
XV. 36). , , , . 

GEDE'RATHITE. A native or resident 
of Gederah (1 Chron. xii. 4\ Jozabad, so 
called, was a Benjamite, but he might have 
lived at Gederah. 

GEDE'RITE. A native of Geder, or Ge- 
derah (1 Chron. xxvii. 28). . 

GEDE'ROTH {sheep-folds). A city m the 
plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41; 2 
Chron. xxviii. 18). 

GEDEROTHA'IM {tico sheep-folds). A 
place in the plain country of Judah (Josli. 
XV. 36). 



I, 



I 

I ' 

I 

i; 

i 



323 



GE'DOR (walD.—l, 2. Two names, occur- 
ring among the genealogies of Judah (l 
Cliron. iv. 4, 18) : it is questionable whether 
persons are here meant, or a place— 3. A 
Benjamite mentioned in the genealogy of 
Saul (viii.3], ix. 37). 

GE'DOR (id.).-l. A town in the hill-coun- 
try of Judah (Josh. xv. 58). It is probably 
the modern Jediir, halfway between Beth- 
lehem and Hebron.— 2. A place to the en- 
trance of which the Simeonites are said to 
have gone to seek pasture for their flocks 
(1 Chron. iv. 39). It was, perhaps (comp. 42) 
in the direction of mount Seir. But some 
would read Gerar, after the Septuagint. 
See Wilton, Negeb, pp. 248, 249,-3. The 
birth-place or residence of Jerohara, fa- 
ther of two chiefs who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chron. sii. 7). Most likely it was in 
Benjamin. 

GEHA'ZI {valley of vision). The minister 
or attendant on the prophet Elisha. He it 
was that suggested that the Shunammite 
had no child,when the prophet had proposed 
to do something for her; and he, when the 
child that was given died, was sent to lay 
his master's staff upon its face (2 Kings iv ) 
For his false and fraudulent conduct in re- 
gard to Naaman, he was punished with in- 
curable leprosy (v.). He is once again heard 
of narrating to the king (Joram ? ) the won- 
derful deeds of Elisha (viii. 4, 5). 

GEHEN'NA. The Greek form of gev- 
hmnom, ' the valley of Hinnom ' (Josh, xv 8) 
a ravine to the south of Jerusalem, where 
the Jews offered their children to Moloch 
and which was polluted by Josiah (2 Kings 
xxiii. 10). In consequence of its gloomy 
appearance, of the fires burning there, and 
of Its being a receptacle for foul things, the 
word was used as symbolizing the place of 
eternal punishment, and translated 'hell" 
(Matt. V. 22, 29, 30, X. 28, xviii. 9, xxiii. 15 33 • 
Mark ix. 43, 45, 47 ; Luke xli. 5 ; James iii. 6).' 
See HiNNOM. 

GELI'LOTH (regions, borders, perhaps cir- 
cles). A place mentioned in describing the 
boundary of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 17). But 
when the same frontier is elsewhere de- 
scribed, we find Gilgal (xv. 7). Geliloth was 
therefore either another name for Gilgal or 
appears by a transcriber's error. ' 

GEMAL'LI {camel-driver). A descendant 
cfi . '^^^^^^ Ammiel was one of the 
selected spies (Numb. xiii. 12) 

~1. The son of Hilkiah, sent on an embassy 
from Zedekiah to Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 
XXIX. 3) -2 The son of Shaphan, from 
th^rolf n?^''^^^^f^ ''^^ the'peipS 
10 n 9 9.^®''^^'''^'^ Prophecies (xxxvi. 
lu, li, 12, 25). His name is spelt in the 
ongina somewhat differently from that of 
th€ first-named person. 

can^bi'^mlfi'^f M"- There 
can be httle doubt that the textual 

Stores, Prectotjs. 

by whfch'^?'^^' '^^^ a race, 

hf=>torv of f °r ^ connecting thread, the 
i^f ^ i^? famihes and then of nations is 
of'^'^f"- ^criptSe nar?attve 
nas much of a biographical character ; and 



[geneaxogy 



It is by means of the genealogies which are 
interwoven that the chronological sequence 
IS preserved. These genealogies are highly 
valuable as early ethnographical documents: 
but there is a still higher purpose that they 
are intended to serve. On man's first crea- 
tion he was commanded to Increase and 
multiply ; and the first promise after the 
fall was that the woman's seed should be a 
deliverer from the curse which sin had in- 
flicted. It was important, therefore, to 
trace the line of succession, and to show 
how that promise held, link by link pro- 
ceedmg in an orderly chain, till in the ful- 
ness of the time the Son of God appeared, 
born of a woman. And, besides, it was in 
one particular line, limited from time to 
time to Abraham's posterity, and then to 
the tribe of Judah, and afterwards to 
David's family, that the fulfilment of the 
original utterance would be seen. So that, 
to make manifest how God's word was 
faithful, and how in Abraham all nations 
would be blessed, and how the stem of Jesse 
should shoot forth, and David never want a 
man to sit upon his throne, to expound to 
the world the long-drawn prophecies, 
guided by a faithful hand, all converging to 
one object, the Messiah— for such reasons 
it was needful to preserve the genealogies. 

And those other lines of descent whi^h 
we And in scripture illustrate God's faith- 
fulness also. Ishmael was to swell into a 
vast nation ; and we have his generations re- 
corded ; how twelve patriarchs issued from 
his loins, each the father of a multitudi- 
nous tribe, till the expanse of country from 
Assyria to Egypt was filled with them (Gen. 
XXV. 12-18). Esau was to become a nation ; 
and we have his descendants chronicled, 
and the princes and the kings that ruled 
over them (xxxvi.). 

But it was in the covenant-people that 
the greatest minuteness of detail was re- 
quired. Not only must the line of Messiah 
be distinctly marked ; but, as to Judah the 
kingdom, so to Levi the priesthood was as- 
signed ; and the priests for their respective 
courses (1 Chron. xxiii.-xxvii. ; 2 Chron. 
xxxi. 15-19) must show their genealogies ; 
else they could not be permitted to minister 
before the Lord (Ezra ii. 61-63; Neh, vii. 
63-65). The heritage of Canaan, moreover, 
was parcelled out among the tribes : Israel 
alone must have it (Ezra ii. 59, 60 ; Neh. vii. 
61, 62) ; and inheritances could not pass from 
tribe to tribe. These were sufii cient reasons 
why the genealogies are found in the sacred 
records. And, when the reasons ceased, no 
more genealogies were detailed. The Aa- 
ronic priesthood came to an end : the tribes 
were carried into captivity ; and their land 
was given to strangers : Messiah was come, 
all promise being fulfilled in him, for it was 
' evident that our Lord sprang out of 
J udah ' (Heb. vii. 14) ; and therefore we have 
in the New Testament only the genealogy 
of Christ recorded. 

Tbe genealogy of Christ is twice given, by 
St. Matthew (i. 1-17), and by St. Luke (iii. 
2.3-38). But there is a remarkable variation. 
For, though so far as David it is the same, 
yet from David two lines diverge, two 
names alone occupying a place in both. 



324 



Hence tliere has heen endlef deMte ; a^d^ 
because so many bare Pei-=isted in re,= ^ 

f-nrdance For tlie appearance of Zeiubbaoei 
and SalatWel in each line was perplexing, 

?rom the public registers; and the sacred 
historians as men of common sense would 
nnt load their cause with a contradiction, 
whi h ff real mSst inflict most serious dis- 
lilm on them. But the ^^^stion is not to 
hp nnt a«ide in this manner. And there is 

reasons so satisfactory, that it i^ mat^^^ 
surprise that any other shou d Jiave been 
reported to. According to this the genea 
o<^ies are both of Joseph, the oneshowmg 
him le-al successor to the throne of David , 

fperlonSTedlgree supplying th^^^^^ 
of thp other If it he objected that Christ 
o^M to be proved David's son through his 
real mother, it must be replied that on 
TPwiTminciples it was quite sufiicientfor 

probability, amounting .^eU-nigh to cer 
taintv, that Mary was by blood as weu as oy 
marriage of that line. , .t,^^ thPrp pre 
Now let it be remembered that there are 
very strong denunc atmns against both 
Tphoiachin and Jehoiakim (Jer. xxii 30, 
Jxxvi m It is not easy to suppose that 
Sher of them could be a progenitor of 
Me^^iah. We should rather n^-agine that 
any children they might have ^jould he cut 
o3 without continuing t^^e royal line And, 
if this were so, Solomons house tauiUc., 
the next heir to David's throne would be 
David?descendant through some ot^ier of 
his sous It is thus, then, that baLainiei 
and zSubbabel, the posterity of Ivathan 
a?e brought into the. re gal li-e and placed 
in «ncce-sion to Jehoiachm. Still tne reoru 

hX4 that Jacob and Hell ^-ere Dotb liis 
so s And then, It Jacob Md no sons but 
only . datigbters and Jo=el^^^^^^^^^^ I™; 
Si-tben hi bee Jme. on the principle 

would be, in that case, first cousins in the 

ienl.'?n^d?^nsnt'b?.V^"^ 
wonW be lully complete both 1", aspect to 

ss-^■t\^fust-n?tbfSSe^;trat?h^ 



Jews were in the habit of making mherit- 
ait7e and blood-relationship go_ together ; so i 
timt the marriage under the circumstances ; 
suipo.ed^i^d^be entirely natural it may | 
beSed that it is implied that Mary, as ; 
Bell as Jo'eph, was of David's line, by its 
being necessaiV for her, as well as for h mi 
to -o to Beth-lehem at the enrolment. It 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

positive evidence, at least favours nega- 
tivelv the explanation given. 

Sto the omission of certain generations 
hv ^t Matthew, it was a common practice 
?^t?'the Jews to arrange genealogies m 
divisions, each consisting, of some pai ti- 
cular number; and for tDis they did not 
heiiLto to repeat or to leave out genera- 

^^TlSre are pedigrees of the house of David 
in 1 Chron. iii. Lord A. 0. Hervey has care- 
fullv examined these, and has shown that, 
Iv reSf? ng a transcriber's error, remark- 
aWe confirmation is given to thejeneal^ 
2ips of theKew Testament. But for aeiai.& 
fl ?reader must be referred to his val^^^^^ 
work on the Genealogies of Our Lonl Jesus 
^GENERAL (1 Chron. xxvii. 34). See Ar- 
Mi^ CAPTAi>-. The captain, of the host or ^ 
commander-in-chief is 1^ ere intended i 

fiFXERATIO^i'. This word, theienqerm o 
of^re than one original term is v^^^ : 
used in our version of scripture.. It some , 
rimes signifies a history or family descent , 
TrsinGen.ii.4itimpliestheh^^ 

origin of the heavens and of the eaxtn , m \ . 
2 vl 9 - Matt. i. 1 the genealogical record of 
Adam &c. Sometimes it means those living 
at anv g ven time (Psal. xcv. 10 ; Matt, 
xxiv 34 where, however, comparing xii. 4o, 
Sue have understood ^1^^ P^T^Ts-^HeS' 
the Jewish nation ; Luke xi. 29-32 , lieo. 
ii 10? - hence a class of persons (Prov. 
XXX ?1-14 ; Acts ii. 40 ; l Pet. ii. 9) ; or those 
o?a like Quality (Psal. xiv. 5) ; men of the 
=aine dfsposmon and pursuits d^^^^e xvi 8^ 
^hpre our Lord intended to say that the 
feneration or class of the woridly take more 
S?e for what thev deem their own mtere^t 
tTan'th^Teneration or class c>f pe children 
^-F nrri-it- Thp word m Isai. iiu. o nab uet-u 
Ssiy Fntlrpreted. • eternal vvo^^:, 
'if P%ha"^s?t''^y be'\J.^derrt^oThg4 
VboTe, "onfemporarles ■: the generation 
" 1 -mT iro-Qinh lived was c£ that evil cha- 
ScTei t i??onguf coi^^ scarcely describe 
riieir depravity (see Henderson, Isaiah, 
^ TL'^erm also sometimes supposed 
to signify a definite time, according to 
our 'ufaS, when we call thirty or thirty- 
three years a generation But . it /eems 
hpttpr to interpret Gen. xv. 16 liteiaiij oi 
descents Moses and Aaron, and others 
who went out of Egypt, were the fourth 
genei^tion from Jacob. To many, however 
of their contemporaries, there weiemore 
finir^fn the chain Between Jsahshon, prmce 
S^JuSlfin'the wilderness, -d J.cob, five 
intervened ; between Joptiua and Jacoo 
eleven (1 Chron. vi. 2-27) Moses and A.iron. 



325 



[genesis 



too, liad children, and Aaron probably a 
grandson, born before the exodus. Still 
there were those, as above shown, of the 
fourth generation from Jacob, who actually 
went out. The reader will find this topic 
discussed, with a reply to recent objections, 

' in Birks' Exodus of Israel, chap. iv. pp. 32-47. 

j Of descent the word must also be under- 
stood in Gen. 1. 23 ; Deut. xxiii. 2, 3, 8 : it is 

' used indefinitely in xxxii. 7; Psal. xc. 1, 

C. 5. 

t GEN'ESIS, THE BOOK OF. The first of 
the five books into which the Pentateuch is 
now divided, so called from its Greek title in 
' the Septuagint version; the word signifying 
generation or prod uctioji. By the Jews it is 
I usually termed BerisMth (' in the begin- 
j ning'), that being its initial word, 
j Genesis is divided in Hebrew bibles into 
i twelve perashioth or larger sections, and 
j forty-three sedarim or shorter sections : 
; with us it is distributed into fifty chapters. 
Various other divisions have been proposed. 
Thus Kurtz (Die Einlieit der Genesis, pp. 
Ixvii., Ixviii.) supposes that after an intro- 
duction (i., ii. 3) it contains ten sections, 
each with a special and similar heading, 
• These are the generations,' or ' This is the 
book of the generations.' They are the 
generations (1) of the heaven and the earth 
(ii. 4-iv. 26) ; (2) of Adam (v. 1-vi. 8) ; (3) of 
Noah (vi. 9-ix. 29) ; (4) of the sons of Noah 
(X. 1-xi. 9) ; (5) of Shem (xi. 10-26) ; (6) of 
Terah (xi. 27-xxv. 11) ; (7) of Ishmael (xxv. 
12-18) ; (81 of Isaac (xxv. 19-xxxv. 29) ; (9) of 
Esau (xxxvi.) and (10) of Jacob (xxxvii. 1-1. 
26). This distribution illustrates the plan and 
unity of the book. But perhaps, with refe- 
rence to the scope and purpose, which is to 
exhibit the foundation of the theocracy af- 
j terwards established, and to describe the 
! origin of God's church in the world, which, 
placed upon the firm rock of primary 
promise, shall be gradually tried, and beau- 
tified, and glorified in a happier state than 
man forfeited by the fall, we may regard Ge- 
nesis as comprising two parts. I. The early 
■ history and genealogies of mankind (i.-xi.26 
; including, from the creation to the flood, 
man's formation and settlement in paradise 
(i., ii.), his fall and expulsion (iii.), the state 
i of the antediluvian world (iv. 1-vi. 8), the 
\ flood and restoration of the world (vi. 9-ix. 

29) ; from the flood to the call of Abraham, 
; tbe genealogy of nations (.x.), the confusion 
of tongues, and the line of descent from 
which the chosen race should come (xi. 1-26). 
\ II. The early history of that race (xi. 27- 
1. 26), under three leading patriarchs : Abra- 
ham, detailing his call and the limitation of 
\ the promise in his son Isaac (xi. 27-xxv. 18) 
j —Isaac (xxv. 19-xxviii. 9)— Jacob, including 
I his family history, into which is introduced 
] a notice of Isaac's death, and of the pos- 
terity of Esau (XXXV. 28-xxxvi. 43), and the 
I descent into Egj^pt, with some supplemen- 
i tary particulars to the death of Joseph 
(xxviii. 10-1. 26). 

Many modern critics have employed them- 
selves in tr^'ing to detect a mythical element 
In the book of Genesis, as if its statements, 
particularly the earlier ones, conveyed 
j truth only in an allegorical form ; and in 
; dissecting its style in order to show that it 



is not the work of a single historian, but a 
mere aggregate of documents, separate tra- 
ditions of primeval story put togethei 
without much skill or exact precision. 

The ground of the first is a reluctance to 
admit the supernatural. Events are as- 
sumed to be the mere sequence of natural 
causes ; and the writer who mentions the 
active working of the Deity is thought 
either in his ignorance to have transformed 
the wonderful into the miraculous, or, if 
better informed, to have consulted the taste 
of his age by investing very common oc- 
currences with a mythic colouring, and thus 
to have produced mere ' unliistoric' legend. 
It is not explained why a prose history, foi 
the most part plain and straight-forward 
which can be tested, and has been shown, 
by the accounts given of manners, sceneiy, 
climate, natural productions, to contain lite- 
ral truth, should from time to time suddenly 
interweave incredible stories. The ordinary 
rule is that, if a witness is accepted so far 
as he can be confirmed, credit is extended 
to him even where corroborative proof can- 
not be obtained. And therefore we do not 
hesitate to receive Genesis as a record ol 
facts, careful only not, by a wrong interpre- 
tation, to make the writer speak our own 
notions rather than what his words properly 
expounded would really mean. Many who 
regard this book, and others of scripture, as 
embodying legends, profess at the same 
time great reverence for them, and will not 
allow the rejoinder that no creditable per- 
son would write legend as if it were truth, 
or introduce himself to his readers in grave 
composition as other than he really was. 
We must not be afraid of the offence so 
taken, but must hold to the solid maxim, 
that, if the supernatural element we find in 
a record claiming God's authority, proves 
to be only legend, such claim is false in 
fact, and also in intention, and is therefore 
deserving of the highest moral blame. Even 
ignorance loitli such pretensions would be no 
excuse. This topic cannot be pursued here. 
Ecr some notice of the literal truth of the 
earlier chapters of Genesis see Ceeatio^t, 
and for the vindication generally of super- 
natural power see Miracle. 

Critics, moreover, have attempted to dis- 
member Genesis, as if it were the inartificial 
combination of two or more distinct writers. 
If this meant merely that the author had 
made use of previously-existing truthful 
documents, no valid objection could be 
urged. Such documents are introduced by 
several of the sacred penmen into their 
respective books. But it is further assumed 
that each distinct writer had his own pur- 
pose and predilections, and has fashioned 
his narrative, not according to truth, but 
according to his particular temperament 
and ruling notions. Dr. Hupfeld, in his 
Quellen der Genesis, is one of the most noted 
critics who has so amused himself. He 
dissects the book of Genesis after a marvel- 
lous fashion, and finds, as he believes, ad- 
ditional writers cropping out in places least 
suspected. No learning could justify such 
rash presumption. Dr. Hupfeld's mode ol 
proceeding is in some degree exposed in 
'Koxne' Q Introduction. \o\. ii. edit. Ayre, pp 



I genxesar] 



326 



580, 5S3-587, 605. It is remarkable tlaat, gene- 
rally speaking, the critics wlio propose to 
dismemijer Genesis do not by any means 
asree tosetlier. Tliey imagine two principal 
writers fbut poraons. that some confidently 
ascribe to the one, others equally sagaci- 
ous as confidently ascribe to the other. Of 
this subject little more can be said here; and 
the reader must be referred to the article 
on the Pextateuch. 

The imitv of Genesis maybe successfully 
defended. 'Even if it be granted, as above 
said, that earlv documents were used, yet 
it was a master-hand that, under divine 
euidance, moulded them into shape, and 
developed through the whole one leading 
idea ; so that, as by a golden thread, all the 
parts are connected, that thread being the 
thread of promise, inviting the faith of the 
infant church, and exhibiting the most re- 
markable proof that the ancient fath-ers 
were not content with transitoiy things. 
Their faith bearat a steady expectation of 
good to come Taud in that faith they died, 

• not having received the promises, but j 
having seen them afar off, and were per- I 
suaded of them, and embraced them, and ' 
confessed that they were strangers and • 
pilgrims on the earth ' ^Heb. xi. 13). Ge- I 
nesis is an appropriate introduction to Ex- ^ 
odus : and it is the key to the rest of the | 
scripture. Without its narratives the mis- ; 
sion of the Redeemer could hardly have ■ 
been comprehended ; and therefore very ; 
properly mav it be said with respect to ; 
Genesis, as our Lord said generally, that 
:!»Ioses wrote of him (.John v. 46). 

Various questions respecting the author 
and date of this book will be more properly 
considered elsewhere, in the article ah-eady 
referred to on the Pentateuch. 

It mav be added that the period of time 
comprised in the history of Genesis is, ac- 
cording to the vulear computation, about 
2,369 vears. Many chronologers, however, 
wotild extend this period. See Cheoxo- 

LOGY. ^ 

Prophecies specially pointing to the Mes- 
siah are found in Gen. iii. 15, xii. 3, xviii. 18, 
xxii. 18, XX vl. 4, xxvlii. 14, xlix. 10. 

GEXXE'SAE.THE WATER OF (iMacc. 
xi. 67). The lake of Gennesaret. 

GEXXE'SARET. SEA Oil LAKE OF. A 
lake of Palestine ^Luke v. 1), called also the 

• sea of Chinnereth ' (Numb, xxxiv. 11 ; 
Deut. iii. 17), 'Chinneroth' (Josh. xi. 2), 
there beins: a town called Chinnereth near 
(xix. 35\ 'the sea of Galilee' (Matt. iv. 18 ; 
Mark i. 16, vii. 31), and ' the sea of Tiberias ' 
(John vi. 1). In 1 Mace. xi. 67 it is called 
Gennesar, and it is now Bahr Tiibarlyeli. 
This lake is described as not presenting, at 
least as to its modern aspect, any parti- 
cular feature of beauty. Anciently it was 
surrounded bv busy cities : vessels crossed 
its waters: the sights and sounds of life 
were there. Now it is solitary : the cities 
are no more : the fishing-vessels have ceased 
to ply their occupation : the aspect is bleak, 
and the scenery monotonous. Yet, almost 
more than to any oTl.er spot, do the affec- 
tions of the Christian heart cling to the 
lake of Gennesaret. It was by its shores 
that the divine Redeemer walked : m the 



towns adjacent to it he lived and taught, i 
He calmed tue storms which disturbed it. | 
He brought miraculous draughts of fish ; 
from its waters. He selected his apostles : 
from those who dwelt close by it. Most of , 
the deepest recollections of him, apart from 
his birth and death, are somehow connected 
with the lake of Gennesaret :— 
• How pleasant to me thy deep blue wave, 

O sea of Galilee ! 
For the Glorious One who came to save. 
Hath often stood by thee. 

***** 
It is not that the wild gazelle 

Comes down to drink thy tide ; 
But he that was pierced to save from hell 
Oft wandered by thy side. 

***** 
0 Saviour, gone to God's right hand. 

Yet the same Saviour still. 
Graved on thy heart is this lovely strand. 
And every fragrant hill.' 

McCHE"!rN-E. 
The shape of this lake is an irregular oval ; 
the larserend being towards the north : its 
greatest lensth is fourteen miles, its great- 
est breadth nine (Thomson, The Land and 
the Book, p. 400) ; but the dimensions given 
bv other authorities are slightly different. 
Its level is 652-2 feet below that of the Me- 
diterranean. It is therefore a deep basin, 
formed most likely by volcanic agency, 
throush which the Jordan flows, entering 
the lake on the north, quitting it at its 
southern extremity. The cliffs by the 
shores are mostly of a hard porous ba- 
salt. The banks on the east are nearly 
2,000 feet above the waters, being the huge 
buttress-walls of the table-land of Bashan. 
The heat is great along the shores ; but the 
waters are cool, sweet, and abound with 
fish. Like other mountain-lakes it is often 
suddenly and violently agitated with winds 
(Matt. viii. 23-27). , , ^ . ^ 

A district adjoining to the lake is called 
the 'land of Gennesaret' (xiv. 34; Mark 
vi. 53). Some abortive attempts have been 
made to identify this with a plain on the 
north-eastern shore ; but, as the miracle of 
feeding the 5,000 was performed on the 
eastern side of the water, and as our Lord, 
with his disciples, afterwards crossed to 
the other side, there can be no reasonable 
doubt that the district intended is that 
now called el-Ghuvjeir, between Khan Min- 
veh and Mejdel. Josephus describes it as 
of marvellous beauty, and exceeding fruit- 
fulness {Bell. Jud.,lUx iii. 9, § 8). But it is 
now waste, and, as Dr. Thomson says, ' pre- 
eminentlv fruitful in thorns.' It is, ac- 
cording to the same author, somewhat 
more than thirty furlongs in length, and 
not quite twenty broad. In summer and 
spring it is watered by various streams, 
which in summer are dry (pp. 347, 348). 
GEXXE'US (2 Mace. xii. 2). 
GENTILES. The Hebrew word(7oYm(plur.\ 
often rendered 'nations,' is occasionally 
used geographically, in a more or less in- 
definite sense, as in Gen. x. 5, where lands 
in the far west are intended. But it gene- 
rally sienified those who were not He- 
brews ; and, as they were aliens from the 
worship, rites, and privileges of Israel, the 



327 



word acquired a hostile meaning. Gentiles 
were those whom Jews d-isliked and ac- 
counted as profane, incapable of God's fa- 
vour. In Josh. xii. 23 the original might 
be more properly rendered * the king of the 
Gentiles at Gilgal,' where, Gesenius remarks, 
apparently Gentiles had settled down among 
the Hebrews. * Galilee of the nations,' or of 
the Gentiles (Isai. ix. 1 ; Matt. iv. 15), the 
same critic interprets ' the circle of the 
Gentiles,' i.e. the district inhabited mostly 
by Gentiles, especially by the neighbouring 
Phoenicians. The Greek word etJme (plur.) 
is used for Gentiles in Rom, xi. 13 ; Eph. 
iii. 1, 6 ; so " also hellen (plur. hellenes), 
Greek or Greeks, very often indicated Gen- 
tiles, that is, those who were not Hebrews. 
In some places, indeed, it occurs in its pro- 
per sense (Acts xvi. 1, 3, xviii. 17 ; Horn. i. 
14), but more generally, even when our 
translators render it 'Greeks' (e.g., Rom. 
ii. 9, 10 : comp. x. 12, marg.), it has the wider 
signification. The disciples of Christ, being 
Jews, inherited the national dislike to Gen- 
tiles ; and it was with astonishment that 
they learned that ' God also to the Gentiles 
granted repentance unto life' (Acts xi. 18) 
See Heathen. 

GENU'BATH (theft). The son of Hadad, 
an Edomite of the royal family, by the sister 
of Tahpenes, the Mug of Egypt's wife 
(1 Kings xi. 20). 

GE'ON (Ecclus. xxiv. 27). The river of 
Eden, Gihon. 

GE'RA (a grain, seed, or berry).— I. A son 
or, more probably, grandson of Benjamin 
(Gen. xlvi. 21 ; l Chron. viii. 3, 5, 7). It is 
likely that but a single person is spoken of 
in these places, a grandson of Benjamin : 
had Gera been a son of the patriarch, he 
would doubtless have been named in Numb, 
xxvi. 38-40, as head of a family. The genea- 
logy in l Chron. viii. 1-7 is confused; and 
possibly there may bs some transcriber's 
error. Or Gera, Benjamin's son, may have 
died young and childless ; and there may 
have been a grandson of the same name.— 
2. The father of Ehud (Judges iii. 15).— 3. The 
father of Shimei (2 Sam. xvi. 5, xix. 16; 
1 Kings ii. 8). Lord A. C. Hervey is inclined 
to believe Nos. 2 and 3 identical with No. 1, 
the common ancestor of Ehud and Shimei. 

GE'RAH (id.). See Measures. 
_ GE'RAR (a lodging-place). A city and ter- 
ritory of the Philistines, which had at a very 
early period a king named Abimelech, per- 
haps the regular title of its chiefs (Gen. 
X. 19, XX. 1, 2). It is possible that this district 
might be the birth-place of Isaac. Abraham 
sojourned here, as also Isaac, and both com- 
mitted the sin of denying their wives in 
Gerar. Both, too, made a treaty with the 
reignmg sovereign, after departing from 
(jerar, to dwell in Beer-sheba. Amid the 
Bimplc habits of nomad life such a repe- 
tition of events is not improbable (xx., xxi 
^2-34, xxvi.). Gerar was a fertile country ; 
ror there Isaac reaped a hundred-fold. The 
exact limits of its territory it is not possil)le 
to ascertain ; but it lay to the south of Gaza, 
^K^K would seem, almost to Beer- 

Bheba Ic was the point to which Asa pur- 
suea the Ethiopians ; and the expressions 
then used prove it to have been a rich pas- 



[GEaiZIM 

toral country (2 Chron. xiv. 12-15. The valley 
of Gerar has been thought to be the modern 
Wady es-Sheriah ; and some travellers have 
found traces of an ancient city near. Mr 
Wilton has investigated the matter with 
much care. He believes that the country of 
Gerar reached far to the south ; as the set- 
tlements of the Philistines were certainly in 
earlier times to the south of the districts 
they subsequently occupied along the sefi- 
coast. The metropolis, to which Isaac first 
wenc, he admits may have been at Khirbet 
el-Gerar, three hours south-south-east of 
Gaza ; but the ' valley of Gerar,' to which he 
retired at Abimelech's suggestion, he be- 
lieves to be the modern Wady el-JerUr 
much more to the south. There are indi- 
cations here of fertility and ancient tillage 
(The Negeb, pp. 237-250). 

GERGESE'NES (Matt. viii. 28). According 
to several manuscripts, the right reading in 
this place is thought to be Gerasenes, i. e. 
inhabitants of Qerasa, a city not mentioned 
in scripture, but yet known to be anciently 
of considerable importance. It was a town 
in Gilead, now termed Jerash, about twenty 
miles east of the Jordan, and five miles 
north of the Jabbok, the modern Zurka. 
The ruins are very beautiful and extensive : 
vast numbers of columns still remain, and 
huge masses of masonry. This place was 
too far from the lake of Tiberias to be the 
scene of the miracle described ; but, as in 
Its days of prosperity it had a large district 
attached to it, called by its name (possiblv, 
too, superseding the name derived from 
Gadara), the spot where the possessed with 
devils were cured might be in the province. 
See Gadarenes, Gadara: see also Dr 
Alford's note on the place. 

GERGESI'TES (Judith v. 16). The Gir- 
gashites. 

■GERIZ'IM (mountain of the Gerzites, 
dwellers in a shorn or desert land). A moun- 
tain in close proximity to Shechem, and 
opposite to mount Ebal. There is a Sama- 
ritan tradition that it was on Gerizim 
that Abraham was called to oifer Isaac ; and 
it is urged, in support of it,that to a traveller 
journeying from the Philistine plain, Ge- 
rizim would be seen afar much more con- 
spicuously than Moriah at Jerusalem, and 
further, that there was a Moreh near to 
Shechem (Gen. xii. 6 ; Dent. xi. 30). But 
those most competent to form an opinion 
are decidedly opposed to the supposition. 
Dr. Thomson does not believe that Abra- 
ham would traverse the Philistine plain on 
his route, and declares it impossible, the 
habits of the country considered, that the 
patriarch, starting from Beer-sheba or near 
Beer-sheba, could reach Gerizim the third 
morning (The Land and the Book, p. 475). 
Besides, the site of the temple was specially 
called mount Moriah (2 Chron. iii. i). See 
Moriah. There is another tradition, still 
less trustworthy, that Melchizedek met 
Abraham on Gerizim. The only shadow of £, 
reason in favour of it is that there is said 
to be a Shalem or Salem near SJiechem ; 
but the Salem of which Melchizedek was 
king was far more probably Jerusalem. 

Passing from the region of conjecture to 
that (jf certainty, we find Moses directing 



GEREHENIANS] 



328 



that, when Israel had passed into Canaan, 
they should place a blessing upon mount 
Gerlzim, and a curse upon mount Ebal, six 
tribes standing upon each, and all the people 
responding to what the Levites pronounced ; 
an altar, too, being built on Ebal, or, ac- 
cording to the Samaritan Pentateuch, on 
Gerizim, on which the words were to be 
written (Deut. xi. 29, 30, xxvii.). This was 
accordingly done (Josh. viii. 30-35). Some 
difficulty has been felt in regard to the 
topographical description of the two moun- 
tains as 'in the land of the Canaanites, 
which dwell in the champaign over-aganist 
Gilgal.' But it is very probable that this 
Gilgal was not the place of the Israelites' 
early encampment after crossing the Jor- 
dan : see Gilgal. Besides, as bp. Patrick 
observes in his note on Deut. xi. 30, ' it is 
not said that the mountains were over- 
against Gilgal, but the dwelling of the Ca- 
naanites (in whose country these mountains 
were) was over-against it : ' see Ebal, where 
some other considerations are urged. It 
may be added that it was from Gerizim 
that Jotham addressed his parable to the 
men of Shechem (Judges vii. 20). 

Objections have been made to these state- 
ments, as if it were impossible for the 
human voice to be sufficiently heard. Dr. 
Thomson has some good remarks on the 
matter (pp. 473, 474) ; and a late traveller, 
Mr Mills, has effectually settled it. His 
tent was placed between the moun- 
tains, in a spot where he thinks the ark 
might have stood. He ascended Gerizim, 
while a friend stood on Ebal. Mr. Mills 
read out the blessings ; and his voice was 
distinctly heard at the tent, and by his 
friend on Ebal ; who then read the curses 
with a similar result (see Mills, Three 
Months' Ees.at Nablus, and Account of Mod. 
Samaritans, pp. 49, &c.). , . . ^ 

After the captivity, Sanballat obtained 
leave from Darius Nothus to erect a temple 
on Gerizim : here, therefore, the Samaritans 
worshipped, till their temple was destroyed 
bv Hyrcanus (Prideaux, Connect., vol. i. pp. 
358-368, vol. ii. p. 262, edit. 1858). They Still 
however, had an altar here, and cherished 
a determined hatred against the Jews (John 
Iv 20 21). Of the later history of Gerizim 
it must be sufficient to say that a Christian 
church was at one time built ou it, that 
it is still highly venerated by the small 
remnant of Samaritans, and called Jebel 
et-Tiir. 

Dr Thomson believes the yet- existing 
ruins to be those of the Samaritan temple ; 
more probably they may ho those of the 
Chri stian church. They are extensive ; the 
main building being 241 feet from east to 
west, and 255 from north to south. Ihe 
walls are about six feet thick, and from 
seven to fifteen feet high. There are no 
ornamental carvings on any of the stones ; 
but they are well cut, and bevelled after 
the Jewish or PhaBiiician manner. On the 
north there is a lower terrace of the moun- 
tain, covered with ruins, as of a village ; 
and west of the main edifice is a smootn 
plat, now used by the SaDiaritans for then- 
tents when they go there to celebrate their 
feasts. For vastness and variety the pros- 



pect from this temple is not surpassed by 
any in Palestine ' (pp. 476, 477). 

GERBRU'NIAh'S (2 Mace. xiii. 24). The 
inhabitants of Gerar, Gezer, or possibly 
Gaza. 

GER'SHOM (expulsion, according to some, 
a stranger there).—!. The eldest son of Moses 
by Zipporah (Exod. ii. 22, xviii. 3). The 
family of Moses were not elevated .above 
the ordinary Levites (1 Chron. xxiii. 14) : 
hence we find his descendants filling subor- 
dinate posts. One of these was probably that 
Jonathan who was priest in Micah's house 
of images, and afterwards at Dan (Judges 
xviii. 30) ; for the ' Manasseh ' named as 
his ancestor is not unreasonably thought 
to be Moses. Another was Shebuel, trea- 
surer in the reign of David (1 Chron. xxiii. 
15, 16, xxvi. 24).— 2. The form in which the 
name of Gershon, the son of Levi, appears 
in several places (vi. 16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71, xv 
7) _3. X priest who accompanied Ezra to 
Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 2). 

GER'SHON (expulsion). The eldest son ol 
Levi (Gen. xlvi. 11; Exod. vi. 16, 17; 1 
Chron. vi. 1). Gershon is repeatedly writ- 
ten Gershom. See Gershom, 2. 

GER'SHONITES. One of the great fa- 
milies of the Levites, descendants of Ger 
shon (Numb. iii. 21, 23, 24, iv. 24, 27, xxvi 
57 ; Josh. xxi. 33 ; 1 Chron. xxiii. 7 ; 2 Chron 
xxix. 12). When the census was taken in the 
wildern ess, the number of their males above 
a month old was 7,500, those between 
thirtv and fifty, 2,630 (Numb. iii. 22, iv. 40). 
The Gershonites appear to have held the 
middle rank of the three families of Levites. 
It was their duty, when the tabernacle was 
moved, to carry the coverings and hangings 
(iii. 17-26, iv. 22-28, 38-41, vii. 7, X. 17, xxvi. 
57). When they reached Canaan, thirteen 
cities were allotted to them out of the ter- 
ritory of Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and 
eastern Manasseh (Josh. xxi. 6, 27-33). Se- 
veral eminent men were, in later times, of 
this family, as Asaph (1 Chron. vi. 39-43) ; 
and their service was duly arranged in the 
days of David (xxiii. 7-11). 

GJEB'SON (1 Esdr. viii. 29). Gershom 
(Ezra viii. 2). ^ ^ 

GER'ZITES ri Sam. xxvii. 8, marg.). See 
Gezrites. a connection has been supposed 
between this tribe and Gerizim, as if they 
had once occupied the district around that 
mountain, and had afterwards migrated 
southwards. But there is no historical 
trace of this, only a presumption arising 
from the name. , ^ ^ 

GE'SEM, TEE LAND OF (Judith 1. 9). 
The land of Goshen. 

GE'SHAM (JlWiy^' descendant of Ju- 
dah, probably of the family of Caleb (1 
Chron. ii. 47). In several editions of the 
bible it is more accurately called Geshan. 

GE'SHEM (rai7i). An Arabian, possibly 
chief of some tribe, or holding some ap- 
pointment from the Persian king, who 
united with Sanballat and Tobiah to oppose 
Nehemiah in re-building the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. ii. 19, vi. 1, 2). He is called 
Gashmu in vi. 6. . . 

GE'SHUR (a bridge). A small princi- 
pality of Syria, allotted to the tribe of Ma- 
nasseh, but not for some time subjected 



329 



[gezeb 



(Josh. xiii. 13). It seems to have formed 
part of Bashan, a district perhaps of or 
beyond Argoh, bordering on the territory 
of Damascus. Jair's conquests could scarce- 
ly have comprised Geshur (comp. Deut. 
lii. 14 with 1 Chron. ii. 23) ; and we find 
that, in David's time, it was ruled by 
a petty prince, Talmai, whose daughter 
David married, and by whom he had Ab- 
salom. To his father-in-law's protection 
Absalom fled after the murder of Amnon 
(2 Sam. iii. 3, xiii. 37, 38, xiv. 23, 32, xv. 8 ; 
1 Chron. iii. 2). 

GESHU'RL— 1. The inhabitants of Geshur 
(Deut. iii. 14).— 2. A tribe bordering on the 
Philistines to the south (Josh. xiii. 2). The 
same word appears also as 

GESHU'RITES.— 1. The people of Geshur 
(Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 11, 13).— 2. A tribe of the 
desert to the south of Palestine, border- 
ing on Aral)ia and the Philistines (1 Sam. 
xxvii. 8). 

GE 'THE R (t^regrs?). One of the sons of 
Aram (Gen. x. 23 ; 1 Chron. i. 17). -The tribes 
descended from him have not yet been as- 
certained. 

GETHSEM'ANE (oil-press). This wa;^, 
perhaps, originally a small grange, with a 
garden attached to it, one of the pleasure- 
grounds which, in the happier days of the 
! holy city, abounded in the country just 
1 outside the walls. Gethsemane must have 
I been beyond the Kidron (John xviii. 1), on 
: the slopes of Olivet (Mark xiv. 26 ; Luke 
I xxii. 39), a place well known, and where 
1 Jesus often resorted with his disciples 
! (Matt. xxvi. 36 ; Mark xiv. 32 ; John xviii. 2). 
I It was there that the agony of the passion 
^ afflicted the Redeemer, there that he prayed 
: so earnestly to his Father, there that the 
sweat, like blood-drops, dripped upon the 
ground. 

I The place supposed to be Gethsemane 
; Is about half-a-mile from the city. ' We 
' descend,' says Bartlett, 'the steep broken 
I path into the valley of the Kidron, 
I and, crossing its dry bed by a small arcli, 
I reach a group of singular and venerable 
objects. First, on our right, is a stony plot 
of ground, surrounded by a low wall, and 
enclosing eight olive-trees of very great 
antiquity . . . supposed to be those of the 
garden of Gethsemane, a tradition we would 
not willingly disturb. There is something 
very impressive in the spot, shady and si- 
lent as it is, shut in by the high dead wall 
of the temple above on one side, and the 
woody heights of Olivet on the other. The 
hum of the insect, a distant cry, or occa- 
sional foot-fall seem to deepen its profound 
quietude, which, as Robinson remarks, is 
almost like the loneliness and stillness of 
the desert. Through an opening in the 
trees is seen the angle of the wall, hanging 
above the sepulchral valley of Jehoshaphat, 
whose melancholy cliffs close in the view. 
The trees themselves reminded me of the 
celebrated cedars of Solomon on mount 
Lebanon, in the disproportionate hugeness 
of their venerable trunks to the thin fo- 
liage above. For ages the pilgrim has knelt 
and kissed them with tears, carrying thence 
a few of the scattered fruit, or a portion of 
the bark, to remind him of the spot where. 



for his salvation, the soul of his Redeemer 
" was so rrowf ul even unto death." And, 
though there may be nothing which es- 
tablishes this as the exact site of the gar- 
den of Gethsemane more than any other 
place in the immediate neighbourhood, yet 
there is, perhaps, no instance in which the 
pious feeling that led the early Christians 
to fix every trace of the Redeemer's foot- 
steps has so nearly lighted on the actual 
locality as here ; while the character of the 
spot is such as powerfully to impress the 
imagination. To him, indeed, who has once 
sat beneath the shadow of these trees, 
there is scarcely any scene which is more 
deeply traced in his memory, clothed in its 
peculiar indescribable mournfulness. Im- 
mediately opposite to this group of trees 
is a descent, by steps, to the singularly- 
picturesque front of an extensive cavern, 
originally an important sepulchre, in latter 
ages called "The Tomb of the Virgin'" 
(Walks about Jerusalem, pp. 98, 99). Just 
adjoining this cavern is another, called 
' The Grotto of Gethsemane.' Dr. Thomson 
is not disposed to admit the spot described 
to be really Gethsemane. * When I first 
came to Jerusalem,' he says, ' and for many 
years afterwards, this plot of ground was 
open to all whenever they chose to come 
and meditate beneath its very old olive- 
trees. The Latins, however, have, within 
the last few years, succeeded in gaining 
sole possession, have built a high wall 
around it. . . . The Greeks haA^e invented 

another site a little north of it My own 

impression is that both are wrong. The 
position is too near the city, and so close 
to what must have always been the great 
thoroughfare eastward, that our Lord would 
scarcely have selected it for retirement on 
that dangerous and dismal night. In the 
broad recess north-east of the church of 
Mary there must have been gardens far 
larger and more secluded ; and ... it is 
nearly certain that all the gardens around 
the city were thrown open, during the 
great feasts, for the accommodation of the 
pilgrims; so that he could select the one 
best adapted to the purpose for which he 
retired from the crowded city. I am in- 
clined, therefore, to place the garden in the 
secluded vale several hundred yards to the 
north-east of the present Gethsemane' (The 
Land and the Book, p. 634). 

GEU'EL (majesty of God). A person of the 
tribe of Gad, selected as one of the spies 
(Numb. xiii. 15). 

GE'ZER (a steep place). One of the ancient 
cities of Canaan, which Joshua took (Josh. 
X. 33, xii. 12). It lay upon the western bor- 
der of the tribe of Ephraim, to whom it was 
given, but was not at once thoroughly 
subdued (xvi. 3, 10 ; Judges i. 29 ; 1 Chron. 
vii. 28). Yet it was a Levitical city (Josh, 
xxi. 21 ; 1 Chron. vi. 67). It is named as the 
point to which David on one occasion pur- 
sued the Philistines (2 Sam. v. 25 ; 1 Chron. 
xiv. 16) ; and, possibly having revolted, or 
still being held by the Canaanites, it was 
destroyed by Pharaoh, and given up to 
Solomon, who fortified it as an important 
post (1 Kings ix. 15-17). In Maccabean 
times it was known by the name of Gazera 



GEZRITES] 



330 



Its site has not been exactly identified ; but 
it is evident that it must hare been beyond 
the lower Beth-boron towards the sea (Josh, 
xvi. 3). Once it is named as the same ^-iih 
Gob (2 Sam. xxi. 18 ; 1 Chron. xx. 4), and 
twice it is called Gazer (2 Sam. v. 25: 1 
Chron. xiT. 16). ^ 

GEZ'RITES. A tribe on whom David 
made incursions while resident in Phil- 
istia (1 Sam. xxvii. 8). They are called also 
Gerzites. It is not easy to identify them. 
Gezer was too far north. 
GHOST. See Spirit. 
GHOST, HOLY. See HOLY GHOST. 
GI'AH (breakina forth, i. e. of a fountain). 
A place named (2 Sam. ii. 24) to indicate the 
position of the hill of Ammah. 

GIANT. There is repeated mention in 
scripture of individuals and races of extra- 
ordinary stature. We find them noticed 
prior to the deluge, as generated by those 
♦ sons of God ' ' who came in unto the 
dausrhters of men,' a fierce and depraved 
race— nephilim they are called— who had 
filled the earth with violence, and, by then- 
uneodiiness, provoked the awful judgment 
which followed (Gen. vi. 1-7). There have 
been various speculations as to the true 
meaning of this account : for some brief 
notice see Sons op God. 

In after-times we have mention of the Re- 
phaim, noted first in xiv. 5, of whom Og 
king of Bashan is said to have been a soli- 
tary remnant (Dent. ill. 11) ; see REPHAiii. 
The Anakimwere also a gigantic tribe ; and 
they inspired the unfaithful spies with such 
terror, that they describe them in exagge- 
rated terms : ' We saw the children of 
Anak there :' 'We saw the giants, the sons 
of Anak, which come of the giants ; and we 
were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and 
so were we in their sight ' (Numb. xiii. 28, 
33). These people must, however, have 
been of remarkable size, as we find that 
their names had passed into a proverb 
(Deut. ii. 10, 11; ix. 2). Mr. Drew's note 
{Scripture Lands, pp. 77, 78) on this subject 
Is worthy attention. ' Judging,' he says, 
'from mummies, the figures of the ancient 
Egvptians were slight; and their stature 
averaged about 5^ feet. The contrast be- 
tween them and the robust descendants of 
the giant settlers in Hebron would strike 
the people with the same impression that 
the traveller from Egypt, who comes into 
Falestine across the desert, now feels when 
he finds himself surrounded by the groups 
of stalwart men of Dhohireyeh.' At the time 
of the Israelitish conquest of Canaan, as 
previously, the Anakim were settled in the 
neighbourhood of Hebron, divided probably 
into three clans (Numb. xiii. 22), and were 
extirpated by Joshua, with the exception 
of some few of the race, who lingered in 
certain Philistine cities (Josh, xi, 21, 22, 
xiv. 12-15; Judges i. 20). There were also 
other gigantic tribes, as the Emins in the 
region of Moab (Gen. xiv. 5 ; Deut. ii. 10, 11), 
and the Zuzims, or Zamzummims, in the 
country of Amnion (Gen. xiv. 5 ; Deut. ii. 20). 
Individual descendants of the Anakim were 
Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4), whose height was 
six cubits and a span (upwards of ten feet), 
Ishbi-benob, Saph or Sippai, Lahmi, and 



another not named, all slain by David and 
his warriors (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22 ; 1 Chron. xx. 
4-8). 

The accounts of gigantic tribes have been 
supposed to be confirmed by the discovery 
of vast bones. Modern science, however, 
has generally proved these bones to be the 
remains of animals, not of men. And, so 
far as research has gone, ancient tombs, 
mummies, armour, &c., give evidence that, 
from the earliest historic ages, the ordinary 
size of the human race has been nearly the 
same. But the existence of certain tall 
tribes is neither incredible nor improbable : 
indeed, we know on the surest evidence 
that, according to climate, there is a va- 
rietv in the sizes of men; the natives 
of the extreme north, as the Laplanders 
and Esquimaux, being diminutive, while 
those of other regions— the Patagonians, 
for example, and othertribes of South Ame- 
rica— though not so gigantic as they were 
once represented, are remarkably tall. Tall- 
ness of stature is often found to run in 
families; and there are plenty of examples 
within modern memory of individuals at- 
taining the extraordinary height of seven 
■ or even eisrht feet. See ASAKiiis. 
I GIB'BAll (d warrior). One whose de- 
scendants returned from Babylon with 
! Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 20). In the corre- 
' spending list (Neh. vii. 25) the name is 
i Gibeon. It is likely that the weU-known 
' city is meant. 

GIB'BETHON (a height). A city m the 
territory of Dan (Josh. xix. 44), assigned to 
the Levites (xxi. 23). It was in the posses- 
sion of the Philistines after the secession 
of the ten tribes, probably because the Le- 
vites generally quitted their abodes in the 
rival kingdom to resort to Judah (2 Chron. 
xi 13, 14) ; and it was while besieging it 
that king Nadab was killed by Baasha (1 
Kin?s XV. 27), and during a later siege 
that^Zimri conspired against Elah (xvi. 8- 
17). 

GIB'EA (7u?D. A name in the genealogy 
of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 49). It would seem 
to denote a place rather than a person: 
perhaps it was locally within the territory 
of Judah ; but this is uncertain. 

GIB'E AH (a hill, a city on a hill). Several 
towns in Palestine bear this name, distin- 
guished often by some adjunct, as Gibeah 
of Benjamin, Gibeah of Saul, &c. Simi- 
larly among ourselves numerous places 
bear names compounded with hill, as be- 
ing upon or near some eminence. So these 
Israelitish towns stood on or adjacent to 
some of the low bare rounded hills (for to 
such the word is specially applied), of which 
there are many in central Palestine. 

1 A city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 
XV 57). Possibly this may be the Gibea of 
the preceding article. It has not yet been 
certainly identified. . 

2 Gibeah of Benjamin was a place which 
acquired a dreadful notoriety in early Is- 
raelitish history. It was here that the out- 
rage was committed on the Levite's con- 
cubine which caused her death, and led, 
in consequence of the refusal of the Ben- 
jamites to deliver up the guilty persons, 
to the almost-entire extermination of the 



331 



[gibeoh 



tribe (Judges xix., xx.). It must have been 
a considej'able town, for it could furnish 
700 men for war, skilled as slingers, able to 
use either hand indifferently. Its site was 
a little north of Jerusalem ; for the Le- 
vite, who quitted Beth-lehera in the after- 
noon, and was over-against Jebus or Jeru- 
salem when the day was far spent, had yet 
time to reach either Gibeah or Ramah by 
sunset. Gibeah, therefore, may be identi- 
fied with the modern Tuleil el-Fitl, on a con- 
spicuous hill about four miles north of 
Jerusalem, and in full view of er-Eam, the 
ancient Ramah, two miles away. When 
Gibeah re-appears in the history it is called 
Gibeah of Saul (1 Sara. x. 26, xi. 4) ; the place 
of Saul's abode when chosen king, and where 
he received the intelligence of the danger 
of Jabesh-gilead ; and it seems to have con- 
tinued to be his residence during his whole 
reign (xv. 34, xxii. 6, xxiii. 19, xxvi. 1 ; 2 Sam. 
xxi. 6). It is again Gibeah of Benjamin in 
the narrative of Jonathan's exploit. Saul had 
mustei-ed 3,000 meu, with 2,000 of whom he 
occupied Michmash and the range of heights 
towards Beth-el ; while Jonathan held the 
ancestral home, Gibeah, with 1,000. The 
first event which roused the Philistines was 
the destruction by Jonathan of some monu- 
mental pillar they had placed in Geba ; and 
they mustered in force. Saul then retired 
to Gibeah, effecting a junction with Jona- 
than there ; while the Philistines occupied 
his form.er position at Michmash. The bold 
attack on them by Jonathan and his ar- 
mour-bearer, which resulted in a panic and 
their total defeat, is narrated at length by 
the sacred writer (l Sam. xiii., xiv.). Little 
more notice is taken of Gibeah, save that 
its ancient guilty history is occasionally 
referred to (Hos. ix. 9, x. 9). Gibeah of 
Benjamin and Gibeah of Saul have been 
treated here as identical. And, in truth, 
there can be little doubt of this. If proof 
were wanting, it is supplied by Josephus, 
who places Gabath-saoule just at the point 
where Gibeah of Benjamin must have stood 
(Bell. Jud., lib. v. 2, § 1). See Robinson's 
Bibl. Res., 2nd edit., vol. i. pp. 577-579. 

3. Gibeah-in-the-field. A place mentioned 
only once by this name (Judges xx. 31). It 
appears that a little to the north of Gibeah 
of Benjamin the road divided : one way led 
to Beth-el, the other to this Gibeah-in-the- 
field. Now to the north of Tuleil el-Ful the 
road still divides; one way leading to 5eiim, 
Beth-el, the other to Jeba, Geba. There can 
be little doubt, then, that Gibeah-in-the- 
fleld is Geba ; Gibeah and Geba being some- 
times interchanged in the original. The 
relative positions of Geba and Gibeah are in- 
dicated in Isai. x. 29, 

4. The place where the house of Abinadab 
was where the ark was left (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4). 
But the word should have been translated : 
it was 'the hill of Kirjath-jearim,' where 
Abinadab's residence was. See Gibeath. 

There are some other places where the 
word Gibeah occurs in the original, but 
where our translators have rendered it into 
English ' hill.' In some of these perhaps it 
would have been better to treat it as a proper 
name. See a list in Dr. Smith's Diet of the 
Bible, vol. i. p. 692. 



I GIB'EAH-HAARA'LOTH {hill of the fore- 
skins). A place so called because the chil- 
dren of Israel were circumcised there (Josh. 
V. 3, marg.). See Gilgal. 
I GIB'EATH {hill). A city enumerated 
' among those allotted to the tribe of Ben- 
jamin (Josh, xviii. 28). It is often sup- 
posed to be identical with Gibeah of Saul ; 
' but Mr. Grove, in Smith's Diet, of the 
I Bible, urges that, if such were the case, it 
would have been grouped with Gibeon and 
Ramah, close to which places Gibeah stood, 
rather than with Jerusalem. He imagines 
that it is rather Gibeah of Kirjath, i, e. the 
I hill of Kirjath, afterwards mentioned in 
[ connection with the preservation of the 
ark, in Abinadab's house (1 Sam. vii. 1 ; 2 
Sam. vi. 3, 4). If, however, this be ad- 
i mitted, the number of cities (fourteen) as- 
signed to Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 28) is not 
made up. But this may not be a fatal ob- 
jection. 

GIB'B ATHITE. An inhabitant of Gibeab 
(1 Chron. xii. 3). 

GIB'EON {belonging to a hill, i, e. hill- 
city). A large and noted city of the Hivites, 
whose inhabitants obtained terms of peace 
by craft from Joshua and the Israelites. It 
seems to have been the capital of a district 
with other cities— four of them are men- 
tioned—dependent on it (Josh. ix. 3-27) 
Joshua, though he spared the lives of the 
people, yet reduced them to servitude. He 
did not, however, refuse to defend them 
when the neighbouring kings resolved to 
punish them for their submission to Israel 
And this gave occasion to the most re- 
markable battle of the war (x.). In the 
division of the country, Gibeon was in the 
lot of Benjamin (xviii. 25), and was after 
wards assigned to the priests (xxi. 17). 

Many notable events are connected with 
this city. It was at Gibeon, ' by the pool,' 
that the battle was fought in which Abner 
killed Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 12-24, iii. 30), and 
'at the great stone' in Gibeon that Joab 
assassinated Amasa (xx. 8-10). Saul op- 
pressed and slew some of the Gibeonites , 
his family probably taking part in the 
crime : it was therefore visited upon his 
house by the execution of seven of his 
sons (xxi. 1-9). We are not told when 
Saul's cruelty occurred; but his family 
seem to have been intimately connected 
with the place ; and one of his ancestors 
colonized it (1 Chron. viii. 29-33, ix. 35-39). 
Hence, though his zeal for the children of 
Israel is mentioned, some personal less 
worthy motive may have intermingled. 
In David's reign we find the tabernacle at 
Gibeon, and Zadok ministering there (1 
Chron. xvi. 39, 40, xxi. 29). The ark was in 
the city of David, but the altar of burnt- 
offering was at Gibeon ; and thither most 
likely Joab fled, and Avas there put to death, 
where one of his murders had been com- 
mitted (1 Kings ii. 28-34). To Gibeon Solo- 
mon went to sacrifice ; on which occasion 
the Lord appeared to him in a dream, and 
gave him his choice of a boon : the young 
king asked wisdom (iii. 4-15, ix. 2 ; 2 Chron. 
i. 3-12). The false prophet Hauaniah was 
of Gibeon (Jer. xxviii. i) ; and it was there 
that Johanan overtook Ishmael after the 



GIBEO^'ITES] 



Cf)^ Crea^un) at 



332 



murder of Gedaliah (xli. 12). Men of Gibeon 
returned from the Baliylonisli captivity 
(Neh. iii. 7, vii. 25) ; but the name is Gibbar 
in Ezra ii. 20. 

There is no difficulty in identifying 
Gibeon. It is the modern el-Jfb, a village 
on a rocky hill five or six miles to the north 
of Jerusalem, a little west of the main north 
! road. There are large remains of ancient 
buildings, testifying to its former import- 
ance. It is well supplied with water ; for 
there is a copious fountain in the vale 
south-east of the village, and a considerable 
pond (in the wet season) in the plain below. 
This was probably the 'pool' where Joab 
and Abner fought, and the ' great waters ' 
where Johanan came up with Ishmael. Dr. 
Thomson supposes it to be * the sea' men- 
tioned as the frontier of Benjamin (Josh, 
xviii. 14) : see The Land and the Book, pp. 
669, 670. The hill where ' the great high- 
place ' was can only be conjectured. 

GIB'EONITES. The inhabitants of 
Gibeon (2 Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 3, 4, 9 ; 1 Chron. xii. 
4 ; Neh. iii. 7 : corap. Jer. xxviii. 1). Although 
cursed and reduced to servitude, this was 
eventually of a saci-ed cast ; as they were 
employed about the sanctuary. Hence pro- 
balMy the crime of slaying them was the 
more aggravated. 

GIB'LITES. A people inhabiting the 
north of Palestine (Josh. xiii. 5 ; 1 Kings 
V. 18, marg.). See Gebal. 2. 

GIDDAL'TI {I have trained up). ALevite 
of the sons of Heman, the head of a division 
of singers (1 Chron. xxv. 4, 29). 

GIB'DEL (perhaps too great) 1, 2. Two 
persons whose descendants returned with 
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 47, 56 ; 
Neh. vii. 49, 58). 

GID'EON {tree-feller, i. e. impetuous war- 
rior). The son of Joash, of the family of 
the Abiezrites of the tribe of Manasseh. 
His place of residence was Ophrah. At a 
time when Israel was overrun by the Midian- 
ites, Gideon was threshing some corn, not 
on the usual ' floor,' but by a wine-press, 
that the Invaders might not discover and 
seize it ; when an angel appeared to him and 
announced that the Lord would deliver Is- 
rael by his hand. Whether Gideon had ever 
previously distinguished himself we do not 
know : most probably not, as he calls him- 
self in his reply the least of his father's 
house. He at first hesitated to accept the 
commission, till he was convinced by a re- 
markable sign that his visitant was an 
angel. The same night he was commanded, 
perhaps in a dream, to destroy the altar 
and symbol of Baal, and to sacrifice a 
bullock upon an altar he was to build to the 
Lord. Afraid to do this by day, he did it 
by night ; and the next morning, when the 
whole was discovered, the people of the city 
were inclined to put Gideon to death, but 
were restrained by Joash his father (whom 
some have imagined to be Baal's priest), 
with the sarcastic observation that Baal 
might plead or avenge his own cause. (Gid- 
eon lience had the name Jerubbaal, which 
see (Judges vi, 1-32). 

Perhaps some intelligence of the move- 
ment had reached the Midianites, for they 
gathered their armies into the valley of 



Jezreel ; and possil^ly then it was that they 
slew Gideon's brethren at Tabor ( viii. 18, 19). 
Stirred up by the Spirit of the Lord, the : 
Hebrew champion blew his trumpet, and 
was at once joined by the Abiezrites ; he 
summoned also all Manasseh, Asher,Zebu- 
lun, and Naphtali. Doubts still seemed to . : 
trouble him whether he could indeed pre- '.\ 
vail against the mighty eastern host ; and ; 
he asked and obtained two encouraging ' 
signs from God (vi. 33-40). He was now on i 
march ; and he took up his position to the ; 
south of the Midianitish camp, by the well , 
Harod, most likely that fountain of Jezreel 
now called 'Ain Jaliid. But his people were 
too many : the Lord needs no human in- , 
strumentality, and would show that it was | 
Ms mighty hand that defeated Mldian. The 1 
proclamation was therefore made, according \ 
to the law of Moses (Deut. xx. 8), that who- j ; 
so was faint-hearted might depart 'from 
mount Gilead.' The expression is perplex- ' 
ing, for the muster was not in Gilead ; per- ' 
haps, it has been suggested, the chieftain : [ 
used the war-cry of the tribe : see, however, , 
Gilead. Two-and-twenty thousand fearful 
men did withdraw, leaving but 10,000, who ; 
were further reduced by trial at the water i 
to 300, to match themselves with the count- , 
less thousands that lay swarming below i , 
in the valley. Gideon was encouraged, ' 
however, afresh by over hearing one Mi- 
dianite recount his dream to another, prog- : 
nosticating defeat to the invaders ; and 
then, having furnished each of his little 
band, divided into three troops, with a 
trumpet, and a flambeau in a pitcher, he set ' , 
upon the sleeping foe. The trumpets pealed : j 
the flambeaux flashed out from the broken i 
pitchers ; and above all was heard the start- ; 
ling shout, ' The sword of Jehovah and of 
Gideon 1 ' The rout was at once complete : ; 
there was no thought of resistance ; and the , 
Midianites rushed hastily in their terror I 
towards the Jordan. Gideon pursued : the ! 
northern ti-ibes gathered and joined him; ; 
and Ephi'aim, to whom he sent, rose and ■ 
held the fords, and there, routing again the 
panic-stricken multitude, seized and slew , , 
two of their chiefs, Oreb and Zeeb, whose 
heads they presented to Gideon (vii.). These 
Ephraimites, however, haughty and jealous, i 
remonstrated with the victor for not hav- ' 
ing summoned them at flrst ; but he ap- 1 
peased them by a politic answer, and pur- I 
sued the Midianite remnant eastward. One 
scarcely knows how to account for the 
treatment he now received from some of 
the Israelitish towns on his line of march. 
They refused him supplies with scornful 
taunts. He was faint, but he bore bravely 
on. He came up with the Midianites, who 
thought themselves in security in the far 
wilderness, and dashed on them unexpect- .i 
edly, routed them a third time, took their i 
two kings Zebah and Zalmunna, whom he , 
put to death because they had slain his ; 
brethren, and gathered an enormous spoil. ■ 
Of 120,000, of whom 'the children of the ■ 
east' originally consisted, but 15,000 escaped 
— for so, perhaps, the narrative is best 
interpreted. Gideon now, returning in . 
triumpli, infiicted nunited punishment on 
I the inhabitants of Succoth and Peuuel, 



I 



333 



and declined the offered government of 

Of tile share of Midianitish spoil allotted 
him, he made an ephod, which he placed in 
his city Ophrah. Doubtless this was an ir- 
regular act; but we can hardly suppose, 
with Gesenius, that by an ' ephod ' an idoJ 
is here meant. Still it became eventually 
a snare and a scandal to Gideon's family 
and to Israel. He had seventy sons, besides 
one by a concubine. He died at an advanced 
age, and was buried in the sepulchre of his 
father. It may be added that after Gideon's 
victory the land had forty years of quiet 
(viii.). The memory of his acts was care- 
fully preserved in Israel (1 Sara. xii. 11 ; 
Psal. Ixxxiii. 11 ; Isai. ix. 4, x. 26) ; and 
Gideon's faith is noted in the New Testa- 
ment (Heb. xi. 32). 

GIDEO'ISI (a cutting doion). The father 
of Abidan, prince of Benjamin in the wil- 
derness (Numb. i. 11, ii. 22, vii. 60, 65, x. 24). 

GI'DOM {id.). A place to which the pur- 
suit of the Benjamites extended after the 
battle of Gibeah (Judges xx. 45). 

GIER-EAGLE. An unclean bird (Lev. 
xi. 18 ; Deut. xiv. 17). It is probably sup- 
posed to be the Neophron percnopterus, 
Egyptian vulture, often called Pharaoh's 
chicken. This is not much larger than a ra- 
ven, white, with some of the wing-feathers 
black, foul in its appearance, and preying 
on carrion. It was anciently a sacred bird 
in Egypt, and is now protect-ed for the ser- 
vice it does in clearing the soil. But some 
critics, observing that in the passages re- 
ferred to the bird in question is classed 
with the pelican, &c., imagine that one of 
the Grallatores is intended, and fix upon 
the Fulica porphyria, sultana-hen. Duns 
would identify it with the swan (Bibl. Nat. 
Science, vol. ii. pp. 90, 91). But this is not 
a happy conjecture. 

GIFT. Almost every transaction of east- 
ern life involves a gift. In public affairs 
and state ceremonials there must be gifts. 
In alliances, covenants, contracts, there 
must be the interchange of gifts. Family 
arrangements and friendly association im- 
ply gifts. Examples continually occur in 
scripture: and various words are used in 
the original to distinguish the various 
kinds and occasions of the gifts. There 
were gifts from superiors to inferiors, as 
from sovereigns to the subjects they de- 
sired to honour (Esth. ii. 18). There were 
gifts from inferiors to those above them, 
as to monarchs (Judges iii. 15 ; 1 Kings x. 
25). And not to bring a present when it 
was expected, as to a king on his inaugu- 
ration, was the highest affront that could 
be offered (1 Sara. x. 27). Gifts of this kind 
were almost taxes. Thus we find the tribute 
imposed on a conquered nation called ' gifts ' 
(2 Sam.viii. 2). There were gifts on marriages. 
The bridegroom gave a present besides 
the dowry (Gen. xxxiv. 12) ; and the bride's 
father made a gift to his daughter (1 Kings 
ix. 16). Gifts were interchanged among 
friends, especially in times of rejoicing 
(Neh. viii. lo, 12, Esth. ix. 19, 22). Gifts Avere 
offered at visits, especially if at all of a 
formal character. Thus Saul felt it neces- 
sary to make a present to Samuel when he 



[gllboa 



went to consult him (1 Sam. ix. 7, 8 : comp. 
2 Kings viii. 8). Sometimes, indeed, these 
presents degenerated into bribes ; by which 
significant word they were then stigma- 
tized, and were strictly forbidden (Exod. 
xxlii. 8 ; Isai. i. 23, v. 23). Gifts were of 
every conceivable kind— jewels, spices, 
robes, money, &c. (e. g. Gen. xxiv. 22, 53, 
xliii. 11 ; 2 Kings v. 22, 23 ; Job xlii. 11) ; 
and they were presented in the most re- 
spectful manner possible. 

The blessings of the gospel are often 
termed gifts ; as are the special powers com- 
municated by the Spirit (1 Cor. i. 7, xii. 4, 9, 
28,30, 31, and elsewhere). The term is pro- 
perly applied ; as they all proceed from the 
free mercy of God. 

GI'HON (a river, as treaking forth from 
fountains).—!. One of the four rivers of 
Eden (Gen. ii. 13). See Eden.— 2. A place 
close by Jerusalem, where Solomon was 
anointed king (1 Kings i. 33, 38, 45). There 
must have been some reservoir of water 
there ; for Hezekiah is said to have stopped 
the upper course of it (2 Chron. xxxii. 30). 
It is further mentioned as indicating the 
position of the wall which Manasseh built 
round the city of David (xxxiii. 14). There 
are two reservoirs still existing in the 
valley of Hinnom, called by the Arabs 
Birket Mammilla and Birket es-Siiltan. The 
first is about 150 rods west of the city, at 
the head of the valley : it is 300 feet long, 
200 wide, and 20 deep, and is dry. The 
other is in the same valley south of the 
Jaffa gate : it is 600 feet long, 250 broad, and 
40 deep. * The aqueduct from the pools of 
Solomon passed along west of it, round the 
north end, then down the east side, and 
so round Zion to the temple. At some 
former time a pipe led the water from the 
aqueduct to an artificial fountain on the 
top of the south wall of the pool, where it 
emptied into troughs made of old sarco- 
phagi ' (Dr. Thomson, The Land and the 
Book, p. 655). These reservoirs are gene- 
rally designated the upper and lower pools 
of Gihon. But Mr. Grove, in Dr. Smith's 
Bid. of the Bible, suggests that Gihon must 
have been at a low level, because persons 
are said to have gone ' down ' to it, that the 
word rendered ' valley,' in which it is said 
to stand (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14), is that always 
used for the valley of Jehoshaphat, never 
for the valley of Hinnom, and that it is men- 
tioned in conjunction with Ophel ; so that 
it must rather be in the position of Siloara. 
See Conduit, J^erusalem. 

GIL'ALAI {dungy? according to some, 
rolled off of tlie Lord). A priest who played 
on musical instruments (Neh. xii. 36). 

GILBO'A (huhhUng fountain). A mountain- 
range rising on the east of the plain of Es- 
draelon, over-against Jezreel, where Saul 
pitched just prior to his last fatal battle 
with the Philistines (1 Sam. xxviii. 4). His 
body was found upon the field ; and the 
enemy stripped it and cut off the head, and 
fastened the corpses of the king and his 
sons to the wall of Beth-shan. Then it was 
that the men of Jabesh-gilead, remember- 
ing how the first act in the reign now so 
disastrously closed had been to deliver 
them from Nahash king of the Ammonites 



gild] 



334 



resolved to rescue the bodies. There were 
bold and loving hearts among them ; 
and they mustered and marched by night 
to Beth-shan. They were perfectly suc- 
cessful. And they returned to Jabesh, 
and buried there the royal bones, and 
fasted reverently seven days (xxxi. ; 2 Sam. 
xxi, 12-14 ; 1 Ghron. x.). David's beau- 
tiful lament over the slain is preserved 
in 2 Sara. i. 19-27. The range of Gilboa, 
now Jebel FuMiali, extends above 10 miles, 
bleak and barren. The height is only about 
500 or 600 feet above the plain. A little 
village, Jelbdu, is still on the top of the 
mountain. And there is a lofty promontory 
called el-Mazar, where Dr. Thomson thinks 
Saul and his sons fell ; the name (implying 
a sacred tomb to which pilgrimages are 
made) being given because the daughters 
of Israel went thither to weep for Saul {Tlie 
Land and tlie Book, pp. 462, 463). 

GILD, GILDING (Rev. x vii. 4, marg.) . See 
Handicraft. 

GIL'EAD (Mrd, rough).—!. A son of Ma- 
chir and grandson of Manasseh (Numb. xxvi. 
29, 30, xxvli. 1, xxxvi. 1 ; Josh. xvii. 1, 3 ; 1 
Chron. ii. 21, 23, vii. 14, 17).— 2. The father of 
Jephthah (Judges xi. 1, 2).— 3. A Gadite (1 
Chron. r. 14). . „ , .„ . .. 

GIL'EAD (Imrd stony region ? hill of wit- 
ness ?).—!. A district east of the Jordan, first 
mentioned as 'mount Gilead' (Gen. xxxi. 
21, 23, 25, xxxvii. 25) : it was afterwards 
shared between Sihon and Og (J osh, xii. 2, 5), 
and consequently came into the possession 
of the Israelites when they subdued those 
two kings (Deut. iii. 8, 10). It was subse- 
quently distributed among the trans-Jor- 
danic tribes ; the portion which had been 
ruled by Sihon being shared becween Reu- 
ben and Gad, and the part included m Og's 
kingdom of Bashan being assigned to Ma- 
nasseh (12, 13 : comp. Josh. xvii. 1). 

By a comparison of various passages m 
which Gilead is noticed, we may pretty ex- 
actly ascertain its boundaries. The north- 
ern limit must have been the Hieromax or 
Yarmuk, a stream flowing into the J ordan 
just below the lake of Gennesaret ; for the 
territory of Gad reached to the edge of that 
lake; and yet all Bashan was allotted to 
Manasseh (xiii. 27, 30) : the Tarmuk, there- 
fore, must have separated Gilead and Ba- 
shan. The Jordan was the western bound- 
ary (1 Sam. xiii. 7; 2 Kings x. 33). Gilead pro- 
bably extended on the east to the country 
occupied by the Ammonites ; and Heshbon 
was perhaps its southern limit. But a small 
part of it therefore was included in the 
territory of Reuben (Porter mJourn. ofSacr. 
Lit, July, 1854. pp. 284, &c.). It may be 
considered as in length about 60 miles, 
from nearly the end of the lake of Genne- 
saret to the north end of the Dead sea, 
with a breadth of about 20 miles. Some- 
times, however, by Gilead is to be under- 
stood more loosely the whole of the Is- 
raeli tish trans-Jordanic territory (Josh 
xxii 9 ; Judses xx. l). Among the noted 
cities of this province may be mentioned 
Jabesh, Ramoth, Mahanaim, Gadara, and 

Gilead was eminently • a place for cattle' 
(Numb xxxii. 1). The mountains rise from 



the depressed valley of the Jordan between 
3,000 and 4,000f eet : the scenery among them 
is described as picturesque, often well- 
wooded, with much excellent pasture-land. 
The mountain-range runs from north to 
south ; the eastern face being apparently 
of much lower elevation, because the Ara- 
bian plateau into which these hills melt 
do^m has an elevation of about 2000 feet. 
Aromatic balsams or gums seem to have 
been produced in this district (Jer. viii. 22, 

It was to be expected from the character 
of the country, and the views with which it 
was occupied, that the inhabitants of Gilead 
would be a rough nomad race. Accordingly 
Ave find bold chieftains among them, hke 
Jephthah (Judges xi. 1). It was to Gilead 
that after Saul's death Abner conveyed Ish- 
bosheth, as sure of support among such a 
people (2 Sam. ii. 8, 9) ; and David himself 
took refuge there in Absalom's rebellion 
(xvii. 22, 24). Elijah, moreover, was a 
(^ileadite (1 Kings xvii. 1). It was with 
Gileadites that Pekah rebelled against and 
slew Pekahiah (2 Kings xv. 25) ; and not 
long after Gilead was overrun by the As- 
syrian king (29). It is now (the northern 
half) called Jebel Ajlun, the rest the Belka. 

The mention of mount Gilead in Judges 
vii. 3 has created a difficulty, as if there were 
a mount of that name west of the Jordan. 
Some critics, therefore, would read Gilboa. 
But Winer has probably given the true in- 
terpretation. It was from mount Gilead 
that the Midianites had passed over luto 
western Palestine, through mount Gilead 
they would be driven back: the fearful, 
therefore, must depart from mount Gilead 
as likely to be the theatre of war {Bibl. 
BWB., art. * Gilead' ; but comp. GiDEOif). 

2 A citv so called (Hos. vi. 8), probably 
Raraoth-gilead. But it may be that the pro- 
vince is intended, ' the whole land banded 
in one, as one city of evil-doers' (Pusey, 
Minor Propliets^V- 41). ^ 

GILTEADITES. A family of Manasseh, 
descendants of Gilead; also inhabitants 
of the territory Gilead (Numb. xxvl. 29 ; 
Judges X. 3, xi. 1, 40, xii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 
27, xix. 31 ; 1 Kings ii. 7 ; 2 Kings xv. 25 ; 
Ezra ii. 61 ; Neh. vii. 63). 

GIL'GAL (a rolling away).— I. The place 
where the Israelites first encamped in Ca- 
naan, and where they had for some time 
their head-quarters. It received its name 
from the circumcising of the people there, 
apparently at or near some hill, when the 
reproach of Egypt is said to have been 
rolled away (Josh. iv. 19, 20, v. I-ll, ix. 6, 
X. 6, 7, 9, 15, 43, xiv. 6). Gilgal was at the 
eastern extremity of the district of Jeri- 
cho : it must have been near (according to 
Josephus, fifty stadia, or about six miles 
away) the Jordan, in the low hot plain. It 
does not appear that a city was built here ; 
yet Gilgal continued long a place of ren- 
dezvous, and perhaps a sanctuary (Judges 
ii. 1, iii. 19; 1 Sam. vii. 16, x. 8, xi. 14, 15, 
xiii. 4, 7, 8, 12, 15, XV. 12, 21, 33) ; and it was 
here that the men of Judah met David on 
his return from the country beyond Jordan, 
after the defeat of Absalom (2 Sam. xix. 
1 15, 40). In later times Gilgal was a seat ol 



335 



[gittaim 



Idolatry fHos. iv. 15, ix. 15, xii. 11 ; Amos 
iv. 4, V. 5). It may be added that in de- 
scribing tbe frontier of Benjamin and 
Judab it is once called Geliloth (Josb.xv. 7 : 
comp. xYiii. 17). Tbe exact site of Gilgal 
cannot now be identified: it was probably 
near tbe present little village of Riha. 
—2. A 'king of tbe nations of Gilgal' is 
enumerated among tbe cbiefs conquered by 
Joshua (xii. 23). This has been supposed to 
be the Galgulis of Jerome, said to be six 
miles north of Antipatris. Dr. Thomson 
found a Jiljidieh six miles south of Anti- 
patris {The Land and the Book, p. 524),— 
3. The Gilgal which Elijah and Elisha visit- 
ed (2 Kings ii. 1, 2, iv. 38) could not have 
been that which stood in the low plain of 
tbe Jordan ; for the prophets are said to 
have e-one down to Beth-el. There is a 
Jiljilieh about four miles from Beth-el ana 
Shiloh respectively : perhaps that is the site 
of the place in question. Winer suggests 
that this may be tbe Gilgal of Deut. xi. 80 
(Bibl RWB., art. ' Gilgal ' ). Perhaps also it 
is that of Neh. xii. 29. But see Ebal. 

GI'LOH (exile). A city in the hill-country 
of Judab (Josh. xv. 51). It was the native 
place of Abitbophel (2 Sam. xv. 12, xvii. 23). 

GI'LONITE. An inhabitant of Giloh ; 
the designation of Ahithophel (2 Sam. xv. 12, 
xxiii. 34). 

GIM'ZO iplace fertile in sycamores). A 
city, which with the villages thereof was 
seized by the Philistines in the reign of 
Abaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 18). It is now a con- 
siderable village called JimzU, about three 
miles south-west from Lydd. 

GIiSl(Isai. viii. 14; Amos iii. 5). In both 
these passages we find • gin ' and ' snare ; ' 
but the Hebrew word translated 'gin' in 
one is rendered • snare ' in the other. 
The trap-net used consisted of two parts : 
the net was spread upon the ground, and so 
fastened with the trap-stick that, if a bird 
or animal touched the stick, the parts flew 
up and enclosed the bird in the net, or 
caught the foot of the animal. Thus the 
text in Amos may be rendered, ' Doth a bird 
fall into a net upon the ground, when there 
is no trap-stick for her? doth the net spring 
up from the ground and take nothing at 
all?' Gesenius illustrates Psal. lxix.22 from 
this : the table is the oriental cloth or i 
leather spread upon the ground like a net. 
' Gin ' occurs in Job xl. 24, marg., where the 
word signifying the trap-stick is used : it 
must mean a ring or hook in the nostrils. 

GI'NATH (protection, garden). The father 
of Tibni, who, after the death of Zimri, was 
Omri's rival for the throne of Israel (1 Kings 
xvi. 21, 22). 

Gm'NETHO (gardener). A pries b who 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Neh. xii. 4). j 

GIN'iNETHON (id.). A priest who sealed ' 
the covenant (Neh. x. 6). A representative 
of his in the time of Joiakira is also men- 
tioned (xii. 16). He is probably the same 
with Ginnetho. i 

GIRDLE. An article of both male and i 
female attire. The common girdle was of ' 
leather, sometimes studded with metal 
feosses (2 Kings i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4). Girdles 
£>1 a finer kind were of linen, or perhaps j 



cotton or silk, embroidered occasionally 
with gold (Jer. xiii. 1 ; Ezek. xvi. 10 ; Dan. 
X. 5 ; E.ev. i. 13, xv. 6). The girdle was 
fastened with a clasp, or sometimes tied 
in a knot, the ends hanging down. It was 
worn about the loins (Isai. v, 27, xi. 5) : 
hence to gird up the loins, confining the 
ordinary flowing dress (Job xxxviii. 3 ; 
Luke xii. .35 ; 1 Pet. i. 13), signifles to be 
ready for active service ; and the loosing of 
tbe girdle (Isai. v. 27) implies remissness. 
The girdle of the women was worn more 
loosely than that of the men, and was 
generally more highly ornamented. Tbe 
'head-bands' (iii. 20) were possibly gir- 
dles. The same word occurs rendered 
* attire,' that is bridal attire, in Jer. ii. 32. 
Also the word translated 'stomacher' (Isai. 
iii. 24) has been thought to be a costly 
girdle ; though other critics believe it an 
embroidered festive garment or mantle. In 
the military girdle the sword or dagger was 
suspended (Judges iii. 16; 2 Sam. xx. 8; 
Psal. xlv. 3) : ink-horns, also, were carried 
in them (Ezek. ix. 2) ; and they were used 
as pockets or purses (Matt. x. 9 ; Mark vi. 
8; where the original word Is literally 
'girdle'). 

There was a girdle attached to the priestly 
ephod, of the same materials with tbe ephod 
itself (Exod, xxviii, 8, xxxix. 5) ; and another 
girdle to be worn over the ' coat of fine 
linen ' (xxviii. 39, 40, xxxix. 29). This was 
of needle-work. It is said to have been of 
delicately-fine texture, embroidered with 
flowers of scarlet, purple,blue, and fine linen. 
It was four fingers broad, and went seve- 
ral times round the body, the ends hanging 
down to the feet, or, when the priest was 
sacrificing, thrown over his left shoulder 
(Joseph., Antiq., lib. iii. 7, §2). According 
to some Jewish authorities, the girdle com- 
mon to all the priests was of white linen, 
embroidered with wool ; that of tbe high 
priest, on the day of atonement, entirely of 
linen. It was worn just under the arm-pits 
to check perspiration. Girdles were made 
by women (Prov. xxxi. 24), and often given 
as presents (1 Sam. xviii. 4 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 11), 
The word is not unfrequently used with 
a symbolical meaning (Isai. xi. 5: Eph. 
vi. 14). 

GIR'GASHITES (dicelling in clayeij or 
loamy soil). A tribe descended from Ca- 
naan, and repeatedly mentioned as one 
of the doomed nations of the country called 
after him (Gen, x. 16, where Girgashite, xv. 
21 ; Deut. vii. 1 ; Josh. iii. lo, xxiv, 11 ; 
1 Chron. i. 14 ; Neh. ix. 8). Their locality is 
nowhere distinctly indicated ; but they are 
named in such a connection that we may 
suppose them to have inhabited the central 
part of western Palestine. 

GIR'GASITE (Gen, x, 16), The Girgashites. 

GIS'PA (caress, flattery). One of tbe rulers 
of the Nethinim after the return from cap- 
tivity (Neh. xi, 21). 

GIT'TAH-HE'PHER (wine-press of the 
well) (Josh. xix. 13). See Gath-hepher. 

GIT'TAIM (two wine-presses). A town 
probably in Benjamin, of which we are only 
told that the Beerothites fled thither (2 Sam. 
iv. 3), and that it was inhabited after the 
ca4)tivity (Neh. xi. 33). 



GITTITES] 



336 



GIT'TITES, The mbabltants of Gath 
(Josh. xiii. 3; 2 Sam. xxi. 19; 1 Chron. 
sx. 5). The term is applied also to the 600 
men who came with David hack into Israel 
after his residence at Gath. Many of these 
were doubtless Hebrews ; as 600 seems 
to have been the strength of David's little 
army before he went lo Achish (1 Sam. 
xxiil 13, xxT. 13, xxvii. 2). But certainly 
some were natives of Gath, who must be 
supposed to have joined him there ; for 
Ittai is addressed as a stranger and exile 
(2 Sam. XV. 18-22, xviii. 2). Obed-edom, m 
whose house the ark was placed, is also 
called a Gittite (vi. 10, 11 : 1 Chron. xiii. 13). 
It seems improbable that the ark should be 
intrusted to a Philistine ; it has been there- 
fore imagined that Obed-edom belonged to 
Gittaim or Gath-hepher. 

GIT'TITH (a stringed instrument ?) This 
has been supposed to be a musical instru- 
ment brought from Gath. Another suppo- 
sition is that it denoted a song sung at the 
time of vintage ; this meaning being derived 
from the signification of the word Gath, 
which is a wine-press. It is impossible to 
speak with certainty ; but probably an air, 
light and jovous, rather than an instrument, 
is intended. The word is found in the titles 
of Psalms viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv. 

GIZOjS'ITE. An appellation given to Ha- 
shem, father of certain of David's warriors 
(1 Chron. xi. 34). "Why he is so called can 
only be conjectured. 

GLASS. The manufacture of this sub- 
stance was known at a very early period. 
•Glass bottles of elegant design have been 
met with in Egyptian monuments more 
than 4,000 vears old ; and in the paintings of 
Beni Hassan are depicted the various pro- 
cesses of glass-blowing, as practised nearly 
forty centuries ago' (Carey, note on Job 
xxviii. 17\ A glass bottle (the earliest 
known specimen of transparent glass) with 
the name of Sargon on it, in the seventh 
century, therefore, B.C., was found in the 
north-west palace of Js'imroud (see Layard, 
Nineveh and Babylon, pp. 197, 503). Glass 
consequently must have been known to the 
Israelites, and yet it is certainly not more 
I than once mentioned in the Old Testament. 
Our translators render the word there (Job 
xxviii. 17) ' crystal ' : there is, however, 
i little doubt that glass is meant. See Crys- 
; TAL. In the New Testament it is occasion- 
! ally referred to as indicating a bright trans- 
: parent substance (Rev. iv. 6, xv. 2, xxi. 18). 
But it is singular that, though in frequent 
use, and though some modes of working 
glass were practised by ancient artists of 
which modern workmen are ignorant, it 
was not generally employed for mirrors, 
which were preferred of metal (Exod. 
xxxviii. 8; Job xxxvii. 28; Isai. iii. 23; 1 
Cor xiii. 12 ; 2 Cor. iii. 18 ; Jam.es i. 23). See 
Looki>'&-Glass. The story that glass was 
discovered by Phoenician sailors at the 
mouth of the Belus need not be further ad- 
verted to. ^ ^ , 

GLEA^^-, GLEANING. The right of glean- 
ing in corn-fields, vineyards, and oliveyards 
was secured to the poor by the Hebrew law 
(Lev. xix. 9, 10 ; xxiii. 22 ; Deut. xxiv. 19-21). 
But it does not appear that persons could in- 



sist on gleaning indifferently on any man's 
property. The power was reserved to the 
owner of determining whom he would 
admit. Poor relations and dependents were 
no doubt considered as having the first 
claim. Accordingly we find Paith soliciting 
leave to glean in the fields of Boaz, and 
special directions given thereupon by the 
master (Ruth ii. 2-9, 21, 22). 

GLEDE. A name by which the common 
kite i^MilvLts ater, or vulgaris) was formerly 
known. It occurs in Deut. xiv. 13 as one of 
the unclean birds. In the parallel list. Lev. 
xi. 14, by an alteration of a single letter the 
vulture is named. It is not improbable that 
the word signifying vulture is the right 
reading in both places. 

GLORY. This word is used in a variety 
of senses all easily intelligible, for worldly 
magnificence (Matt. vi. 29), for the majesty 
of God (Psal. xix. 1), for those who are pre- 
eminent in a nation (Isai. v. 13, marg., xvii. 
3, 4), for the noblest part of a man, i.e., his 
heart, or, as some believe, his tongue (Psal. 
xvi. 9, Ivii. 8 : comp. Acts ii. 26), for the 
beauty or excellence of a place or natural 
production, as ' the glory of Lebanon ' (Isai. 
XXXV. 2). To give glory to another is to 
honour him (1 Sam. vi. 5). 

GNAT (Matt, xxiii. 24). The Geneva note 
on this verse is, ' Ye stay at that which is 
nothing, and let pass that which is of 
greater importance.' In that and other 
early English translations the reading is 
• strain out a gnat.' 

GOAD. An instrument used by plough- 
men, still commonly to be seen in Palestine. 
It is a strong pole eight or ten feet long, 
with a pointed prick at one end to urge on 
the oxen, and a kind of chisel at the other 
to clear the plough-share from earth and 
weeds, and to cut the roots and thorns that 
catch or choke the plough. The Hebrew 
word in Judges iii. 31 specially signifies the 
polp ; and that in 1 Sam. xiii. 21 : Eccles. xii. 
11 the point. The author of Ecclesiastes 
calls the words of the wise ' goads,' be- 
cause they keep in the right path, and 
stimulate the idle. There is a reference to 
the goad in Acts ix. 5, xxvi. 14. The idea is 
taken from an unruly ox, who, when pricked 
by the goad, kicks back and receives a 
deeper wound. This kicking is against the 
instrument used to guide him rightly : it Is 
more than follv, therefore, it is rebellion to 
resist the hand that has a right to direct. 

GOAT. A well-known animal, belonging 
to the family Capridce of the order Bumi- 
nantia. There are many varieties of the 
goat. Kitto mentions four as most likely 
to be known to the Hebrews : ' 1. The do- 
mestic Syrian long-eared breed, with horns 
rather small and variously bent; the ears 
longer than the head, and pendulous ; hair 
long, often black : 2. The Angora, or rather 
Anadolia breed of Asia Minor, with long 
hair,raore or less fine: 3. The Egyptian breed, 
with small spiral horns, long brown hair, 
and very long ears : 4. A breed from Upper 
Egypt without horns, having the nasal 
bones sinsrularly elevated, the nose con- 
tracted, with the lower jaw protruding the 
incisors' {Pict. Bible, note on Gen. xv. 9). 
Hence several words are used in Hebrew for 



337 



this animaJ, uo doubt indicating different 
varieties. Goats possess singularly-acute 
instinctive habits. Nothing seems to es- 
cape their observation : their senses, too, of 
taste and smell are delicate. They consti- 
tuted a large part of Hebrew flocks ; for the 
milk and the flesh were articles of food (Gen. 
xxvii. 9 ; 1 Sam, xxv, 2 ; Prov. xxvii. 27). As 
"Aean animals they were used in sacrifice 
Exod. xii. 5 ; Heb. ix. 13} ; and their hair 
was manufactured into a thick cloth. Of 
Ihis one of the coverings of the tabernacle 
ivas made (Exod.xxv. 4, xxvi. 7) ; and it was 
on this material that in all probability St. 
Paul was employed (Acts xviii. 3). It is not 
easy to decide what is the original stock of 
the common goat, Capra hircus, and the 
other varieties. Some would suppose it to 
be the cegagrus, or wild Caucasian goat, 
others the ibex. The wild goat in Deut. xiv. 
5 has been regarded as a gazelle : some, 
however, would have it the Capra ibex, 
others the Capra csgagrus. There is a He- 
brew word also which occurs four times, 
rendered thrice 'wild goats' (1 Sam. 
xxiv. 2; Job xxxix. 1; Psal. civ. 18), and 
once • roe ' (Prov. v. 19, fem,). This, there 
can be little doubt, is the ibex, which is 
specially formed for climbing, its fore-legs 
being shorter than the hinder. It is obser- 
vable that the Hebrew term implies the 
notion of ascent. 

The word translated 'devils 'in Lev. xvii, 
7 ; 2 Chron. xi. 15 is one of the ordinary 
terms for a goat, signifying hairy. It may 
be observed, in connection with the practice 
forbidden, that in Lower Egypt the goat 
was considered sacred. 

This animal is sometimes introduced in 
scripture symbolically, as in Dan. viii. 5, 21 : 
comp. Matt. xxv. 23, 33. 

GOAT, SCAPE (Lev. xvi. 8, 10, 26). See 
Atonement, Day op. Scape-goat. 

GO'ATH (Lowing). A place mentioned only 
in Jer. xxxi. 39. Kothing certain can be said 
of it. 

GOB (a pit, cistern). A place named as 
the scene of two battles with the Philis- 
tines (2 Sam. xxi. 18,19). One of these is 
said in 1 Chron. xx. 4 to have occurred at 
Gezer. 

GOBLET (Sol. Song vii. 2). A round ves- 
sel for liquor. The same word is tran slated 
'basins' (Exod. xxiv. 6) ; and 'cups' (Isai. 
xxii. 24). 

GOD. The scriptures do not attempt to 
prove the being of a God. They proceed on 
the assumption that the existence of the 
Deity was generally acknowledged, and in 
forcible language characterize him, if such 
a one there were, who disbelieved this truth, 
as utterly without understanding. 'The 
fool hath said in his heart, There is no God ' 
(Psal. xiv. 1). 

The proofs, indeed, from external nature 
of the being of a personal God are such as 
to convince the candid enquirer. He who 
yields himself to the subtleties of a vain 
philosophy, striving to measure the Infinite 
by his own finite standard, will fall into a 
thousand inconsistencies. We see the 
dreary round which such sciolists have 
trodden in our own day. Observation and 
experience are rejected. The existence of a 



[god 

personal Deity is denied : all things^re 
said to be God : existence as a whole is God ; 
and all finite being, nature and the soul of 
man, is but the exterior manifestation of the 
Infinite God. This pantheism, as it is called, 
is really but a refined atheism. Nor is it a 
mere harmless speculation. It destroys, as 
its necessary result, the very principles of 
morality. For, ' the whole phenomena of 
the universe being regarded by the panthe- 
ist as but a chain of necessary develop- 
ments, man and all his actions being but 
necessary products of the restless activity 
of the one great Being, there can be no 
such thing as a distinction between moral 
good and evil, between virtue and vice' 
(Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1858, pp. 309, 310). 
Common sense revolts from such a system. 
The consideration of the visible universe, 
its mechanism and its evident purpose, 
might teach men better. So St. Paul argues, 
when describing the foul degeneracy of the 
heathen world. From the things that were 
made they should hare deduced the ' eter- 
nal power and Godhead ' of a Maker. But 
* their foolish heart was darkened : profess- 
ing themselves to be wise they became 
fools.' And therefore in just retribution 
'God gave them up 'to their evil courses 
(Rom. i. 18-32). 

It is not possible, in the few lines which, 
in such a work as this, can be allowed to 
this great subject, to give even an outline 
of the argument for the being of a God. It 
must suffice to say that in the -workman- 
ship the hand of the worker may legiti- 
mately be traced. We see not only matter 
with its properties, which may be called its 
laws, but a disposition made of such mat- 
ter which points surely to an end, and 
shows us the intelligence which designed 
that end. The constitution of the human 
body, too, and its harmonious relations to 
external nature, tend to the same conclu- 
sion. Who formed the eye, with its pro- 
perties of vision? is a telling question. 
But there is yet another. For not onlv is 
there the wonderful instrument, but,* be- 
sides and apart from it, material just fitted 
for the application of that instrument. 
How was it that the landscape was so laid 
out, and the light that discovers it turned 
upon it, and the colouring which adorns it 
so disposed and modified that it presents 
its pleasing picture in marvellous corres- 
pondence to the visual organ? We might 
gaze upon a heap of materials, each fragment 
with properties that could be turned to use, 
we might even stumble upon implements 
adapted for working them, and yet not 
be convinced that an artificer had been 
there. But, when we see that those imple- 
ments have been employed, and that the 
materials were fitted each in accordance 
with its nature one to another, into a glo- 
rious building, where no mistake of adap- 
tation was apparent, we cannot evade the 
conclusion that the mind of an architect 
has designed and his hand completed the 
structure. It is on principles of this kind 
that Christian philosophers have satisfac- 
torily reasoned, clearing away objections, 
and proving that the connection of cause 
and effect may be safely inferred, and is 



aoT>i.Yl treasure of ^38 


justly applicable to the subject. See, for ( 
example, the masterly disquisitions of ] 
Chalmers, Natural Theology, Select Works, 
vol. V. pp. 1-497; Institutes of Tlieology, 1 
book ii. vol. vli. pp. 71-125. . ' 

The human mind has leaned m general 
rather to polytheism than to atheism. Ac- 
cordingly the scripture testimony is most 
especially pointed against the worship ot 
« gods many and lords many.' The charge 
to Israel was: "'Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord 
our God is one Lord' (Deut. vi. 4), a charge 
reiterated and enforced throughout the 
sacred volume, both vindicating the unity 
of the Godhead, and refuting the notion 
entertained by some of a co-ordinate evil 
principle' (xxxii. 39 ; Isai. xlv. 7)._ 

The mode of God's subsistence is also re- 
vealed, so far as it can be comprehended by 
our minds. He is one ; and yet in the dmue 
unity there are three, the Father, the Son, 
and the Holy Ghost. See Trinity ^ 

The attributes of God are set forth in 
scripture. But in describing him the im- 
perfection of language is obvious. Ex- 
pressions are applied to the Deity, which, 
in their literal exactness, do not suit him. 
He is said to be angry, to repent, to be 
grieved, &c. (Gen. vi. 6 ; 1 Sam. xv. 11 ; Psal. 
vii 11) also to have hands, eyes, &c. (Exod, 
xxxiii 22 ; Psal. xi. 4), to sit on a throne, to 
use a sword, &c. a Kings xxii. 19 ; Isai. 
xxvii 1 ; xxxiv. 5). By such expressions, 
the ideas intended are best conveyed to us, 
without implying that God has really parts 
and passions like ourselves. He is perfect 
in all the various qualities which are repre- 
sented as belonging to him. Infinite y 
loving and merciful, he is also mflnitely 
holy and just. Men are apt to exalt one of 
his attributes at the expense of another ; 
as when they suppose his mercy not allow- 
ing the deserved punishment of the un- 
godly. Whereas the scripture represents 
the divine attributes in complete harmony, 
no one interfering with or opposing an- 
other, but rather combined in one glorious 
crown of infinite and various perfection. 

The scriptures, through their whole com- 
pass, describe God as administering the 
government of the universe. He does not 
leave it to itself, to be ruled by laws which 
could have no effectual power but as he en- 
forces them. It is rather as an ever-watch- 
ful, ever-working, ever-present God that 
the scripture exhibits Jehovah. And any 
other conception of him is unworthy of his 

^GODlC^'^GODLINESS. The general 
meaning of ' godly ' as a quality of any one 
Is 'Pious' (e.g. Psal. xn. l; 2 Ftt. ii. y; 
and • godliness' is commonly 'Piety'.(e.g 
1 Tim li^) See Alford's note on Tit. u. 12 

GODS * So judges or rulers are sometime 
called (Exod xxii. 28 ; Psal. Ixxxii. 6 ; Johr 
X 34 35 as being Gods representatives or 
earth • comp. Exod. iv. 16, vii. 1 ; Rom. xiii 
14^ 'More generally the word means fals 
gods (1 Cor. viii. 5). See Idol, Idolatry 

GOG (extension).— I. A Reubenite (1 Lhron 
V 4^ _2 The name given to some grea 
iVader who is prophetically described a 
gathering many nations against the peopl 
!f God. tl invade their laud and sanctuar 


Ezek. xxxviii., xxxix. ; Rev. xx. 8, 9). See 

^"""gCKLAN (exile). A city of Bashan, in the 
territory of the half -tribe of Manasseh,but 
issigned to the Levites, and appointed one 
3f the refuge-cities (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xx. 
B xxi 27 ; 1 Chron. vi. 71). Of this place we 
I'ave no further mention in scripture ; but 
we know that subsequently it was the cen- 
tre of a district called after it Gaulanitis. 
This extended from the Yarmuk (Hieromax) 
m the south to the fountains of the Jordan 
or the confines of Dan and Csesarea PfiiUPPj 
in the north. On the west it was bounded 
by the Jordan and the two upper lakes : on 
the east it reached to the Hauran. It was 
as nearly as possible coincident with the 
modern Jauldn. Gaulanitis must anciently 
have been very populous. Mr. Porter speaks 
of a list of a hundred and twenty-seven 
cities and villages ; but nearly all of these 
are now but masses of ruins. The towns 
most noted were Golan (possibly the pre- 
sent Nimr el- Jauldn), Hippos, Gamala, Beth- 
saida or Julias, Seleucia, and Sogane. The 
east and south are a fiat and generally-fer- 
tile table-land. The western slopes, seen 
from Tiberias, are barren mountain-sides, 
furrowed by ravines. The mountain-range 
on the north-west exhibits varied and pleas- 
ing scenery. These hills are clothed with 
noble forests, chiefly of the evergreen oak 
iJourn. ofSacr. Lit., July, 1854, pp. 292-294) 

GOLD. The most precious of metals, so 
that its name has become synonymous with 
wealth. Gold was known in the very ear- 
liest times (Gen. ii. 11, 12), and, as modern 
discoveries show, it is widely diffused over 
the earth's surface. ' The chief quantities 
of gold.' says Sir R. I. Murchison, having 
been originally imbedded in tl^e upper 
parts of the vein.stones, have been broken 
up and transported, with the debris of the 
mountain-tops, into slopes and adjacent 
valleys. . . . Modern science . . . confirms 
the truth of the aphorism of the patriarch 
Job. which thus shadowed forth the down- 
ward persistence of the one,a.nd the super- 
ficial distribution of the other : " Surely 
there is a vein for the sUver : " " The earth 
hath dust of gold'" C-Si^wta pp. 457, 4o8 
edit 1854). Gold is not affected by air or 
moisture, nor does it suffer diminution by 
heat : the furnace simply frees it from 
other matter which may have l^een com- 
bined with thepure metal. Hence there are 
repeated references in scripture to its purity 
and splendour (Job xxiii. 10; 1 Pet. i. 7). 
There are several Hebrew words used tor 
old. variously implying its colour, its being 
dug out of the ground, its being stored 
up &c It was procured by the Israelites 
. from distant regions— Arabia, Ophir, Par- 
, vaim, Sheba, Uphaz (1 Kings ix. 28, x 1, 2 , 
1 2 Chron. iii. 6 ; Job xxviii. 16 ; Psal-^^I; ^' 
Ixxii. 15; Jen x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 22; Dan. 

- ^'Gold is earlv mentioned as a part of a 
: man's wealth (Gen. xiii. 2) ; but it seems 
to have been used rather for ornaments 
t (xxiv 22, 53 ; Exod. xii. 35, xxxii. 2 ; Numb, 
s xxxi.' 50-52, 54) than as a medium of ex- 
e change ; and it does not appear that any 
y gold coins have been found among the As- 



339 



Syrian or Egyptian monuments. So that 
when employed in commerce it was weighed 
out (1 Chron. xxi, 25). The mode of work- 
ing gold was understood at an early period : 
thus, the priest's ephod and girdle had gold 
in thpm . many utensils of the sanctuary 
were formed of gold, beaten out, or over- 
laid (Exod. XXV. 17, 18, 24, 31, xxviii. 6, 8) ; 
and there was some process known of re- 
ducing it to powder. See Calf. 

GOLDEN BOWL (Eccles. xii. 6). Kitto 
(Pict. Bible) interprets this of the skull, and* 
the ' silver cord' of the spinal marrow. 
Mendelssohn, however, more suitably refers 
the metaphor to the working of a wheel 
and the drawing of water, and supposes 
that the human heart, with its veins and 
arteries, is the thing signified : see Pres- 
ton's Ecclesiastes, pp. 340-342. 

GOLDSMITH (Neh. iii. 8, 31, 32 ; Isai. xl. 
19, xli. 7, xlvi. 6). See Handicraft. 

GOL'GOTHA. See Calvary. 

GOLI'ATH (great, or an exile). A Philis- 
tine of Gath, descended, perhaps, from the 
ancient Rephaim. He was of vast stature, 
variously reckoned from seven feet to ten 
and a half. He defied the army of the Is- 
raelites, and demanded a champion who 
might fight with him. But no one dared— 
not even the gigantic Saul— to accept the 
challenge, till David, indignant that a Phil- 
istine should defy the armies of the living 
God, boldly offered himself, in faith that 
the Lord would give him the victory. It 
was in the valley of Elah that the combat 
took place. David prevailed against the 
giant with a sling and a stone, and cut off 
his head with his own sword ; while the dis- 
mayed Philistines fled in confusion (1 Sam. 
xvii., xxi. 9, xxii. 10). There were others of 
the same family, whose destruction by the 
hand of David and by the hand of his ser- 
vants is recorded in the sacred story (2 Sam. 
xxi. 15-22 ; 1 Chron. xx. 4-8). 

GO'MBE, (complete, perfection).— J. The eld- 
est son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3 ; 1 Chron. i. 5, 
6). His descendants are generally supposed 
to be the ancient Cimmerians, the Cimbri 
of after times, whose name is yet to be 
traced in the Crimea— that great Celtic 
family of which we have in these islands 
the Gael of Ireland and Scotland, and the 
Cymri of Wales. Their migrations are re- 
corded in history. Pressed by the Scyth- 
ians, the wave of their population flowed 
into the western part of Asia Minor ; and 
thence, resisted and expelled by the Ly- 
dians, they turned to other quarters and 
found settlements in the north and west 
of Europe. Of them came the occupiers of 
Denmark, the German coast, Belgium, and 
Britain. The name of Gomer occurs in Ezek. 
xxxviii. 6 as joining with his bands the army 
of Gog.— 2. The daughter of Diblaim, whom 
the prophet Hosea was commanded to take 
to wife (Hos. i. 3). 

GOMOR'RAH (submersion). One of the 
five cities of the plain, apparently next in 
importance to Sodom (Gen. x. 19, xiii. lo). 
rt was with the others subdued and plun- 
iered by Chedor-laomer and delivered by 
-Abram (xiv. 1-16). It shared the destruc- 
tion of Sodom, as it had shared its sin 
ixviii. 20, xix. 24-29); and its fate is fre- 



[goshek 



quently alluded to in the later parts of 
scripture. The position of Gomorrah has 
been a fruitful subject of discussion. See 
Sodom. 

GOMOR'RHA (Matt. x. 15 ; Mark. vi. 11 ; 
Rom. ix. 29 ; 2 Pet, ii. 6 ; Jude 7). The 
Greek form of Gomorrah. 

GO'PHER-WOOD. The material of which 
the ark was to be made (Gen. vi. 14). A 
variety of conjectures have been hazarded 
respecting this wood. ' It is evidently a 
tree,' says Kalisch, * which yields a resi- 
nous pitch-like substance, as the pine, fir, 
and cedar ; gopher signifies here most likely 
the cypress, which was in some parts of 
Asia exclusively used as the material of 
ships ; in Athens for cofiQns ; in Egypt for 
the mummy-cases, for which purpose it was 
peculiarly adapted, on account of its great 
durability and hardness' (Comm. on the Old 
Test. Gen., p. 181). 

GORGET (1 Sam. xvii. 6, marg.). See Arms, 
p. 53. 

GOR'GTAS (1 Mace. iii. 38, iv. 1, 5 ; 2 Mace, 
viii. 9, and elsewhere). A military officer 
of Antiochus Epiphanes. 

GOBTY'NA (1 Mace. xv. 23). A city of 
Crete in which there were Jewish residents. 

GO'SHEN (frontier? but the meaning is 
very uncertain).—!. A district of Egypt 
assigned as the residence of Jacob and his 
family, and which the Israelites occupied 
till their deliverance from bondage (Gen. 
xlv. 10). We gather from the scripture 
narrative several particulars concerning 
it. It was one of the best and most fertile 
parts of the country (xlvii. 6, 11), with ex- 
cellent pasture-land, and therefore a most 
desirable abode for those whose trade had 
been about cattle (xlvi. 34, xlvii. 4). It must 
have lain to the east of the Nile ; for the 
Israelites on their departure had no occa- 
sion to cross that river. But it may be 
probably supposed to border on the Nile or 
some branch of it ; since the inhabitants of 
Goshen had an abundant supply of fish 
(Numb. xi. 5). Then it could not have been 
far from the royal residence; for Jacob 
would there be near to Joseph ;Gen. xlv. 
10) ; and easy intercourse between the two 
is evidently implied (xlviii. 1, 2; Exod. v. 
20). Again Joseph is said to have gone up 
in his chariot to meet his father in Goshen 
(Gen. xlvi. 29). Hence, it must have been to 
the north-east of the metropolis, wherever 
that was. It was also called the land of Ba- 
rneses (xlvii. 11 ; Exod. xii. 37) ; the towns 
Pithom and Raamses lying within its border 
(i, 11). From indications of this kind a writer 
in Dr. Smith's i?ici5. of the Bible, vol. i. p. 711, 
infers that Goshen must have been between 
the eastern part of the ancient Delta and 
the western borders of Palestine, that it 
was hardly a part of Egypt proper, and that 
it was probably identical with the modern 
Wady Tumeylat, the valley along which ran 
the canal of the Red sea. Dr. Kalisch does 
not exactly agree with this identification. 
Goshen did not reach to the wilderness 
(Exod. xiii. 20), and was not, he believes, a 
frontier province. Such passages as viii. 
21-23, ix. 25, 26 show, he thinks, that 
it was surrounded by other Egyptian dis- 
tricts, and properly belonged to Egj^t. He 



gospel] 



supposes it impossi'ble therefore to define 
Its boundaries, and concludes that we mu&t 
be satisfied with a more general idea ot its 
position {Comm. an Old Test. Gen., PP- 6/8- 
5S0) The Israelites were not all confined 
to the land of Goshen ; for the parents of 
Moses clearlv lived in the capital (Exod, ii. 
3 5 8^ Neither were the inhabitants of 
Goshen exclusively Israelites; for Egyptians 
are described as their neighbours (iii. 22, xi. 
2 xii 35, 36); and that the houses of the two 
peoples were intermixed may be inferred 
from the necessity of marking off those of 
Israel with the blood of the paschal lamb 
(xii 23). Moreover, Pharaoh's flocks and 
herds seem to have been pastured in Goshen 
CGen xlvii 6). But it is probable that for- 
eigners also lived there ; for ' a mixed mul- 
titude' accompanied the Israelites on their 
march (Exod. xii. 38).— 2. A district m 
Palestine, apparently lying between Gaza 
and Gibeon (Josh. x. 41, xi. 16). It probably 
included some of the rich low country of 
Judah ; and the Israelites may hence have 
given it its name.— 3. A town in the moun- 
tains of Judah (XV. 51). It may have had 
«ome connection with the district just men- 
tioned ; but this is merely a conjecture. 

GOSPEL This word is derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon god and spel, signifying good 
tidings. It is very appropriately used, 
therefore, to indicate that message of 
mercy which proclaims to mankind the 
mode of reconciliation with God through 
Jesus Christ. It is called ' the gospel of 
the grace of God' (Acts xx. 24), because it 
is the exhibition of God's free favour to 
sinful men ; ' the gospel of peace ' (Eph. vi. 
15) because it peacefully unites God and 
man, those who stood before apart and 
alienated ; ' the gospel of salvation ' (i. 13), 
because by means of it the lost may be 
saved ; ' the gospel of the kingdom ' (Matt, 
iv 23), because it announces the spiritual 
reign of Messiah ; * the gospel of God con- 
cerning his Son' (Rom. i. 1, 3), because it 
relates the history of all that Christ did for 
the procuring of our salvation. Hence it is 
taken for Christian doctrine or teaching, 
and sometimes more generally for that 
which onlv professes to be such (Gal. i. 6-9). 
The word 'is never used in scripture for a 
written document or narrative ; but at an 
early period it very naturally began to be 
applied to the books in which the personal 
history of Christ and his words are con- 
tained, i. e. to those four narratives respect- 
ively which are the text-books of our Lord's 
life and actions. , ^ •, . -u- -u 

GOSPELS. The several books m which, 
as observed in the preceding article, the 
personal history of Christ is recorded ; the 
authors being termed evangelists. Four 
^uch books have been transmitted to us ; 
and to their early authority in the church 
the whole current of ecclesiastical Christian 
literature gives evidence. For not only 
wc^-e they known independently, but as a 
collection the four were acknowledged and 
used in the second century; as we learn 
from Irensus, Tertullian, and other writers 
of the time. Reasons, not always very 
srrave ones, were alleged why these his- 
tories should be just four ; and fanciful 



comparisons have been devised to illus- 
trate the propriety of such a number. 
Without discussing these, wemay weii De 
thankful that God has given us four in- 
dependent witnesses to the truth of trans- 
actions most momentous in themselves, 
and most necessary for our well-being. 
Each has its peculiar character ; and they 
must be taken together if we would have 
a complete portrait of the Divine Redeemer. 
He is delineated from different points of 
view ; and, though each delineation is m 
itself faultless, conveying only truth, lu 
does not from the nature of things convey 
the whole truth. For completeness we need 
them all. . , • ^.-u^ 

The Gospels are ranged m order m tne 
IsTew Testament, as those of Matthew, 
Mark. Lukp, and John ; two of them writ- 
ten bv apostles, and two by apostolical 
men, the friends and companions of apos- 
tles. They have the authority which the 
productions of mere contemporaries would 
not have. Many contemporaries, as we 
learn from the author of one of these re- 
cords (Lukei. 1, 2), had committed to writ- 
ing the events of the time ; and their pro- 
ductions may have been valuable and cu- 
rious. But these— the four— stand on much 
higher ground : they have flowed down, a 
precious heir-loom, from men whom the 
Holy Ghost influenced and guided m their 
work. As such we receive them on an 
equality with the sacred books of the ear- 
lier dispensation. * -u ^ -k 
The most cursory reader must have ob- 
served that the fourth Gospel stands apart 
from the rest. Those of Matthew, Mark, 
and Luke, usually called the Synoptic Gos- 
pels, bear a far-closer mutual relation. They 
narrate the same leading events, and they 
exhibit much verbal agreement, with at 
the same time remarkable variations. Cri- 
tics have drawn out and classified the par- 
ticulars of agreement and variation. Thus 
archbishop Thomson, after giving some de- 
tails, remarks : * The verbal and material 
agreement of the first three evangehsts is 
■such as does not occur in any other authors 
who have written independently of one 
another. The verbal agreement is greater, 
where the spoken words of others are cited, 
than where facts are recorded, and greatest 
in quotations of the words of our Lord. 
But in some leading events, as in the call 
of the first four disciples, that of Matthew, 
and the transfiguration, the agreement 
even in expression is remarkable: there 
are also narratives where there is no verbal 
harmony in the outset, but only m the 
crisis or emphatic part of the story (Matt, 
viii. 3 = Mark i. 41 = Luke v. 13 ; and Matt, 
xiv 19, 20 = Mark vi. 41-43 = Luke ix. 16, 
17) . . The agreement in the narrative 
portions of the Gospels begins with the 
baptism of John, and reaches its highest 
point in the account of the passion of our 
Lord and the facts that preceded it ; so that 
a direct ratio might almost be said to exist 
between the amount of agreement and the 
nearness of the facts related to the passion. 
... In quotations from the Old Testamaat, 
the evangelists, or two of them, sometimes 
exhibit a verbal agreement, although they 



o4i MhU laiiclnlclrcre. 



differ from the Hebrew and from the Sep- 
tixagint version ' (Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
Tol. i. p. 714), Mr. Westcott gives a yet- 
fuller account of the coincidences and 
variations, and remarks, quite in accord- 
ance with the archbishop : ' In the distri- 
bution of the verbal coincidences, a very- 
simple law is observable. They occur most 
commonly in the recital of the words of 
our Lord or of others, and are compara- 
tively rare in the simple narrative' {Introd. 
to the Gospels, chap. iii. pp. 175-182). 

It has appeared exceedingly difficult to 
account for the phenomena which thus pre- 
sent themselves. If we suppose one evan- 
gelist to have copied from another, his 
testimony as an independent witness is 
seriously impaired. And such a supposition 
would not solve the difficulty. It might 
account for the agreement of one or more 
writers : it would fail to explain the con- 
tinually-occurring insignificant differences. 
For it is not likely that a transcriber would 
alter expressions, unless he intended there- 
by to improve upon them, or to supply 
further information. Elaborate hj'-potheses 
have, therefore, been devised, such as that 
there was some original common document, 
probably Aramaic, from which there were 
translations variously modified, and that 
one or more of these, in conjunction with 
the original and with other sources, were 
the materials made use of more or less by 
the different evangelists. It cannot be 
denied that a passage before referred to 
(Luke i. 1, 2) gives some countenance to 
hypotheses of the kind. But tlien, in order 
to make them at all satisfactory, the docu- 
ments have to be so multiplied and com- 
bined, that it is hard indeed to imagine the 
toil which each evangelist must have un- 
dergone to construct his book. Besides, it 
is extraordinary that all these supposed 
documents should have perished ; especially 
that no ancient writer appeai-s to have seen 
or known the original common record, 
which surely would have been highly prized 
by all who had access to it. Lists of these 
supposed documents are given by many 
biblical critics. ' Thus archbishop Thomson 
enumerates them as five according to 
Eichhorn, and multiplied to eight in the im- 
proved scheme of bishop Marsh (iM supr., 
p, 715). Dr. Alford also exhibits Marsh's 
scheme in a sufficiently-puzzling form, and 
expresses his dissatisfaction with these 
attempts at explaining the phenomena of 
the Gospels (T/ie Greek Test, Proleg. chap. i. 
sect, ii.). 

It is far more easy to show the imperfec- 
tion of the plans proposed by learned men 
than to devise a better mode of solving 
the difficulty. Any opinion must, there- 
fore, be stated with modesty, and main- 
tained only so far as it can be proved to 
rest on solid grounds. 

Mr. Westcott is inclined to believerather 
in what may be called an • oral Gospel.' He 
cannot approve of any artificial theory : 
' Such a combination of research and me- 
chanical skill in composition as it involves 
is wholly alien from the circumstances of 
rhe apostolic age, and at variance with the 
prevailing power of a wide-spread tradi- 



[gOSPEI.8 [ 

tion.' He points out, therefore, how the ' 
I work of the apostles was to instruct by : 
' preaching, narrating, and insisting upon 
the things which they had seen and heard 
(Acts iv. 20, vi. 4). Their Master left tbein 
no written code : he taught them by his 
discourses. And in discourse to the people, 
in the synagogues, in the temple, before 
the rulers, exhorting, persuading, disput- 
ing, they would naturally make known 
their message. All was too perfectly in 
their minds and memories to require written 
documents. The scriptures to them were 
the books of the ancient canon ; and books 
to form a fresh supplementary canon were 
not the foundation but the restilt — not 
immediately necessary, and therefore not 
arrived at till a fresh stage of the church— 
of apostolic teaching. ' The hypothesis, 
then,' says Mr. Westcott, *of an oral Gospel 
is most consistent with the general habit 
of the Jews and the peculiar position of the 
apostles ... it is supported by the earliest 
direct testimony, and in some degree im- 
plied in the apostolic writings' (ti&i supr., 
p. 188). Naturally, when each related some 
great gospel event which all had witnessed, 
he would describe in terms similar to those 
which the rest used. And the.all-important 
words of the Master, fixed deeply in every 
mind, would be repeated with little if any 
variation. A body of events, too, of chief 
moment, to be mainly dwelt on, would soon 
be collected ; and these again and again set 
forth would assume an almost-stereotyped 
form. So that, when at length the circum- 
stances of the church demanded it, an 
apostle, or apostolic man, imbued with the 
common teaching, drawing at the same 
time from his own stores, would give with 
some variety of circumstances and expres 
sion his record of facts ; while, the nearer 
he drew to the weightiest matters of all, 
especially when relating the ever-to-be- 
remembered words of Christ, the more 
minute would be his verbal agreement with 
his fellows. 

Yet if we go no farther, a considerable 
difficulty yet remains. If we may suppose 
the apostles teaching in the language which 
Christ used, we can understand verbal co- 
incidences, while we are not puzzled by 
various differences, especially of descrip- 
tion. But it is hard to imagine them trans- 
lating into another tongue independently, 
and falling into so close a similitude, in 
many cases, into an identity of renderings. 
But what if the language Christ generally 
used, what if the language in which the 
apostles for the most part taught, were the 
language in which they have written ? Per- 
haps if we come to examine we shall find 
some reason to believe this. That Hebrew 
so called, more properly Syro-Chaldaic or 
Aramsean, was vernacularly spoken in Pales- 
tine in our Lord's time no one will deny ; 
but it is very likely that concurrently with 
it there was Greek, commonly understood, 
and specially used in public addresses. 
Consider the sermon on the mount. The 
persons assembled to hear it were 'from 
Galilee, and from Decapolis, and from Jev 
rusalem, and from Judea, and from beyond 
Jordan' (Matt. iv. 25). Now it is weU 



gospels] 



342 



kaown that the cities of Decapolis were 
generally what were called Greek cities ; and 
fertSnly the mixed popvUation beyond the 
Jordan were little likely to he lamiharwiih 
iramSan. Is not the prohahility strong, 
ttien that our Lord delivered that menio- 
Jab e addre° s in Greek ? And, when Peter 
on the day of pentecost addressed a multi- 
mde gathered from far-distant countries, 
n whfch were various native dialects, would 
he have spoken in a tongue not common to 
Fhem all? and was there any such common 
language at the time but Greek 

This Question, however, cannot be argued 
in this place. The student who desires more 
information on the subject must seek it 
puewhere The whole matter has been 
SaboratelV discussed by 
cussians on the Gospels, 1862). But, if vi e 
admit it as a fact that Christ generally 
used Greek, and that the apostles m their 
teaching employed commonly tlie /ame 
language, the difficult question of the 
orilin of the Gospels is exceedingly simpli- 
fied and we have a key to the verbal coin- 
cidences, and can understand the variations 
of narrative. It has been.already observed 
that the chief agreement is m the recital of 
the words of others, specially of tho^e of 
our Lord. What if there were no need to 
translate, what if the identical utterances, 
deep, as'before said, in every mind are : 
sixek us in the gospel records? This i=, 
fully argued by Mr. Roberts (chap. vi. pp. 
429-465) whose conclusion is that ' our Lora 
Jesus Chrin spoke in Greek, and the evan- 
gelists independently narrated his actions, 
and reported his discourses, in the same 
lansuaJe which he had himself employed 
Doimatic assertion must ^.ot be ventured 
on such a subiect ; but it is belie\edthat 
??e explanation hence afforded is more 
satisfactory than the cumbrous hypothese^ 
before noted ; and it is not unlikely .hat it 
will ultimately receive the approval of 
biimcal critics best qualified to decide. 

The remarks hitherto made have con- 
cerned the synoptic Gospels. That of St. 
John stands in a very peculiar relation to 
them. It is supplementary, for it assumes 
facts as known,of which it gives no account, 
but which are found in them : it is also in- 
dependent, presenting a different aspect 
of om- Lord's character, while its points 
of coincidence with the others show the 
woi-king of the 'self-same spirit diyidin^^ 
to every man severally as he will d Cou 
iii 11). It is in St. John's Gospel only that 
we find any detail of Chiist's early Judean 
ministry ; the synoptists relating his ^ oiks 

^Ye^vy Admirably has bishop Ellicott illus- 
trated the distinctive characteristics of the 
four Gospels ; the first of his Historical Lec- 
ture^ being devoted to the consideration of 
these The student will do well to refer to 
his excellent volume ; from which it may 
be allowed here to introduce a sjiiumary^ 
• In regard of (I.) the external features and 
ct^traSeristics, we are perhaps warranted m 
saying that (a) the point of view of the first 
Kelis mainly israelitic; of seconf 
Gentile: of the third, universal; of the 
?omth!' Christian; that i.b) the general 



1 aspect, and, so to speak, physwgvomy of the 
I flr^t is mainly oriental; of the second, 
i Roman ; of the third, Greek; of the fourth. 
' spiritual ; that (c) the style of the first is 
stately and rhythmical ; of the second, terse 
' and precise ; of the third, calm and copious ; 
' of the fourth, artless and coUoquial ; that 
: the most striking characteristic of the first 
is svmmetry ; of the second, compression ; 
of the third, order; of the fourth system ; 
that (e) the thought and language of tne first 
are both Hebraistic ; of the third, both 
Hellenistic ; while in the second the thought 
1 is often occidental, though the language is 
' Hebraistic ; and, in the fourth, the language 
Hellenistic, but the thought Hebraistic. 
Again (II.), in respect of subject-matter and 
contents, we may say perhaps (a) that m the 
flr«t Gospel we have narrative; m tne 
second, memoirs; in the third, liistory ; m 
the fourth, dramatic portraiture ; (p) that 
in the first we have often the record of 
events in their accompUshment ; m the 
second, events in their detail ; m the third, 
events in their connection ; m the fourth, 
events in relation to the teaching springing 
; from them ; that thus (c) in_ the first we 
' more often meet with the notice of impres- 
^ sions ; in the second, of facts ; in the third 
\ of motives ; in the fourth, of words spoken , 
i and that, lastly (d), the record of the first i^ 
: mainly collective, and often antithetical , of 
the second, graphic and circumstantial ; of 
the third, didactic and reflective; of the 
fourth, selective and supplemental, we 
may (III.) conclude by saying that, m respect 
of the portraiture of our Lord, the first 
Gospel presents him to us mainly as the 
Me=siah ; the second, mainly as the God- 
man ; the third, as the Redeemer; the 
fourth, as the only-begotten Son of God , 

^llfs'eviden^that four different truthfni 
pictures of the same person and events 
must agree, and that all the derails i^i pro- 
perly combined must exactly fit. But such 
a combination is not easy. Comprehensn e a. 
the Gospels taken together are they j et do 
not give us the whole of what Jesus did and 
?auglit (John xxi. 25).. There are m erf ces, 
therefore, -which it is hard to fill up. So 
Sat those who have attempted to Harmon- 
ize (as it is called) the Gospels have been 
in some respects unsuccessful, and are by 
no means in mutual harmony. As m every 
other department of literature, men have 
brought often their own prejudice^ to the 
consn-uction of Harmonies and have 
1 strained sometimes the sacred narratives 
: in order to bend them to their own purpose, 
i In every thing human there is imperfection, 
i But thil work has been with many a labour 
1 of love ; and their earnest study of the holy 
books has been of no mean service to the 
SSrch Theydo not deser^J the censure 
which Dr. Alford has amused himself with 
nernetually inflicting upon them. 

It is almost invidious to select for com- 
mendation from the many useful Harmonies 
which have been formed ; still the reader 
may not be displeased to have that of Dr. 
go'bii^on mentioned and also that appen 
ded by archbishop Thonjson to hi. arjuM 
already noticed pp. 720--2.^ See Joy.>, 



343 



[grace 



Mark, Matthew, Luke, the Gospels 

^^ere are some apocryphal Gospels in ex- 
istence. They are of considerable anti- 
quity ; but, as they are evidently legend- 
ary, they need not be further noticed 

GOTHOLI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 33). Athaliah 
(Ezra viii. 7). 

GOTEO'NIEL (Judith vi. 15). 

GOURD. A wild vine is mentioned in 2 
Kings iv. 39, as producing wild gourds 
which were poisonous. It was probably 
called a vine as having pendulous shoots. 
It has been supposed by many to be the Gi- 
truUus colocynthis, or Gucumis colocynthis, 
bitter apple, an annual plant, the fruit of 
which is about the size of an orange, but of 
a lighter colour: from the light spongy 
pulp or pith, colocynth, a drug used in me- 
dicine, is obtained. But the Hebrew word, 
pakkit'oth, implies splitting or bursting; 
wild or sctuirting cucurabersj theref ore^ Cu- 
cumis sylvesiris, or Ecbalium agreste. Which 
are egg-shaped, and when touched burst 
and scatter their seeds, may perhaps be in- 
tended. The same word (in a different form 
of the plural) is e^nployed for an architec- 
tural ornament. See Knop. 

There has been much diversity of opi- 
nion as to the plant mentioned in Jonah iv. 
6-10. The Hebrew name is kilcayon, bearing 
a near resemblance to the Egyptian kiki, 
which is the Bicinus communis, Palma 
Christi, or castor-oil plant. This in warm 
countries is ligneous and perennial, in cold 
annual and herbaceous. It is of rapid 
growth, and flourishes in the driest soil; 
and, as the stem is soft and has little sub- 
stance, it may easily be destroyed by insects. 
It abounds also near the Tigris, and grows 
there to a considerable size. Hence it is 
now pretty generally agreed that this must 
be the plant intended. Dr. Thomson, how- 
ever, very properly observing that, though 
the rapid growth might be miraculously 
produced, still God would most likely select 
the plant naturally best adapted for the 
purpose, remarks that the gourd, when it 
has fairlv begun to run, will in a few days 
cover a whole arbour. He adds that the 
orientals would never dream of training a 
castor-oil plant over a booth, or cultivating 
it for a shade. He therefore adheres to the 
belief that by klkayon we may understand 
some species of gourd {The Land and the 
Book, pp. 69, 70). 

GOVERNOR. This word is used in our bi- 
bles with considerable latitude, as implying 
persons of rank, or those who exercised in- 
dependent or delegated authority, civil or 
ecclesiastical, in a kingdom, a province, a 
town, or a household. Various Hebrew 
terms are thus translated, some of them 
very nearly synonymous, and all implying 
one or other of the prerogatives or qualifi- 
cations belonging to a ruler or chief. Ac- 
curately to define these several terms is the 
work rather of a lexicographer than of a 
compiler of such a book as the present : a 
writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, \ol. i. 
pp. 724-726, enumerates ten Hebrew and four 
Greek words translated ' governor' ; and he 
might have added to his list. It must be 



sufficient here to explain the term in those 
few cases In which, to the English reader, it 
may seem to require illustration. 

Thus it is used to designate certain pro- 
vincial officers of the Assyrian, Babylon- 
ian, Median, and Persian empires. The ori- 
ginal word is pehhah, probably akin to the 
modern pacha. Several of these governors 
presided over districts on the western side 
of the Euphrates (Neh. ii. 7, 9); and they 
were inferior to the satraps or king's lieute- 
nants (Ezra viii. 36). Sheshbazzar, doubt- 
less identical with Zerubbabel, is said to 
have been ' governor ' (v. 14, vi. 7 ; Hagg. i. 
1). Nehemiah, too, was ' governor' (Neh. v. 
14, 15, 18), both bearing also the title of ' the 
Tirshatha' (Ezra ii. 63; Neh. vii. 70, viii. 9, 
X. 1). The exact duties of these officers are 
not defined : they seem to have had a salary 
or allowance (Ezra iv. 14 ; Neh. v. 15, 17, 18), 
and were probably assisted by a council 
(Ezra iv. 7, vi. 6 ; Neh. iv. 14, vi. 10). It is 
the same officer who is mentioned in Mai. i. 
8. Possibly Pahath-moab (Ezra ii. 6) should 
be translated chief or governor of Moab. 

In the New Testament the Roman pro- 
curator of Judea is called the 'governor' 
(e.g.. Matt, xxvii. 2, 11, 14) ; a kindred word 
being used to describe the authority of Ti- 
berius (Luke ill. 1, where in our version 
'reign'). The 'governor' of a marriage- 
feast was the bridegroom's friend, who took 
charge of the entertainment (John ii. 8, 9). 
The ' governor ' of Damascus would seem to 
have been the ethnarch who held the place 
as the king's lieutenant or vassal (2 Cor. xi. 
32). The ' governors ' of a minor were tlie 
trustees of his property (Gal. iv. 2). The 
'governor' of a ship was the steersman 
(James iii. 4). 

GO'ZAN (quarry?) A district to which 
the Israelites were carried captive (2 Kings 
xvii. 6, xviii. 11, xix. 12 ; 1 Chron. v. 26 ; Isai. 
xxxvii.l2). Gozan must not be considered 
as a river: rather the river mentioned in 
1 Chron. v. 26 ran through it : it was pro- 
bably the region called Gauzanitis by 
Ptolemy, and Mygdonia by other writers. 
It was watered by the Habor, now the Kha- 
hour, a tributary of the Euphrates. See, 
however, the Imp. Bible Diet., vol. i. pp. 676, 
677, where Gozan is taken to be a river, 
and is identified with the Kizzil Ozan, or 
Golden river of Media. 

GBA'BA (1 Esdr. v. 29). A form of Haga- 
bah (Ezra ii. 45). 

GRACE. There are many shades of mean- 
ing which this word bears in scripture. 
Simply it implies a gift, something be- 
stowed by favour of the donor (2 Cor. viii. 
19), and hence the excellent qualities with 
which any one is endowed (Prov. iv. 9, xxii. 
11 ; 2 Pet. iii. 18). More particularly it de- 
notes that free and wonderful love which 
God has evinced to mankind in bestowing 
a Saviour, his only-begotten Son, and ac« 
cepting those that believe in him (John i 
17 ; Eph. i. 7, ii. 4-9 ; Tit. ii. 11, iii. 7). Gifts 
are the manifestation of love, proofs of fa- 
vour : hence grace is often put for favour, 
or favourable help ; as respects the Deity 
(Gen. vi. 8 ; 1 Cor. xv. 10 ; 2 Cor. xii. 9), or as 
respects man (Gen, xxxix. 4 ; 2 Sam. xiv. 22). 
Other modifications of the sense of this 



3HIAFT] 



Ctjc Erra^urg at 



344 



word will present no difficulty to the 

GRAFT. The well-known practice of 
grafting is resorted to, to improve the qua- 
lity of fruit yielded by a tree. The branch 
grafted in preserves its own character, and 
does not take that of the stock, though it 
may derive sap and nutriment through it. 
St Paul refers to the custom of grafting 
fRom xi. 17-24), hut reverses the natural 
process, for the better illustration of his 
meaning. See Alford, note on Rom. xi. : 
16-24. 1 
GRAPE. SeeYiNB. I 
GRASS. There are several Hebrew words 
which are translated ' grass ' in our version; 
but the translation is not uniform. It may 
be sufficient to observe here that herbage 
generally, every kind of verdure m the 
state of sprouting, fodder, food for cattle, is 
indicated : the exact meanings of the ori- 
ginal words respectively must be sought 
in lexicons. Once (Numb. xi. 5) the word 
ordinarily translated 'grass' is rendered 
' leeks : ' see Leek. The rapid growtu and 
tenderness of grass are often alluded to in 
scripture as illustrating the fragility and 
fleeting character of man's existence. That 
which grows upon the flattened terraces of 
eastern house-tops is very soon withered 
bv the scorching rays of the sun (2 Kings 
xix. 26 ; Psal. xc. 5, 6, cxxix. 6 ; Isai. xl. 6-8 ; 
I Pet. i. 24). 
GRASSHOPPER. See Locust. 
GRAVE. See Burial. 
GRAVEN IMAGE. See IDOL, IMAGE. 
GREAT SEA. See Sea. 
GREAVES (1 Sam. xvii. 6). See ARMS. 
GRE'OIA, GRE'OIANS, GRLECE, 
GREEKS. Greece or Hellas, properly so 
called, was a country in the south-east of 
Europe lying between 363 and 40° N. lat. 
It was bounded on the north by Illyricum 
and Macedonia, from which a range of 
mountains separated it. On the other sides 
it was washed by the sea. There ^'ere nu- 
merous islands off the coasts inhabited by 
the Greek race, who had also established 
colonies elsewhere. In after-times the word 
was applied in a larger sense ; and under the 
Roman dominion Greece was considered 
as comprehending the provinces of Mace- 
donia and Achaia. So they are mentioned 
together in the New Testament (e.g. Acts 
xviii. 21; Rom. xv. 26). In Acts xx. _2, 
however, the term 'Grecia'is used in its 
more restricted proper sense as dastm- 
guished from Macedonia. , 

In the Old Testament little notice is taken 
of Greece. The Hebrew term for itis Javan j 
as it was peopled by the descendants oi 
Japheth in the line of Javan (Gen. x. 2, 4, o). ; 
The name Javan may be traced m Ionia, 
the western region of Asia Minor (see 
Javan) In later books, Greece or Grecia 
appears in our translation, designating 
sometimes the Macedonian kingdom ot 
Alexander (Dan. viii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2), and 
sometimes the Grteco-Syrian kingdom 
which arose after Alexander's death (Zech. 
ix 13). There was little early communica- 
tion or connection between Palestine and 
Greece. In Maccabean times, however, we 
find a correspondence of the Jews and the 



Lacedemonians, with a reference to a yet- 
earlier document in which the last-named 
people professed to discover that they were 
descendants of Abraham (1 Mace. xii. 2-23). 

The distinction between 'Greek' and 
'Grecian' in the New Testament is hardly 
enough marked. Hellenes, ' Greeks,' it may 
be said generally, were Greeks by race (Acts 
xvi. 1, 3, xviii. 17, and elsewhere), or Gen- 
i tiles as opposed to Jews (e. g. Rom. ii. 9, 10, 
marg.). Eellenistai, 'Grecians,' were foreign 
Jews as opposed to those of Palestine; but 

see HELLENISTS. 

GREEK (Luke xxiii. 38; John xix. 20; 
Acts xxi. 37 ; Rev. ix. 11). The language of 
the Greeks. The original, when an adjec- 
tive, is hellenikos. 

I GREEN (Esth. i.6; Sol. Son gi. 16). The word 
Is often applied to vegetable productions. 
Comp. Lev. xiii. 49, xi v. 37. See Colours. 
1 GREYHOUND (Prov. xxx. 31). The 
! literal meaning of the two words so trans 
lated is ' girded about the loins. Some 
understand a wrestler, others a war-horse ; 
to each of which it is supposed the expres- 
sion will apply. It must be allowed that it 
aptly describes the shape of the greyhound, 
with the loins contracted and slender. 
GRIND, GRINDING. See Mill. 
GRINDERS (Eccles. xii. 3). The double 
' teeth, denies molares. . 

GRISLED, or grizzled (Gen. xxxi. 10, 12), 
spotted, spoken of goats : (Zech. vl 3, 6), 
piebald, spoken of horses. 

GROVE. A word repeatedly used to 
designate something connected with idol- 
worship. Groves were often consecrated to 
religious rites, and were planted round 
temples. Their solemn gloom both befitted 
and inspired reverential thought ; and, 
besides, they were conveniently made the 
covert of obscene and cruel practices. There 
were sacred symbolic trees, too ; and it is 
noted that idolatrous rites were performed 
under a tree (Isai. Ivii. 5). Various trees were 
objects of worship among different heathen 
nations ; some of which were oracular. In 
scripture we find many remarkable trees 
mentioned (Gen. xxxv. 8; Josh. xxiv^6 ; 
Judges iv. 5), which it is likely might m 
time become objects of superstitious vene- 
ration. But the 'grove' so freauently 
•spoken of could not have been aplantatiou 
'of trees, as Josiah's proceedings show (^ 
I Kings xxiii. 6). It was rather a Pi^ar (oi 
^vood) or symbolical image of the idol- 
goddess. Or it might have been a single 
living tree. Such a sacred tree is figured 
in the Assyrian monuments. SeeASHERAH. 

There are two cases in which ' grove 
represents another Hebrew word (Gen.xxi. 
33 ; 1 Sam. xxii. 6, marg.). This word most 
probably denotes a tamarisk, mynca, the 
Tamarix orientalis oi 'Lmr\xns. _ 

Observe that elon, in our version the 
Dlaln,' is a tree, specifically an oak (Gen.xiu 
6) and, in the plural, a plantation of trees, 
a grove (xiii. 18, xiv. 13 ; Dent. xi. 30). 

GU \RD This is the translation ol three 
different Hebrew words, expressing the 
different duties that were to be performed. 
The guard were sometimes executioners 
(Gen.xxxvii.36; 2 Kings xxv.8 ; Dan. u. 1'.), 
sometimes runners (2 Kings xi. 4) ; some- 



345 



[habergeon 



times watchmen (Neh. iv. 23). These were 
not, hovever, necessarily different sets of 
men ; as we occasionally find the runners 
called on to become executioners (1 Sam. 
xxii. 17). 

GUDGO'DAH (thunder? loell abounding in 
water?). A station of the Israelites in the 
wilderness (Deut. x. 7). Perhaps the Wady 
Ghuddghidh. See Hor-hagidgad. 

GUEST, See Hospitality. 

GTJ'NI (coloured, dyed).—l. A son of Naph- 
tali (Gen. xlvi,24 ; Numb. xxvi. 48 ; 1 Chron. 
vii. 13).— 2. One of Gad's posterity (v. 15). 



GTJ'NITES. The family of Naphtali de- 
scended from Guni (Numb. xxvi. 48). 

GUE, (a v:help, lion's cub, or dwelling). The 
place where it is said that Ahaziah received 
his mortal wound when flying from Jehu 
(2 Kings ix. 27). ' The going up to Gur ' was 
probably some steep ascent from the plain 
of Esdraelon. See Ahaziah, 2. 

GTJR-BA'AL (dwelling of Baal). A place 
in Arabia, perhaps so called from there 
being a temple of Baal there. Uzziah sub- 
dued the Arabians of this locality (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 7). 



H 



HAAHASH'TARI (the muleteer). One of 
the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 6). 

HABAI'AH (whom Jehovah hides). A 
priest whose descendants returned from 
captivity ; but their genealogy was defec- 
tive (Ezra ii. 61 ; Neh. vii. 63). 

HAB'AKKUK (embrace). A prophet, of 
whose history we know literally nothing. 
He is described in the title to the book which 
Ijears his name simply as 'the' prophet' 
(Hagg. i. 1, see also iii. 1). There is thus a 
wide open field for conjecture ; and various 
traditional guesses have been hazarded. It is 
useless to chronicle them here. Suffice it to 
say that the pseudo-Epiphanius calls him a 
native of Beth-zocher, and of the tribe of 
Simeon. With very little more probability 
he has been supposed, from the subscrip- 
tion (iii. 19), a Levite. Nor does it add 
weight to the supposition that the Hab- 
bakuk of the apocryphal story of Bel and 
the Dragon is said in the Septuagint of 
Origen's Tetrapla (Cod. Chis.) to have been 
the son of Joshua, of the tribe of Levi. 

There are, however, in this prophet's 
writings a few indications of the time when 
he lived. Thus, in i. 5, 6, a threat is uttered 
of the Chaldean invasion, of which at the 
time no danger, obviously, v/as appre- 
hended; and yet it is said that it should 
come in the days of that generation. This 
would point to the reign of Josiah. And, as 
we can hardly imagine ii. 20 (comp, iii. 19) 
written before the reformation or re- 
establishment of the temple-service, we 
may with some probability place Habak- 
kuk's ministry in the later years of Josiah 
(See 2 Chron. xxxiv.). Some have imagined, 
by comparing Hab. ii. 20 with Zeph. i. 7, that 
Habakkuk preceded Zephaniah, and further, 
by a comparison of Hab. i. 8 with Jer. iv. 13, 
v. 6, that he prophesied before Jeremiah 
that is before the thirteenth year of Josiah 
But little stress can be laid on such deduc- 
tions. 

HAB'AKKUK, THE BOOK OF (620- 
609 B.C.). This book stands in our ordi- 
nary bibles eighth among those of the 
minor prophets. It forms a complete whole, 
in three parts, corresponding to our division 
of chapters : (1) describing an impending 
judgment, (2) the downfal of the enemy of 



God's church, (3) the answer of that be- 
lieving church to the two-fold revelation, a 
magnificent ode, expressing the fear which 
the threatened judgment inspired, and the 
consolatory hope imparted by the promised 
gracious retribution ; the whole illustrated 
by the remembrance of God's great deeds 
in old time. More particularly, in i. 1-4, the 
prophet bewails the corruption of his 
people : in 5-11, the Lord threatens righteous 
punishment : in 12-17, we have the prophet's 
expostulation. In ii. 1 he expresses a de- 
termination to watch and wait for a reply : 
this he is told (2) to make plain : a general 
denunciation follows (3-5); and then the 
various nations oppressed are represented as 
uttering woes upon the Chaldeans for their 
prominent vices, their ambition (6-8), their 
covetousness (9-11), their cruelty (12-14), 
their debauchery (15-17), their idolatry 
(18-20). Each stanza here (so to call it) com- 
mences with • woe,' and concludes with a 
verse introduced by a word signifying 'for' 
or ' because.' In the fifth stanza, however, 
there is an introductory verse. Chap, iii., 
though intimately connected with what 
precedes, is a complete poem in itself. This 
is unrivalled in its conception, and in the 
sublimity of its thoughts. The entire pro- 
phecy must, indeed, be placed high among 
the remains of Hebrew poetry. The majesty 
of the ideas, and the purity of the diction, 
are alike most perfect. 

HABAZINI'AH (lamp of Jehovah, accord- 
ing to some, whom Jehovah covers with a 
shield). One of the liechabites (Jer. xxxv. 
3). 

HAB'BACUC (Bel and Dr. 33-35, 37, 39). 
The Greek form of Habakkuk. 

HABERGEON. This term occurs in our 
version as the rendering of three different 
Hebrew words. One of them is used (Exod. 
xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23) to il lustrate the mode of 
making the priest's ephod. Gesenius de- 
scribes it as a military garment, properly of 
linen, strong and thickly-woven, furnished 
with mail round the neck and breast : the 
hole of the ephod was to be like the hole of 
this habergeon, with a binding that it 
might not rend. In 2 Chron. xxvi. 14 ; Neh. 
iv. 16, the word so translated means corslet, 
coat of mail. But that in Job, xli. 26 must 



5EAFT] 



344 



word will present no difficulty to the | 

GRAFT. The well-known practice of j 
grafting is resorted to, to improve the qua- ! 
lity of fruit yielded by a tree. The branch i 
grafted in preserves its own character, and | 
does not take that of the stock, though it ! 
may derive sap and nutriment through it. j 
St. Paul refers to the custom of grafting ' 
(Rom. xi. 17-24), but reverses the natural 
process, for the better illnstration of his 
meaning. See Alford, note on Rom. xi. 
16-24. 

GRAPE. See Vine. 

GRASS. There are several Hebrew words 
which are translated ' grass ' in our version; 
but the translation Is not uniform. It may 
be sufficient to observe here that herbage 
generally, every kind of verdure in the 
state of sprouting, fodder, food for cattle, is 
indicated : the exact meanings of the ori- 
ginal words respectively must be sought 
in lexicons. Once (^'umb. xi. 5) the Avord 
ordinarily translated 'grass' is rendered 
' leeks :' see Leek. The rapid growth and 
tenderness of grass are often alluded to in 
scripture as illustrating the fragility and 
fleeting character of man's existence. That 
which grows upon the flattened terraces of 
eastern house-tops is very soon withered 
bv the scorching rays of the sun (2 Kings 
xix. 26 ; Psal. xc. 5, 6, cxxix. 6 ; Isai. xl. 6-8 ; 
1 Pet. i. 24). 

GRASSHOPPER. See Locust. 

GRAVE. See Burial. 

GRAVEN IMAGE. See InOL, Image. 

GREAT SEA. See Sea. 

GREAVES (1 Sara. xvii. 6). See Arms. 

GRE'CIA, GRE'CIA^'S, GREECE, 
GREEKS. Greece or Hellas, properly so 
called, was a country in the south-east of 
Europe Iviug between 36^ and 40^ lat. 
It was bounded on the north by Illyricum 
and Macedonia, from which a range of 
mountains separated it. On the other sides 
it was washed by the sea. There were nu- 
merous islands off the coasts inhabited by 
the Greek race, who had also established 
colonies elsewhere. In after-times the word 
was applied in a larger sense ; and under the 
Roman dominion Greece was considered 
as comprehending the provinces of Mace- 
donia and Achaia. So they are mentioned 
together in the Isew Testament (e.g. Acts 
xviii. 21 ; Rom. xv. 26). In Acts xx. 2, 
however, the term 'Grecia'is used in its 
more restricted proper sense as distin- 
guished from Macedonia. 

In the Old Testament little notice is taken 
of Greece. The Hebrew termfor ifcis Javan ; 
as it was peopled by the descendants of 
Japheth in the line of Javan (Gen. x. 2, 4, 5). 
The name Javan may be traced in Ionia, 
the western region of Asia Minor (see 
jAVAN). In later books, Greece or Grecia 
appears in our translation, designating 
sometimes the Macedonian kingdom of 
AlexaTjder (Dan. viii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2), and 
sometimes the Grseco-Syrian kingdom 
which arose after Alexander's death (Zech. 
ix. 13). There was little early communica- 
tion or connection between Palestine and 
Greece. In Maccabean times, however, we 
find a correspondence of the Jews and the 



Lacedemonians, with a reference to a yet- 
earlier document in which the last-nained 
people professed to discover that they were 
descendants of Abraham (1 Mace. xii. 2-23). 

The distinction between ' Greek ' and 
'Grecian' in the New Testament is hardly 
enough marked. Hellenes, ' Greeks,' it may 
be said generally, were Greeks by race (Acts 
xvi. 1, 3, xviii. 17, and elsewhere), or Gen- 
tiles as opposed to Jews (e. g. Rom. ii. 9, 10, 
marg.). Eellenistai, 'Grecians,' were foreign 
Jews as opposed to those of Palestine; but 

see HELLE>^ISTS. 

GREEK (Luke xxiii. 38 ; Jobn xix. 20 ; 
Acts xxi. 37 ; Rev. ix. 11). The language of 
the Greeks. The original, when an adjec- 
tive, is Jiellenikos. 

GREEN (Esth. i.6; Sol.Songi.16). The word 
is often applied to vegetable productions. 
Comp. Lev. xiii. 49, xi v. 37. See Colours. 

GREYHOUND (Prov. xxx. 31). The 
literal meaning of the two words so trans 
lated is ' girded about the loins.' Some 
understand a wrestler, others a war-horse ; 
to each of which it is supposed the expres- 
sion will apply. It must be allowed that it 
aptly describes the shape of the greyhound, 
with the loins contracted and slender. 

GRIND, GRINDING. See Mill. 

GRINDERS (Eccles. xii. 3). The double 
teeth, denies molar es. 

GRISLED, or grizzled (Gen. xxxi. 10, 12), 
spotted, spoken of goats : (Zech. vi. 3, 6), 
piebald, spoken of horses. 

groat:, a word repeatedly used to 
designate something connected with idol- 
worship. Groves were often consecrated to 
religious rites, and were planted round 
temples. Their solemn gloom both befitted 
and inspired reverential thought ; and, 
besides, they were conveniently made the 
covert of obscene and cruel practices. There 
were sacred symbolic trees, too ; and it is 
noted that idolatrous rites were performed 
under a tree (Isai. Ivii. 5). Various trees were 
objects of worship among different heathen 
nations ; some of which were oracular. In 
scripture we find many remarkable trees 
mentioned (Gen. xxxv. 8 ; Josh. xxiv. 26 ; 
Judges iv. 5), which it is likely might in 
time become objects of superstitious vene- 
ration. But the 'grove' so frequently 
spoken of could not have been a plantation 
of trees, as Josiah's proceedings show (2 
Kings xxiii. 6). It was rather a pillar (oi 
iwood) or svmbolical image of the idol- 
I goddess. Or it might have been a single 
living tree. Such a sacred tree is figured 
in the Assyrian monuments. SeeAsHERAH. 

There are two cases in which ' grove ' 
represents another Hebrew Avord (Gen. xxi. 
' 33 ; 1 Sam. xxii. 6, marg.). This word most 
probably denotes a tamarisk, myrica, the 
I Tamarix orientalis of Linnasus. 
1 Observe that elon, in our version 'the 
I plain,' is a tree, specifically an oak (Gen.xiL 
' 6) and, in the plural, a plantation of trees, 
i a grove (xiii. 18, xiv. 13 ; Deut. xi. 30). 

GUARD. This is the translation of three 
I different Hebrew words, expressing the 
different duties that were to be performed, 
i The guard were sometimes executioners 
' (Qen.xxxvii.36; 2 Kings xxv.8; Dan.il.l<.), 
I sometimes runners (2 Kings xi. 4) ; some- 



345 ^ibU WinoMtyj^e. 



times watchmen (Neh. iv, 23). These were 
not, hovever, necessarily different sets of 
men ; as we occasionally find the runners 
called on to become executioners (1 Sam. 
xxii. 17). 

GTJDGO'DAH (thunder? well abounding in 
water?). A station of the Israelites in the 
wilderness (Deut. x. 7). Perhaps the Wady 
Ghuddghidh. See Hor-hagidgad. 

GUEST. See Hospitality. 

GU'NI (coloured, dyed).—l. A son of Naph- 
tali (Gen.xlvi.24 ; Numb. xxvi. 48; 1 Chron. 
vii. 13).— 2. One of Gad's posterity (v. 15). 



[habeegeok 



GU'NITES. The family of Naphtali de- 
scended from Guni (Numb. xxvi. 48). 

GUE, (a whelp, lion's cub, or dwelling). The 
place where it is said that Ahaziah received 
his mortal wound when flying from Jehu 
(2 Kings ix. 27). ' The going up to Gur ' was 
probably some steep ascent from the plain 
of Esdraelon. See Ahaziah, 2. 

GUR-BA'AL {dwelling of Baal). A place 
in Arabia, perhaps so called from there 
being a temple of Baal there. TJzziah sub- 
dued the Arabians of this locality (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 7). 



H 



HAAHASH'TARI (the muleteer). One of 
the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 6). 

HABAI'AH (whom Jehovah hides). A 
priest whose descendants returned from 
captivity ; but their genealogy was defec- 
tive (Ezra ii. 61 ; Neh. vii. 63). 

HAB'AKKUK (embrace). A prophet, of 
whose history we know literally nothing. 
He is described in the title to the book which 
bears his name simply as 'the' prophet' 
(Hagg. 1. 1, see also iii. 1). There is thus a 
wide open field for conjecture ; and various 
traditional guesses have been hazarded. It is 
useless to chronicle them here. Suffice it to 
say that the pseudo-Epiphanius calls him a 
native of Beth-zocher, and of the tribe of 
Simeon. With very little more probability 
he has been supposed, from the subscrip- 
tion (iii. 19), a Levite. Nor does it add 
weight to the supposition that the Hab- 
bakuk of the apocryphal story of Bel and 
the Dragon is said in the Septuagint of 
Origen's Tetrapla (Cod. Chis.) to have been 
the son of Joshua, of the tribe of Levi. 

There are, however, in this prophet's 
writings a few indications of the time when 
he lived. Thus, in i. 5, 6, a threat is uttered 
of the Chaldean invasion, of which at the 
time no danger, obviously, v/as appre- 
hended ; and yet it is said that it should 
come in the days of that generation. This 
would point to the reign of Josiah. And, as 
we can hardly imagine ii. 20 (comp. iii. 19) 
written before the reformation or re- 
establishment of the temple-service, we 
may with some probability place Habak- 
kuk's ministry in the later years of Josiah 
(See 2 Chron. xxxiv.). Some have imagined, 
by comparing Hab. ii. 20 with Zeph. i. 7, that 
Habakkuk preceded Zephaniah, and further, 
by a comparison of Hab. i. 8 with Jer. iv. 13, 
V. 6, that he prophesied before Jeremiah 
that is before the thirteenth year of Josiah 
Butlittle stress can be laid on such deduc- 
tions. 

HAB'AKKUK, THE BOOK OF (620- 
609 B.C.). This book stands in our ordi- 
nary bibles eighth among those of the 
mmor prophets. It forms a complete whole, 
in three parts, corresponding to our division 
of chapters: (1) describing an impending 
judgment, (2) the downfal of the enemy of 



God's church, (3) the answer of that be- 
lieving church to the two-fold revelation, a 
magnificent ode, expressing the fear which 
the threatened judgment inspired, and the 
consolatory hope imparted by the promised 
gracious retribution ; the whole illustrated 
by the remembrance of God's great deeds 
in old time. More particularly, in 1. 1-4, the 
prophet bewails the corruption of his 
people : in 5-11, the Lord threatens righteous 
punishment : in 12-17, we have the prophet's 
expostulation. In ii. l he expresses a de- 
termination to watch and wait for a reply : 
this he is told (2) to make plain : a general 
denunciation follows (3-5); and then the 
various nations oppressed are represented as 
uttering woes upon the Chaldeans for their 
prominent vices, their ambition (6-8), their 
covetousness (9-11), their cruelty (12-14), 
their debauchery (15-17), their idolatry 
(18-20). Each stanza here (so to call it) coin- 
mences with • woe,' and concludes with a 
verse introduced by a word signifying 'for' 
or ' because.' In the fifth stanza, however, 
there is an introductory verse. Chap, iii., 
though intimately connected with what 
precedes, is a complete poem in itself. This 
is unrivalled in its conception, and in the 
sublimity of its thoughts. The entire pro- 
phecy must, indeed, be placed high among 
the remains of Hebrew poetry. The majesty 
of the ideas, and the purity of the diction, 
are alike most perfect. 

HABAZINI'AH (lamp of Jehovah, accord- 
ing to some, whom Jehovah covers with a 
^neld). One of the Ilechabites (Jer. xxxv. 

'hAB'BACUC (Bel and Dr. 33-35, 37, 39) 
The Greek form of Habakkuk. 

HABERGEON. This term occurs in our 
version as the rendering of three different 
Hebrew words. One of them is used (Exod. 
xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23) to illustrate the mode of 
making the priest's ephod. Gesenius de- 
scribes it as a military garment, properly of 
linen, strong and thicklj--woven. furnished 
with mail round the neck and breast : the 
hole of the ephod was to be like the hole of 
this habergeon, with a binding that it 
might not rend. In 2 Chron. xxvi. 14 ; Neh. 
iv. 16, the word so translated means corslet, 
coat of mail. But that in Job, xli. 26 mast 



habor] 



346 



intend rather an offensive weapon. Carey 
translates it ' battle-axe' (T7ie Book of Job, 
note on xli. 26). See Ab3IS, P- 5^ 

HA'BOR {joining together). A-J^^^l^ 
mSt be distinguished fom the Che^ar of 
F7PkieH2 Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11 , H-mon. 
fie) feie district through which it runs 
was one of the conntries into which the ten 
<-riv.P=! wpre carried captive. This river, tne 
CI aborls now called the Khahour, has 
?ev"urces; the Pnn^pal of .ajich^s 
said to be to the west of Mai dm. it ruiib 
S a winding course, but generally south- 
louth west, ^through a ricli con^^^^^^^ 
havintr been augmented by tiibutaiies, it 
falls mto the Euphrates at Karkesia, the 

^''iTS^'Kv^^'^o.e eyes^ JeUoraU en- 
liveiw. The father of Nehemiah C^eh. 1. 1, 

^'h\CH'ILAH idarksome). A hill in the 
ne?ghb?urhood of Ziph, facing the wnder 
nesl • in the woody fastnesses of ^hicii 
mvid andhismen were l^^^^^i^^^/^,^^^ 
^r!^^!'?:: Vt^St?e\^ly^v?s 
Sotlest' In the first case, Saul was diverted 
from the pursuit by the iutelligence of an 
incursion of the Philistines : in the second, 
SavM and Abishai stole into Saul's camp by 
nfcjif and carried off the king's spear and 
cmi of 4ater!'' Hachilah has not been 

''g5c™i(-ise).Thefath^ 
nf n family of whom were two of m\ lU b 
fffi?err Jashobeam and Jehiel (1 Chron. 

\ rH'\lONITE. Tbe patronymic of the 
de?cindants of Hachmoni (1 Chron. xi. 11). 
Tn '7 ^am Txiii. 8 it is Tachmonite. 
^ HA'I^^iD SamoKr, a Syrian deity, thesim 
_f one of thekings^^Jorelgn^d in Edo n 
his ranital citv was Avitn. He aertaitu 
e SFmanltesln the field of Moab (Gen 
YYxvi 35; 1 Chron. i. 46).— 2. Anomer 
fa^lr king 'of Edom, the last .enumerated 
n the elrlv genealogies (i. 50, ol). In 
Gen XX '#. 39 he is called Hadar ; and his 
Sh £ not mentioned ; from which it ha. 
Slen^nfe';'redthat he /^--g^^^i^^^f | 
history was written. In 1 Chron. i- OJ-' ^ 
fa fe? record, his death is noted.-3. An 
Fdomfte of the roval family, carried away 
S a child when Joab was in military oc- 

he desired to return to his o^n land, and 
nrnvpd one of the adversaries of Solomon 
n K^n-s xi 14-25). The Septuagint trans- 
ators give an account somewhat diflenng 

p?ehension iComm. on Kings, transl, vol. i. 

i'DAD^Csftarp). One of the sons of Ish- 
niSt(?cS-on i. 30). He is called Hadar m 

^HA?.IbE'ZEIl (Whose ^eJpJs Rada^ 
'2 Sara. viii. 3-12 ; 1 Kmgs xi. 23). See 
"h^AdIdRIM'MOI? (probably named from 



the two Syrian divinities Hadad and Rim- 
nion) A place in the valley of Megiddo. 
where there was a national lament for the 
death of Josiah (Zech xii. H^- 
HA'DAR {ornament) (Gen. xxxvi. 39). bee 

^HA'DAR {enclosure) (Gen. xxv. 15). See 
Hadad, 2nd article, . my,p 

HADARE'ZER (ornament of nelp). ine 
king of Aram-Zobah, whom David defeated 
' as he went to stablish his dominion by the 
Euphrates' (1 Chron. xviii. 3-10) In another 
campaign Hadarezer was still more com- 
pSyiubdued ; and his dependent princes 
transf erred their allegiance to David (2 Sam. 
X S-19; 1 Chron. xix. 16-19). He IS called 
also Hadadezer (2 Sam. vm. 3-12 , 1 Kings 

^ H^ADA'SHAH {tieic). A town in the low 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 37). 
HADAS'SAH {myrtle). The earlier name 

^^hId It'tIh* oiew). A city in the south 
of Judah (Josh. XV. 25). In 21-32 a numoer 
of peaces are enumerated, twenty-nine it is 
=aid in all. But there are thirty-eight 
names : it is probable, therefore, that some 
are compound, and that Hadattah may be- 
long to the preceding Hazor, New Hazor 
to distinguish it from other p aces of the 
name. Wilton identifies it with Kusr el- 
Adadah, a ruin of imposing appearance on 
the summit of a hill {Tlie Negeb, PP- 9S. 99)- 
HA'DID {sharp). A town mentioned with 
Lod and Ono (B^^a ii. 33 ; Is^eh >ni. 37^ 

It was probably on the site of the 
modern village el-HadUheh, three miles 

''ilhl'il{rel^in%. An Israelite, father 
of Amasa (2 Chron. xxviii. 12). 

HADO'RAM {noble ho7iour).—l. A son ol 
Tr-irtcn rGpu X 27 I 1 Chrou. i. 21). It 13 
not certainly known where his descendants 
settled Perhaps they were ^be Adramit^ : 
«=ee EARTH, p. 232.-2. The son of Tou king 
of Hamath, sent to congratulate and bring 
presents to David after his conguest of 
Hadarezer (1 Chron. xviii. 10). He is called 
forim iS 2^Sam.viii. 10.-3. The Prmcnjal 
collector of taxes, who was stoned by the 
Israel tes on the revolt from Rehoboam 
fo Chron. x?¥8). He is also called Adoram 
(2 Sam. XX. 24 ; 1 Kings xii. 18), and Ado- 

""'hTd'RACH {enclosures. A district of 
Syria (Zech. ix. 1). ^^othing certain is 
§10^ of it: it can only be conjectured 
thatThe land of Hadrach is the region of 
Damascus ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ethinim 
whose descendants returned from Babylon 

^^H JgI'BA, HAGA'BAH {id.). Also one of 
the Nethinini, whose descendants returned 
after the captivity (Ezra ii. 4o ; Neh. ^ u. 48). 

HANGAR Crii^^'t). An Egyptian female, 
handmaid or slave to Sarah, and given by 
hl?in consequence of her own barrenness 
to Abramas his concubine. When she 
f oundherself with child, Hagar despised her 
mis?re«s Being in consequence severely 
Seated she fled into the wilderness, but was 
commanded by an angel to return and sub. 
mi?herself to Sarah. He told her also the 



o47 



rHAGGEfilTB 



destiny of the son that she should bear ; 
whose name was prescribed as a significant 
memorial that God hears the moan of those 
who complain to him. Hagar seems to have 
learned much by the heavenly vision : she 
had learned to look up to the living and 
all-seeing One ; and the well by wbich she 
had sat received a title commemorative 
thereof (Gen. xvi.). Hagar's son Ishmael 
was born, and became dear to his father ; 
but we hear no more of herself till the day 
when Isaac, the child of promise, vouch- 
safed at last a gift to waiting faith, was 
weaned. Then it appears Ishmael was seen 
mocking. This excited Sarah's anger ; and 
she insisted on the expulsion of Ishmael 
and Hagar. Abraham unwillingly con- 
sented ; and Hagar was again a wanderer. 
The simple beauty of the narrative that 
follows attests its truthfulness. No water 
could be found ; and Hagar left her son a 
little way, because she could not bear to 
see him die. But again she had a divine 
communication : there was a fountain near ; 
and the two were saved from death. Ish- 
mael grew ; and his mother provided him 
with a wife from Egypt (xxi. 9-21, xxv. 12). 

St. Paul refers to Hagar (Agar) as a type 
of the old covenant (Gal. iv. 24, 25). 

HAG'ARENES, HAG'ARITES. A tribe to 
the east of the Jordan, with whom the Reu- 
benites, Gadites, and eastern Manassites 
had wars (1 Chron. v, 10, 19, 20). It is not 
easy to say who these.people were ; as they 
seem distinguished from the Ishmaelites 
(Psal. Ixxxiii. 6). They were possibly the 
Agraei in north-eastern Arabia, on the 
borders of the Persian gulf, where are now 
the town and district of Hejer. 

HAG'ERITE. Jaziz, the superinten- 
dent of David's flocks, is thus designated 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 31). 

HAG'GAI {festive). Haggai is the tenth 
in order of the minor prophets, accord- 
ing to the arrangement of our bibles, and 
the first of those who prophesied after 
the captivity. Very little is known of 
him ; as neither his tribe nor residence is 
mentioned in scripture. According to the 
pseudo-Epiphanius he was born in Babylon 
and returned to Judea with Zerubbabel : 
there he died and was buried among the 
priests : the inference is that he was a 
priest himself. He is said, too, to have 
been a member of what is called the Great 
Synagogue. All this, however, is merely 
traditional. Ewald is inclined to believe 
from Hagg. ii. 3 that Haggai had seen the 
former temple {Die Proph. des A.B., vol. ii. 
p. 516) : if so, he must have lived to an ad- 
vanced age; for his prophecy is dated the 
second year of Darius (son of Hystaspes), 
sixty-eight years after the destruction of 
the temple of Solomon. For a notice of 
the opinion that part of the book of Ezra 
was written by Haggai, see Ezra, the 
Book of. 

HAGGAI, THE BOOK OF (520 B.C.). This 
book is very brief, and comprises four pro- 
phetic messages which Haggai was instruct- 
ed to deliver, in the sixth, seventh, andninth 
months of Darius's second yeai-. The re- 
building of the temple at Jerusalem by the 
returned exiles had been intermitted, in 



consequence of the opposition of the neigh- 
Douring satraps and their complaints at the 
Persian court to Cyrus, Carabyses, and the 
pseudo-Smerdis. It was not till Haggai and 
Zechariah were commissioned to stir up 
Zerubbabel and the Jews to renewed ex- 
ertions, that the work was re- commenced. 
The representations made against it to Da- 
rius were discountenanced ; and at length, 
in the sixth year of that monarch, 515 B.C., 
twenty-one years after the original decree 
of Cyrus (Dan. x. 13), the new temple was 
solemnly dedicated (Ezra v. 1, 2, vi. 14, 15). 

In the first of his prophetic messages 
(Hagg. i. 1-11) Haggai rebukes the people for 
their supineness. They dwelt at ease in their 
own houses, and did not seem to care that 
the Lord's house lay desolate. Therefore 
they were visited with drought. The re- 
monstrance was effectual ; for on the 24th 
of the same month, little more than three 
weeks after the utterance, the building was 
re-commenced (12-15). In his second mes- 
sage Haggai encourages the people (ii. 1-9). 
Those who remembered the former temple 
grieved over the diminished splendour of 
that which was now rising ; but the pro- 
phet was to tell them that it should be 
made more glorious than the first house. 
And this was fulfilled when Christ himself 
taught within its courts. The other two 
messages came the same day. In the first 
(10-19) the Jews were warned that none of 
their ritual observances was accepted so 
long as the temple was disregarded : their 
sluggishness polluted every action ; nor 
could their care of anything else do away 
with their fault in this respect ; but now, 
from the day of their active service, God 
would bless them. In the second addressed 
to Zerubbabel, the representative of David's 
house (20-23), a promise is given that, though 
the kingdoms of the world might be shaken 
and fall, yet a lasting dominion (pointing 
forward to Messiah) should be established 
on their ruins. 

The style of Haggai is prosaic ; but paral- 
lelisms occasionally appear: see i. 6, 9, 10, 
ii. 6, 8, 22. He frequently introduces inter- 
rogatories, as in i. 4, 9, ii. 3, 12, 13, 19. It 
may be added that * the desire of all nations ' 
(ii. 7) cannot apply directly to Christ. It 
should rather be rendered ' the choice of all 
nations.' All shall be shaken, or fear ; but 
the choicest, the best, shall come to give 
honour to God. It is not denied that this has 
its full accomplishment in Messianic times. 

Among the commentaries in Haggai, 
besides those contained in works compris- 
ing all the minor prophets, may be named 
the Exposition of bishop Pilkington, 1560, 
1562, re-printed by the Parker Society, and 
that in Sundry Sermons, by Dr. John Rai- 
nolds, re-printed 1864. 

HAGGEDO'LIM (Neh. xi. 14, rcarg.). The 
word is translated in the text. De Wette 
renders it as a proper name, Gedolim. 

HAG'GERI. Mibhar, one of David's war- 
riors, is said to be the son of Haggeri (l 
Chron.^^xi. 38) ; but in the margin he is 

ilAG'GERITE. Perhaps one of the de- 
scendants of Hagar, Ishmaelites, 13 in 
tended. 



HAGGlJ 



Creature of 



348 



HAG'GI {festive). Que of the sons of Gad 
rGen. xlvi. 16 ; Numb. xxvi. 15). 

HAGGI'AH {festival of Jehovah). A Le- 
vite of the family of Merari (1 Chron. vi. 
30). 

HAG'GITES. The family descended from 
Haggi, the son of Gad ("Numb. xxvi. 15). 

HAG'GITH {festive, or perhaps a dancer). 
One of the wives of David, tlie mother of 
Adonijah (2 Sam. iii. 4 ; 1 Kings 1. 5, 11, ii. 
13 ; 1 Chrcu. iii. 2). 

HA'GIA (1 Esdr. v. 34). Perhaps a per- 
verted form of Hattil (Ezra ii. 57). 

HA 'I {heap of ruins) (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3). 

^H-UL HAIL-STOXES. Besides the literal 
meaning of hail-aud fearful hail-storms 
are recorded in the scriptures (Exod. ix. 
18-35)— the word is symbolically used to 
denote the terrible judgments which the 
divine hand showers down upon ungodly 
nations (Isai. xxviii. 2, 17; Rev. via. 7, xi. 
19, xvi. 21). , ^ 

HAIR. It would seem to have been the 
practice among the Hebrews to allow the 
hair to grow thick and somewhat long 
(Ezek. viii. 3). Baldness was disliked, as 
Boraetlmes symptomatic of leprosy (Lev. 
xiii 40-44) : hence the reproach uttered 



which Absalom let his hair grow was no 
doubt the vanity of a young and handsome 
man (2 Sara. xiv. 26) ; still there are indica- 
tions that ordinarily the length of men s 
hair in Israel was greater than with ui?. 
Thus, to uncover the ear is a common 
phrase for communicating a secret (1 Sara, 
ix. 15, marg., xx. 2, niarg.), as if it Avere 
necessary to put aside the locks in order to 
whisper in the ear. There was, however, a 
clear distinction made between the sexes 
in this respect (1 Cor. xi. 14, 15) ; so that the 
women wore their hair very long (Luke vu. 
38 ; John xii. 3). Hence, perhaps, the long 
hair of the Nazarites was to indicate hu- 
mility and subjection (Numb. vi. 5). ^ It 
does not appear that the custom of wearing 
wigs, usual among the Egyptians, of wlncli 
specimens are yet preserved, obtained 
among the Hebrews. The colour of the 
hair was generally black (Sol. Song v. 11) ; 
but the white hairs of age were regarded 
as especiaUy venerable (Prov. xvi. 31) : on 
this account, perhaps, the hairs of the An- 
cient of Days are likened to the pure 
wool' (Dan. vii. 9). Dyeing the hair was not 
unknown in ancient times, and is still prac- 
tised in the east. We have no mention of 
it in scripture ; but, according to Josephus, 






1. Front view. 



Egyptian wig. British Museum. 



2. Back view. 



against Elisha (2 Kings ii, 23). And it has 
been imagined that it disqualifled for the 
priesthood. Cuttings of the hair, such as 
were usual in idolatrous worship, were for- 
bidden (Lev. xix. 27 ; Deut^ xiv. 1). Still 
this seems to have been a Hebrew custoin 
in mourning (Jer. vii. 29) ; while, on the 
contrary, the Egyptians let their l^air g^ow 
when in distress, and ehaved or cut it on 
returning prosperity (Gen. xii. 14: coiup. 
BerodotSs. lib. ii. 36, iii. 12). The way in 



Herod dyed his grey hair {Antiq., lib. xvi. 8, 
^ As to the mode of wearing the hair, when 
long it was braided or plaited. Thus Sam- 
son had his in seven plaits (Judges xyi. 13, 
fg) ; and these must have been fastened 
with a fillet (Ezek. xxiv. 17). Of course 
greater pains were taken by ieraalesmthus 
Sorning themselves ; so that we read in 
many passages of both scripture and the 
IpScryphaof tiring the head and braiding 



349 



MihU l^uatuletige. [hallelujah 



^he hair (2 Kings ix. 30 ; 1 Tim. ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. 
iii. 3 ; Judith x. 3). It was also worn in 




Egyptian wig. Berlin Museum. 



curls: the 'well-set hair' (Isai. iii. 24) pro- 
bably implied the artistical arrangement of 




Mode of wearing the hair. From an Egyptian 
painting. British Museum. 



these. There are several references to the 
cu/its in the descriptions of Solomon's Song. 
Thus *the chain of the neck' (Sol. Song 



iv. 9) might he a long lock or curl falling 
down upon the neck ; and the ' galleries' 
(vii. 5) were the curls in orderly array. The 
hair was commonly anointed with fragrant 
oil or perfume (Psal. xxiii. 5, cxxxiii. 2 ; 
Matt. vi. 17 ; Luke vii. 46). And, though 
modern powder was unknown, it was some- 
times powdered with gold dust (Josephus, 
Aniiq., lib. viii. 7, § 3). Combs are not men- 
tioned in scripture, but both they and hair- 
pins are in the Talmud, and Egyptian combs 
have been found. Ornaments were some 
times worn in the hair. Perhaps the ' cauls 
(Isai. iii. 19) were such : see Caul, Duess 
Further illustrations may be found in 
Winer, Bibl.RWB., art. 'Haar, Haupthaar,* 
and in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 
738-740. 

Hair was often used in proverbial expres- 
sions for something small, or collectively 
to express large numbers (Judges xx. 16 ; 
1 Sam. xi v. 45; 1 Kings 1. 62; Psal. xl.l2; 
Matt. X. 30). 

HAKKA'TAN {the small). One of the 
children of Azgad, whose son Johanan re- 
turned with Ezra (Ezra viii. 12). 

HAK'KOZ (the thorn). The head of one 
of the courses of the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 
10). This word is Ko/ with the article pre- 
fixed. See Koz. 

HAKU'PHA {crooked). One whose chil- 
dren, Netliinim, returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 53). 

HA'LAH (derivation of the name un- 
certain). A place in Assyria to which the 
ten tribes were carried captive (2 Kings 
xvii, 6, xviii. 11 ; 1 Chron. v. 26). Halah is 
probably the Ohalcitis of Ptolemy, and is 
thought to be the modern Gla, a mound on 
the upper Khabour, above its junction with 
the Jerujer. 

HA'LAK {smooth). The name of a moun- 
tain mentioned as the southern limit of 
Joshua's conquests (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7). It 
was in the direction of Seir, but has not 
yet been identified. 

HAL'HUL {trembling). A town in the 
mountain-district of Judah (Josh. xv. 58). 
Its ruined site on a hill retains the name 
EulhUl, about three or four miles to the 
north of Hebron. 

HA'LI {ornament, necklace). A border- 
town of Asher (Josh. xix. 25). 

BALICARNAS'SUS (1 Mace. xv. 23). A 
renowned city of Caria, the birth-place of 
Herodotus and of Dionysius the historian. 
It was here that, in early times, the Cariau 
Kings resided; and here was the famous 
Mausoleum erected by Artemisia. Many 
Jews settled here, and had licence to hold 
iheir assemblies for prayer by the sea-side 
(Josephus, lib. xiv. 10, § 23: comp. 

Acts xvi. 13), The modern name is Bodru, 
or Budron . 

HALL (Matt, xxvii. 27 ; Mark xv. 16). See 
Pk^torium. The 'hall' in Luke xxii. 55 
was the court of the high priest's palace, 
most probably uncovered. The 'porch' 
in Matt. xxvi. 71 was the vestibule to it. 

HALLELU'JAH {jpraise ye Jehovah). An 
ascription of praise prefixed to ten of the 
psalms, cvi., cxi., cxii., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi' 
cl., v/hich are hence called the Hallelujah 
psalms. Its Greek form. Alleluia, is louiid 



iiallohesh] 



350 



The word is still in 



In Rev. xix, 1, 3, 4, 
common use. . . ^ 

IIALLO'HESH (the enchanter). One who 
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 24). 

HALLOW, HALLOWED. See HOLINESS, 

SA^fCTIPICATION. 

HALO'HESH (the enchanter). A person 
whose son helped to repair the walls of 
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 12). The name is iden- 
tical with Hallohesh. 

HAM (warm, black). The younger of the 
three sons of Noah. Of his personal history 
one disgraceful incident is recorded, which 
was the occasion of a prophetic curse upon 
one of the large and wicked families of 
Ham's descendants (Gen. ix. 20-27). 

Four great branches of the posterity of 
Ham are enumerated, Gush, Mizraim, Phut, 
and Canaan; and from these, speaking gene- 
rally, the southern trihes of the glohe pro- 
ceed. See EARTH, Gush, Mizraim, Phut, 
Canaan. The Haniite nations, so far as we 
can trace their early history, attained con- 
siderable prosperity, they formed powerful 
kingdoms, cultivated commercial inter- 
course with other peoples, were rich, and 
have left remarkable traces of their enter- 
prise and perseverance in their massive 
buildings. But in almost every case they 
have been sooner or later subjected to the 
sons of Shem and Japhet, and mingled with 
the descendants of other stocks. Whether 
the languages which prevailed among theni 
can be referred to a single trunk, and of 
what nature such a trunk would be, with 
what derivative dialects, are questions 
on which philologers are not at present 

^^Itffs^remarkable that Egypt is repeatedly 
called in Hebrew poetry ' the land of Ham 
(Psal. Ixxviii. 51, cv. 23, 27, cvi. 22) To no 
special district are the names of the other 
two sons of Noah given. It might almost 
be inferred that Egypt was the region 
where Ham himself settled. And it is a fact 
that in the ancient Egyptian language a 
nearly-similar word, said to imply blackness 
or heat, denoted that country. It occurs 
many times in the Rosetta inscription as 

^'T^Hamite, perhaps an Egyptian, clan 
would seem to have been settled near Ge^ 
dor, whom the Simeonites attacked and 
destroyed (1 Ghron. iv. 40). . . , 

HA3I (noisy, multitude). The principal 
town of the Zuzim (Gen. xiv. 5). Its locality 
can only be guessed at : maybe it was in or 
near the country of Ammon. . „ 

HA'MAN (magnificent). The son of Ham- 
medatha the Agagite, that is, most probably, 
of the royal seed of Amalek, who became 
vizier or prime minister to king Ahas- 
uerus, from whom he obtained an edict 
for the destruction of the Jews throughout 
the Persian empire. In order the better to 
persuade the king to sanction the nefarious 
proposal, he engaged to pay into the royal 
treasury ten thousand talents, meaning, no 
doubt, that spoil to that amount would be 
obtained from the Jews. By the providence 
of God his evil designs were frustrated ; and 
Haman was hanged on the very gallows 
which he had prepared for the JewMor- 
(\cc«i tEsth. iii.-ix.\ 



HA'MATH (fortress). An important city 
or territory of Upper Syria ; the inhabitants 
of which seem to have been of the posterity 
of Ham (Gen. x. 18). * The entrance of Ha- 
math ' is repeatedly m.entioned as the north- 
ern boundary of Palestine (Numb, xxxiv. 
8 ; Josh. xiii. 5). In David's time, Toi king 
of Hamath sent his sou to congratulate 
the Hebrew king on his victory over Ha- 
dadezer, king of Zobah, Toi's enemy (2 Sam. 
viii 9, 20), and perhaps to place himself 
under David's protection. For Hamath 
must have been one of the kingdoms in- 
cluded among those which paid Solomon tri- 
bute (1 Kings iv.21, 24). Indeed it is ex- 
pressly said that he had store-cities there 
(2 Chron. viii. 4). Afterwards, no doubt, it 
recoA-ered its independence, till Jeroboam 
II. again subdued it (2 Kings 3 iv. 28). And 
then it sank. Amos speaks of itsdesolation 
(Amos vi. 2) ; and Rabshakeh asks insult- 
ingly where its protecting gods were (2 
Kings xviii. 34). It was afterwards called 
Epiphaneia, from Antiochus Epiphanes. 
Hamath still exists as Hamah, a consider- 
able city standing on the Orontes, now the 
Nahr el-'Asij, with 30,000 inhabitants. By 
means of huge water-wheels the water of 
the river is extensively used for irriga- 
tion ; and the neighbouring territory is said 
to be very fertile. ,rrr is a 

HA'MATH-ZO'BAH (fortress of Zobah). A 
city which Solomon subdued (2 Chron. viii. 
3) ; probably a different place from Ha- 

"^HAM'ATHITE. One of the families des- 
cended from Canaan (Gen. x. 18 ; 1 Chron. i. 
16). They were most likely those who settled 
at Hamath. , ^ » -i. 

HAjM'MATH (warm springs). A city as- 
signed to the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 
35) There is everv reason to believe that 
this place, so called from its ' springs,' was 
close to Tiberias, and was the Emmaus men- 
tioned by Josephus as in the immediate 
neighbourhood. These springs still exist 
iust by the ruins of the ancient city. The 
water has a disagreeable sulphtireous smell 
and is too nauseous to be drunk. But, as it 
has a high reputation for medicinal pro- 
perties, it is used for baths. ' The accom- 
modations for bathing,' says Dr. Thomson, 
« are everything but satisfactory ; and the 
entire establishment is filthy and offensive 
in the extreme ; and yet it is always crowded 
with the lame, the halt, the withered, and 
the leprous ' (Tlie Land and the Book, p. u9b). 
The heat of the water ranges from 136o to 
144° At the earthquake in 1837, the tem- 
perature rose, and more water than usual 
was for a short time thrown out. But .he 
buildings were not injured. _ ^ t,, ^ 
HAMMEDA'THA (perhaps twin or double). 
The father of Haman (Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 5, 
ix 10 24) 

HAaiME'LECH (the king). The father of 
Jerahmeel and Malchiah (Jer. xxxvi. 26, 
xxxviii. 6). Very probably this is not a 
proper name, and these two persons were 
of the royal family. 

HAMMER. Two or three Hebrew words 
are used for this tool, one which implies 
striking (Isai. xli. 7) ; another hollowing 
(1 Kings vi 7) : there is a third, occurring 



351 



but once (Judges v. 26) : it also is connected 
with striking, Tue term hammer is em- 
ployed symbolically for mighty force (Jer. 
xxiii. 29, ]. 23). 

HAMMO'LEKETH {the queen). The sister 
of Gilead (1 Chron. vii. 18). 

HAM'MON (warm, sunny). 1. A city of 
Asher (Josh. xix. 28). 2. A Levitical city of 
Naphtali (1 Chron. vi. 76). 

HAM'MOTH-DOR {warm-springs-dwell- 
ing). A Levitical city of Naphtali (Josh, 
xxi. 32) : It is possibly identical with Ham- 
math and also Hammon, 2. 

HAMO'ifAH {multitude). The prophetical 
name of a city near which the slaughtered 
multitudes of Gog are to be buried (Ezek. 
xxxix. 16). 

HA'MON-GOG (multitude of Gog). The 
prophetical name of a valley, ' the valley of 
the passengers on the east of the sea,' in 
which Gog and his multitude shall be buried 
(Ezek. xxxix. 11, 15). 

HA'MOE, (an ass). A Hivite, prince of 
Shechem, and father of the young man of 
that name who defiled Dinah, Jacob's 
daughter. For this Simeon and Levi de- 
stroyed the city (Gen. xxxiii. 18-xxxiv. 31 ; 
Josh. xxiv. 32 ; Judges ix. 28). In the pas 
sage last referred to. Ham or is called the 
father of Shechem, the town, as being the 
founder, or colonizer of it. His name ap- 
pears under the Greek form Emmor in 
Acts vii. 16. 

HAMTJ'EL (wrath of God). A descendant 
of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 26). 

HA'MTJL (pitied, spared). Younger son of 
Pharez, and grandson of Judah (Gen. xlvi. 
12 ; Numb. xxvi. 21 ; 1 Chron. ii. 5). 

HA'MULITES. A family of Judah, de- 
scended from Hamul (Numb. xxyi. 21). 

HAMU'TAL (akin to the dew). One of the 
wives of king Josiah, mother of Jehoahaz 
and Zedekiah (2 Kings xxiii. 31, xxiv. 18 ; 
Jer. lii. 1). 

HANA'MEEL (whom God has graciously 
given). The cousin of Jeremiah the prophet ; 
from whom Jeremiah, having the right of 
redemption, purchased a field in Anathoth 
(Jer. xxxii. 6-12). Anathoth was a city of 
the priests, whose lands could not be alie- 
nated (Lev. xxii, 34) ; but in this case both 
parties were priests. 

HA'NAN (merciful).—!. A Benjamite chief 
a Chron. viii. 23).— 2. A descendant of Saul 
(38, ix. 44).— 3, One of David's warriors (xi. 
43).— 4. One whose descendants, Nethinim, 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 46 ; Neh. vii. 49).— 5. A Levite, who 
with others expounded the law which Ezra 
read (viii. 1) : it was probably he who sealed 
the covenant (x. 10).— 6. 7. Two other per- 
sons who sealed (22, 26).— 8. One of the 
treasurers for the tithes (xiii, 13).— 9. A 
person whose sons had a chamber in the 
temple (Jer. xxxv. 4). 

HANA'NEEL (whom God has graciously 
given). A tower is so called in the wall of Je- 
rusalem (Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39 ; Jer. xxxi. 38 ; 
Zech. xiv. 10). It must have been near the 
sheep-gate and the fish-gate. See Jeeu- 

8ALEM. 

HANA'NI (gracio^is).—!. The father of 
that Jehu who pronounced the divine sen- 
tence against Baasha (1 Kings ivi. 1) ; the 



[hand 



same Jehu perhaps who rebuked Jehosha 
pLjtt (2 Chron. xlx. 2, 3). This Hanani, it is 
likely, was the seer who censured Asa» and 
was imprisoned for it (xvi. 7-10).— 2. One of 
the sons of Heman, chief of a division of 
singers (1 Chron. xxv. 4, 25). — 3. A priest 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x.20), 
perhaps the same who took part in the 
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
xii. 36).— 4. A brother of Nehemiah, put in 
charge over Jerusalem (Neh. i. 2, vii. 2). 

HANANI'AH (whom Jehovah has gra- 
ciously given).—!. A son of Zerubbabel CI 
Chron. iii. 19, 21) ; perhaps identical with the 
Joanna mentioned in Luke iii. 27).— 2. A 
Benjamite chief (1 Chron. viii. 24).— 3. One 
of the sons of Heman, and chief of a divi- 
sion of singers (xxv. 4, 23).— 4. A captain 
in the reign of Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. 11).— 
5. One who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 28).— 6, 7. Two who helped to repair 
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 8, 30) : it is 
possible these two names belong to one 
person.— 8. An ofiicer styled 'ruler of the 
palace,' to whom Nehemiah gave charge 
over Jerusalem as being a faithful man 
(vii. 2).— 9. One who sealed the covenant 
(X. 23), perhaps identical with the prece- 
ding.— 10. A priest in the days of Joiakim 
(xii. 12).— 11. A priest who took part in the 
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (41) ; 
he may be identical with No. 7.— 12. A false 
prophet of Gibeon, who in the fourth year 
of Zedekiah opposed the prophet Jeremiah, 
predicting (probably in dependence on 
Egyptian help) that Nebuchadnezzax's au- 
thority would be overturned. His bold 
falsehood and fearful end are related at 
length in Jer. xxviii.— 13. The father of one 
of Jehoiakim's princes (xxxvi. 12).— 14, 
Grandfather of a captain who apprehended 
Jeremiah (xxxvii. 13). — 15. The original 
name of Daniel's companion Shadrach (Dan. 
i. 6, 7, 11, 19, ii. 17). 

HAND. The various modes in which 
this word (or rather the original generally 
so translated) is employed are to be sought 
in a lexicon instead of in a work like the 
present. It must be suflBcient to point out 
here a few of the most noticeable mean- 
ings and phrases in which the term occurs 
With the article we find it denoting the 
hand of God, as in Isai. viii. 11, * with 
strength of the hand,' i.e. with God's 
mighty hand. The sense is not pointedly 
enough brought out in our version. With- 
out the article it is the human hand, as in 
Job xxxiv. 20 ; Dan. viii. 25, with man's in- 
terference. The hand of the Lord is saM 
to be upon a person when he has God's 
favour (Ezra vii. 6) ; hence to withdraw the 
hand is to take away his favour (Psal. Ixxi v. 
11). Sometimes a similar phrase means 
that the individual was inspired or under 
divine influence (Ezek. i. 3, iii. 14). Occa- 
sionally this is used in a bad sense (Amos 
i. 8, where our version rightly interprets 
' against ; ' Acts xiii. 11). There is the same 
varying usage of the word with another 
preposition in the original (Gen. xxxvii. 27 ; 
2 Sam. iii. 12). Again, to give the hand is a 
pledge of agreement or fidelity (2 Kings x. 
15), sometimes of submission (1 Chron. 
xxix. 24, marg. ; Ezek. xvii. 18). 'Hand to, 



HAND -breadth] 



352 



or ' In hand' indicates succession one after 
tlie ottier : thus, in Prov. xi. 21, through all 
geuerations the wicked shall not he un- 
punished. To lay the hand upon the mouth 
is to be silent (Job xxi. 5 ; Prov. xxx. 32) ; 
to place the hands upon the head is a ges- 
ture of desperate grief (2 Sam. xiii. 19 ; Jer. 

• Hand ' is sometimes employed figura- 
tively for power (Psal. Ixxvi. 5 ; Isai. xxviu. 
2); or for a powerful deed (Exod. xir. 31, 
mars.). It is because the hand, with 
its wonderful conformation, evidences the 
Creator's providence, and is the means of 
strength and the instrument of skill to 
men that it has this signification of effi- 
cacy. It may be added that the right h;ind 
was considered the chief place of dignity 
and authority (Psal. xlv. 9, ex. 1 ; Matt 
xxvi. 64). Imposition of hands was part 
of the ceremonial in consecrating persons 
to office, especially religious or ecclesias- 
tical office (Numb, xxvii. IS ; Acts vi. 6, vlii. 
17 : 1 Tim. iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. 1. 6). 

HAXD-BREADTH (Exod. xxv. 25,xxxvii. 
12 : 1 Kings vii. 26 ; 2 Chron. iv. 5 ; Psal. 
xxxix. 5 ; Ezek. xl. 5, 43). See Measures. 

HAisDICRAFT. There is mention in va- 
rious parts of scripture of different me- 
chanical arts In which the Hebrews were 
more or less skilled. Several of these are 
noticed under their respective headings; 
but it mav be well to give here a general 
view of the principal arts practised, that 



were to be manually employed upon it. 
Merelv the dimensions and general plan 
are indicated, pretty much after the fashion 
in which such directions would be given 
now-a-days (Gen.vl. 14-16). And continually 
through the sacred writings there are re- 
ferences made both to the carpenter's work 
and to his tools. Thus, when the tabernacle 
was set up inthe wilderness, there were the 
acacia-boards to be prepared and fitted, the 
ark, the table, the altars, &c. ; In all of 
which there was wood-work (Exod. xxv. 10, 
13, 23, 28, xxvi. 15-30, 37, xxvli. 1, 6 -8, xxx. 
1, 2, 5). Later we find, when work of pecu- 
liar nicetv and excellence was to be done, 
that foreign artists were employed ; as in 
David's palace, for which he had carpenters 
from Tyre (2 Sam. v. 11), as probably also 
for Solomon's temple (1 Kings v. 6). Yet it 
cannot be doubted that there was a good 
deal of native skill, and much working in 
wood bv Hebrew handicraftsmen (2 Sam. 
vi. 5 ; 1 kinffs x. 12 ; 2 Kings vi. 1-7, xii. 11 ; 
2 Chron. xxiv. 8, 12 ; Ezra iii. 7). And there 
are several notices of such work in the 
Psalms and the prophets (Psal. Ixxiv. 5, 6 ; 
I^ai xli. 7, xliv. 13-15 : also tools mentioned, 
as tiie rule, the measuring-line, the plane, 
the compass, the hammer, nails, the saw 
(Isai. X. 15, perhaps an axe), the awl (Exod. 
xxi. 6), &c. Many of these implements 
have been brought from Egypt, and are to 
i 1)0 seen in public museums. In the New 
Testament the occupation of Joseph the 



seen, and also that a few more particulars 
maybe introduced, ^ . ^ ^ 

1 Apothecaries are mentioned m Exod. 
XXX. 25, 35; 2 Chron. xvi. 14; Keh. iii. 8 ; | 
Eccles. X. 1. But the word is not used in 
our ordinary modern sense as the com- 
pounders of medical drugs ; it rather im- 
plies perfumers, makers of unguents. In 
1 Sam. vlii. 13, referred to females, it is ren- 
dered ' confectionaries.' The primary idea 
of the original Hebrew word is heating or 
boiling. We may suppose, therefore, that 
the 'apothecaries,' who seem to have been 
a caste, or a kind of guild, were those who 
concocted perfumes for a monarch's palace, 
or for luxurious personal ornamentation, 
or for employment at royal funerals when 
sweet odours were customarily burnt. 

2. Baking was an art which necessarily 
must have been known at a very early pe- 
riod of human history. It has been already 
sufficiently illustrated. See Baking, Bread. 

3. Whenever shaving was practised there 
would of course be barbers, as a man could 
not convenientlv shave his own head, Sam- 
con's hair was shaved off by a professional 
operator as he lay asleep in Delilah's lap 
..Judges XTi. 19) ; and such persons are else- 
where named (e.g. Ezek. v. 1). Barbers 
have generally been people of Importance 
in the east. 

4. The trade of carpenters must have 
been exercised verj' early. For the erec- 
tion of habitations, for the construction of 
furniture even of the simplest kind, some 
carpentering was needful. And it is per- 
fectly evident that the commands given to 
Noah in regard to the ark pre-suppose a con- 



iiis youth worked at the same trade (Matt, 
xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. 3). 

5 The art of carving was early known 
among the Hebrews. Thus we find a He- 
brew artist skilled in working or carving 
in wood and stone (Exod. xxxi, 5, xxxv. 33). 
The carved work for the temple was under 
the superintendence of Hurara, a foreigner 
by his father's side. Some of this work was 
in relief (l Kings vi. 18, 29, 32), or engraving 
(35), which had gold inlaid or fitted to it ; 
also there was open work (2 Chron. iii. 7). 
This is the kind of carved work which the 
Psalmist complains was ruthlessly broken 
down by the adversary (Psal. Ixxlv. 6). 

6. It is evident that there were dyed 
fabrics among both the Egyptians, Canaan- 
Ites, and ancient Hebrews, and this not only 
in linen or woollen cloth, but also in lea- 
ther ; there must therefore have been pro- 
fessional dyers. See Dyeing. 

7. Engraving was also practised both on 
stones and on metal fExod. xxviii. 9-11, 21, 
36 ; Jer. xvli. 1). See Engrave. 

8. In consequence of the prevalence of 
white as the ordinary hue of wearing ap- 
parel (see Dress), the fuller's art was 
specially needed. Accordingly we find fre 
quent mention of fullers ; and various 
localities near Jerusalem had their name 
from the fullers' work carried on In their 
neighbourhood. See Fuller. 

9. Gilding was probably known to and 
practised by the Israelites. There is in- 
deed no distinct mention of it in our ver- 
sion, save In Rev. xvii. 4, marg. ; but pro- 
bably, when ' overlaying' with gold is 



Noah in regara to tne arj£ pre-buppusc d, cuu.- uau^j , - .. --- ^ „ 

Bideralble degree of skill among those who , spoken of as it frequently is (e.g. Exod. 



353 



Mhit HuflttJleUcye, [handkerchief 



XXV. 11 ; 2 Chron. iii. 7), it does not always 
mean covered with plates of the precious 
metal, but rather gilt. Traces of gilding 
are found on existing mummies and mum- 
my-cases ; the film of gold being by no 
means so thin as that to which modern 
gold-beaters reduce it. See an interesting 
note in Kitto's Pict. Bible, on Exod.xxxvi. 34. 

10. Leather fabrics were in use. One of 
the coverings of the tabernacle was of rams' 
skins dyed red (Exod. xxvi. 14) ; and skins 
and things made of skin are mentioned as 
being subject to the strange plague called 
leprosy in garments (Lev. xiii. 47-59). It is 
clear, therefore, that leather-dressers, cur- 
riers, and tanners must have exercised their 
craft. Thus we have a tanner's house desig- 
nated as the place where Peter lodged at 
Joppa (Acts ix. 43, X. 6). 

11. Masonry, like carpentering, was an 
art which men would soon begin to prac- 
tise. Cities were erected before the flood 
(Gen. iv. 17) ; and afterwards we find the 
presumptuous builders jii the land of Shi- 
nar attempting a gigantic structure, for 
which their materials were brick and bi- 
tumen (xi. 2-4). The Israelites must have 
had experience enough as masons during 
their Egyptian servitude (Exod. i. 11, 14). 
In later times David and Solomon employed 
Phoenician workmen (1 Kings v. 17, 18 ; 1 
Chron. xiv. 1), probably, howeveT, only as 
master-builders. Great skill was shown in 
masonry. The stone required for the temple 
was cut and shaped in the subterranean 
quarries, which may yet be visited under 
some parts of Jerusalem. And so exactly 
were the masses fitted to each other that 
no tools were employed upon them when 
they were laid in their places (1 Kings vi. 
7). The stones of the great wall built to sup- 
port the temple-platform were, however, ac- 
cording to Josephus, fastened with lead 
(Antiq., lib. xv. 11, § 3 : comp. lib. viii. 3, § 2). 
Some of the ancient stones are yet existing : 
they are of vast size, and generally bevelled, 
or, to speak more properly, panelled, the 
surface at the edges all round being slightly 
cut away (see Mark xiii. 1, 2). Among the 
tools employed by masons were saws (1 
Kings vii. 9), measuring-reeds, plumb-lines,. 
&c., specimens of which are yet preserved, 
or may be seen on Egyptian monuments. 
Plastering was customary within and with- 
out (Lev. xiv. 40-42 ; Matt, xxiii.27), mortar 
being used : that called 'untempered' (Ezek. 
xiii. 10-15) was, perhaps,, mere mud,, which 
would be washed away by heavy rain. See 
Architectube. 

12. Mining moast have been early prac- 
tised (Job xxviii. 1-6). See Metals-, Me- 
tallurgy. 

13. Potters are not unfrequently spoken 
of (e.g. Jer. xviii. 2-6). See Potter. 

14. Also, as foreign commerce was intro- 
duced and fostered by Solomon and some 
of thesucceeding kings, ship-building must 
have been undertaken ; at first, it would 
seem, in conjunction with the Tyrians (1 
Kings X. 22, xxii. 48, 49 ; 2 Chron. xx. 36, 37). 
These operations were carried on at the 
Red sea ports. See Ship. 

15. Smiths or workers in metal were of 
various kinds, from the diggers or smelters 



of ore to the skilled artificers in gold and 
silver. We read of artificers ' in brass and 
iron ' before the flood (Gen. iv. 22) ; and that 
working in metals was very common after- 
wards the frequent mention o£ gold and 
silver ornaments, as bracelets, nose-jewels, 
&c., &c., suflaciently proves (e.g. xxiv. 22). 
For some aocount of chain-work, lily-work, 
net-work, see Temple. Metals must have 
been used, too, for tools in other depart- 
ments of mechanical art, as for making the 
ark. When the Israelites were in the wilder- 
ness, both graving and casting gold, silver, 
brass (copper or bronze) are spoken of (Exod. 
XXV. 11-13, 17, 18, xxvi. 6, 21, xxviii. 36, xxxii. 
2-4). Iron seems to have been in less general 
use. Joshua made knives of stone (Josh. 
V. 2, marg.) for the circumcising of the Is- 
raelites. But after the tribes were settled 
in Canaan smiths are referred to as a well- 
known separate class of workmen (1 Sara, 
xiit. 19). Goldsmiths, too, there were (Neh. 
iii. 8), who were well acquainted with the 
mode of purifying the precious metals 
(Psal. Ixvi. 10 ; Pro v. xvii. 3) ; and we find 
it stated that in one of the deportations 
under Nebuchadnezzar a thousand crafts- 
men and smiths, probably the most skilled 
in their art, were carried to Babylon (2 
Kings xxiv. 16). In the New Testament 
we have the silversraitJis of Ephesus (Acts 
xix. 24, 25), and a coppersmith (2 Tim. iv. 
14) mentioned. The utensils of smiths re- 
ferred to are furnaces, bellows, hammers, 
anvils, tongs, fining-pots (Isai. xli. 7, xliv. 
12 ; Jer. vi. 29), &g. ; and various processes, 
as of soldering, &c., were known. 

16. Tanners are noticed above, No. 10. 

17. Tent-makers are mentioned in Acts 
xviii. 3, where the material was the hair- 
cloth of Cilician goats. 

18. Weaving, too, was an art often prac- 
tised, with spinning, by women (2 Kings 
xxiii. 7 ; 1 Chron. iv. 21 ; Prov. xxxi. 13, 19, 
24) ; gold wire being sometimes worked in 
(Exod. xxxix. 3). See Weaving. 

Thus it will be seen that very many trades 
were practised by the Hebrews, and con- 
siderable perfection attained in them. See 
Saalschiitz, Arch, der Hebr., cap. 14, vol. 1. 
pp. 136-158. 

HANDKERCHIEF. The ' kerchiefs upon 
the head of every stature ' (Ezek. xiii. 18) 
were probably cushions or quilts, articles of 
luxury, made to suit the height of every 
person who might use them. ' The females 
in question not only employed flattering 
words to decoy the souls of the unwary, 
but by their seductive speeches lulled them 
as effectually as if they had literally prepared 
articles of luxury for their bodily repose' 
(Henderson, The Prophet Ezekiel ,11. 57). We 
find ' handkerchiefs' once in our version of 
the New Testament (Acts xix. 12) ; but the 
same original word occurs elsewhere,. audi* 
rendered 'napkin:' it was that in which 
arj.ything might be folded (Luke xix. 20), 
also the cloth tied about the head of a 
corpse (John xi. 44, xx. 7). The article 
seems to have been used as handkerchiefs 
are with us, for wiping the face or hands, 
and perhaps it (or at least a very similar 
piece of cloth) was sometimes worn on the 
head. The * aprons ' (Acts xix. 13) differed 
A A 



handmaid] 



354 



little from the handkerchiefs. They must 
have been something easily detached from 
the body. . , • oi oA^ 

HANDMAID (Gen. xvi. 1, xxix. 24, 29). 

HAND-STAYES (Ezek. xxxix. 9). Darts or 

^'^HA§I>WRITING (Col. ii. W. ' The hand- 
writing that was against us in ordinances 
may require explanation. It is the condem- 
nation of the law we have broken, which 
is blotted out by the grace of the gospel. 

HA'XES. A city of Egypt mentioned on y 
once (Isai. xxx. 4). It has been generally 
identified with the Heracleopolis, ^.rcuZes 
city, of the Greeks in middle Egypt on the 
west of the Nile, called in Coptic hnes, or 
ehnes. But the Chaldee paraphrase reads 

i Tahpanhes. And there are reasons for 
believing that this was the place reaUy 

' meant, for which Hanes might be a trans- 
criber's error or an abbreviation. See Iah- 

HANG, HANGIN;G. (Eath. vli. 9, 10). See 

"'^I^gSI'^ HANGINGS, The 'Mngiiig' 
was a curtain or covering to close an 
entrance. There was one, ^^riously, coloured 
and embroidered, at the door oti^e^^^er- 
nacle (Exod. xxvi. 36, 37, xxxix. 38 ; Numb 
m. 2l) another at the entrance of the court 
(xxvii. 16, xxxviii. 18 ; ^umb. iv. 26). The 
same original word is sometimes applied to 
ST veil that separated the ^^oly Place f rom 
the holv of holies (Exod. xxxv. 12, xxxix. 34, 
S 21 V Numb. iv. 5) ; ^here in. our version 
-J'eil of the covering,' or 'covering veil. 
• Hangings' a different Hebrew word, 
formed the sides of the court of the taber- 
nacle (Exod. xxvii. 9, xxxv.l7,xxxviii.9 ; 
Numb iii. 26, iv. 26). These hangings were 

five cubits, half the height of the tabernacle 
boards (Exod. xxvi. 16, xxvn. 18). ihe 

'hlngings' of 2 Kings ,^^OM^e,; 

marg , were perhaps sacred tents. 
HAN'IEL {grace of God). A chieftain of 

Aeher (1 Chron. vii. 39). - „ 

hS^'NAH {grace, or vray^^. One of the 

wive^of Elkanah, and mother of the prophet 

Samuel (1 Sam.i., ii.). With her prophetic 

hvmn (ii. 1-10) compare Psa . cxiu., and the 

Virgin's song (Luke ii. 46-cj5). 
"RAN'NATHON (graciously regarded). A 

town on the northern border of Zebulun 

^"^HA VNIEL^ {grace of Go<D. A chief of 
Manasseb, chosen to assist in the ailot- 
mcnt of Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 2a 

H A'NOCH {initiating or initiated).— 
of the sons of Midian (Gen. xxv 4) He i* 
also called Henoch (1 Chron. i. 33)--2- ^ 
of Reuben (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Exod. vi. 14 ; Numb. 

"?i4VcHITES." A family of Reuben, 
descended from Hanoch (Numb, xxvi o). 

HA'NUN(/aroi.re(D.-l. The son of N abash 
kin^ of the Ammonites. He disgraced 
DT^Md's am^bassadors and ^^ll^f^'^^^l^^l 
ruin of hispeople (2 Sara, x.; 1 Chron. xix.). — 
Tone who, with the inhabitants of Zanoah, 
helSd to repair the wall of Jerusalem (2n eh. 
m m-S. Another person (apparently) who 
also helped in repairing the ^aU (30) 
1 HAPHRA'JM {two pits). A city of issa- 



char (Josh. xix. 19). Mr. Grove suggests that 
the present village of eJ-'A^QZ€?i,near_feolam, 
the ancient Shun em , may mark its site. 

HA'RA {mountainous land). A place or 
district to which some of the Israelitish 
cai)tives were carried a Chron. v. 26). It 
niav be the same with Haran or Charran in 
Mesopotamia. If not, it seems impossible 
to identify the place intended. But see 
Winer, Bihl BWB., art. ' Hara.' 

HAJIA'DAH (fe-a.r). A station of Israel 
in the wilderness (Numb, xxxiiu 24, 2o). 

H \'R \N {mountaineer). -1. The brother 
of Abraham. He was the father of Lot, 
■ Milcah, and Iscah, and died before his fa- 
1 ther Terah in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. xi. 
-^7-^1) This is all that is certainly known 
of him : the Jews have added some tradi- 
tional stories to his real history.-2. A Ee- 
vite of the family of Gershon a Chron. 

^^^Vr'aN {parched, dry). A son of the 
eminent Caleb a Chron. ii. 46). 

HA'RA^N {id). The city to which Abra- 
ham and his family migrated when they 
left Ur of the Chaldees. And sti 1, when 
Abraham proceeded into Canaan, his bro- 
ther Nahor remained at Haran, and his de- 
scendants established tbemseUjs here; so 
that it was sometimes described as tne city 
of Nahor (Gen. xxiv. 10). Here Terah died, 
and here Jacob sojourned with Laban (xi. 
31 32 xii. 4, 5, xxvii. 43, xxviii. 10, xxix. 4 ; 
2 kinVsxix. 12 ; Isai.xxxvii.l2 ; Ezek. xxvii. 
23) ft is called Charran in Acts yii. 2, 4. 
Haran was situated in Mesopotamia, more 
exactlv in Padan-arara, a plain bounded by 
hill'' 'it was famous for being close to the 
=cene of the defeat of Crassus, and is gene- 
rally believed to be the modern Harran on 
Se Belilk, which flows into the Euphrates. 
It is but a village now, inhabited by Arabs. 

But this conclusion is liable to very great 
doubt, so far at least as concerns the Haran 
in which members of the Abrahamic family 
were settled. It has been proposed, there- 
fore to identify the Mesopotamia of the 
earlv scripture writers, Aram-7ialiaraini, 
Aram of the two rivers, with Aram of Da- 
mascus, where certainly there were two 
noted streams, Abana and Pharpar, and to 
fook for the city of Haran in that neigh- 
bourhood. It is clear that there m^istj^a ve 
been some connection between Abraham 
aSd Damascus; for Eliezer, 'born m his 
house,' is denominated • of Damascus (Gen 
XV 2 3). Still further Jacob, traveUing of 
SIcessitv, on account of his cattle, slowly. 
Reached 'mount Gilead in t_en days after 
llaving Padan-aram. The distance is be- 
twJeS three and four hundred miles, if ne 
u=ual theory be adopted ; it is, therefore, 
phv^icallv impossible that the _ ]ourney 
Jould have been accomplished within the 
specified time (xxxi. 22, 23) Moreover, it 
is not easy to understand how a pillar on 
mount Gilead could be a boundary-mark 
between Jacob and Laban (52), if the latter 
fived f ar away beyond the Euphrates There 
is therefore, a high probability that the 
Hkran S question is a place of tje name 
ne?r Damascus, visited in 1861 Br. Bake 
(see Notes and Queries, Peb and March, 
1862, pp. 95, 192 ; and comp. Miss Corbaux, 



355 



[haelot 



In Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1852, pp. 386, 
387). 

HARA'RTTE. A designation (perhaps 
the mountaineer) given to three of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 11, 33 ; 1 Chron. xi. 
34, 35). 

HARBO'NA or HAR'BONAH (perhaps 
ass-driver, according to some, ivarlike). One 
of the chamberlains or eunuchs of Aha- 
suerus (Esth. i. 10, vii. 9). 

HARE. One of the animals prohibited 
as food to the Israelites (Lev. xi. 6 ; Deut. 
xlv. 7), not. as some critics erroneously say, 
because it chewed the cud, but because, 
though it was said to chew the cud, it did 
not divide the hoof. In fact the hare is 
not, properly speaking, a ruminating an- 
imal; but it has a peculiar movement of 
the mouth resembling that of those who 
do chew the cud. And therefore, as the 
description was of a popular character, in- 
tended not for zoologists but for ordinary 
observers little likely to make nice distinc- 
tions, and especially as. In this case, the 
non-division of the hoof, and not the chew- 
ing of the cud, or otherwise, was the cha- 
racteristic which determined the cleanness 
or uncleanness of the hare for food, no 
charge can properly be made against the 
sacred writer, for using language likely best 
to be understood by those he addressed. 
Indeed there appears to be special wisdom 
in the mode of expression. 'The rule 
given,' as Kitto says {Pict. Bible, note on 
Lev. xi. 5), * was that no animal popularly 
held to ruminate should be regarded as fit 
for food unless it were cloven-footed. And 
this rule was most effectual for the intended 
purpose, because all real ruminants are 
cloven-footed, although all cloven-footed 
animals are not ruminants.' The Lepiis 
Syriacus is very common in Palestine : an- 
other species of hare, smaller and darker, 
the Lepus Sivuiticus, abounds in the desert 
(see Imp. Bible Diet, vol. i. pp. 699, 700). 

'S.XWEiJj {mount of God). A name given 
to the altar of burnt-offering (Ezek. xliii. 
15, marg.). 

HAREM. See House. 

HA'REPH {plucking off). A son of Caleb 
(1 Chron. ii. 51). 

HA'RETH (perhaps thicket). A forest in 
the territory of Judah, to which David went 
after the admonition of the prophet Gad 
(1 Sam. xxii. 5). Its locality can only be 
conjectured. 

HARHAI'AH {he was dry). The father 
of one who helped to repair the wall of Je- 
rusalem, said to be 'of the goldsmiths' 
(Neh. iii. 8). 

HAR'HAS {very poor). An ancestor of 
Shallum, husband of the prophetess Huldah 
(2 Kings xxii. 14\ He is called Hasrah in 
2 Chron. xxxiv. 22. 

HAR'HUR {iuflavimation, nobility ?) One 
whose descendants, Nethinim, returned 
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii.51 ; ' 
Neh. vii. 53). 

HA'RID (Ezra ii. 33, marg.). See Hadid. 

HA'RIM {Jlat-nosed).—l. A head of one of 
the courses of the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 8). 
His descendants in considerable numbers 
returned with Zerubbabel from captivity 
("Ezra ii. 39 ; Neh. vii. 42). Some of them 



had married foreign wives (Ezra x. 21) ; and 
their name is mentioned as having sealed 
the coA^enant (Neh. x. 5). The representa- 
tive of the course or family in the days of 
Joiakira was Adneh (xii. 15) ; but else- 
where (3) for Harim we find Rehum.— 2. One 
whose son helped to repair the wall of 
Jerusalem (iii. 11).— 3. Another, not a 
priest, whose descendants returned with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 32 ; Neh. vii. .35). Some 
of these also had married foreign wives 
(Ezra X. 31), and they sealed the covenant 
(Neh. X. 27). 

'KA'KIFK {autumnal ram?). One whose 
descendants returned from captivity with 
Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 24), called Jorah in 
Ezra ii. 18. The name, probably of their 
representative, is among those who sealed 
the covenant (Neh. x. 10). 

HARLOT. This class of persons evidently 
existed in very early times, and were dis- 
tinguished, as afterwards, by publicly ex- 
posing themselves and by their dress (Gen. 
xxxviii. 14, 15 : comp. Prov. vii. 10, 11). 
Rahab is a somewhat-later exam.ple (Josh, 
ii. 1). It has, indeed, been maintained that 
she was- merely an inn-keeper, but, as a wri- 
ter in I>r. Smith's Diet, of the Bible (vol. i. 
p. 756) well observes, knowing what we do 
of the morals of the Canaanites (Lev. xviii, 
27), we may easily conclude that women 
keeping houses of entertainment were little 
likely to be chaste. Besides New Testa- 
ment evidence is against Ptahab (Heb. xi. 
31 ; James ii. 25), where the attempts to 
explain away the word used are futile. 

The Mosaic law utterly discountenanced 
unchastity (Lev. xix. 29; Deut. xxiii. 17). 
The term employed in the last-named 
place properly means consecrated ; there 
being doubtless a reference to the foul 
rites of heathen deities, to whom, as to 
Ashtoreth or Astarte, young females were 
devoted for prostitution. The severe 
law enacted against a priest's daughter 
(Lev. xxi. 9) was probably intended to brand 
this kind of worship, as well as to indicate 
that the whole fainily of one who minis- 
tered before the Lord should give example 
of purity in morals. Another word 
'stranger,' frequently occurs in the sense 
of harlot (e,g. Prov. vi. 24). It was likely 
then, as we find it now, that foreigners 
would swell the class of harlots, more espe- 
cially as th€ Hebrews lived often in close 
contact with the heathen, and had constant 
intercourse with them. The manners and 
allurements of this class are frequently de- 
scribed in scripture (1 Kings iii. 16, 17; 
Prov. vi. 24-26, vii. 6-27, xxiii. 27, 28 ; Isai. 
xxiii. 16). Their gains were sometimes 
considerable (Ezek. xvi. 33, 39) ; but no gift 
arising from such iniquity was to be re- 
ceived in the sanctuary (Deut. xxiii. 18). 
Repeated mention of them occurs in the 
New Testament, where publicans are classed 
with them ; and it was made a charge j 
against our Lord that he extended mercy to i 
these outcasts (!VIatt. xxi. 31, 32 ; Luke vii. 
34, 37-48). Unchastity is frequently cen- 
sured by the apostles (1 Cor. vi. 15, 16; 
1 Thess. iv. 3; 1 Tim. i. 10). The children 
born of a harlot lay under disabilities (Deut. i 
xxiii. 2 ; Judges xi.l, 2), being distinguished [ 



ilABNEPHER] 



^l)t ^rca^uri) at 



356 



froin those of the concuT)ine or secondary 

^The term 'harlot' is frequently used in a 
figurative sense, implying intercourse with 
Idols (Isai. i. 21; Nah. iii. 4; Rev. xvn 5). 
Jehovah had condescended to illustrate his 
kindness to his people hy the marriage-tie ; 
virgin purtty, therefore, fitly signified his 
spiritual worship, and departure from him 
was foul fornication or adultery. 

HAIlNja'PHER {snorter). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 36). 

HARNESS, HARN'ESSED (Exod. xiii. 18). 
Various explanations have hcen given of 
the original word. It has been interpreted 
to mean in five divisions, i.e. a centre, two 
wings, a vanguard and a rearguard ; but 
probably Gesenius's translation is prefer- 
able, ' fierce,' ' eager.' ' Harness ' is used 
for a corslet or coat of mail (1 Kings xxii. 
34) 'between the jointings and the cors- 
let ' or possibly 'between the arm-pits and 
the corslet.' The ancient harness, in the 
ordinary sense of the trappings of a horse, 
was often richly decorated cJer. xlvi. 4) ; as 
existing Assyrian monuments show. 

HA'ROD (trembling, terror). A spring by 
which Gideon encamped, and where proba- 
bly the trial of the army by their mode nf 
drinking was made (Judges vii.) ; perhaps 
the same with the fountain of Jezreel (1 Sam. 
xxix. 1). It is likely that the modern 'Ain- 
Jaind is the spring of Harod. 

HARO'DITE. The designation given to 
two of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 25), 
derived perhaps from Harod just men- 
tioned. But one is called a Harorite m 
1 Chron. xi. 27. , . ^, 

HIRO'EH (the seer). A name m the ge- 
nealogical lists of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 52). 
Perhaps he is the same with Reaiah (iv. 2). 

HARO'RITE a Chron. xi, 27). See Haro- 

^ HARO'SHETH (a carving or loorking, as in 
wood, stone, &c., perhaps manufactory). 
The place where Sisera, the captain of 
Cabin's host dwelt (J"Jges i^- 2, 13, 16) 
From Harosheth Sisera had to march up to 
Tabor to attack Barak ; and after the defeat 
th^ pursuit continued to Harosheth back 
again, till the proud army of Jabm was 
destroved Its site has been identified. 
' About eight miles from Megiddo, at the 
entrance of the pass to Esdraelon from the 
plain of Acre, is an enormous double mound 
called £rarot?ife?2. This tell is situated just 
below the point where the Kishon m one of 
its turns beats against the rocky base of 
Carmel leaving no room even for afoot- 
nath A castle there effectually commands 
the pass up the vale of the Kishon into 
Esdraelon ; and such a castle there was on 
this immense double tell of Harothieh. It 
is; still covered with the remains of old walls 
and buildings ' (Thomson, The Land and 
the Bool; pp. 436, 437). Perhaps the place 
was caned Harosheth of the Gentiles, be- 
cause it belonged to those tribes which 
T^ra^el could not subdue. See Barak. 
"h-^RP a musical instrument, the In- 
vpntion of which is traced up to Jubal of 
[he line of Cain (Gen. iv. 21). It is most 
nrobable, however (as Kalisch on the place 
i suggests), that the word khinnor, as there 



used, represents generally stringed instru- 
ments, rather than that one especially to 
which the name was afterwards assigned. 



Assj-rian harps. NineTeh marbles. 

There is no certainty as to the shape of 
the Hebrew harp. It has been variously 
imagined triangular, or the shape of the 




EffTPtian harp. From the tomb at Thebes, 
called Belzoni's. 

modern harp, or like our guitar. The number 
of its strings, too, is not precisely ascer- 
tained Josephus (distinguishing it Irons 



357 



[hashabiah 



the nebel, generally rendered 'psaltery,' 
which he tells us was played with the fin- 
gers, and had twelve strings) says that it 
had ten, and was played on with a plectrum 
{Antiq., lib. vii. 12, § 3) : other authorities 
speak of a different number of strings. 
Probably the strings varied at different 
periods. Probably, too, these instruments 
varied in size. For we find them sometimes 
used in processions (1 Sam. x. 5 ; 2 Sam. vi. 
5); so that they must have been light 
enough to be cai-ried. And David is said to 
have played with his hand (1 Sam. xvi. 2.3, 
xvi-ii. 10, xix. 9). The lyre or guitar may, 
therefore, be a more appropriate represen- 
tation of the instrument in question than 
the harp. It appears to have been made of 
costly woods. David used fir, or perhaps 
cypress (2 Sam. vi. 5) ; while Solomon em- 
ployed the almug or algum tree for the pur- 
pose (1 Kings X. 12). The strings were of 
hemp or flax. The harp was a favourite in- 




Egyptian harp. Champolllon. 



strument with nations bordering on Pales- 
tine ; and we have representations of it in 
the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. 
Ezekiel speaks of it in Tyre (Ezek. xxvi. 
13). It was used only on occasions of joy and 
festivity (Gen. xxxi, 27 ; 2 Chron, xx. 28 ; 
Psal. xxxiii, 2, cl. 3 ; Isai. v. 12, xxiii. 16, 
xxiv. 8). On mournful occasions it was laid 
aside (Psal. cxxxvii. 2). In the time of 
David this instrument may be supposed to 
have reached its highest excellence. Dis- 
tinguished musicians were appointed to 
play on it at religious festivals (1 Chron. 
xvi. .5, XXV. 3) ; and David himself is thought 
to have made some improvement in it 
(Amos vi. 5). 

HARROW. It Is very questionable 
whether the Hebrews used a harrow in our 
sense of the terra. In Job xxxix. 10 ; Isai. 
xxviii. 24; Hos. x. 11 breaking the clods is 
alluded to ; but this was before sowing the 
Reed, just to level the ground. The word 



translated * harrow in 2 Sam. xii. 31 ; 
1 Chron. xx. 3 means a sharp threshing- 
sledge. See Agriculturis. 

HAR'SHA (enchanter). One of the Ne- 
thinim, whose descendants returned from 
the captivity (Ezra ii. 52 ; Neh. vii. 54). 

HAPv,T. This was one of the clean ani- 
mals which might be used for food (Deut. 

xii. 15, xiv. 5, XV. 22 ; 1 Kings iv. 23). The 
species intended was probably the Cervus 
elaphus, the European stag, or the Cervus 
harbarus, the Barbary deer. A variety of 
illustrations are drawn ttom the hart, and 
its female the hind. We have the activity 
of the hart (Isai. xxxv. 6), and its earnest 
longing for water (Psal. xlii. 1), the affec- 
tion of the hind (Prov. v. 19), &c, Naphtali, 
too, was likened to a hind (Gen. xlix. 21) ; 
'so that,' says Dr. Kalisch, alluding to Ba- 
rak's victory (Judges iv.), ' with a simile fre- 
quently employed in Hebrew poetry for the 
achievements of strength and endurance, 
they (the tribe) were compared with the 
" graceful hind," which, light-footed and 
swift, easily eludes its persecutors on the 
mountain-heights' (Comm. on Old Test. 
Gen., p. 761). 

HA'RUM (high). A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. iv. 8). 

HARTJ'MAPH {snub-nosed). One whose 
son helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem 
(Neh. iii. 10). 

HARU'PHITE. The designation of She- 
phatiah, a Benjamite who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 5). 

HA'RUZ {eager, decided?}. The father of 
Meshullemeth, mother of king Amon (2 
Kings xxi. 19). 

HARVEST. See Agriculturr, Seasons. 
Sometimes the word is used figuratively, 
as in one of our Lord's parables (IVIatt. 

xiii. 39). 

HASADI'AH (whom Jehovah loves). A 
descendant of the royal line of Judah (1 
Chron. iii. 20). 

HASENU'AH {the bristling). A Benjamite 
(1 Chron. ix. 7). 

HASHABI'AH (whom Jehovah regards).— 
1. A Levite of the family of Merari (1 Chron. 
vi. 45.)— 2. Another Levite of the same 
family (ix. 14 ; Neh . xi. 15) : the lists in these 
two places are evidently the same, though 
some critics have imagined that in Chron- 
icles to refer to David's time, not observing 
that Hilkiah (the high priest in Josiah's 
reign) and his descendants are mentioned. 
— 3. A Levite singer, son of Jeduthun : he 
was head of one of the courses of the sing- 
ers (1 Chron. xxv. 3, 19).— 4. A Kohathite 
Levite descended from Hebron, Kohath's 
son (xxvi. 30).— 5. A chief of the Levites in 
David's reign (xxvii. 17), perhaps identical 
with No. 4.— 6. A chief Levite in Josiah's time 
(2 Chron. xxxv. 9). 7. A Levite or priest 
who accompanied Ezra (Ezra viii. 19, 24.) In 
19, Hashabiah and Sherebiah seem distin- 
guished from those who were sons of Merari. 
If they be in eluded among them, they cannot 
be identical with the Sherebiah and Hash- 
abiah of 24.-8. One who helped to repair 
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 17).— 9. A 
Levite who sealed the covenant (x. 11) ; 
possibly the same Avith that in xii. 24. — 10. 
One from whom the overseer of the Levite? 



3581 



after the captivity- ^vas descended (x . 22^ 
_n ^ prie/t in the days of Joiakim (xu 2l\ 
hVsHIB'NAH {id^. One who sealed tlie 

'°H^5SVbXI'AH (Ikwi^ The father of 
one Vho helped to repair the wall of Jeru- 
salem c^-eh. iii. lO).-2. A Levite who took 
part In a solemn ser^^ce ax. o). . . 

H\SHB\DA'>'A {thought in pidguig, or 
ccnsiderate judge). One who stood with 
Ezra at the solemn reading of the law (>eh. 

^HVSHEM (Jilt). One called a Gizonite, 
who=e sons were among David's warriors 
a Chron. xi. 34). The corresponamg list ■ i 
Sam. xxiii. 32) differs : there the name is 

"'^^HISHMO'NAH tfatness, fat soiT).—A sta- 
tion of the Israelites in tl^.-7i\^erness 
(Numb, xxxiii. 29. 30). Mr. Wilton di^- 
•posed to identify it ^^^^^^ "^^J ^J^,:.^- 
XV. ■27\ now probably 'Ain Basb {The 2^egtb, 

^VlSH'UB (infeUigent, or esteemed).— I. 
One who helped to repair the waU of Jeru- 
salem (Xeh. iii. ll).-2. Another who al=o 
helped to repair the walU23 .-3. One who 
sealed the covenant (x. 23\ It is very pos- 
sible that these three may be the same per- 
son -4. A Levite (xi. 15\ He is cabled 
Hasshub in 1 Chron. ix. 14 ; the two names 
beine identical. 

HASHU'BAH {id.). One of Davids des- 
cendants a Chron. iii. 20\ 

H^'SHr^ (opulent).— I. One whose des- 
cendants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 
19 Neh vii 22\ Several of these had mar- 
ried'foreisn wives (Ezra x. 33). It was per- 
haps theVpresentative of this family or 
clan who sealed the covenant (>eh x is .- 
2. One who assisted when Ezra read the law 

'^^HASHU'PHA {Stripped). One whose des- 
cendants, >-ethinim, returned from captivity 
wUh zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 46). In Ezra 
ii. 43 the name appears more accurately 

^HASMA'AH CI Chron. xii. 3, marg.). See 

^^AS'BAH ivery poor) (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22). 

^ H^S^slfxA'AH (the thorny). This is pro- 
bably the name of a to^\-n Senaah (see ±.zra 
ii 35 ■ Xeh vii. 3S\ with the definite article 
prefixed. The men of this place built the 
fiih-sate at Jerusalem (Seh. in. 3). 

HAS'SHUB {intelligeiU or estee-med^. A 
Merarite Levite (1 Chron. ix. 14). He is 
called Has^jub in Xeh. xi. 15. ^ 

HASrTHA (stn^i^eci) (Ezra 11. 43>. bee 

! ^^^D^. iii. 21). See Dress, Heai> 

i ^H^VTA^CH {verity). One of the eunuchs 
i or chaniberlaiDS at the court of Ahasuerus 

'■^TT \Te" ^Th'e word in its ordinary sense 
i mfans strong dislike (Jer. xliv. 4). But 
i ft ifsometimis used in a way of comparison 

to signify the liking of one thing less t an 
I another (Deut. xxi. 15 ; Mai. i. 2, 3 , Lm.e 

i ^^hI'THATH (/^/w)- The son of Othniel 
i (1 ciiron. iv. 13). 



1 HITI'PHA {seized, captive). One whose 
' descendants, Xethinim, returned from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Jizra 11. &4 ; Neh. 

I vii. 56). ., . ^ . 

I HATI'TA (a digging, exploring). A per- 
^ son whose children, porters, returned from 
i Babylon with Zerubbabel ^Ezra u. 42 ; >eh. 

I ^ HtT'SI-HAMME>'r'CHOTH (bom in the 
midst of restiJig-places). Perhaps this may be 
the proper name of a man {1 Chron. ii. o2, 
i mar?.) ; then the word below rendered 
' half ■ the Manahethites ' (54) may be the 
patronvmic and mean his descendants. ^ 
HIT'TIL . 'i-ai-m?2g). One of bolomons 
servants, whose descendants returned from 
the captl^'ity (Ezra ii. 57 ; ^'eh. vii. 59). 

HlT'irSH (assernhledy—1. One of the 
descendants of David a Chron. iii. 22) : pos- 
=iblv the same who returned from Babylon 
with Ezra (Ezra viii. 2).-2. One who helped 
: to repair the wall of Jerusalem (]Seh. in. 10). 
I —3 A priest who accompanied Zerubbabel 
' to Jerusalem ^xii. 2) : he or the represen- 
tative of his family sealed the covenant 

^^H ir'R AS' {caves, cave-land). A district 
mentioned bv Ezekiel as the frontier of the 
Holv Land (Ezek. xlvii. 16, 18). It appears 
to have constituted part of the ancient 
kingdom of Bashan and to have been after- 
wards known as Auranitis ; being some- 
times comprehended with Batansea m the 
region of Trachonitis.' It probably took its 
name from the caves with which it still 
abounds. And its original appellation, the 
Eauran, it now retains. This name, how- 
ever is at present applied, Mr. Porter tells 
u= bv those at a distance to the whole couu- 
trv ea=t of Jaulan (Gaulanitis) and Jeidur 
(Iturea^ But bv the people of that country 
it is u=ed in a much more restricted sense, 
and is given only to the fertile plain on the 
south of the Lejah.with the narrow strip 
on the west. The whole of this distnct is 
perfectlv flat, with little conical hills at in- 
tprvals * The soil is the most fertile m Sy- 
ria and admirably adapted to the produc- 
tion of wheat. >'ot a tree is anywhere seen 
There are many inhabited villages, and 
manv more in ruins. The walls of these are 
S^^kst thickness, and evidently of remo e 
antiauitv. See Porter mJoum. ofSacr.Lit. 
July 1S54, pp. 302, 303 nnP nf the 

HATI'LAH (jpang,terrorf).-\. One of tne 
sons of Cush (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Ciiron. i^ 9).-2. A 
son of Joktan (Gen. x. 29 ; 1 Chron. i. 23). 

H WI'LAH (2U). A country so named is 
described in the account of Eden as pro- 
ducine gold, bdellium, and the onyx-stone 
(Gen il 11). It is also said to border, on the 
eas- towards Assvria, on the Ishmaelite, and 
on the Amalekite territory (xxv. 18 ; 1 bam. 
XV 7) It is reckoned among the Cushite 
countries, tosrether with provinces on the 
Arabian eulf ^^Gen. x. 7), and among Joktan- 
ite countries with districts contiguous to 
the Persian sulf 129). There is, however 
an intermixture in both the places referred 
to in the first, of regions on the Persian, 
in' the second, of regions on the Arabian 
gulf ' It f oUows therefore,' says Kaliscn, 
?that m both instances Havilah desipates 
the same country, extending at least from 



359 



[hAZAR-SHUAIi 



i the Persian to tlie Arabian gulf, and, on ac- 
count of its vast extent, easily divided into 

I two distinct parts. Where these two cen- 
tres of the people of Havilah were, it is at 
present ioipessible to decide: we have no 
means of ascertaining whether they were in 
the land of the Chaulotasi, near the Nabatadi, 
on the Persian gulf, or in the territory of 
the Avalitffi, on the African coast, near the 
Bab-el-Mandeb, the present Zeyla' {Comm. 

I on the Old Test. Gen., p. 93: comp. p. 249). Some 

, writers, however, imagine that more than 

one Havilah is spoken of in scripture ; and 
some find the name in Kluiwlan, a district 
of the Yemen. See Dr. Smith's Diet, of the 
Bihle,\o\. i. pp. 761, 762, 
HA'VOTH-JAIH {villages of Jair). Some 

I small towns or places of Gilead which Jair, 
who was reckoned of the posterity of Mauas- 

jl seh, took and possessed (Numb, xxxii. 41). 

f Other towns in Bashan appear to have been 

I appropriated by the same person (Deut. iii. 

il 14 ; 1 Chron. ii. 22, 23), and to have had the 

■ same name. Another Jair had thirty sons 
} who occupied thirty of the Havoth-jair in 
i Gilead (Judges x. 4). All these towns both 
I in Gilead and Bashan formed one of Solo- 

■ raon's commissariat districts (1 Kings iv. 13). 
I See Jair. 

HAWK. One of the birds pronounced 
unclean (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). The 
original word, implying swift motion, seems 
' to include various species of the Falconidce; 

more especially as in the passages referred 
to ' the kind ' or family is mentioned. The 
hawk, though not migratory in this coun- 
try, is so in parts of Asia and southern 
Europe. This seems to be alluded to in Job 
xxxix. 26. Dr. Thomson notices a remark- 
able illustration of this passage : ' I have 
often seen them returning south during the 
latter part of September, but never saw 
them migrating northward. I can only ac- 
count for this by supposing that in going 
they straggle along in single pairs, and at 
tio particular time, or else by some distant 
interior route, but that when their young 
are grown they come back southward in 
flocks ; but even then they do not fiy in 
groups, as do cranes, geese, and storks, but 
keep passing for days in straggling lines, 
like scattered ranks of a routed army. Here 
and there, as far as the eye can reach, they 
. come, flying every one apart, but all going 
steadily to the south {The Land and the Book, 
p. 326). These birds are common in Syria, 
where many species occur, the merlin, the 
kestrel, the gerfalcon, &c. 
i The ' nigh^hawk ' is also an unclean bird 

i (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15). It is questioned 

what bird is here meant : according to Bo- 
chart the male ostrich. It is more probable, 
i however, that some kind of owl, perhaps the 

; Strix flavimea, or white owl, is intended. 

HAY (Prov. xxvii. 25 ; Isai. xv. 6 : comp, 
Psal. Ixxii, 6 ; Amos vii, 1), ' Mowings ' are 
spoken of; but hay, in our full sense of it., 
was not made in Palestine, See Grass. 

H A'ZAEL(whom God beholds, i.e.cares for). 
A king of Syria. The first mention we have 
of him is when Elijah was in the wilderness 
a Kings xix. 15, 17), when he is designated 
j as the future monarch of Syria, Jehu that 

of Israel, Elisha as the prophet in succes- 



sion to Elijah himself. Jehu was to extir- 
pate the authors of idolatry, Hazael to 
chastise the whole nation of Israel, and 
Elisha to slay with the quick and powerful 
sword of the divine word (comp. Jer, i. 10). 
It does not appear that Hazael was ever 
literally anointed by either prophet : the 
designation of him seems all that was in- 
tended. But, when afterwards Elisha visited 
Damascus, and Ben-hadad, who was sick, 
had sent Hazael, a trusted servant, to en- 
quire whether he should recover, Elisha 
intimated his approaching sovereignty. 
Hazael was astonished : • Shall I, who am 
but a dog, mean and insignificant, attain 
this splendid destiny ? ' The next day, how 
ever, Ben-hadad died, apparently by Hazael's 
hand (though some critics question this) ; 
and Hazael succeeded as king ; and his 
reign, with the exception of the time when 
he was called on to defend himself against 
the Assyrian power, was occupied with con- 
tinual v/ars upon Israel and even against 
Judah (2 Kings viii. 7-15, 28, 29, ix. 14, 15, x. 
32,33, xii. 17, 18, xiii. 3 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 5, 6). 
Hazael Is supposed to have reigned about 
forty-six years, 886-840 B.C. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ben-hadad (2 Kings Jiii. 
22-25 ; Amos i. 4), 

HAZAI'AH (whom Jehovah beholds). A 
descendant of Judah (Neh. xl. 5). 

HA'ZAR-AD'DAR {village of Addar, or of 
greatness). A place on the southern fron- 
tier of Palestine (Numb, xxxiv. 4). It seems 
to be identical with Adar the south boun- 
dary of Judah (Josh. xv. 3), and is possibly 
'Ain el-Kudeirdt, or Adeirdt, to the west of 
Kadesh-barnea. 

H'AZAR-E'NAN {village of fountains). A 
place on the north-east frontier of Palestine 
(Numb, xxxiv. 9, 10). It is also mentioned 
as a boundary-place in Ezek. xlvii. 17, xlviii. 
1. Mr. Porter supposes it the modern 
Kuryetein, ENE. of Damascus, where are 
large fountains. 

HA'ZAPt-GAD'DAH {village of fortune, or 
perhaps of the kid). A town in the extreme 
south of Judah (Josh. xv. 27). Perhaps this 
may be identified with Wady Mubughik, 
where there are extensive ruins of great 
antiquity (Wilton, The Negeb, pp. 114-121). 

HA'ZAIl-HAT'TICX)N {middle village). A 
place specified by Ezeki^l (Ezek. xlvii. 16) as 
one of the boundaries of the land. It is said 
to be on the border of Hauran. 

HA'ZAR-MA'VETH {court of death). One 
of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 26 ; 1 Chron. 
1, 20). His descendants were the Chatra- 
raotitiB, who settled in the south of Arabia; 
and the name is preserved in the modern 
Uadramaut. This district is said to be very 
unhealthy; but it is cultivated ; and the 
inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in 
frankincense, myrrh, gum, and other pro- 
ducts. Their language is a dialect materially 
, dilfering from that spoken in Yemen. 

HA'^AR-SHU^AL {village of jackals). A 
) place in the south of Palestine, originally 
in the territory of Judah, afterwards allotted 
: t3 Simeon (Josh. xv. 28, xix. 3; 1 Chron. iv. 
2S). It is mentioned as inhabited after the 
cai)tivity (Neh. xi. 27). Wilton would iden- 
tify it with Beni-Shail, not far from Gaza 
I {The Negeb, pp. 137-141). 



hazar-susah] 



360 



HA'ZAR-SU'SAH (horse-village). A town 
in the territory of Simeon (Josli. xix. 5). It 
is also called ^ , 

HA'ZAR-SU'SIM (village of horses) 
(1 Chron. iv. 31). It might he, like Beth- 
raarcahoth, 'the chariot-station,' a depot 
for horses, such as those which in Solomon s 
time went to and fro between Egypt and 
Palestine (Stanley, Sinai and Pal, p. 160). 
It Is probably identical with Sansannah, 
which Wilton believes to have been m the 
modern Wady es-Suny or Sunieh, not far 
from Gaza, on the caravan-road between 
that place and Sinai (The Negeb, pp. 212-215). 

HA'ZAZON-TA'MAR (pruning or felling of 
the palm) (2 Chron. xx. 2). See En-GEDI, Ha- 

ZEZON-TAMAR. , , 

H4ZEL (Gen. xxx. 37). The original word 
rendered ' hazel ' occurs as the name of a 
tree only In this place. Interpreters are 
divided between the hazel and the almond- 
tree : perhaps it is more probable that the 
last-named was meant. 

HAZ'ELEL-PO'NI (the shade looJping upon 
me) A daughter of the house of Judah 
(1 Chron. Iv. 3). The original has the article 
prefixed, as If it were the name of a family 
rather than of an individual. 

HA'ZER (a couH, a village, a moveable en- 
campment). This is the same with Hazar, 
occurring in composition with other w^urds 
to form the names of places. It is not found 
alone as a proper name ; but the two follow- 
ing are forms of its plural. 

HAZE'RIM (villages). The Avims are 
said to have dwelt here (Deut. ii. 23). In- 
Btead of the name of a definite place, the 
meaning probably is that this nomad people 
had their villages, tent-viUages, or encamp- 
ments in the district. ^ ^ . ^. ^ 

HAZE'ROTH (id.). One of the stations of 
the Israelites in the wilderness (Numb. xi. 
35, xii. 16, xxxiii. 17, 18 ; Deut. i. 1). It is 
thought to be at 'Ain el-Hudhera about 
eighteen hours from Sinai. 

HA'ZEZON-TA'MAR (jpruning of the palm). 
The ancient name of En-gedi (Gen. xiv. 7). In 
2 Cliron. XX. 2 it is Hazazon-tamar. See En- 
gedi. 



federacy against Joshua and the Israelites 
(Josh. xi. 1). It appears to have stood upon 
an eminence ; for such is the meaning of 
the word tel, translated 'strength' (13) ot 
'heap' (marg.). Joshua destroyed Hazor 
(10 11, 13, xii. 19) ; but it must have been 
afterwards re-built ; for it was allotted to 
Naphtali (xix. 36) ; and later we find it again 
possessed by a Jabin, into whose hands God 
had delivered Israel for their sins (Judges 
iv 2 17; 1 Sam. xii. 9). It was fortified as 
an important post by Solomon (1 Kings ix. 
15) and was one of the cities seized by 
Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings xv. 29). Its site is 
uncertain ; though Dr. Thomson (The Land 
and the Book, pp. 285, 286) thinks he lias 
found it in the modern Hazere, where there 
are many ruins.— 2. A city in the south of 
Judah (Josh. xv. 23). It should probably be 
ioined to the succeeding name, and be 
Hazor-ithnan : see Ithnan.-3. 4 Two more 
towns of Judah, Hazor-hadattah, or New 
Hazor (for the words should not be sepa- 
rated as in our version), and Hezron which 
is Hazor (25). See Hadattah, Hezron.-5. A 
place perhaps to the north of Jerusalem, in- 
habited by the Benjamites after the return 
from Babylon (Neh. xi. 33).— 6. An Arabian 
district (Jer. xlix. 28, 30, 33). See Winer, 
Bibl. BWB., art. ' Hazor. 4.' 

HEAD This word is of course most fre- 
quently used in the ordinary literal sense. 
The covering of the head was an indication 
of mourning (2 Sam. xv. 30), as was shaving 
the head (Lev. xxi. 5; Job i. 20); while 
anointing it was an expression of Doy 
(Eccles. ix. 8; Matt. vi. 17). Sometimes men 
swore by their head (v. 36). The word 
also signified the chiefs, or most eminent of 
the people (Numb. xxv. 4). So the husband 
is called the 'head of the wife' (1 Cor. xi. 3 ; 
Eph. V. 23). And Christ is the ' head of his 
body the church' (i. 22, iv. 15 ; Col. i. 18). He 
is also the head over all creation (ii. 10). 
Again, the corner-stone of a building ib- 
'the head of the corner' (Psal. cxviii. 22j. 
These and other modes of using the word 
can present no difficulty to the observant 
i reader of scripture. 







Assyrian queen. 



HA'ZIBL (vision of God). A Levite in the 
time of David (1 Chron. xxiii. 9). 

HA'ZO (vision). One of the sons of Nahor 
(Gen. xxii. 22). * ^ii-tt nf 

HA'ZOR (enclosure, castle). A city ot 
nanaau. whose king Jabin headed a con- 



Assyrian king. 
Nineveh Marbles. 

HEAD-BANDS (Isai. iii. 20). Probably 
fillets for the hair. See Dbess, Hbad- 

^^E AD-DRESS. So far as can be collected 
from the incidental notices of early Hebrew 
history, the probability is that coverings 



3i3t6Ie IBlualol^Ucye. ' [head-dress 



lor the head were not in ordinary use. Thus 
ft -was a token of mourning to cover the 
Let (1 (2 Sara. xv. 30 ; Jer. xiv. 3, 4) ; and the 




Royal attendant or eunuch.- Nineveh marbles. 

mantle seems to have been employed for 1 
the purpose (1 Kings xix. ]3). The head- 
dresses that were then used were rather for | 




Toung Bedouin chief of the valley of the Jordan. 

ornament. This was specially the case with 
the high-priest's mitre, and the ' bonnets ' 
of the ordinary priests, which are expressly 




Syrian man of rank- 



Bald to have been • for glory and for beauty ' 
(Exod. xxviii. .%-40). And those which 
vrere intended by the Hebrew words tzawfp/i 



and pe^r seem to have been worn only by 
eminent persons, or on festive occasions. 
The former word implies wrapping around, 




Female attendant. From an ivory. 

after the fashion of a turban : it is described 
as used by men (Job xxix. 14, in our version 
' diadem '), by women (Isai. iii. 23, • hoods 




Bedouin chief of the desert of Palmyra. 



as belonging to kings (Ixii. 3, ' diadem '), to 
the high priest (Zech. iii. 5, 'mitre'). The 
latter, peer, conveying the idea of ornament 




Syrian merchant. Damascus. 



or beauty, is said to have been worn by 
priests (Exod. xxxix. 28; Ezek. xliv. 18, 
'bonnets'), by females (Isai. iii. 20), by a 



HEA.D-DRESS] 



362 



« onH hvi rpspmble the moderu liead-coverings of 

»n°"Uu"dr^% Tsr^S^"^^^^^^^ a handkerchief so folded a. to 




Syrian lady. 




Arab woman of the valley of the Jordan. 



^xiv 17 23, 'tires'). A wdwliicli signifies I hang down behind and on the sjiould^^^^^^ 
to hind if used to imply the putting on of 1 tied with a cord round the head. In the 





Greek female. From a vase. 

both these head-coverings : just as turbans | 
are now wrapped or bound about the head. 
Dr. Saalschiitz is inclined to believe that 
these two together would constitute the 
modern turban, which consists of a conical 
cap, answering to the peer, with folds of 
linen wound round it, the tzantph (^Arch. der 
Heir., cap. 3, vol. i. PP. 27, 28). The cap 
might be decorated with ornaments ; as they 
were worked into the hair, and pendants 
worn If, however, such coverings were only 
for official persons, or worn on festal days, 
there remains nothing to show that head- 
coverings were in ordinary use. Tne kisti- 
vrlm ' head-bands ' (Isai. iii. 20) imply bind- 
in'' ■ thev were either fillets to confine the 
hair or, as some imagine, girdles. The ' hats 
of Dan iii. 21 were mantles or outer tunics. 

The Assvrian head-dress is mentioned 
Ezek. xxiii. 15) in terms which make it 
nrobable that, in some respects, it might 



Roman l&Jy. From a gem. 

Apocrvpha we find it stated as a grievance 
that the Greek hat was imposed upon the 
Jews (2 Mace. iv. 12' 




From an ancient Egyptian paintia^. 



363 



MihU laiiatDletrgr. 



[heaven 




Nubian woman. From, a photograph, 

HEAL, HEALim See Physician. There 
is a peculiar expression in Mai. iv. 2, which 
may he explained here. A fresh gale is said 
to blow, in some parts of the Levant, at 
sunrise, from the sea across the land. This, 
from its salubrious effects, is called ' The 
Doctor.' Now we find ' the wings of the 
wind ' mentioned (Psal, xviii. 10, civ. 3 : 
comp.cxxxix.9j ; we may therefore suppose 
this natural circumstance alluded to for 
illustrating the spiritual refreshment which 
attends and proceeds from the rising of 
' the Sun of righteousness' with healthful 
beams (see Pict. Bible, note on place).' 

HEART. The Hebrews regarded the 
heart as the seat not only of the passions 
and emotions, such as love, hatred, plea- 
sure, sorrow, &c., but also of the intellec- 
tual faculties (e.g. 1 Kings x. 24). We often 
therefore find the word 'heart' where, ac- 
cording to our present mode of expression, 
the 'mind' or ' understanding ' would be 
used. 

HEARTH (Gen. xviii. 6). There is no 
Hebrew word here separately to express 
'hearth.' That for 'cakes' means round 
cakes which were baked, as at present, 
under hot ashes when haste was required : 
comp. 1 Kings xix. 6, ' a cake baked upon 
hot stones.' In Psal. cii. 3, the exact mean- 
ing of the original word used is 'fuel:' 
a different form of the same root occurs in 
Isai. XXX. 14, 'from the burning mass.' In 
Jer. xxxvi. 22, 23, we find another word : it 
means a brazier or stove. Such braziers 
are frequently now used. They are shaped 
like a large pitcher, and placed in a cavity 
in the floor. When the fire has burnt down, 
a kind of frame is placed over the brazier, 
and covered with a carpet; and persons 
warm themselves as they sit on the floor 
around by thrusting their legs under the 
carpet. In Zech. xii. 6 the original word 
means ' a fire-pan. 

HEATH (Jer. xvii. 6, xlviii. 6). It is 
douljtful whether any plant or tree is in- 
tended. Gesenius proposes to render ' like 



one forlorn,' or 'ruins,' as in Psal. cii. 17, 

where the same word is rendered ' desti- 
tute. Henderson believes that it must be 
a tree, and supposes that some species of 
juniper is meant {The Book of Jeremiah, 
p. 105). 

HEATHEN. The terms so rendered in 
our translation are occasionally represented 
by other words, as 'nations' or ' gentiles.' 
And the signification intended musu have 
varied at different periods of the world's 
history. God 'made of one blood all na- 
tions of men for to dwell on all the face of 
the earth' (Acts xvii. .26) ; one word, there 
fore, go'i, plur. groim, included all the people 
of the earth. And so we find it employed 
in Gen. x. 5, 20, 31, 32, where once it is in 
our version ' Gentiles,' the other times ' na- 
tions.' When, however, a single family 
was selected, to expand into a people, who 
were specially to be the depository of di- 
vine truth, and to become Gods peculiar 
inheritance, then the word began to have a 
specific meaning, and to designate those 
who were not Israelites, even though they 
might locally inhabit Canaan (2 Kings xvii. 
41). And, as just said, because among the 
Hebrews alone there was the knowledge of 
the true God, the word had a moral and re- 
ligious sense, as nearly equivalent with 
ungodly or idolaters (e. g. Psal. ix. 5, 15, 17, 
where in the last-named verse ' nations '). 
It is still used among the Jews with some- 
what of a contemptuous meaning (as Kafir, 
corrupted to Giaour among the Mohamme- 
dans) to designate persons not of their 
race, and therefore not entitled to theii 
privileges. 

The Greek word ethnos is in its significa- 
tion nearly similar. It is true that it occurs 
(John xi. 50-52) for the Jewish people. But 
it has besides a larger sense (Acts xvii. 26; 
Gal. iii. 14), and also is expressly contrasted 
with the seed of Jacob or the circumcision 
(Luke ii. 32 ; Acts x. 45). We find, too, the 
idea of an ungodly person, or idolater, or 
one out of the covenant of grace, implied 
in it (Matt. vi. 7, xviii. 17). It is used in an 
extended sense in those passages which sc 
emphatically inculcate the duty of the 
Christian church to the world (xxviii. 19 ; 
Luke xxiv. 47;. 

HEAVE-OFFERING (Numb. xv. 19-21). 
See Offerings. 

HEAVEN. A critical examination of the 
precise meaning of the Hebrew words so 
rendered in our version is obviously out of 
place in the present work. For such, lexi- 
cons must be consulted. But it may be ob- 
served that the term in most frequent use 
implies height, and that other terms imply 
either height or extension. The question 
what the Hebrews understood by the ' hea- 
ven ' or ' heavens ' has been keenly debated. 
Grave writers there are who seem really to 
imagine that the ancient Israelites be- 
lieved there was a solid vault no great dis- 
tance overhead, which was sustained by I 
pillars, and provided with windows and ( 
doors, and in which the glittering sr;i;d I 
were stuck. It is very possible that some f 
children even among ourselves may enter- 
tain fancies of the kind; but few grown men. 
in any age or country, wiUi any nieasure 



3G4 



of intelligence or cultivation of the nnnd, | 
could seriously accept a theory, the false- 
hood of which would he demonstrated 
hy a iournev of a few miles from home. 
The poetical expressions we meet with in 
scripture in reference to heaven must not 
he literallv understood. See Firmament. 

We ordinarily give three different senses 
to the word ' heaven.' We use it for the 
atmosphere Immediately around, m which 
thehirds fly and the clouds float ; also for 
that immeasurable space m which otner 
^vorlds, suns or planets, have their positions 
or their motions ; and, further, for the glo- 
rious ahode of the great King and Creator 
of the universe. Douhtless the ancients 
were not aware of the vast distances of the 
stars from our earth, which later science 
has revealed. But still the same three-fold 
use of the term may he observed m scrip- 
ture (Gen. i. 20. xv. 5 ; Psal. xi. 4, xviii. 11 ; 
Jer viii. 7, and elsewhere). Sometimes the 
expression ' heaven of heavens ' is used for 
God's ahode (Deut. x. 14; 1 Kings viii. 2. ; 
Keh. ix. 6). It is possible that St Paul may 
speak of ' the third heaven' (2 Cor. xu. 2) 
with reference to this triple division : or, 
apart from this, he may mean simply the 
highest heaven. It has, indeed, been ques- 
tioned whether there is suflBcient authority 
for believing that the an cient Jews recog- 
nized the three-fold distribution ; and cer- 
tainlv rabbinical legends say rather that 
there were seven heavens But surely we 
may well imagine that the Jews would 
adopt that mode of using the word leavens 
which is «o reasonable and natural to our- 
selves and we need not require more ex- 
plicit'proof than the texts just referred to 

^^Heaven, theologically, Is understood to 
mean the state and place of blessedness 
which the saints attain fter the present 
life Scripture has revealed little on this 
subject to gratify men's curiosity but quite 
enough to call out their better desires for 
such an Inheritance. The prominent fea- 
tures of this blessed life are its holiness 
its happiness, and the presence of the Lord 
n it. Various terms are used and various 
illustrations introduced to describe these 
Into the heavenly city 't^^ere shall m no 
wise enter anything that deflleth (Re^ 
xxi ''T) Nor shall any abide m God s taber- 
nacle, or dwell in his holy place, but they 
that Walk uprightly and work J^fliteou.- 
ness (Psal. xv. 1, 2). Those, therefore, that 
are before the throne of God must 'have 
washed their robes and made them white 
in the blood of the Lamb ' (Rev. yn. 14, lo) . 
The unutterable joy they partake is further 
noted - 'Thev shall hunger no more, nei- 
ther thirst any more ; neither shall the sun 
liiht on them, nor any heat For the Lamb 
which is in the midst of the throne shall 
feed them, and shall lead them unto living 
fountains 'of waters ; and God shall wipe 
awav all tears from their eyes (16, 17). The 
happiness shall be perfect in its degree, and 
eteriial in its duration (Matt. xxv. 46 ; Re^ . 
iil 19) And he who hath now entered into 
the heavens, both as the priestly intercessor 
for his people, and as their fore-runner, will 
receive them into his intimate communion 



(John xiA^ 2, 3 ; Phil. i. 23 ; Heb. vi. 20, xii. 

29-94) But in truth we can form little idea 
at present either of the state or the place. 
And scripture itself can hardly do more 
than describe it by negatives (iJolin iii. 2). 

It mav be added that the term ' heavens 
is sometimes adopted for the Deity, the 
God of heaven (Dan. iv. 26). 

HEAVEN, THE KINGDOM OF. A phrase 
frequently used (Matt. iii. 2, iv 17, xiu 11, 
31 33, 44, 47, XX. 1 ; 2 Tim. IV. 19, and else- 
i where). Several equivalents occur as king- 
\ dom of God' (Matt. vi. 33; Marki 14 15; 
1 John iii 3, 5), ' kingdom of Christ ' (Matt 
XV 21 - Rev I. 9), ' kingdom of Christ and 
God ' (Eph. V. 5), ' kingdom of Da.ad ' (Mark 
XI 10\ and simply ' the kingdom '(Matt xi. 3o, 
xiii 19). ThevallmeanthekiDgdom of grace 
here, developing itself into the kingdom 
of fflorv hereafter. The grand idea implied is 
the theocracy, that formal establishment of 
Jehovah's lordship, in which he revealed 
himself as the King of his chosen people , 
all their earthly leaders being avowedly but 
his lieutenants. The picture of it in t_he 
Hebrew state and polity was the type of a 
far more Glorious supremacy repeatedly 
predicted by the ancient prophets (Psal n. 
6-12, ex. ; Isai. ix. 7, 8, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1 ; Dan. 
ii 44 vii 27). The rabbinical writers seem 
generally to have understood the Jewish 
religion bv this phrase ; but certainly in 
our Lord's time it must have been taken to 
indicate the establishment of Messiahs 
rule (Luke xix. 11 ; Acts i. 6), which was or- 
dinarily conceived to be a temporal do- 
minion. Christ checked this notion and 
frequentlv demonstrated the spiritual cha- 
racter of his kingdom (Lukexvii. 21 ; John 
xviii 36) ; but the error remained in the 
minds of even his disciples till the promised 
out-pouring of the Holy Spirit. TJien in- 
deed they understood its internal power, 
and proclaimed it as ' righteousness, peace 
and joy in the Holy Ghost' (Roni.xiv.l-). 
Some expositors deny that the phrase can 
mean the church or the religion of Christ 
here but the kingdom of Messiah to he re- 
vealed hereafter. But this is clearly incon- 
sistent with the sense of many of the places 
where the expression occurs. See Alford, 
TJie Greek Test, note on Matt. iii. 2. 
HE'BEL (Gen. iv. 2, marg.). See Abel. 
HE'BER (.society, fellowship) —I. One of 
the descendants of Asher (Gen. xTvi. 1/ ; 
Isumb. xxvi. 45 ; 1 Chron. vii. 31, 32).— 2. A 
Kenite, of the family of Hobab, who was 
settled in Canaan. He appears to have been 
the chief of a separate clan ; and it was his 
wife Jael who received and kuled Sisera 
fudges i. 16, iv. 11, 17, 21, V. 24).-3 A per- 
son mentioned in the genealogies of Judah 
(1 Chron. iv. 18).— 4. A Benjamite chief 

^'^HE'BER (ihe region heyoiid? a passei 
Qi-er^) —1 A descendant of Gad (1 Chron. v. 
13) -2 A Benjamite chief (viii. 22). Oui 
translators, it may be observed, have nor 
been consistent in regard to this name It 
is given as Eber in 12.-3. The patriarch Eher 
(Luke iii. 35). . . -u « 

HE'BERITES. A family of Asher, de- 
1 scendants of Heber (Numb. xxvi. 45). 
I HE'BREW, HE'BREWS. A name of th« 



365 



[HEBREWS 



Israelitish nation. Critics are not agreed 

as to the origin of it. Some derive it from 
'dbar, to pass over, because Abraham crossed 

the Euphrates to Canaan ; others from 'e&er, 
beyond, l)ecause the patriarch had once 
dwelt beyond that river. But there is a 
strong objection to both these supposi- 
tions ; for doubtless many dwellers beyond 
the Euphrates crossed it to seek fresh set- 
tlements : it is not, therefore, easy to see 
why the name should peculiarly attach to 
Abraham, or be continued to his descend- 
ants who never did dwell on the east of 
Euphrates. A better theory is that the ap- 
pellation is a patronymic from Eber (Gen. 
X. 21, 24, 25, xi. 14-17). It is true there is no 
reason expressly given for regarding Eber 
as the head of the race from which the 
chosen people were to spring. But, as in 
the days of his son Peleg the earth was di- 
vided, colonies probably spreading them- 
selves, and tribes beginning to assume a 
more definite position, we may not unfairly 
consider Eber as taking some kind of pro- 
minence as the original father of certain 
families ; especially as the term Hebrews 
seems originally to have had a wider ap- 
plication (xl. 15, xliii. 32). An argument 
has been taken from xiv. 13 ; and it has 
been said that Mamre is designated by 
a patronymic, and so Abraham was likely 
to be. This is of little weight ; we may find 
a better in Numb. xxiv. 24, where, as the 
Assyrians are called Asshur from their pro- 
genitor, the Israelites are denominated Eber 
from theirs. The term Hebrews, being 
eventually confined to the descendants of 
Jacob, was given them more especially by 
foreigners, or assumed by them in their in- 
tercourse with foreigners (Jonah i. 9) : see 
Kalisch, Covim. on Old Test. Gen., p. 279, 
note 3. They were known among them- 
selves (though not exclusively : see 1 Sam. 
xiii. 3; Jer. xxxiv. 9) as Israelites, or sons 
of Israel, a theocratic and therefore more 
honourable appellation, the distinction pro- 
bably being that Hebrew indicated the 
general political relation, Israelite the re- 
ligious and religious-patriarchal relation. 
Hence a naturalized person would be called 
rather Hebrew than Israelite. Some time 
before the Christian era the ancient name 
Hebrews revived (Acts vi. 1 ; 2 Cor. xi, 22 ; 
Phil. iii. 5), specially as distinguishing the 
pure Jews from the Hellenists or Grecian 
Jews. A 'Hebrew of the Hebrews,' as St. 
Paul called himself, implies the being from 
Hebrew parents on both sides. 

From the name of the people naturally 
came the name of their language, Hebrew. 
This term, however, is not used in the Old 
Testament, but *the language of Canaan' 
asai.xix. 18), 'the Jews' language' (2 Kings 
xviii. 26, 28 ; Neh. xiii. 24 ; Isai. xxxvi. 11, 
13). • In the Hebrew language ' is first used 
m the prologue to Ecclesiasticus. The ' He- 
brew' of the New Testament is Syro- 
Chaldaic. 

HE'BREWESS (Jer xxxiv. 9). A He- 
brew woman. 

HEBREWS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. 
This letter, placed in our bibles after those 
which bear the name of St. Paul, is popu- 
larly ascribed to that apostle. There are. 



however, many questions connected with 
the authorship, canonical authority, the 
place in which, and the time when it waKS 
written, which have called forth the keen- 
est discussions, and on which biblical critics 
are by no means as yet agreed. 

It will be desirable to examine first, so 
far as space can be allowed in the present 
work, the authorship of this composition. 
Setting aside the supposed reference to it 
in 2 Pet. iii. 15, 16, we must acknowledge 
that the apostolic fathers were acquainted 
with it. Forster (Apost. Author, of Ep. to 
Ifebr., pp. 541-613) maintains that Barnabas, 
Clement of Rome, Ignatius, and Polycarp, 
all cite or allude to it. But none of these 
mentions the author's name. Pantgenus, the 
head of the celebrated Christian school at 
Alexandria (about 180 a.d.) is the first who 
distinctly asserts the Pauline authorship. 
His successor, Clement, expresses the same 
belief. Origen is another witness. But this 
eminent man is hardly quite consistent; 
and his testimony may merely amount to 
this, that, while he believed the substance 
of the epistle to be Paul's, and considered 
the authority of tradition distinct in favour 
of its direct Pauline origin, he yet, impres- 
sed with the difl^erence of style as com- 
pared with Paul's acknowledged writings, 
Imagined that some one else, he is not able 
to say who, was the actual penman^ not as 
an amanuensis, writing from dictation, but 
clothii.g Paul's sentiments in his own 
words. And this would seem to be the 
theory generally favoured in the Alexan- 
drian church. Eusebius, later, though ac- 
knowledging that it had been questioned 
by some, expresses his own conviction of 
the Pauline origin of the epistle. And in- 
deed, through Syria, Palestine, and Greece, 
it was generally ascribed to Paul before 
the rise of the Arian controversy, and 
afterwards almost universally the eastern 
Christians agreed in this belief. But in 
other parts of the church there was a differ- 
ence of opinion. Justin merely alludes to 
it. Tertullian calls Barnabas the author: 
Cyprian does not appear to acknowledge it ; 
and it may be safely said that, prior to the 
fourth century it was not considered in the 
west to be a genuine work of St. Paul's. 
The sum, therefore, of ancient testimony 
may be taken to be this, that, while the 
epistle was recognized in the earliest age, 
the authorship was not distinctly stated, 
that the eastern church soon began to as- 
cribe it to St. Paul, while the western 
church denied or doubted that he was the 
writer, that there sprung up in Egypt first 
a belief, which afterwards spread, that, 
while the thoughts were certainly Paul's, 
they were expressed by some other person 
as the actual writer. After the fourth cen- 
tury the epistle was received as St. Paul's 
in the v,^est ; and this has since been gene- 
rally the belief of Christendom, though the 
absence of his name, and the persuasion 
that another hand is apparent in the style 
of writing, have caused its place in the New 
Testament collection to be after Paul's ac- 
knowledged epistles. 

Dr. Wordsworth, indeed, uses the diversity 
of opinions respecting the style and Ian- 



Hebrews] 



366 



euage of this epistle as a corroboration of 
St. Paul's authorship. ' They show that the 
question .... had even then been dis- 
cussed and examined. And this uniformity 
of independent witnesses (that the sub- 
stance was Pauline), who differ from each 
other as to the minor matter of its phrase- 
ology and whose testimony reaches back to 
primitive times, and comes from the most 
learned school of ancient Christendom (tbe 
Alexandrian), will not easily be shaken by 
any conjectural theories of later criticism' 
iThe New Test, Introd. to Ep. to Hebrews, p. 
357) 

If Paul be not the author, it is impossible 
to decide who was. Barnabas, Silas, Apollos, 
and others have been suggested. But these 
have for the most part been but guesses, and 
.-an only be so treated. In Germany, ludeed, 
one or other has been adopted by eminent 
writers, Apollos most frequently, as by 
Tholuck and Bleek ; and Dr. Alford among 
ourselves, after careful examination of the 
pretensions of the rest, has declared his 
judgment to be in favour of Apollos, on the 
ground that the author, a Jew, must have 
been a Hellenist, imbued with the thoughts 
and phraseology of the Alexandrian school, 
intimately acquainted with St. Paul, be- 
longing, however, to the second rank ot 
apostolic men, not a dweller near Jerusa- 
lem, but of note and influence with those 
to whom he wrote (Proleg. sect. 1. 148-191). 
Yet it may be fairly said that the general 
opinion of men, at least in this country, 
best competent to decide, is in favour of 
the Pauline authorship ; either altogether, 
or, as has been explained, through the me- 
dium of some one who expressed Pauls 
thoughts. . ^ , , 

An examination of the internal pheno- 
mena of this composition is necessary m 
order to reach any satisfactory conclusion. 
Prof. Robbins is one of the latest who has 
instituted such an examination, and has 
presented its results in a compendious 
form {Biblioth. Sacr., July 1861, pp. 4«2--535). 
The following considerations are especially 

It is vain to allege as anything decisive 
that the style and mode of expression here 
differ from" what we find in Paul's acknow- 
ledged compositions. Every writer will 
adapt himself to the circumst ances of those 
he addresses. His own state of mind and 
feelings must have a material influence 
upon his pen ; and, besides, so various are 
the topics on which St. Paul addressed dif- 
ferent communities, that it is hardly possi- 
ble to point out with precision any general 
characteristic of his diction. 

Light is often thrown upon a vexed 
question of authorship by incidental ex- 
pressions which have dropped from the 
writer. Critics have eagerly examined the 
epistle to the Hebrews for some of these 
indications. But there is little that can be 
laid hold of. It is urged that St. Paul would 
never have penned Heb. ii. 3, where the au- 
thor seems to say he obtained his knowledge 
of the gospel at second-hand ; whereas Paul 
lavs stress on his apostolical authority, as 
In 2 Cor. xi., xiL; Gal. i. But it is rephed 
that Paul, after the manner of most writers. 



frequently classes himself with those to 
whom he speaks (e.g. Rom.xiii. 11-13 ; l Oor. 
X 8 9 ; 2 Cor. vii. 1) : and, further, that, m 
the place referred to, there is no question of 
apostleship, but the ' we ' and * us ' are used 
for Christians generally, as distinguished 
from men of the Old Testament dispensation. 
The one had but the word spoken by angels, 
the others the personal witness of the Lord 
and of his immediate followers. It is said, 
again, that the description of the tabernacle 
and its furniture is erroneous (Heb. ix. 2-5). 
But it is replied that investigation (for 
which room cannot be found here) shows 
that there is no error, and, besides, that, if 
there were, it would affect rather the in- 
spiration than the authorship of the work^ 
Moreover, the mention of the * bonds 
(X 34) is regarded as favouring the Pauline 
authorship. But stress must not be laid 
upon the passage : the reading is somewhat 
questionable. More weighty, perhaps, are 
the words of xiii. 18, 19, 23, which indicate 
an imprisonment and a hope of release, and 
also of a visit to be paid with Timothy. 
Still we have no mention elsewhere of 
Timothy's incarceration ; but on the other 
hand the term rendered ' set at liberty may 
mean simply sent away. ' They_ of Italy 
calute vou' (24) can tell little either one 
way or the other. There is no clear proof 
in the words of the writer's location. 
Italians, or persons from Italy, were Avitb 
him when he wrote : nothing more can be 
concluded. These, it will be seen, are very 
uncertain traces ; and we can infer from 
such personal references only that, if they 
do not prove the Pauline authorship, they 
as little disprove it. 

The doctrine of this epistle must be com- 
pared with that of St. Paul's acknowledged 
letters. Of course there is an agreement, 
an unity of teaching, through the whole 
compass of the sacred scriptures, which all 
proceeded from the same informing Spirit. 
But yet in different writers we see truth m 
different aspects ; and, if we can discover 
the same line of teaching in A*arious compo- 
sitions, the presumption is not weak that 
these flowed from the same pen. Now we 
are to take into account that the object ol 
the epistle to the Hebrews was peculiar, 
and that it was addressed to a class of per- 
sons not the same with those to whom St. 
Paul writes in other letters. If, notwitn- 
standing, we can trace the same kind of 
sentiments, the inference of identity of au- 
thorship will be so much the stronger. Ob- 
serve, then, how the author exhibits the 
superiority of Christianity to Judaism, both 
in the Jewish dispensation being a type of 
the Christian (comp. Heb. viii. 5, x. 1 with 
Col ii 17), and also in the rites and observ- 
ances 'of the law serving for an example of 
gospel blessings, which are far more com- 
plete and lasting (comp. Heb. vii. 15, 16, 19, 
viii 1-9, ix. 9, with Gal. iii. 23-25, iv. 3, 9). 
Nosuch coincidences with Paul canbefound 
in the writings of Peter, James, or John. 
Then, further, the person, work, and offices 
of Christ are similarly set forth here and 
in Paul's acknowledged compositions. For 
Christ's person comp. Heb. i. 3 with 2 Cor. 
iv 4* Phil. ii. 6; Co' i. 15. See also ho^«' 



367 



creation is attributed to him (corap. Heb. i. 
2, 3, 10 with 1 Cor. yiii. 6 ; Eph. iii. 9 ; Co]. 

i. 16, 17). So again as to the relation between 
his humiliation and exaltation (comp, Heb, 

ii. 9, xii. 2 with Phil. ii. 8, 9) ; and Dr. Davidson 
observes that the idea that Jesus not only 
passed, through suffering obedience, to an 
exalted state, but obtained it as a reward 
for obedience unto death ' is found in the 
Ivew Testament only in the epistles of Paul 
(Introd. to N.T., vol. iii. pp. 211, 212). Simi- 
larly the idea that, through Christ's death, 
both death and the influence of Satan were 
destroyed occurs here and in the acknow- 
ledged Pauline epistles (comp. Heb. ii. 14 
with 1 Cor. XV. 26, 56, 57 ; 2 Tim. i. lo). See, 
further, how the sacriflce of Christ and its 
effects are spoken of Ccomp. Heb. ix. 26, 28, 
X. 12 with Rom. vi. 9, 10 ; and Heb. ix. 15 with 
Rom. ni. 25). So, also, as to Christ's exalta- 
tion, and access to the Father by him (comp. 
Heb. i. 3 with Rom. viii. 34 ; Heb. ii. 8 with 
- Cor. XV. 27 ; Heb. iv. 14, vii. 26, with Eph. 
IV. 10 ; Heb. x. 19, 20 with Rom. v. 2 ; Eph 
11. 18). Then, again, the way in which faith, 
hope, and love are conjoined is thoroughly 
Pauline (comp. Heb. vi. 10-12 with 1 Thess. 
1. 3 ; 2 Thess. i. 4 ; and Heb. x. 22-24 with 1 Cor. 
xiii. 13). Many more such coincidences 
might be produced : the above may serve 
for a sample ; and it is submitted that, if 
any singly are of little weight, taken to- 
^11^®^^^®^^^™^^ contemptible proof 
of the Pauline authorship. It is indeed al- 
leged that Christ's resurrection is not 
made prominent as in the epistles to the 
Corinthians and the Thessalonians. But as 
weU might this be objected to those to the 
Romans and the Galatians, where equally 
no prominence is given to this truth. So 
again It is argued that we nowhere And in 
the Hebrews the contrast between faith 
and works. No more do we in the letter to 
the Thessalonians. Of course, as has been 
already said, the apostle would'Vary his line 
of admonition according to the special 
wants of those to whom he wrote. And 
then It is urged that the author of the 
epistle to the Hebrews is fond of allego- 
rizing This can be true only in the sense 
thac he expounds the typical facts of the 
Old Testament ; and surely this is no evi- 
dence against the Pauline authorship 

Another point must not be overlooked. 
The structure of St. Paul's epistles exhibits 
usually a particular type. There is first the 
doctrinal discussion, with occasional strains 
of hortatory application or highly-raised 
feeling Afterwards thS practical admo- 
nitions follow, the prayer for those he ad- 
aresses, the apostolical blessing, and the 
greetings. It is needless to say that these 
various parts are seen in the letter to the 
u^i'^?^' 1^ }^ personal matters are 
igholy touched ; and the name does not ap- 
w^T,^^ "^^y ^® ^^^^d to account for this : 
but there would be an almost equal diffl- 

Slnfhn'}^f.'^''°^^'^'''° early disciple 

withholding his name. Dr. Wordsworth, 
Sfpm^n'?'' •'^^''^ t^^* omission is more 
intelligible in St. Paul's case than it would 

writer "^«^h^^H-™^''.°^ ^^^^ were the 
^\ 1,^'^® divinely-inspired author,' he 
says, whoever he was, whose consummate 



[HEBHEWfl 



Wisdom is apparent from the epistle itself 
was guided by God's Spirit, not only in 
writing the epistle, but in not prefixing his 
name to it. And, if St Paul had written 
such an epif tie as this, we recognize strong 
and sufficient reasons why he should have 
been restrained from following his usual 
, practice, and that of other writers of epis- 
I ties, and from inserting his own name at 
, Its commencement. But we do not see 
j similar reasons of equal force for the sup- 
pression of the name of Apollos, or Bar- 
nabas, or Clement, or of any otlxer person, to 
whom the epistle has been ascribed. There- 
fore the non-appearance of the author's 
name in the epistle to the Hebrews does 
not dimmish, but rather increases, the pro- 
bability that its author was St. Paul' (uhi 
supr., p. 361). ^ 

The mode in which citations are made 
froni the Old Testament deserves notice. 
Doubtless there are some variations from 
Paul s ordinary manner ; but there are also 
some extraordinary points of resemblance 
The whole subject cannot be investigated 
here ; but the reader is requested to marl; 
that Hab. ii. 4 is cited only in the He 
brews (x. 38), and, in a similar way, in Paul's 
acknowledged epistles (Rom. i. 17 ; Gal. iii. 
11), and that there is a still more remark- 
able coincidence between Heb. x. 30, and 
Rom. xii. 19 ; in both which places the He- 
from Septuagint are departed 

There are other topics which can here be 
only touched most briefly. Lists have been 
formed of leading passages in the Hebrews 
and St. Paul's acknowledged writings, which 
bear a marked resemblance, of expressions 
also similar, of words peculiar to both. As 
a single instance, comp. Gal. iii. 19 with Heb. 
11. 2. And, though there may be some supe- 
riority of style visible here, yet still it 
would be hard to tie down an author at all 
times to just the same kind of style. It may 
be added that certainly upon this compo- 
sition there is the impress of what we know 
from other sources was the character of 
this great apostle of the Gentiles. 

The arguments which have been alleged 
are by no means dogmatically insisted on. 
Some doubts will probably always remain 
on this matter. But surely it is not going 
too far to say, with all appreciation of the 
eminent men who have reached a different 
conclusion, that the probabilities are much 
m favour of the Pauline authorship. Prof 
Robbins sums up his investigations with 
the following: remarks : ♦ The amount and 
value of the external evidence is, to say the 
least, strongly in favour of Paul as the 
author of the Hebrews. Internal evidence, 
though not perhaps in any one point taker 
by Itself, so clear as not to admit of ques- 
tion, yet, in almost every particular, suffi- 
cient to render the composition by the 
apostle Paul probable. Circumstances al- 
luded to in the epistle, if they do not point 
to the apostle to the Gentiles as author, 
do not, certainly, any more clearly suggest 
any other author. The sentiment and doc- 
trines of the epistle, when its object and 
aim are taken into view, seem to us 
strikingly Pauline . . . The general charac 



irCBREWs] 



368 



teristics of form are tlie same m the He- 
brews and acknowledged Pauline epistle*, 
with, however, many diflEerences, such as 
we should expect in any encyclical letter 
purposely anonymous. While some of the 
formulas of quotation are unlike those most 
commonly used in some of tbe acknow- 
ledged epistles of Paul, as those epistles 
differ among themselves, still there are 
forms of reference to the Old Testament 
strikingly indicative of the same hand; and 
passages quoted with peculiarities which 
scarcely admit the supposition of diversity 
of authorship . . . The superiority of style 
so generally attributed to the Hebrews, 
when brought to the test of a critical com- 
parison, does not only not seem to demand 
diversity of authorship but indicates a 
higher and more studied effort of the same 
niind and pen. Similarity, rather than di- 
versity, in the Hebrews and acknowledged 
Ipistles of Paul, in the use of particular 
words and phrases, is now generally ac- 
kuowdedged.' (pp. 533, 534). 

Perhaps the considerations produced are 
sufficient to show that to Paul, as substan- 
tially the author, this epistle must be as^ 
cribed But, granting this, there is the 
question beforl adverted to, whether the 
apostle was the sole author, or whether (as 
is supposed of Mark writing his Gospel 
under Peter's direction) he might not have 
employed some one to express in a degree 
^?r his own fashion, his (the apostle^) 
meaning. An amanuensis we know (Rom. 
?vi 22 : comp. Gal. vi. 11) he frequently had : 
was the amanuensis here something more? 
Indeed it may be pertinently asked, did 
¥?motheus. and Sosthenes, and SHvanus so 
often joined in the superscriptions of other 
epistles, contribute any of their contents ? 
If so. the supposition is the more probable 
thit in this, intendedf or sufficient pason to 
be anonymous, another hand might be more 
larSely used. Dr. Alford, however, decidedly 
rejf cts the supposition that two were con- 
cerned in the production of this work ; while 
Mr. Roberts as decidedly expresses his be- 
lief that there must have been two, and 
fixes on St. Luke as St. Paul's coadjutor 
{Discuss, on the Gospels, part i. chap. vi. pp. 
206-213), supposing that Paul himself ad- 
ded the closing verses (xiii 19-25). .^Onsuch 
matters the most clear-sighted critics will 
come to opposite conclusions. . 

In regard to the canonicity of this epistle 
li ttle need be said. If the Pauline origin be 
Lken as proved, the canonical authority 
will not be doubted. But, if it be supposed 
That Apollos, or other such writer, penned 
this letter, still the early testimonies above 
Sirred to, without naming the writer, 
Sufficiently show how it was reg=^;ded f rom 
thP bpffinnlng. It was included m the 
Peshito^sTria? version. And, though for a 
wWle Vn the west certain doubts^^re f e 1, 
or it was left without notice, yet the testi- 
?nony of the Greek and eastern churches 
was L strong that, from the days of Jerome 
and Augustine who received it, it was 
generally in the west also accounted 

'^Te'i.rthe time and place of writing, of 
cotrse those who hold the Paulme author- 



ship must differ from those who deny it. II 
St Paul was the writer, it was perhaps sent 
from Rome about the close of his first im- 
prisonment, 63 or 64 A. p. If it y as the work 
of some other inspired man, it must still 
have been written before the destruction of 
Jerusalem, perhaps 68 a. d. from, Dr. Alford 
guesses, Ephesus. , +• „ 

That this epistle was no translation, but 
written as we have it in Greek, may be con- 
sidered certain. But it is a matter of dis- 
pute to whom it was addressed. To J ewi sh 
Christians indisputably ; but to what spe- 
cial community of them ? Here again we 
have a wide circle of conjectures ; and there 
is hardly a country where such may be sup- 
posed to have settled, from Spain to Greece 
and Asia, which some critic has_ not disced 
vered to be the original destination of this 
letter. Dr. Alford imagines it sent to the 
Jewish Christians at Rome. Bat it is diffi- 
cult to understand how, on such a supposi- 
tion, its authority was specially doubted m 
the west ; and still more puzzling to believe 
that the writer should address a church m 
such terms as we find in Heb. v. 11, 12, when 
St Paul had some time before spoken of 
the same in the language used in Rom. xv. 14. 
It was sent more probably to the Jewisn 
Christians in Palestine ; Prof. M. Stuart 
supposes particularly to those m Cffisarea ; 
but perhaps even at first it had a yet wider 

^^The epistle itself, which some have 
strangely doubted to be an epistle, suffi- 
ciently explains its object and the occasion 
of its being written. The enmity of the 
unconverted Jews to the gospel involved 
believers in a two-fold danger, that of per- 
secution and that of apostasy. The writei 
would meet this by proving the superiority 
of Christianity to the earlier covenant 
Hence he exhibits from the Old Testament, 
and from the nature of the case, the supe- 
riority of Jesus to the high priests of the 
law and the consequent superiority and 
sufficiency of his sacrifice as a means of 
reconciliation with God. The most intimate 
understanding of the Mosaic ritual is 
evinced ; and the reasonings are intermin- 
gled with various solemn warnings, ana 
earnest encouragements to perseverance in 

the faith : -,. ^ -x^ * a 

The epistle may be thus distributed.— 

1 A demonstration of the deity of Christ 
by explicit proofs from the Old Testa- 
ment: his superiority to angels (i., iW,.to 
Moses and Aaron, to the whole Jewish 
nriesthood.is insisted on (iii.-viu.) and the 
typical nature of the legal ceremonies shown 
/(x 1—10) ; Christ's sacrifice being that true 
and only sacrifice by which all the Levitical 
sacrifices are superseded (ix. 11— x.is;.— 

2 The application of the preceding argu- 
ments and proofs : those addressed are 
warned of the danger of apostasy, and ex- 
horted to stedfastness in the faith of Christ, 
being encouraged thereto by the examples 
of ancient worthies, also to patience^peace, 
botoess, &c. (X. 19-xiii. 19).-3. conclu- 
sion, comprising a grayer and apostolical 
salutations (xiii. 20—25). , 

Of commentaries on this epistle, that ol 
Dr. John Owen, to be found in his works, 



369 



[heel 



and re-printed (1840) in four 8ro. volumes, 
must always be highly valued. Philologi- 
cally it is behind modern requirements, but 
it is a well-filled storehouse of doctrinal 
and experimental divinitj^ The modern 
ones of Stuart and Delitzsch may he con- 
sulted with advantage. 

HE'BHON {alliance).— I. A son of Kohath, 
!.he son of Levi. He was the ancestor of 
one of the Levitical families often referred 
to in the sacred history (Exod. vi. 18 ; 
ISTumb. iii. 19 ; 1 Chron. vi. 2, 18, xv. 9, xxiii. 
12, 19 : comp. xxiv. 23, where the word is 
supplied).— 2. The name occurs in the ge- 
nealogical lists of Judah (ii. 42, 43) ; but 
it is not clear whether a person or a place 
is intended, probably a place. 

HE'BRON {id.-). An ancient city of Pa- 
lestine, said to have been *built seven years 
before Zoan in Egypt ' (Numb. xiii. 22). He- 
bron bore also the name of Kirjath-arba, 
• the city of Arba ' (Gen. xxiii. 2 ; Josh. xiv. 
15 ; Judges i. 10), because it was the resi- 
dence of Arba, the progenitor of the Ana- 
kira. Which was the earlier of the two names 
is uncertain. Unless Arba was the builder, 
Kirjath-arba could not well have been 
the original. Some critics, indeed, assume 
that the city was not called Hebron till the 
Israelites had entered Canaan ; they conse- 
quently infer that Moses was not the writer 
of a history in which the name Hebron oc- 
curs. But this conclusion is by no means 
just. There are Instances in which cities 
and countries known by one name have had 
another put upon them, and have after- 
wards resumed the original appellation. 
See the question argued in respect to He- 
bron in Home, Introd., vol. ii. p. 593, edit. 
A.yre. 

Abraham dwelt at Hebron (Gen. xiii. 18) : 
here Sarah died, and was buried in the cave 
of Machpelah (xxiii. 2, 19 ) : here also Isaac 
and Ishra&el buried Abraham (xxv. 9) : Isaac, 
too, and Jacob, lived some time here,' 
and w^ere buried in their father's sepulchre 
(XXXV. 27, xxxvii. 14, xlix. 29-32, 1. 13). Mach- 
pelah, close by, is said to be before Mamre, 
which possil)ly may be another name for 
Hebron. See Machpelah, Mamrb. 

On the conquest of Canaan, Hebron was 
assigned to the tribe of Judah, and is de- 
scribed as being in the mountains CJosh 
XV. 54). The Amorite king had been con- 
quered and the city taken by Joshua (x 3 
5, 23, 36, 39, xii. 10) ; but it would seem that 
the sons of Anak still occupied the position 
m force It is, therefore, further related 
that Caleb, under Joshua as general-in- 
chief, succeeded in exterminating these 
giants (xi. 21, xiv. 6-14) ; and hence to Caleb 
Hebron was given for an inheritance (xv. 
13, 14). _ It was subsequently made over to 
the priests, and constituted a city of re- 
fuge; the surrounding fields and villages 
being reserved for Caleb (xx. 7, xxi. 11-13). 

We hear little more of Hebron till the 
cime of David, who was here anointed king 
and reigned over Judah seven years and 
six months (2 Sam. ii. 1-3, 11) ; six of his 
sons being born here (iii. 2-5). After he 
■)ecame king of all Israel, he quitted He- 
-.lon and fixed his residence at Jerusalem, 
which he wrested from the Jebusites(v! 



4-10). This city was inhabited after the 
captivity (Neh. xi. 25). It was occupied by 
the Idumeans, but was captured by Judas 
Maccabeus (1 Mace. v. 65). In the New Tes- 
tament it is not mentioned ; but, accord- 
ing to Josephus, it was destroyed shortly 
before the taking of Jerusalem (Bell. Jud . 
lib. iv. 9, § 9). 

Hebron, now el-KJudtl, stands twenty-two 
miles south of Jerusalem : its present popu- 
lation may be about 7,000 or 8,000, of whom 
700 are Jew^s: there are no Christians in the 
town or district. Its appearance is described 
as beautiful. ' On gaining the summit of a 
rocky hill,' says Bartlett, 'Hebron burst 
suddenly upon us, with its smiling region 
of corn, olive-groves, and vineyards— the 
vineyards of Eshcol. ... On a sloping hill- 
side, rising above the valley, is the quad- 
rangle of massive and ancient stone-work, 
which encloses the building said to contain 
the cave of Machpelah. At its foot, occu- 
pying the valley and side of the opposite 
hill, lies the town itself, divided into three 
groups of flat-roofed and domed dwellings 
The valley and its enclosing hills, winding* 
into far perspective towards the desert- 
frontier, in the luxuriance of their eastern 
mode of cultivation, and covered with 
thymy pasturages, justify the description 
of a land flowing with milk and honey : 
afar, beyond the unseen caldron of the 
Dead Sea, the long range of the Moab 
mountains shuts in the extensive area' 
{Walks about Jerusalem, pp. 2I6, 217) A 
mile up the valley is a vast oak tree, popu- 
larly said to be the tree of Mamre under 
which Abraham pitched his tent. Two an- 
cient pools remain, the lower one 133 feet 
square and 22 feet deep, the upper 85 feet 
by 55 feet and 19 feet deep (Thomson, The 
Land and the Book, p. 683). Ic might be 
over one of these that David hanged the 
murderers of Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. iv. 12). 

HE'BRON (passage?). A city of Ashei 
(Josh xix. 23). Probably it is identical 
with Abdon, which see 

HE'BRONITES. A family of Levites. 
descendants of Hebron (Numb. Iii. 27 xxvi 
58 ; 1 Chron. xxvi. 23, 30, 31). 

HEDGE. There are two words, each ap- 
pearing with some variety of form, which 
are translated ' hedge' in our version : one 
simply means an enclosure, of whatevei 
material ; the other atangled hedge formed 
of some prickly shrub. They both occur in 
Isai. V. 5, the fence, of loose stones or mud ' 
the hedge, of thorns. Enclosures of any 
kind are rare in Palestine. Only gardens, 
vineyards, &c , are so protected. The 
prickly pear, a kind of cactus, is used for 
the purpose, w^ell illustrating Prov. xv. 19 ; 
and the stone walls of sheep-folds are now 
often topped with thorns. 

HEEL. To lift the heel against anv one 
(Psal. xli. 9) was an act of insolent aggres- 
sion : to make bare the heels of a female 
(Jer. xiii. 22) was to disgrace her; the heels 
of a modest woman being covered ])y her 
tram. In Psal. xlix. 5 for ' heels ' liers-in- 
M^ait or trackers must be understood. As 
to the sentence upon the serpent (Gen. iii. 
15), the heel of the woman's seed would be 
the part most exposed to injury from hipi 
R B 



IIEG/U;] 



370 



l)ite,while tlie victor's foot was on liis head : 
but the injury would not be on a vital part, 
trifling compared with the crushing of the 

^^HE'GAI or HE'GE (eunuch? venerable?), 
The eunuch or chamberlain who had charge 
of the women in the harem of Ahasuerus 
(Esth. ii. 3, 8, 15). , ^ , 

HEIFER. The words translated 'heifer 
signify generally a young cow ; thus, one^of 
three years old (Gen. xv. 9), as used for 
Ploughing (Judges xiv. 18), as giving milk 
(Isai vii. 21, 22, in our version 'a young 
cow'), as treading out corn (Hos. x. 11), also 
as untamed and wilful (Jer. 1. 11 ; Hos. iv. 
16) It mav be in the same sense that the 
term is applied to Moab (Isai. xv. 5; Jer. 
xlviii 34),'to denote independent self-con- 
fidence. Some critics, however, prefer re- 
garding the words as a proper name, 
Eglath-Shelishiyah, one of the places to 
which the fugitives would wander, bee 
Henderson, Isaiah, note on xv. 4. 

There was a remarkable oramance pre- 
scribed in the Mosaic law, that a red un- 
blemished heifer, never touched by the 
voke, was to be slain (perhaps) by the priest, 
the blood being sprinkled before the taber- 
nacle; and then the whole carcase was to 
be burned, cedar-wood, hyssop, and scarlet 
being also cast into the fire. The ashes 
were afterwards to be gathered and laid up. 
These ashes, mixed witji running water, 
were applied to purify those who l^ad con- 
tracted uncleanness by touching a dead 
bodv, or a bone, or a grave ; the tent, too, 
and' the vessels in it, where a person had 
died (Numb. xix. ; Heb. ix. 13). It may be 
asked why pollution should be thus com- 
municated. Death, we may reply, isthe pen- 
a ty of sin. He, then, that touched a corpse, 
touched that guilty thing ^nwhich the pen- 
altv had been executed, and contracted 
cei-emonial defilement. The polluting 
character of sin was thus remarkably 
exemplified, and the need of some purifi- 
Stion from it. See Fairbairn Typol. of 
Scrint vol ii. PP. 376-380, .2nd edit. 

heir! see BIRTH-RICIIT, First-boun, 

'™lHTrW). one of the wives of 
Ashur the father of Tekoah (1 Chron. iv. 
5, 7). 



HE'LAM (strong-hold). A place beyond the 
Jordan, but west of the Euphrates wue^ 
David gained a victory over the Syrians (J 

^""hVl'BAH crafwess, fey-tile region). A town 
in the territory of Asher (J^dps i 31) , 
B.EJ.'BO-S (fat, fertile). A place noted for 
excellent wines' ^^^^^^h were conp^^^^^^^ to 
Tvre from Damascus (Ezek. xxvu. 18). it 
his been frequently supposed that Helbon 
fs the modern' Aleppo; but Mr. Porter has 
discovered a village and district, still bear- 
rig the ancient name, a few mi es from 
Da^nascus, celebrated for peculiarly-fine 
Scs. It lies in a glen high up m Anti-li- 
bSus; and there are considerable rams 

2 Esdr i. 1). Greek forms of Hilkiah. 
^ HEL'DAI i^corldly).-l. A caiuain of 
David's militia (1 Chron. xxvii. lo).-2. One 



who returned from Babylon, for whom with 
others memorial crowns were to be made 
(Zech. vi. 10) : in 14 he is called Helem. 

HE'LEB (fat, fatness). One of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 29). 

HE'LED (life, the world). Also one ol 
David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 30). He is iden- 
tical with Heleb; possibly also with Held:ii,l. 

HE'LEK (portion). A descendant of Ma- 
nasseh (Numb. xxvi. 30 ; Josh. xvii. 2). 

HE'LE KITES. The family of Mauassen 
descended from Helek (Numb. xxvi. 30). 

HE'LEM (stroke). A chieftain of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 35). 4.. i 

HE'LEM (dream). A person mentioned 
in Zech. vi. 14, identical with Heldai, 2. 

HE'LEPH (exchange). A place on the 
boundary of Naphtali (Josh, xix 33). Some 
have proposed to identify it with BeitUf to 
the west of Kades. „^ * 

HE'LEZ (perhaps loin, strong ?). One ol 
David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chron. xi. 
27, xxvii. 10) : in the first-named place he is 
called the Paltite, in the last two the Pelon- 
ite —2. One of Judah's posterity (ii. 39). _ 

HE'LI (summit, the highest). A person in 
the line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke lu. 
23), 

" HE'LI (2 Esdr. i. 2). The name of a per- 
son alleged to be an ancestor of Esdras. 
HiiJir^S (2 Esdr. vii. 39). Elijah. 
HELIODO'EUS (2 Mace. 111. 7-40). The 
treasurer of Seleucus Philopator, king or 
Syria sent to plunder the temple at Jerusa- 
lem. His purpose is said to have been super- 
naturally frustrated. 

HELIO'POLIS (City of the sun) (Ezek. xxx. 
17, marg.) See 0^\ . ^ » • * 

HEL'KAI (Jehovah Ms portion). A priest 
in the days of Joiakim, representative of 
the family or coiirse of Meraioth, or Mere- 
moth (Neh. xii. 15). . , ■ 

HEL'KATH (a portion). A border-city of 
A'^her (Josh. xix. 25) afterwards aUotted 
to the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 31). In 1 
Chron vi. 75 Hukok is substituted. 

HEL'KATH-HAZ'ZURIM (the portion, i.e. 
field of swords, or, according to some, of 
strong men). A spot near Gibeon M-here 
twelve of Joab's encountered twelve of 
Abner's men, the whole of the combatants 
falling (2 Sam. ii. 16). 
IlELKFAS (1 Esdr. 1. 8). Hilkiah the high 

^^HELL. In the way in which this word is 
commonly used, it is understood as imply- 
ing the place of torment in another world. 
Thi= however, was not the original signi- 
fication of the English ; nor does such an 
idea accurately represent the meaning of 
the Hebrew and Greek words, the originals 
of ' hell ' in our translation. 

According to Its derivation, our word 
'heir means the covered or concealed 
place, and this is akin to the Hebrew s/ie6., 
which most probably implies a cavity or 
hollow subterranean pit. It is poetically 
described in scripture as dark (Job x. 21, 
22), as underground (Deut. xxiu 22), as 
having valleys or depths (Pro v. ix 18), as 
shut in with gates and bars (Job x\ii. lb , 
Isai. xxxviii. 10). It is spoken of also as 
voracious, insatiable, and cruel (^ro^^ . 12, 
xxx. 16 ; Sol. Song viii. 6 ; Isai. v.14). Those 



371 



[heljlenisi 



who die are said to go down to it (Gen. xlii. 
38 ; Psal. Iv. 15 ; Ezek. xxxi. 15, 17). It is 
represented as laying snares for men (2 Sam. 
xxii. 6 ; Psal. xviii. 5) ; while such as escape 
or expect to escape death are said to have 
made a covenant or come to an agreement 
with It (Isai. xxviii. 15, 18). It is manifest 
that these expressions are used figura- 
tively : the Hebrews were not so simple as 
to imagine sheol really fenced with gates 
and bars. It M^as the separate state, the 
' under-world,' the receptacle of departed 
spirits, used indifferently in respect to all 
who were dead, whether they were the 
wicked to be punished, or the faithful to 
be blessed. Doubtless in earlier times the 
Israelites had no very distinct Idea of the 
condition of the departed. Nor are we 
even now authorized to speak dogmatic- 
ally. The veil is not yet lifted up from the 
world of spirits; and little beyond the 
broad outline are we able to discover of its 
form and character. 

It is evident by what has been said that 
sheol by no means necessarily means a place 
of torment. In many cases our translators 
have properly rendered it ' the grave ; ' not 
the literal excavated pit, but more gene- 
rally the state or condition of the dead. 
But they do not always adhere to this, and 
occasionally use language which conveys a 
wrong notion to ordinary readers. The 
Greek word hades is similarly treated. Of 
course a doctrine is not to be deduced 
merely from a parable ; but yet parables 
offer valuable illustrations of scripture 
truths. And abp. Trench has said very 
justly on the parable of the rich man and 
Lazarus (Luke xvi. 19-31) : ' Abraham's bo- 
som is not heaven, though it will issue in 
heaven ; so neither is hades hell, though 
to issue in it, when death and hades shall 
be cast into the lake of fire which is the 
proper hell. It is the place of painful re- 
straint (1 Pet. iii. 19), where the souls of 
the wicked are reserved to the judgment of 
the great day' {Notes on Parables, pp. 467, 
468, 6th edit.). So, when our Lord is said to 
have descended into hell (Psal. xvi. 10 ; Acts 
ii. 27, 31), the grave, the place of departed 
spirits, and not the region of eternal punish- 
ment, is to be understood. See Pearson Onthe 
Creed, art. v. ; who discusses many opinions 
which have been propounded on the subject. 

Other words are used when the place of 
final punishment is designated ; such as 
geenna of fire, ' hell-fire ' (Matt. v. 22, 29, 30), 
tartaros (2 Pet. ii. 4), the ' lake of fire' (Rev. 
XX. 14), and probably ' the bottomless pit' 
(ix. 1, 2, 11, xi. 7, xvii. 8, xx. 1, 3). See Ge- 
henna, HiNNOM, Punishment. 

HELL, GATES OF (Matt. xvi. 18). The 
power of the kingdom of death. 

HELLE'NIST. In a few passages of the 
New Testament we find the Greek term 
hellenistes (Acts vi. 1, ix. 29, xi. 20; the 
reading being, however, in the last-named 
place questionable), rendered in our ver- 
sion 'Grecians,' used in a kind of opposi- 
tion to Hebrews. Tbe distinction was not 
of race or residence, but rather of lan- 
guage. A pure Jew, as in the case of St. Paul 
(Phil. iii. 5\ might have been born or re- 
sided out of Pulestine, but he spoke ordi- 



narily the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, and read 
the Hebrew scriptures. A Hellenist or 
Grecian spoke Greek as his common lan- 
guage, and used generally the Septuagint 
translation of the bible. A Hellenist or 
Grecian might or might not be a Greek, 
that is, of Greek or foreign race : he might 
be a purely-descended Jew or a Gentile 
proselyte. The term Hellenist, therefore, 
indicates a class differing from the Hebrew 
on the one hand and not necessarily iden- 
tical with the Greek on the other. 

The existence of this class had a power- 
ful influence, as preparing for the diffusion 
of Christianity and supplying the language 
in which the authorized documents of the 
gospel were composed. The Hellenists 
were a link of communication between the 
Palestinian Jews and the external world. 
Preserving for the most part their connec- 
tion with the temple, they had adopted, 
with the language, much of Greek manners 
and modes of thought ; and they were pre- 
pared, when converted to the faith of 
Christ, to become a body of missionaries 
to various regions. See Dispersion, 
Greece, Greeks. Their language was not 
the classical Greek of earlier times. The 
Macedonian conquests had' resulted in a 
breaking up of the Greek system of states ; 
and hence the wide-spread use of what was 
called the common dialect of the Greek 
tongue. The staple of this was indeed of 
Attic texture; but certain Attic forms 
were disused in it : for various Attic words 
others were substituted ; and some forms 
and words were Introduced from other dia- 
lects. The language thus became modified 
into that kind of speech which prevailed at 
the courts of Syria and Egypt, and in the 
schools of Alexandria and Tarsus. But 
used by the Hellenist it had an additional 
element. Hebrew ideas were to be ex- 
pressed, and religious truth conveyed in a 
tongue which was not originally formed 
to express it. A Hebrew spirit, therefoi-e, 
breathed through the Greek words. But 
Hellenistic Greek was not less precise, not 
less governed by exact rules than the 
Greek of the Attic writers. Moulded after 
a different pattern, it retained all its fiexi- 
bility and power of expression. It became 
thus most admirably fitted to be the me- 
dium through which the doctrines of Chris- 
tianity were promulgated to the world. So 
that, in the tongue which distinguished the 
class of Hellenists, and in the circum- 
stances of the class itself, we may see the 
remarkable providence of God preparing 
the best way for the accomplishment ol 
his own gracious purposes. 

The explanation given above of the term 
Hellenist is that which has been most ge- 
nerally received. But Mr. Roberts, in his 
valuable Discussions on the Gospels, 1862, 
takes a different view. He maintains, and 
with the greatest probability, that Greek 
was generally understood and spoken in 
Palestine concurrently with Hebrew, or 
rather Syro-Chaldaic, and he adduces many 
strong reasons to prove that our Lord and 
the apostles commonly used the Greek 
tongue. But, if this be so, the distinction 
between the Hellenists and the Hebrew.s 



helmet] 



^^rea^itrj) at 



372 



could hardly bave been one of language, 
but ratber of principle and tendency. ^ Tbe 
term Hellenist, as applied to a Jew, Mr. 
Roberts thinks, ' meant one who did not 
hedge himself round by tbe peculiar usages 
of Judaism, but, yielding, less or more, to 
the spirit of tbe age in which be lived, was 
ready in various ways to adopt and observe 
the opinions and practices of the Gentile 
world.' Hence, then, « if Hellenists denoted 
those Jews who had relaxed in the strm- 
geney of their Judaism, Hebrews will be 
those who adhered more rigidly to the 
forms of their ancient faith.' It is evident 
that there were two such parties in the 
Christian church. The believing Jews who 
were 'zealous of the law' (Acts xxi. 20) 
suspected Paul's teaching and conduct, 
and it was those only who ' came from 
James' whom Peter feared (Gal. ii. 12); 
though certainly he must have found pre- 
viously converts at Antlocb who were 
Jews They were Hellenists ; the new- 
comers Hebrews. But the student is re- 
ferred for full information to Mr. Roberts 
book, part i. chap. v. pp. 145-165. 
HELMET. See ARMS. 
HE'LON (strong). A Zebulunite, whose 
son Eliab was the chief of his tribe (Isumb. j 
1 9, ii. 7, vii. 24, 29, X. 16). 1 
HELPS (1 Cor. xii. 28). There does not 
appear to have been any order in the church 
speciaUy so called. The word, being with 
others in the abstract, would indicate that 
the specified gifts were bestowed, not on 
one, but on many different cla.sses. 

HEM OF GARMENT. The Israelites 
were commanded to put fringes upon tbeir 
garments (Numb. xv. 38, 39 ; Deut.xxii. 12), 
a kind of edging which would prevent the 
ends of the cloth from unravelling : also m 
the corners possibly of the outer garment, 
which was quadrangular, there was to be a 
narrow blue riband. These fringes or bor- 
ders were in process of time enlarged ,• and 
it was one part of vhe superstition of the 
Pharisee, so to enlarge them as to attract 
special notice (Matt, xxiii. 5). Hence there 
was a kind of sacredness attributed to the 
hem of the garment ; and this seems to 
have been tbe reason why diseased persons 
specially desired to touch the hem of 
Christ's garment (ix. 20, xiv. 36 ; Luke viu. 

^HE'MAN (destruction) (Gen. xxxvi. 22). 
See HOMAM. , , - 

HE'MANcra2i7?/iiD.-l. A person remark ab e 
for his wisdom (1 Kings iv. 31). Possibly 
he may be the same person as the one men- 
tioned of the posterity of Judah in the line 
of Zerah CI Chron. ii. 6); and this last, though 
called the ' son' of Zerah, may be, according 
to the ordinary usage of the word, a more 
distant descendant.-2. An eminent Levite, 
in David's time, grandson of Samuel the 
prophet. He had fourteen sons and three 
daughters, and was one of those who took a 
leading part in the administration of the 
sacred services : be \s also called (as Asaph 
and Jedutbun) 'the king's seer in the mat- 
ters of God' (vi. 33, XV. 17, 19 XVI. 41, 42, 
XXV 1 4, 5, 6 ; 2 Chron. v. 12, xxix. 14, 

xxxV IS). His sons continued to hold the 
position in which their family was placed 



by David. One of the psalms is ascribed tc 
Hemanthe Ezrabite, i.e. the descendant of 
Zerah (Psal. Ixxxviii., title) ; whether this 
Heman was identical with No. 1 must be 
uncertain. . 

HE'MATH (fortress). This name, so spelt 
in 1 Chron. xiii. 5, and in many copies of 
our version of Amos vi. 14, is identical with 
Hahath, which see, , ^ , * 

HEM'ATH (warm springs). The father of 
the house of Rechab (1 Chron. ii. 55). 

HEM'DAN (pleasant). One of the descen- 
dants of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvl. 26). 
His posterity probably were some of the 
tribes of Arabia Petr^a. In 1 Chron. i.41 he 
is called Amram. 

HEMLOCK (Hos. x. 4 ; Amos vi. 12). The 
word thus rendered in these places is else- 
where translated ' gall : ' see Gall. 

HEN (favour). A person to whom, with 
others, certain crowns were to be given as 
memorials (Zech. ^-i. 14). He is possibly the 
same as Josiah (10). But some critics do not 
suppose that the word is here a proper name. 

HEN. This familiar bird is aUuded to 
only in our Lord's touching simile when 
lam en tins the perverseness of Jerusalem 
(Matt, xxiii. 37 ; Luke xiii. 34 : comp. 2 Esdr. i. 
30). It is remarkable that abird which must 
have been so common in Palestine should 
not be more frequently mentioned. 

HE'NA (low ground ?). A city conquered 
by some king of Assyria shortly before Sen- 
nacherib (2 Kings xviii. 34, xix. 13 ; Isai. 
xxxvii. 13). It was probably on the Euphra- 
tes where now stands Ana or Anah. 

HE'NAD AD (favour of Hadad). The head 
of a family of Levites, who were active m re- 
building the temple and repairing the wall 
of Jerusalem (Ezra iii. 9 ; Neb. iii. 18, 24, x. 9). 

HE'NOCH (initiating or initiated).—!. 
(1 Chron. i. 3). See EiJOCH.— 2 (i. 33). See 
Haxoch. ^ . - 

HE'PHER (a pit, a welD.—l. A son of 
Gilead, of the tribe of Manasseh (Numb, 
xxvi. 32, 33, xxvii. 1 ; Josh. xvii. 2, 3).— 
2 One of the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. 
iv 6).— 3. One of David's warriors (xi. 36) : 
the name is omitted in the catalogue of 
2 Sam. xxiii. 34. 

HE'PHER (id.). The name of a territory 
in Palestine, whose king or petty chief waa 
destroyed bv Joshua (Josh. xii. 17). It 
formed part of one of Solomon's commis- 
sariat districts (1 Kings iv. 10). 

HETHEPtlTES. A family of Manasseh 
descended from Hepher (Numb. xxvi. 32). 

HEPH'ZI-BAH {my delight is m her).— 
i The wife of Hezekiah, and mother of Ma- 
nasseh (2 Kings xxi. 1).— 2. The name is 
svmbolically used to designate Jerusalem 
restored and sanctified (Isai. Ixii. 4). Pro- 
fessor Blunt observes on this that ' it is not 
improbable that the royal nuptials of Heze- 
kiah occurred about tbe time of this pro- 
phecy, and that Isaiah, after the manner of 
the prophets in general, availed himself of 
the passing event, and of the name of tbe 
bride as a vehicle for the tidings which he 
had to communicate.' He considers this aa 
illustrating the trustworthiness of the 
sacred record (Undesigned Coincidences, 
5th edit., pp. 236-238). . 
HERALD (Dan. iii. 4). There is no other 



373 



[hermogenes 



notice but that just given In the Old Testa- 
ment of a herald, properly so called, i. e. one 
who makes a public formal proclamation. 
In the New Testament the idea is familiar ; 
and the word 'herald' might sometimes 
be v/ell substituted for 'preacher' (e.g. 
1 Tim. ii. 7 ; 2 Tim. i. 11 ; 2 Pet. 11. 5). 
HERB. See Grass, 

HEE'CULES (2 Mace. ir. 19, 20). The clas- 
sical name for the tutelary deity of Tyro. 
Mr. Westcott believes that the proper name 
of this god was Melcliart, i.e. king of the 
city rSmith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 787). 

HERD, HERDMAN, HERDSMAN. A 
considerable part of the riches of the patri- 
archs consisted in their flocks and herds, 
that is, their smaller and their larger cattle 
(Gen. xiii.2, 5, xxvi. 14, xxxii. 5, 7 ; Job i. 3, 
xlii. 12) ; kine forming the greatest and 
most valuable portion of the herds. Oxen 
were bred in Egypt (xli. 2-4, xlvii. 17, 18) ; 
and Jacob and his family carried theirs 
down with them when they went thither 
(xlvi. 32, xlvii. 1). The land of Goshen, 
which was assigned them, was favourable 
for breeding and pasturing cattle; and, 
though shepherds and herdsmen were 
little regarded ('an abomination') among 
the Egyptians, yet it was not thought un- 
fitting for some of Joseph's brethren to be 
placed over Pharaoh's cattle (.^Ivii. 6). 
When the Israelites left Egypt, they took 
their flocks and herds with them, it is em- 
phatically said, 'very much cattle' (Exod. 
xii. 38). It would seem probable that they 
multiplied in the wilderness, many parts of 
it supplying pasture (iii. 1) ; for we find the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad specially men- 
tioned as possessing abundant herds, and on 
that account desiring to have tbeir inheri- 
tance in the country on the east of the Jor- 
dan, which was ' a place for cattle ' (Numb, 
xxxii. 1-5). Half the tribe of Manasseh, too, 
was located in Bashan (Josh, xi v. 29,30), also 
well adapted for breeding cattle. This in- 
crease of the herds was partly due to the 
expedition against the Midiaiiites (Numb. 

xxxi. 32-34). And we read that afterwards 
their cattle increased in Gilead (1 Chron. v. 9), 
and that other similar booty was obtained 
(21). Indeed, generally speaking, cattle 
were the prize of the victors in war (1 Sam. 
XXX. 20) : the prohibition against appro- 
priating the flocks and herds of the Amalek- 
ites was peculiar, and it was ill-obeyed by 
the people (xv. 3, 9, 14, 15). Hence we find 
oxen almost always mentioned, if any man's 
property is spoken of (Exod. xx. 17, xxiii. 4; 
1 Sam. xi. 7 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 10). It was not 
considered any degradation among the He- 
brews personally to tend the cattle : Saul, 
Elisha, and others are mentioned in connec- 
tion with them (1 Sam. xi. 5 ; 1 Kings xix. 
19 ; Amos i. 1) ; and the chief of the herd- 
men seem to have been persons of impor- 
tance (1 Sam. xxi. 7 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 29-31). 
But it was not customary, nor is it now, in 
the east, to eat mucli flesh-meat, specially 
of oxen (Numb. xi. 22) ; calves, however, 
were killed for food (Gen. xviii. 7 ; 1 Sam. 
xxviii. 24 ; Luke xv. 23) ; and the herds 
yielded milk, butter, and cheese (Deut. 

xxxii. 14 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). Oxen were em- 
ployed In agriculture, and were common 



victims in sacrifice (1 Kings viii. 63) ; gene- 
rally when young (e.g. Exod. xxix. 1 ; 
Numb. vii. 15). At seasons when pasturage 
failed, oxen were kept in stalls (2 Chron. 
xxxii. 28 ; Prov. xv.17 ; Hab. iii. 17; Mal.iv. 
2). There they were fed with straw, chopped 
small (Gen. xxiv. 25 ; Isai. Ixv. 25), and 'fod- 
der' or 'provender,' which seems to have 
been a mixture of different kinds of grain 
(Job vi. 5 ; Isai. xxx. 24) : see Smith's Diet, 
of the Bible, vol. i. p. 788, 

HE'RES (the S7m).—1. Amount (Judges i. 
35) near to or identical with Ir-shemesh, 
which see.— 2. (Isai. xix. 18, marg.). See IB- 

HA-HERES. 

HE'RESH (artificer). A Levite (1 Chron. 
Ix. 15). 

HERESY. This word occurs several 
times in our version of the New Testament 
(Acts xxiv. 14; 1 Cor. xi. 19; Gal. v. 20 ; 2 
Pet. ii. 1). The original Greek terin is much 
more frequently met with ; but in other 
places it is otherwise rendered. Its proper 
meaning is a choice: thence it comes to 
signify a chosen mode of life, and then in a 
religious sense a particular school or party. 
Thus it is used to designate the ' sect' of 
the Sadducees (Acts v. 17), that of the 
Pharisees (XV. 5) ; and the Christians were 
called the ' sect of the Nazarenes' (xxiv. 5) : 
the appellation being given sometimes in a 
good, sometimes in a bad sense. The bad 
sense ultimately prevailed. The divisions 
which men made in the church by choosing 
to follow their own unbridled will were de- 
clensions from apostolic doctrine; and 
heresy came to the sense which it at pre- 
sent bears— pernicious error in doctrine 
This is almost exactly the meaning of the 
word in 2 Pet. ii. 1, strange self-chosen doc- 
trines opposed to truth, and leading to de 
struction. The 'heretic,' therefore (Tit. iii 
10), was one who belonged to ' a self-choser 
and divergent form of religious belief oi 
practice' (Alford, in loc). 'These early 
heretics,' as Conybeare observes, 'united 
moral depravity with erroneous teaching' 
{Life of St. Paul, vol, ii. p. 480, 1st edit. : see 
vol. i. pp. 479-492, for an account of heresies 
in the primitive church). 

HER'MAS {Mercury, the god of gain, and 
messenger of the gods). A Christian at 
Rome, to whom St. Paul sends salutation 
(Rom. xvi. 14). To him has been attributed 
a work called ' The Shepherd of Hermas ' ; 
some, however, ascribe this to a later per- 
son of the same name, brother of Pius I., 
bishop of Rome. It was originally written 
in Greek, but it now exists entire only in a 
Latin version. It comprises three books; 
the first containing four visions, the second 
twelve commands, the third ten similitudes. 
There is much piety and truth in it ; and 
much that is superstitious and absurd. 
And it is matter of astonishment that any 
Bhould have been inclined to class it with 
the inspired scripture (see Gieseler, Kirch- 
engesch. vol. i. pp. 147, 148). 

HER'MES {id.). A Christian at Rome 
(Rom. xvi. 14). 

HERMOG'ENES (&e.r70»e7i of AFercury). A 
person of whom nothing more is known 
than that St. Paul says that he and Phy- 
geDus had turned away from him (2 Tim. t 



KBRMOX] 



374 



15). There are others of the same name 
mentioned in ecclesiastical history. 

HER'MON {lofty, or prominent peafi% A 
high mountain on the north-eastern fron- 
tier of Palestine (Deut. lii. 8 ; Josh. xu. I). 
It is also described as opposite to Lebanon 
fxi. 17), and as on the border of Bashan 
rxii 5 : l Chron. v. 23). Hermon was called 
Sirion by the Sidonians, and Sheuir by the 
Amorites (Deut.iii. 9), or Senir (l Chron. y. 
23), likewise Sion (Deut. iv. 48). There is 
no difficulty in identifying Hermon. It 
rises boldly at the southern end of Anti- 
libanus to the height of about 10,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. Its surauiit lor 
rather summits, for there are three) is a 
truncated cone, elevated 2000 or 3000 feet 
above the more continuous chain. It is visi- 
ble throughout almost all Palestine. Dr. 
Thomson describes ic as seen from Sareivta, 
from Tyre, and from the Dead sea {The 
Land and the Book, pp. 159, 177, 611). Mr. 
Porter says : ' From the plain along the 
coa'st from the mountains of Samaria, from 
the Jordan valley, from the heights of Moab 
and Gilead, from the plateau of Bashan, 
that pale-blue snow-capped cone forms the 
one feature on the northern horizon (Dr. 
Smith's ma. of the Bible, vol. i. PP. 789, /90). 
Hermon, now called Jebel e^h-Sheikh the 
chief mountain,' and sometimes Jebel etli- 
Theij 'the suowy mountain,' is never with- 
out snow. Through the spring till the ear- 
lier part of the summer, the top is covered ; 
but as the weather becomes hotter, large 
ma'^'-ses melt, and the snow remains ouly m 
streaks in the ravines. On one of the sum- 
mits are the remains of a circular wall en- 
closing a small ruined temple. Probably 
this marked the site of one of the high 
places ' where worship was paid to idols. 
'The dew of Hermon' (Psal. crxxiii. 3) was 



the founder of it was an Idumean, governor 
of Iduraea under Alexander JannEeus king 
of Judea and Alexandra his queen ; the reli- 
gion of the Idumeans after their subjection ; 
by John Hvrcauus, about 129 B.C., being the \ 
Jewish. This Antipater had a son of his ; 
own name, who was appointed by Julius j 
Cffisar procurator of Judea, Hyrcanus II. j 
being high priest, 47 B.C. j 

]. Herod, called the Great, was the son of 
this second Antipater, and was made gover- 
nor of Galilee at the age, it is said, of 15 ! 
vears (comp., however, Ussher's Annals, 47 | 
B.C.), and afterwards governor of Coele-syria. 
When Mark Antony was in Syria, he ap- 
pointed Herod and his elder brother Phasael 
(their father being dead) tetrarchs of J udea ; 
but this government of the two lasted not 
long. The Parthians invaded Judea, and 
supported the pretensions of Antigonus, of 
the Asmonean family, to the throne. 
Phasael died by his own hand in prison; 
and Herod fled to Rome. There by the 
favour of Antony, and Avith the assent of 
Octavianus (afterwards Augustus), he was 
declared by the senate king of Judea, 40 B.C. 
It was not however, till three years after 
that by Roman help he took Jerusalem, and 
fully established himself in his dominions. 
Though he had been an adherent of Antony 
he was confirmed in his authority, and his 
territories were enlarged, by Augustus after 
the battle of Actium ; so that his power ulti- 
mately extended over Idumea, Judea, Sa- 
maria, Galilee, Perea, Trachonitis, Batanasa, 
Gaulaiiitis,and Iturea, including the district 
of Paneas. Herod was fond of splendour, 
and lavished immense sums in adorning 
the cities of his kingdom. He restored or 
re-built the temple at Jerusalem (see Tji-jh- 
PLE), which was not, however, completed 
till many years after his death. He re-built 




Coin of Herod the Great. 



verv likely the distillation of the vapours 
condensed by the snowy crown of the 
mountain ; and ' Zion,' in the same passage, 
is no doubt used as being one of the vf^ 
rious names of Hermon. It may be added 
that the ridge Jebel ed-Duhy on the north 
of the valley of Jezreelhas been called the 
' Little Hermon.' ^ r^^. . 

HER'MOKITES (Psal. xlii. 6). This is an 
incorrect rendering. The mountain had 
three summits, and is therefore spoken of 
in the plural as ' the Sermons ' 

HER'OD, THE HERO'DIAN FAMILY. 
The ancestry of the Herodian family is 
involved in much obscurity. But the An- 
tipas or Antipater who may be considered 



also the Samaritan temple. But he showed 
his utter indifference to religion, by intro- 
ducing heathen games at Jerusalem, pic^ 
viding for heathen worship at Ctesarea, and 
even sacrificing at Rome to the heathen 
deity, Jupiter, when appointed to his king- 
dom The history of his domestic adminis- 
tration, and specially of his family, is a 
hi'torv of blood. He married many wives 
and hfCd many children ; and several of these 
he put to death. No Avonder that such a 
man was troubled, when l^e heard the 
tidings of a new-born king (Matt. ii. 3), tne 
true Prince of Zion. His last illness was 
signalized by various acts of cruelty, the 
execution of his eldest son Antipater, and 



375 



[keeou 



(about the same time doubtless) tbe mur- 
der of children at Beth-lehem (16-18) ; and 
he had intended that, when he was no more, 
many of the Jewish nobles should be slain, 
to spread that mourning through the land 
which he knew his own decease would not 
excite. He died in the 70th year of his age, 
most probably 4 B.C., shortly before the 
passover. ^ _ a 4■^ ^ 

2. Archelaus was the son of Herod the 
Great and Malthace, a Samaritan. See 
Archelaus. His administration was 
tyrannical, and his conduct disgraceful. 
He provoked his subjects to accuse hiin to 
the emperor, by whom he was banisncd 
to Vienne; in Gaul, 6 A.D., where most 
probably he died. 

3. Herod Antipas was also the son of He- 
rod the Great and Malthace. He obtained, 
according to his father's last ,will, the te- 
trarchy of Galilee and Perea. He married 
first the daughter of the Arabian king Are- 
tas, but afterwards connected himself with 
Herodias, his niece, and the wife of his 
half-brother Herod Philip. Through her 
instigation he put John Baptist into prison 
and afterwards executed him (Matt. xiv. 
1-12 ; Mark vi. 14-29 ; Luke iii. 1, 19, 20, ix. 
7-9). This was the Herod to whom Pilate 
sent our Lord as one of his subjects (xxiii. 
7-12). He appears to have been a weak and 
superstftious man, crafty and unprincipled 
(xiii. 31, 32) ; and he had his reward. Are- 
tas, his father-in-law, revenged his daugh- 
ter's wrongs by invading his territory and 
defeating him. And, urged by Herodias's 
ambition, he went to Komo to solicit the 
title of king, already conferred on his ne- 
phew Agrippa. His suit was unsuccessful, 
and he was first banished to Lyons, 39 A.D., 
whither Herodias accompanied him, and 
afterwards transferred to Spain, where he 
died. A writer in Smith's Diet, of the Bible 
suggests that it might not be to the well- 



Philip that of an individual. This Philip 
lived as a private person. 

5. Philip, or Herod Philip, to be carefully 
distinguished from his brother and name- 
sake, No. 4, was the son of Herod the Great 
and Cleopatra. He was tetraixh of Iturea 
and Trachonitis (iii. 1) ; some other tem- 
tories, as Batantea, Gaulanitis, Paneas, and 
Auranitis being also under his sway 
(Joseph., Antiq., lib. xvii. 8, § 1, 13, § 4). It 
was he that built Csesarea Philippi (Matt, 
xvi. 13 ; Mark viii. 27) on the site of Paneas. 
He married the wicked Salome, daughter 
of Herodias, but was himself a mild prince, 
the most blameless of his family. He died 
at Julias (Bethsaida) 34 a.d. ; and as he left 
no children his dominions were adjoined to 
the Roman province of Syria. 

6. Herod Agrippa L, the son of Aristobu- 
lus and Berenice, and the grandson of He- 
rod the Great, -Vvas brought up at Rome, 
where he Avas thrown into prison by Tibe- 
rius. But on the accession of Caligula he 
was released, and had the tetrarchies of 
Philip and Lysanias assigned to him with 
the title of king. It was from jealousy of 
his prosperity that liis uncle Herod Antipas 
made the application at the imperial court 
which terminated in his own downfall, and 
the addition of his dominions to those of 
Agrippa. He soon after reached a still 
greater height of power. Having rendered 
considerable service to Claudius, his king- 
dom was by that emperor augmented with 
the provinces of Judea and Samaria, 41 
A.D., so that he reigned over territories ai 
wide as those of his grandfather. He pro- 
fessed great strictness in the religion of 
the Jews, and to please them put the apostle 
James to death, and seized also the ap(;s- 
tie Peter, who was miraculously delivered 
from the prison. Soon after occurred the 
awful catastrophe at Cfesarca, when 
Agrippa, in the midst of his vain-glorluua 




Coin of Herod Agrippa I. 



known Lyons that Antipas was exiled, but 
to a town of similar name among the Pyre- 
nees, close therefore on the borders of 
Spain (vol. i. p. 796). This, however, is but 
a conjecture. 

4. Philip, or Herod Philip, son of Herod 
the Great and Mariamne. He had married 
his niece Herodias, and had by her a daugh- 
ter, the too-famous Salome. Herodias left 
him to cohabit with his brother, Herad An- 
tipas (Matt, xiv. 3; Mark vi. 17; Luke iii. 
19). The evangelists call him Philip ; 
whereas in the history of Josephus he is 
termed Herod. But this Is no contradic- 
tion. Herod was a general family name. 



display, was struck with a terrible disease, 
'because he gave not God the glory,' and 
perished miserably (Acts xii. 1-23). This was 
in 44 A.D. 

7. Herod Agrippa II. was the son of the 
Herod just named. He was but seventeen 
at his father's death, and was judged too 
young to succeed to such dominions. But 
Claudius gave him first, 48 a.d., the princi- 
pality of Chalcis, with the oversight of the 
temple of Jerusalem and the right of ap- 
pointing the high priest, and four ycara 
after exchanged his principality for the te- 
trarchies of Philip and Lysanias, allowing 
him also the title of king. Kero, 55 a.d., 



HERODIANS] 



376 



connection with liis sister Berenice or Ber- 
nice, that St. Paul pleaded at Ciesarea (xxy. 




12-27 



added to his dominions. It was "before this \ no donht there were many who would be 
VffrlVa who °^^^^ of incestuous glad of the relaxation of the strict Jewish 

Agripp^, \Miu >><is _i ^ . ^^^^ ritual, and he disposed to admit that kind 

of compromise between Judaism and hea- 
thenism which characterized the Herodian 
rule In both these respects this party 
would dislike our Lord's teaching and dread 
his success ; and therefore, though dis- 
asreeing with both Pharisees and Saddu- 
cees, they would not hesitate to unite with 
them for his destruction (Matt. xxii. 16; 
]\Iark iii. 6, viii. 15, xii. 13 ; Luke xx. 20). 

HERO'DIAS. The daughter of Aristo- 
bulus, a son of Herod the Great by Ma- 
riamne. She first married her imcle Hei'od 
Philip, also a son of Herod by another 
Mariamne : by him she had Salome. She 
left him to cohabit with Herod Antipas, 
who had a wife alive, daughter of Aretas, 
king of Arabia. There was thus a double 
adultery ; and, besides, Herod was her uncle 
by the" half-blood. Aretas revenged his 
daughter's dishonour by attacking and de- 
feating Herod. It was this wickedness 
that John Baptist reproved (Matt, xiv.l-12; 
Mark vi. 14-29). Herodias accompanied An- 
tipas In his exile to (it is generally believed) 
Lvcms. 

HEPtO'DIOK A Christian whom St. Paul 
calls his kinsman (Rom. xvi. 11), being pro- 
bablv of tlie same tribe. 

HERON. One of the birds prohibited to 
the Israelites for food (Lev. xi. 19; Deut. 
xiv. IS). Several species, it is likely, are in- 
cluded, as there is the addition ' after her 
kind.' But critics are not at all agreed as to 
the kind of bird meant. It is by no means 
certain that it was the heron. From the 



Com of Herod Agrippa II. 

xxvi.). He took part with the 
Romans in the Jewish war, and having re- 
tired to Rome died there in the third year 
of Trajan, 

8. Herodias. See Herodias. 

9. Drusilla. See Drusilla. 

10. Berenice, or Bernice. See Berxice, 
For further details respectins? the Hero- 
dian family, Winer, Bibl. EWB., art. ' He- 
rodes,' with the writers tbere referred to, 
may be consulted. It should be added that 
some of these princes are termed kings in 
the gospel history, though not formally in- 
vested with the title by the imperial Roman 
court. 

The following pedigree, abridged from 
that in Dr. Smitli's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. 
p. 792, may be useful as exhibiting the de- 
scent and relationship of the Herods men- 
tioned in scripture : their names are printed 



in small capital 

Antipas or Antipater. 

^1 

I 

Aiitipater=Cypros. 
Herod the Great (Matt. ii. 1). 



=:Mariamne, 
grandd. of Hyrcanus. 



Aristobulus— Bereiiice. 



=Mariamne, 
d. of Simon. 



Herod Axtipas 
(Matt, xi V. 1). 



Archet.afs 
(Matt.ii. 22). 



Herod Agrippa 1.= 
Cypros (Acts xii. 1). I 



Herodias = Herod Philip (Matt. xiv. 
(Matt. xiv. 3) . I 



Cleo- 
patra, 



SAL0iiE=HER0D PHILIP (Luke ill. 1). 
(Matt. xiv. 6 : she is not named in scripture, but called 
' the'daughter of Herodias'). 



Herod AGRTPPAIL Berxice Drusilla 
(Acts XXV. 13). (Acts XXV. 13). (Acts xxiv. 24). 

HERO'DIANS. The Herodians who are 
mentioned in the Gospels appear to have 
been rather apoJiticalparty than a religious 
sect. They probably attached themselves 
to the family of Herod with the notion 
that their authority and influence would be 
the best security against the entire absorp- 
tion of Judea into the Roman empire. And 



derivation of the original word we may 
conjecture that it was some bird that 
breathed hard, perhaps hissed, and was 
irascible. Some have therefore guessed it 
the goose. Mr. Gosse, however {Imp. Bible 
Diet., vol. i. pp. 737, 738) approves the com- 
mon rendering, and suggests the Ao-dea 
russata, little golden egret, as a species 



877 



[hezekiab 



abundant in Asia : It is called the caboga, or 
cow-lieron, in India. 

HE'SED (desire, mercy). The son of He- 
sed, or Ben-hesed, was one of Solomon's 
commissariat officers (1 Kings iv. 10). 

HRSH'BON (reason, device). The capital 
of Sihon, king of the Amorites. It appears 
to have heen upon the western part of the 
plain, or high table-land, east of the Jor- 
dan. It had originally belonged to Moab ; 
when Sihon was conquered it was re- 
built by the tribe of Reuben, but, lying 
just on the boundary-line of Reuben and 
Gad, it was reckoned ti3 territorially a Gad- 
ite city when allotted to theLevites (Numb, 
xxi. 25-34, xxxii. 3, 37 ; Deut. i, 4, ii. 24-30, 
iii. 2, 6, iv.46, xxix. 7 ; Josh. ix. 10, xii. 2, 5, 
xiii. 10-27, xxi. 39 ; Judges xi. 19, 26 ; 1 Chron. 
vi. 81). In later times the Moabites regained 
possession of Heshbon ; so that it is men- 
tioned, as a Moabitish town in the prophetic 
denunciations against that people (Isai. w. 
4, xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 2, 34, 45, xlix. 3). The 
ruins of this city still exist, twenty miles 
east of the point where the Jordan falls 
into the Dead sea. They are called Hesh&n, 
and occupy a low hill in the great plain. 
There are some remarkable remains among 
them ; and cisterns are still to be seen,with 
an ancient reservoir (Sol. Song vii. 4). 

HESH'MON (/ainess, /at soiZ). A town in 
the extreme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 27), 
probably near the Edomitish border, Wil- 
ton would connect it with the Edomite king 
Hasham (Gen. xxxvi. 34, 35), and identifies 
it with 'Ain Hash. He also thinks that it is 
the same with Hashmonah, one of the sta- 
tions in the wanderings of Israel (Numb, 
xxxiii. 29, 30) (The Neqeb, pp. 121-134). 

HES'RON, HES'RONITES. In some 
copies of our version Hezron and Hezron- 
ites are thus spelt in Numb. xxvi. 6. 

HETH (fear). One of the sons of Canaan, 
of the family of Ham, He was the proge- 
nitor of the people called first the sons and 
daughters of Heth, but afterwards known 
as Hittites (Gen. x. 15, xxiii. 3, 5, 7, 10, 16, 
18, 20, XXV. 10, xxvii. 46, xlix. 32 ; 1 Chron. i, 
13): see Hittites. 

^^TWLQ^ (wrappedup, hiding-place). A 
place on the northern boundary of Pales- ' 
tine (Ezek. xlvii. 15, xlviii. 1). It must have ■ 
been near, or perhaps identical with, the ' 
' entrance of Hamath ' (Numb, xxxiv. 8) 

HEWING IN PIECES. This mode of ' 
punishment is said to have l^een inflicted ■ 
by Samuel on Agag, king of the Amalekites 
(1 Sam. XV. 33). It was not a Hebrew form ( 
of putting to death ; but Kitto (Pict. Bible, i 
note on the place) gives some instances of i 
Its bemg employed, as in Abyssinia, and by ] 
D]ezzar the notorious pacha of Acre : cump < 
Dan. ii. 5, iii. 29. ' j 

HEZ'EKI (strong). A Ben jamite (1 Chron. . 
Vlll. 17). . 

HEZEKI'AH (Jehovah strengthens).— I 1 
The son and successor of Ahaz, king of t 
Judah, twenty-five years old when he as- ^ 
cended tlie throne. His reign lasted twenty- t 
nme years, 725-696 B.C. (2 Kings xviii. 1,2:2 c 
Chron. xxix. i). If the present text be \ 
accurate, Hezekiah must have been born in j 
his father's eleventh year; for Ahaz died r 
when he was thirty-six (2 Kingsxvii.2). In- 3 



r stances of paternity as early as this have 
been produced by various writers ; so that 

- the case, though extraordinary, is by no 
3 means unparalleled (Keil, Comm. on Kings, 

transl, vol. ii. pp. 78, 79), But some critics 
1 have supposed an error in the numbers, and 
3 that either Hezekiah was but twenty at his 
i accession, or Ahaz twenty-five at his. This 

- last supposition has some countenance from 
; ancient versions. 

Hezekiah was one of the most godly of 
: the sovereigns of Judah. His first acts 
[ were to re-open, repair, and cleanse the 
• temple, celebrating the occasion by solemn 
, offerings to the Lord. He also removed 
, the high places, forbidding sacrifice even to 
the true God in them. And he broke in 
pieces the brazen serpent which Moses had 
made in the wilderness, because the people 
■ paid a superstitious reverence to it— calling 
it by a contemptuous name— 'a piece of 
brass ' (2 Kings xviii. 3-6 ; 2 Chron. xxix. 2- 
36 ; Isaiah xxxvi. 7). These proceedings, we 
may easily conclude, did not pass unques- 
tioned. The evil counsellors of Ahaz would 
strive to maintain their influence in the 
new reign. So much, perhaps, we may gather 
from the reproofs of Isaiah (Isai. viii. 9-13, 
xxviii. 14-18). But the king had the ines- 
timable advantage of the counsels of this 
great prophet, to whose divinely-inspired 
messages he appears to have given diligent 
heed. If, therefore, he encountered oppo- 
sition, it did not turn him from his pur- 
pose. Subsequently the passover was kept, 
as it had not been for many generations, 
with a great concourse of people, not only 
from Judah l)ut from, the tribes of Israel. 
It has been thought that this passover was 
held after the fall of Samaria ; for the rem- 
nant are addressed that were 'escaped out 
of the hand of the king of Assyria.' If so, 
it could not have been earlier than Heze- 
kiah's sixth year. See Keil, uM supr., pp. 
79, 80. But the matter is uncertain ; and it 
is worth noticing that Hezekiah's invita- 
tions were responded to rather by the 
northern section of the tribes, Manasseh, 
Zebulun, and Asher, than by the people im- 
mediately round Samaria (2 Chron. xxx.). 
The celebration of this feast was the signal 
for fresh measures of reformation, extend- 
ing into the Samaritan kingdom ; while the 
services of the temple and the rites of the 
law were yet more diligently observed in 
the king of Judah's OAvn dominions (xxxi.). 

As Hezekiah honoured God, so God hon 
oured him with temporal prosperity. He 
subdued the Philistines, and, according to 
the annals of Sennacherib, kept Padiya, 
king of the Ekronites, a prisoner in Jeru- 
salem. He prospered also in other enter- 
prises, and renounced his allegiance to the 
Assyrian monarch (2 Kings xviii. 7, 8). In 
the fourteeiith year of his reign, however, 
he was obliged to purchase forgiveness for 
this by the payment of a large fine, for 
which he had to take some of the gold of 
the temple. For Sennacherib's forces liad 
overrun the country: the fortified toAvns 
were taken (13-16 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 1-8 ; Isai. 
xxxvi. 1) ; the Assyrian march towards Je- 
rusalem being perhaps that described in 
X. 28-32- 



hezion] 



378 



The tribute tliu s yielded saved J er^^sjilem; 
and Sennacherib turned his arms el^e^^^ 
It must have been at this time that Heze 
kiah was visited with that fatal sickness 
(supposed by some to be the plague), wh ch ^ 
he was warned would be unto death At his ; 
earnest prayer, however, a prolongation of , 
WslS wa's grantedf^^^ as l^e ^vas informed 
fifteen vears : a plaster of figs was Dy 
?saialVs deletion laid upon the boil : a 
luh-aculous sign was given ; and a pronnse 1 
added of deliverance from the Assyrian 
power. Hezekiah recovered, and composed 
a Plaintive elegy on the occasion. And then 
came Uielreat fault of his life. Ambassadors 
f?oin Babylon arrived to enquire of the 
SoTdrous retrocession of the sun the s^gn 
of his recovery. To these the king ^ am 
Seriously displayed his treasures, and 
las rebuked 'and told that his children 
should be made eunuchs m that Babylon, 
Jromwhich envoys were now courtinghis 
alliance (2 Kings xx. ; 2 _ Chi on. xxxii. 
24-26, 31 ; Isai. xxxviii., xxxix.). 

Tt s not easy to settle the chronology of 
this kii?S's reign. Yery many critics have 
beheveTtL't but a Bin ^le Assyrian invasion 
occurred, and consequently that the ae- 
structS of Sennacherib's army took place 
about the time of Hezekiah's sickness. But 
've may with inore probability suppos^^^ 
there were two i"vasions-one that all e^^^^^ 
noticed, the other so fatal for the Assj nan 
king some few years subsequentl^^ T^^^^^^ 
i-hp oninion of a writer m Dr. Smith s Via. 
or We. whose article, however, vol. i. 

ri ?98 801 must be read with cantion : 
romu Rawlinson, Herodotus, xol. i. P- 477 . 
sSso for some further details the article 

'T^^S^X^e wll-founded^t^e 

XXXV i nmJt describe the later invasion. 
Thfftng of Assyria, who was besieging 
rachish,^sent Rabshakeh ^vith an insumng 
and blasphemous "message to Jeiu.ale,^^^ 
Afterwards, when alarmed bj tlie news or 
^e apifroac'h of the Ethiop an king ^e re 

there a?one iVcould effectually be obtained. 
He asked the prayers and advice of l^a^^^^^^ 
and spread the Assyrian letter n humW 
supplication before the Lord -f ^rd won d 
had an encouraging ^eplY- The Lord ts o^^^ 
inf-prnose The king of Assyria snaii not 
co ne Uito this city, nor shoot an arrow 
there nor come before it with shields, noi 
ca«i a baiik against it. By the way that he 
came by the lame shall he return, and shall 
no? come into this city, sal th . the Lord 
For I will defend this city to save it, for mine 
own sike, and for my servant David's sake 
lud the infliction of the judgment s lelated 

7^ ^^^'^ -Te i^tlS cSfnpTf 

SCS'i^SSlS'Sa^^^^^ 
ploJeHs a secondary cause, wc know not. 



The work was God's own justly-inflicted 

^'^PiSbly Hezekiah did not long survive 
this event. He was succeeded by his son 
Mana'^seh. born twelve years before his 
fathei-'s decease, of Hephzi-bah (2 Kings 
i XX 21 xxi 2), to Whom Prof. Blunt supposes 
an allusion in Isai. Ixii. 4 {Undes. Coinctd 
part m 5, pp. 236-238). And, on Hezekiah's 
I deceai, the bright light of God's favour to 
Judah was clouded again; and the nation 
iSder their new king sunk once more into 

''2.' A deSdant of the royalline of David 
(1 Chron. iii. 23).-3 (Ezra ii. x6 ; Keh. vii. 21). 

^HEJlON'(risio7i). The grandfather of 
Ben^nadad I., king of Syria (1 Kings 
Ben naaaa i , eonjecturcd that he 

Ss the same with Rezon (xi. 23) ; this is. 

thf couSe^orthe priests (1 Chron xxi v. 
15) -2. One who sealed the covenant (iseh. 

^HEZ'EAI (enclosed). Oneof David's war- 
riorf 72 Sam. xxiii. 35). He is also called 

lii™i1^)^''oSe"f^tie sons of 
Re'^ibLTn.'xi'vi. 9; ^fo^^};^^^^^i 
xxvi 6 : 1 Chron. v. 3).— 2. A son of 1 baiez 
and g?andson of Judah (fen. xlvi 12 ; Ruth 
iv 18 19 ; 1 Chron. 11. o, 9, 18, 21, 24, ^0,13- 
'^EZ'RONCic^.). A city in the south of 
Tndah called also Hazor (Josh. xv. 2d). 
WiUoA would unite the preceding name 
Kerioth with Hczrou, and would translate 
nferioth-hezron, which is Hazor-amam,' 
believing that v.'e have here both the name 
wh ch the city bore at the time, and hat 
-hi?,h it had previously to ^ts conquest b^^ 
the Anakim. It was ongmally. he thinks, 
a pastoSl settlement of the Horit^es on^^^^^ 
who«e chiefs was Heman or Homam (Gen. 
xxx^i 22 1 Chron. i. 39) : it was afterwards 
faken and fortified by the Anakim and 
eventually conquered by the trihe of Judah 
.vho attached to it the name of one (^f ht r 
distinguished worthies. He would identi. j 
ft wi;h ei-irm-^/.ten., where are some consi- 
derable ruins (Tlie Negeh, pp. 99-106). 
^ HEZ'rSniTES.--1, 2. TWO families in 
Reuben and Judah (Is^umb. xxvi. 6, 21). 

HID'DAIuWhO. One of David s war- 
riors (2 Sara, xxiii. 30). In 1 Chron. xi. 32 he is 

'''hiI)?)EKEL me rapid Tigris, Tigris it- 
=elf signifviug velociUj). One of the rivers 
of Eden (Gen. ii. 14), mentioned also as a 
°reat liver by the prophet Daniel (Dan. x 4). 
Thfip can be no re^xsonable doubt that the 
? gris fsTnteV'ed; the Arabic name op^^^^^ 
is Diileh The principal source of this rn er 
s at an elevation of nearly 5,000 feet abo^^ 
the level of the sea, on the southern slope 
oftSlt range of mountains ,Yl\ich /orm 
the southern wall of the valley of the 
Murad-chai, at a point a very few miles dis- 
tai It from a bend of the Euphrates. The 
com-i of the Tigris is, generally speaking, 
South-east It receives, besides many 
na^eft'^rbutarie several lary |treams 
^uch as the greater and the lesser Z.ib, ana 
flows into the wide central plain at Samara. 



379 



[high places 



Passing Baghdad it joins the Euphrates at 
Kurnah ; and the united waters enter the 
Persian gulf. The whole length of the 
Tigris has heen estimated at 1,150 miles. 
Between Diarbekr and Mosul, about 300 
miles, it is navigable at seasons of flood for 
rafts ; and below the last-named city it is 
generally navigable for vessels of no great 
draught, though the channel is impeded 
more or less by rocks and rapids, till it quits 
the hill-country. In 1838 the steamer 
* Euphrates' ascended the stream to within 
twenty miles of Mosul. 

HI'EL (God lives). A Beth-elite, who, in 
defiance, it would seem, of the curse de- 
nounced by Joshua (Josh. vi. 26), re-built 
Jericho CI Kings xvi. 34). 

HIBRAP'OLIS {sacred city). A city of 
Phrygia Magna, east of Colosse, and about 
six Roman miles north of Laodicea. It 
was celebrated for mineral springs, and a 
cave where a stifling vapour was evolved : 
these springs still exist ; and there are con- 
siderable ruins of the ancient town. Chris- 
tianity was most probably introduced here 
at the same time as at Colosse (Col. iv. 13). 
The modern name is Pambouk-Kalessi. 

HIEB'EEL (1 Esdr. ix. 21). Jehiel (Ezra 
X. 21). 

HlER'EMOTH.-l. (1 Esdr. ix. 27). Jere- 
moth (Ezra x. 26).— 2. (1 Esdr. ix. 30). Ra- 
moth (Ezra x. 29). 

HIERIE'LUS (1 Esdr. ix. 27). Jehiel (Ezra 
X. 26). 

HIEWMAS (1 Esdr. ix. 26). Ramiah (Ezra 
X. 25). 

HIERON'YMUS (2 Mace. xii. 2). A go- 
vernor under Antiochus Eupator, king of 
Syria. 

HIGGAI'OK One of.' the words occurring 
in the book of Psalms, which have most 
probably a technical meaning. We find it 
used occasionally in the sense of medita- 
tion, thought, device; so it is rendered in 
our version of Psal. xix. 14 ; Lam. iii. 62. 
Elsewhere it has obviously a different 
sense. What that sense is critics are not 
agreed. But, looking at the derivation of 
the word, its root being used for the deep 
sound of thunder (Job xxxvii. 2), and for 
the growl of the lion (Isai. xxxi. 4), we 
may most probably conclude that it means 
a deep solemn sound ; so our version of 
Psal. xcii. 3. In ix. 16 it is joined with Selah 
and left untranslated. 

HIGH PLACES. From a very early period 
it was customary to offer solemn worship 
upon hills. Thus Noah's sacrifice to the 
Lord was probably on one of the spurs of 
Ararat (Gen. viii. 20). Abraham certainly 
built an altar on a mountain to the east of 
Beth-el (xii. 8). In itself the practice was 
unobjectionable; and men seem to have 
imagined elevated ground peculiarly appro- 
priate for divine worship. Perhaps they 
thought it nearer to the skies. It is not 
clear, however, that the so-called high 
places were always on hills : the two are 
distinguished in 2 Kings xvi. 4; and it is 
probable that, after being originally an 
eminence, any spot appropriated to worship 
was designated a ' high place.' See Kitto 
in Pict. Bible, note ou 2 Chron. xxviii. 25. 
As pure worship degenerated into idolatry. 



and when superstitious reverence was paid 
to these heights, and foul rites were prac- 
tised on them, God commanded the Israel- 
ites to break do'wn the altars there and t') 
destroy the sanctuaries (Exod. xxxiv. 13 ; 
Deut. vii. 5, xii. 2, 3), because they were 
polluted, and the Lord would have one 
place alone where his worship should be 
performed (10-14). 

This command was very imperfectly exe- 
cuted (Judges ii. 2) ;and we find high places 
used and honoured, and in some degree 
sanctioned, for some ages of Israelitish 
history ; a great distinction being always 
made between those where service was 
paid to Jehovah and those where idolatry 
was practised. It is difllcult to explain 
all the examples we find ; though various 
writers have exaggerated the diSiculty, 
and by strange mistakes have confused 
matters in themselves very plain. Thus it 
is likely that high places may have supplied 
tiie want which afterwards caused the es- 
tablishment of synagogues. And, if they 
were frequented merely for devotion, there 
was not even a shade of infringement of the 
law. What we have to account for is the 
building of altars and the offering of sacri- 
fice. jS'ow some sacrifices were offered by 
special divine injunction, as those of Gideon 
and Manoah (vi. 25-27, xiii. 15-20) ; he who 
gave the law certainly having power 
to suspend it at his will. Then again, when 
tlie land was convulsed by civil discord, or 
overrun by enemies, it might often be phy- 
sically impossible to reach the place where 
the tabernacle stood. This fact will explain 
many of the apparent anomalies. The of- 
ferings mentioned in xx. 26-28, xxi. 4, seem 
to have been perfectly regular, made before 
the ark by Phinehas the high priest. The 
sacrifice at Mizpeh by Samuel is accounted 
for by the imminent danger of the country 
from the Philistine supremacy (1 Sam. vii. 
9, 10) ; as also that of Saul (xiii. 9, 10) 
Altars, it is true, are said to have 
been built by Samuel at Raraah (vii. 17), 
and by Saul at Aijalon (xiv.35) ; but it does 
not necessarily follow that sacrifices were 
offered upon either (comp. Josh. xxii. 11, 
I 21-29). There was a high place at Ramah 
' (1 Sam. ix.ll-14),and another at ornearBeth- 
: el (X. 5, 13) ; but we are not told that sacri- 
I flees were offered at these. The sacriflce 
at Beth-lehem was by God's especial com- 
! mand (xvi. 2-5), as also that by David at 
Araunah's threshing-floor (2 Sam. xxi v. 
18-25), for" which also there was an additional 
reason (1 Chron. xxi. 18-30) in the awful 
presence of the destroying angel. Any 
difficulty in respect to Elijah's sacriflce is 
obviously imaginary (1 Kings xviii. 17-40). 
Sometimes, indeed, the legal worship of the 
nation was at a high place. Thus the ta- 
bernacle made by Moses was for a while at 
Gibeon while the ark was in Jerusalem ; 
j Zadok and Abiathar, it has been thought, 
j officiating respectively at these two shrines 
(iii. 4 ; 1 Chron. xv., xxi. 29). The considera- 
1 tions adduced will go far to explain the ap- 
parent sanction given to the establishment 
I or allowance of high places by prophets 
and holy kings ; and, if they are not entirely 
^ satisfactory, it is probably because we havo 



RIGH priest] 



380 



not all the information necessary for full I 
explanation. , , ■■ ^ ' 

After the hnilding of the temple no douht 
the precept of the law was held more 
strictly binding. And tlie rather, "because 
high places for idol-worship soon hegan to 
rise, crowned with shrines, and furnished 
with priests. Solomon himself was the first 
offender (1 Kings si. 7, 8). In Israel, of 
course, after the disruption, Jeroboam had 
an establishment of mock priests for his 
high places (2 Ohron. xi. 15) ; and idolatrous 
rites prevailed there from generation to 
generation. In Judah, as already observed, 
there were similarly high places for false 
gods ; there were also such places dedicated 
to Jehovah. The first the pious kings re- 
moved (xiv. 3, 5, xvii. 6), while the latter, 
not without at least implied censure, they 
allowed a Kings xv. 14; 2 Chron. xv. 17, 
XX 33). At last, in the reformations of 
Hezekiah and Josiah, all the high places 
were discountenanced and annulled (2 Kings 
xviii. 4, xxiii. 1-20 ; 2 Chron. xxxi. 1, xxxiv. 
3-7). It would seem that it was not without 
opposition, or some discontent of the 
people, that this was effected; for Kab- 
shakeh relied on the fact as a means of 
stirring up rebellion against Hezekiah 
(2 Kings xviii. 22). It is clear that some of 
the line of Aaron had officiated at these 
unlicensed places : their priesthood was ad- 
mitted ; but they were disqualified for God's 
holy service (xxiii. 5, 9). 

HIGH PRIEST. Aaron, the elder brother 
of Moses, who had been associated with him 
in announcing God's message to Pharaoh, 
and working the mii'acles which preceded 
the deliverance of Israel from Egypt (Exod. 
iv. 14-16, vi. 20, 26, 27), andwho afterwards 
received sundry marks of sacred notice 
(xxiv. 1, 9-11, 14), was subsequently with 
his family specially appointed to the priest- 
hood (xxviii. 1) ; the father being the chief, 
to be succeeded in his supremacy in a regu- 
lar order throughout their generations.^ 

It is not possible to trace with certainty 
the descent of the high-priesthood. Ordi- 
narilv it was hereditary ; and we may sup- 
pose that the rule was for the elder son to 
succeed the father. But there are examples 
of its being held (we know not exactly why) 
in the younger line. And in later periods 
of the Jewish state great irregularities pre- 
vailed, the dignity frequently being not 
kept for life, and passing sometimes to those 
who had no legal right to hold it and 
were not even of the family of Aaron. Nor do 
we know at what age a son might properly, 
at the death of his father, assume his office ; 
but it rnay be that it was twenty (2 Ghron. 
xxxi 17) ; also it is uncertain how far, iu 
earivtlraes,the civil ruler acted,on a vacancy 
in the high priesthood, in either selecting 
or inaugurating his successor. Besides, 
though we have priestly genealogies from 
Aaron downwards, it by no means foiloAvs 
that all in the line actually held the ponti- 
fical office. The following table, therefore, 
is given as only probably exhibiting the 
succession of the high priests :— 
Aaron. 

Eleazar (Numb. xx. 25-28), 

Phinehas (Josh.xxii. 13, 30-32 ; Judges xx.28). 



'These three are in the line of 
Eleazar (1 Chron. vi. 4-6); but 
it is not clear from scripture 
Abishua? whether all or any of them 
Bukki ? ■< were actually high priests : 
rjzzi ? see Josephus, Antiq.,lih. v. 11, 

§ 5, lib. viii. 1, § 3 ; Selden, 
J)e Success, in Pontif. Ehr.^ 
i_ lib. i. cap. iv. 
Eli, of the line of Ithamar (1 Sam. i. 9). 
Ahitub (1 Sam. xiv. 3 ; 1 Chron. ix. 11 ; Neh. 
xi. 11). ^. A 

-These names are mentioned as 



Ahiah 
Ahimelech 



of persons filling the high 
priest's office (1 Sam. xiv. 
3, 18, xxi. 1, xxii. 9, 11, 20) : 
thev may have been different 
1 appellations of the same per 
son ; if they are reaUy two, 
L they were brothers. 
Abiathar (1 Sam. xxii. 20, xxiii. 6, 9). 
Zadok He was of the line of Eleazar, 
and was for long associated 
with Abiathar, and ulti- 
mately succeeded him (2 Sam. 
viii. 17 ; 1 Kings ii. 26, 27, 35). 
Azariah Q Chron. vi. 9, 10). The obser- 
vation made on a high priest 
of this name shows that he 
was in office at the comple- 
tion of the temple. But there 
are two Azariahs mentioned, 
one the grandson of the other: 
perhaps there is some con- 
fusion in the text ; the note 
appended to the last name 
belonging to the first. 

Johanan? 

Azariah? ^, . 

Amariah (1 Chron. vi. 11 ; 2 Chron. xix. 11). 
Jehoiada (2 Kings xi. 4, 9, 15, 17). Jeho- 
iada's name does not appear 
in the genealogy of 1 Chron. 
vi. 1-15 ; but it seems evident 
that some persons are omit- 
ted there ; and certainly the 
sacred narrative implies that 
Jehoiada was more than an 
inferior priest. 
Zechariah ? (2 Chron. xxiv. 20-22). 
Azariah (2 Chron. xxvi. 17, 20). 
Urijah (2 Kings xvi. 10, 11, 15, 16). 
Azariah (2 Chron. xxxi. 10, 13). 
Shallum ? (1 Chron. vi. 13). . 
Hilkiah (2 Kings xxii. 4 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 9). 
Azariah ? (l Chron. ix. 11). 
Seraiah (2 Kings xxv. 18). 
Jehozadak (1 Chron. vi. 15). 
Jeshua, or Joshua (Ezra ii. 2, in. 2 ; Hagg. 

i. 1). 
Joiakim 
Eliashib i 

Joiada \ Neh. xii. 10, 11. 
Jonathan 
Jaddua 
Onias I. 



This and the following names 
are taken with scarce any 
variation from Selden, ubi 
siipr., capp. vii., ix., x., xi. 
Simon I. or the Just. 
Eleazar. 
Manasseh. 
Onias II. 
Simon II 



381 



[high priest 



Onias III. 

Jason. 

Menela.us. 

Lysimaclms, or Alciraus, that is, Jakim or 
Joakim. 

Jonathan Maccabeus. Selden introduces 
Judas Maccabeus before his brother ; but 
it is doubtful whether Judas ever held the 
dignity. 

Simon. 

John Hyrcanus. 
Aristobulus. 
Alexander Janna3us. 
Hyrcanus II. 
Aristobulus II. 
Hyrcanus II. restored. 
Autigonus. 
Ananeel. 

Aristobulus, last of the Asmonean family. 

Ananeel restored. 

Jesus, the son of Phabes. 

Simon, son of Boethus, father-in-law of 
Herod the Great. 

Matthias, son of Tlieophilus. 

Joazar, son of Simon, Herod's brother-in- 
law. 

Eleazar, brother of Joazar. 
Jesus, son of Sie. 
J oazar restored. 

Ananus, son of Seth, the Annas of the New 

Testament. 
Tsmael, son of Phabi. 
Eleazar, son of Ananus. 
Simon, son of Camithus. 
Joseph, called Caiaphas,son-in-law of Ananus 

or Annas. 
Jonathan, son of Ananus. 
Theophilus, also son of Ananus. 
Simon Cantheras. 
Matthias, another son of Ananus. 
Alioneus, son of Cantheras. 
Joseph, son of Caneus. 
Ananias, son of Nebedeus. 
Ismael, son cf Phabi. 

Joseph, called Cabei, son of Simon Can- 
theras. 

Ananus, a fifth son of Ananus. 

Jesus, son of Damneus. 

Jesus, son of Gamaliel. 

Matthias, son of Theophilus. 

Phannias, or Phanasus, son of Samuel, It 

was in his pontificate that Jerusalem was 

destroyed. 

It will be seen that there is considerable 
uncertainty in regard to several who held 
the pontifical dignity. Other lists, with 
some variations, may be found in Home's 
Introduct., vol. iii. pp. 309-311 ; Smith's Diet, 
of the Bible, vol. i. p. 809. 

Some of the garments worn by the high 
priest were common to the whole body of 
the priests, such as the drawers, the broi- 
dered coat, and the girdle : for an account 
of these see Priest. But there were 
others peculiar to the chief, the robe of the 
ephod, the ephod with its curious girdle, 
the breast-plate, and the mitre : of these a 
brief description shall be given here :— 
1. The robe (mm) of the ephod was of woven- 
work, all blue. It had no sleeves ; but there 
was a hole through which the head passed ; 
and round this there was a binding of wo- 
ven-work to prevent tearing. It is not 
agreed what length it was ; longer un- 



doubtedly than the ephod, and perhaps aa 
long as the broidered coat or tunic over 
which it was worn. On the hem of this 
vestment were small golden bells, alter- 
nating Avith a kind of tassel of blue, purple, 
and scarlet, in the shape of a pomegranate. 
The sound of the bells was to be heard as 
the priest entered and quitted the sanc- 
tuary, * that he die not ' (Exod. xxviii. 31-35 ; 
xxxix. 22-26). Perhaps one use of the bells 
was to give notice to the people without of 
the movements of the priest.— 2. The ephod 
was a short robe covering the shoulders, 
the breast, and upper part of the body ; the 
back and front portions of it being united 
by shoulder-pieces, on which were onyx- 
stones set in golden sockets. On these 
stones were engraven the names of the 
twelve tribes of Israel. According to Jo- 
sephus the ephod had sleeves (Antiq., lib. 
iii. 7, § 5). It was of rich materials, ' gold, 
blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twined linen 
of cunning work :' a girdle or belt of the 
same kind was attached to it (Exod. xxvlil, 
5-14, xxxix. 2-7). Ephods were worn by 
others than the high priests, as by Samuel 
(1 Sam. xi. 18), by inferior priests (xxii. 13), 
by David in a solemn procession (2 Sam. vi. 
14) but these were 'linen ' ephods : it wafi 
doubtless that of the high priest which 
Abiathar carried with him when he fled to 
David (1 Sara, xxiii. 6),— 3, The breast-plate, 
like the ephod, was to be ' of cunning work ' 
of ' gold, blue, purple, scarlet, and fine 
twined linen.' It was to be doubled, and 
then it would be four-square, a span every 
way. And then there were to be twelve 
precious stones upon it in four row^s, set in 
gold sockets ; and on these stones were to 
be graven the names of the twelve tribes, 
that they might be upon the high priest's 
heart. This ' breast-plate of judgment,' as 
it was called, was to be secured by wreathen 
chains of gold, uniting the onyx-stones on 
the shoulders of the ephod to two gold 
rings on the top of the breast-plate, and 
below by a lace of blue fastening two other 
rings to two corresponding rings on the 
ephod, so that the breast-plate might be 
kept above the curious girdle of the ephod. 
And then in ' the breast-plate of judgment* 
the Urim and Thummim were to be put 
(xxviii. 15-30, xxxix. 8-21). See Urim,— 
4. The mitre w^as similar to the ' bonnets' 
or turbans of the ordinary priests, save 
that, according to Josephus, on the top 
was another turban of blue : encircling 
this was a triple golden crown, out of 
which rose a cup of gold resembling the 
inverted calyx of the herb hyoscyamus (ubi 
supr., § 6), The crown just described was 
perhaps added to the mitre when, as in the 
Asmonean family, the civil authority was 
united to the ecclesiastical. There was 
also a gold plate fastened by a blue lace to 
the fore-front, bearing upon it the inscrip- 
tion 'Holiness to the Lord ' (xxviii. 36-.->8, 
xxxix. 30, 31). The identical plate made by 
Moses was, Josephus says, preserved to his 
time {ubi supr., lib. viii. 3, § 8). 

The high priest was to be a person espe- 
cially sacred. Hence any bodily imperfec- 
tion or blemish excluded him from the 
office. The victims offered to the Lord 



illGH priest] 



382 



were, it was repeatedly said, to l^e fi-ee 
from blemish : muclimore, therefore, must 
thia rule hold in respect to the c-flermg 
priest. A variety of physical disqualifica- 
tions are enumerated in the law (Lev. xxi. 
19-23) The Jewish writers have multiplied 
these*, distributing them into three classes, 
tho«e which would incapacitate botn men 
and animals, those which incapacitate man 
only, those which are objectionable merely 
on account of the appearance In the first 
class were 50; in the second 90; m the 
third 2— in all 142. There were, according 
to the Jewish doctors, besides bodily blem- 
ishes certain other disaualiflcations, such 
as illegitimacy, idolatry, &c. And, even if 
a man had been already admitted to his 
function, he might, if a physical or mental 
Incapacity occurred, be deprived (Selden, 
vbi sitpr., lib. ii. capp. v., vi.). Akm to 
these phvsical blemishes there _ were_ va- 
rious restrictions laid upon the high priest, 
an indicating the purity of person and cnar- 
acter which befitted such an office. He was 
not to rend his clothes, or uncover his head, 
to defile himself at the death of even his fa- 
ther or mother ; and he could marry only a 
virgin (Lev. x. 6, 7, xxi. 10-15 : comp. Ezek. 

^^The iiiansuration of Aaron is particularly 
described (Exod. xxix. 1-30, xl. 12-16; Lev. 
viii.). The holy garments were PUt upon 
him ; and he was sprinkled with the blood 
of a victim and anointed with holy oil ; 
the whole process of consecration lasting 
seven davs. A special dilference herein 
between the chief and the ordinary priests 
was that the former had the anointing oil 



was, tnai tneiunuc-i li^iu ^.^^ 

noured upon his head : some,however, ima- 
gine that it was only the greater abun- 
dance of this anointing which distin- 
guished the high priest. Hence tie is pe- 
culiarlv called the anointed one (e.g. iv. 3, 
5 16 • Psal. cxxxiii. 2). So a successor was 
to wear the garments seven days and be 
anointed in them (Exod. xxix. 29, 30) : see 
Selden, capp. viii., ix. , . 

The duties of the high priest as chief ec- 
clesiastical dignitary were great and re- 
sponsible. He especially represented the 
people. All Israelites were reckoned as be- 
ing in him (Yitringa, Observ. Sacr , Franeq. 
1700, lib. ii. cap. 3, torn. i. p. 283). It was he 
therefore, who was to officiate on the great 
dpy of atonement. Others, the inferior 
nr^^ests, might otfer the ordinary sacrifices ; 
but the chief alone must enter into the ho- 
liest with the blood of sprinkling (Lev. xvi. 
l-'>8 • Heb ix. 7). It Avould seem that ac- 
cording to the original law the high priest 
was not dressed in his pontifical robes, 
when he performed this function. Jose- 
Dhus, however, contradicts this : we may 
therefore suppose that in the lapse of ages 
a change of custom was introduced {Bell 
Jud lib V 5, § 7 : comp. Selden, cap. vii. ad 
fiK. - Winer, BibL RWB., art, 'Hnherpnes- 
ter '). The high priest also, it is likely, offi- 
ciated on various great and solemn occa- 
sions, when more than ordinary ponip was 
required: he frequently presided in coun- 
cils (Matt, xxvi. 57, 62, 65, 66 ; Acts xxm. 2), 
and it was at the death of the high priest 
that the manslayer who had fled to a city of j 



refuge was free to return to his own home 
(Numb. XXXV. 25, 28, 32). The chiefs mainten- 
ance must have been amply provided from 
the offerings allotted to the priestly body. 
He appears to have had a deputy, or one in 
office immediately next to him, called the 
sagan. Hence it has been supposed that, 
while Abiathar was high priest, Zadok was 
sa2-an. Some uncertainty rests on this ; and 
inlater times, when high priests were set up 
and deposed at the will of the Roman go- 
vernment, there were several contemporary 
pontifical men who had borne the supreme 
office, and who consequently retained the 
title and enjoyed great consideration. 

The typical character of the high priest, 
as foreshadowing him whose sacrifice was 
the only reallv-efficient propitiation for sin, 
is dwelt on in the epistle to the Hebrews 
(Heb. iii. 1, ix.7-14). For a fuller explana- 
tion of this, however, see Priest. 

HIGH-WAY (Isai. xxxv. 8). In ancient 
times there must have been roads in Pales- 
tine. For carriages and chariots were in 
frequent use (Gen. xlv. 19, 21, 1. 9; Josh, 
xvii. 16; Judges i. 19, iv. 13; 2 Kings ix. 
16, 21, 24, X. 16 ; Isai. ii. 7 ; Acts viii. 28); and 
there are notices of the formation and im- 
provement of roads (Isai. xl. 3, 4). At 
present there are no carriages in Syria, and 
no road fit for them in any part of the land 
' When the wild Arabs,' says Dr. Thomson 
{llie Land and the Book, p. 21), * of the Mo- 
hammedan desolation became masters, 
wheeled vehicles immediately sunk into 
neglect. Accustomed only to the horse, the 
camel, and the ass, they despised all other 
means of travel and transportation. Good 
I roads were not necessary for thein, and, 
being neglected, they quickly disappeared 
from the land, and carriages with them.' 
There are some few traces existing of the 
Roman roads ; but generally a road is merely 
a narrow ti-ack. ^ * 

HI'LEN (perhaps place of caves). A city 
of Judah allotted to the priests (1 Chron 
vi. 58). In Josh. XV. 51, xxi. 15, it is called 

"^HILKI'AH (portion of Jehovah).— I. The 
father of Eliakim, one of Hezekiah's offi- 
cers (2 Kings xviii. 18, 26, 37 ; Isai. xxii. 20, 

XXXVi. 3, 22). , ^ T . -u 

2 The hi!?h priest in the reign of Josiah (1 
Chron. vi. 13, ix. 11; Neh. xi. 11), probably 
Ezra's great-grandfather (Ezra vii. 1). 
The chief event which distinguished his 
administration was the finding of the 
book of the law in the temple, while the 
cacred pile w\as being repaired in Josiah's 
reformation. This book Hilkiah delivered 
to Shaphan the scribe, who carried it to the 
king and read it to him. The king, alarmed 
at what he heard, sent to enquire of the 
prophetess Huldah, and received her reply 
that for the wickedness of the people the 
threateninsrs of that book should be exe- 
cuted (2 Kings xxii. 8-20, xxiii. 4, 24; 
2 Chron. xxxiv. 8-3.3, xxxv. 8). Questions 
have arisen in regard to the book so dis- 
covered. There is some reason to believe 
that it was the original autograph. For 
that was to be deposited by the side of the 
ark of the covenant, in the most holy place 
(Deut. xxxi. 26). But, even if the original 



383 



did not survive so long, the l^ook must have 
been a standard, the temple-copy, kept in 
some place not generally accessible, for it 
was found by the high priest himself. It is 
doubted whether it contained the whole 
Pentateuch. Lord A. Hervey, in Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible (vol. i. pp. 813-815), main- 
tains that it was only the hook of Deute- 
ronomy ; but his arguments are not con- 
clusive; and there is no clear proof that 
the five-fold division of the law had been 
at that time made; the probability there- 
fore is that the whole formed but a single 
rolL Even De Wette seems to acknowledge 
that the book in question was the entire 
Pentateuch, for he considers the narrative 
as affording ' the first certain trace of the ex- 
istence of our present Pentateuch ' {Einleit., 
§ 162 a). Lord A. Hervey thinks it probable 
that neither Josiah nor Hilkiah could read. 
But this supposition is groundless. For 
how should Hilkiah, if unable to read, have 
discovered what the book was, which he had 
found? as he must have done, for he an- 
nounced it to Shaphan when he delivered 
it to liim ; and as for Josiah, he appears to 
have taken at least a part in the solemn 
reading in the temple (2 Chron. xxxiv. 30). 
There is no need to suppose that this law- 
book was the only existing copy : it is most 
likely that some were preserved by devout 
men in various parts of the land, though 
the evil reigns of Manasseh and Amon might 
have swept them from Jerusalem. But, 
even if it was the sole remaining copy, in- 
Btances are not wanting in which a book 
has long been lost, and, when at length one 
single copy has been discovered, no diffi- 
culty has been found in identifying it. To 
imagine that Josiah and Hilkiah concocted 
this book of the law, and palmed it on the 
people, would be to make thein most ac- 
complished hypocrites ; and Huldah the 
prophetess must necessarily have joined in 
the fraud. He must be credulous indeed 
who could believe that (see Keil, Comm. on 
Kings, trans'., vol, ii. pp. 137, &c. ; Havernick, 
Einleit, vol. i. 2, § 139). 

3. 4. Two Levites of the family of Merari 
(1 Chron. vi. 45, xxvi. 11).— 5. One who stood 
with Ezra at the solemn reading of the 
law (Nell. viii. 4). —6. A priest who returned 
with Zerubbabel (xii. 7, 21).— 7. The father 
of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1).— 8. The 
father of one of Zedekiah's ambassadors to 
Nebuchadnezzar (xxix. 3). 

HILL, HILLS, HILL-COUNTRY. Pales- 
tine may be considered generally as a hilly 
country. There are also plains and valleys ; 
so that occasionally we have the mountains 
or hill-country contrasted with the lowlands 
(Josh. XV. 33, 48). The hills specially named 
in scripture are noticed under their respec- 
tive names. 

There is a want of precision in our ordi- 
nary language in regard to the use of the 
terms * hill ' and 'mountain.' Properly they 
convey distinct ideas. But yet it is almost 
as common for us to speak of the ' highland 
i hills' as of the ' Scottish mountains.' This 
1 want of precision sometimes produces con- 
fusion in our version of the scriptures, 
j Thus, * the hill-country ' of Luke i. 39, 65 is 
the mountains' of Josh. xv. 48. So ' the 



[hinnom 



mountain' (8) is * the hill' (9); and tht 
same eminence is termed 'mountain 
(Luke ix. 28), and * hill' (37), &c. There are 
two Hebrew words, one signifying a rounded 
hill, the other a mountain or mountain- 
chain, which are frequently thus confound- 
ed. There are also two Greek words used in 
the New Testament of distinctly-different 
meaning ; and it would have been well to 
preserve the distinction in translating. 

HIL'LEL ipraise). The father of the 
judge Abdon (Judges xii. 13, 15). 

HIN (perhaps vessel) (Numb. xv. 4, and 
elsewhere). See Measures. 

HIND. The female of the common stag. 
See Hart. 

HINGE, Two words are used in the 
original which we translate ' hinge.' One 
occurs in 1 Kings vii. 50, conveying the 
idea of insertion. Now it is common to 
have doors hung, not on hinges, but on 
pivots inseHed in sockets both above and 
below. Ancient doors of the kind may yet 
be seen in the Hauran ; and such are modern 
Egyptian doors. But there is another word 
which implies turning ; and this it is which 
we find in Prov. xxvi. 14. How appositely 
it is used is at once apparent. 

HIN'NOM (perhaps lamentation'). The 
valley of the son or sons of Hinnom, or, 
more concisely, the valley of Hinnom, is first 
mentioned as the boundary between Judah 
and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16). It was 
the place where children were made 'to 
pass through the fire to Molech,' and was 
defiled by Josiah, in order to extinguish for 
ever such detestable rites (2 Kings xxiii. 10 ; 
2 Chron. xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6 ; Jer. vii. 31, 32, 
xix. 2, 6, xxxii. 35). It is mentioned after 
the captivity again as the frontier of Judah 
and Benjamin (Neh. xi. 30). 

The valley of Hinnom is generally sup- 
posed after its defilement to have re 
ceived the sewage and filth of the city, and 
to have had perpetual fires kept up in it foi 
the burning of the carcases of criminal.^ 
and animals. On this, however, Robinson 
throws a doubt. ' This valley,' says Dr 
Thomson, ' commences north-west of the 
Jaffa gate, above the upper pool of Gihon 
Descending eastward to the immediate vi 
cinity.of the gate. It turns south ; and the 
bed of it is occupied by the lower pool of 
Gihon. Below this it bends round to the 
east, having the cliffs of Zion on the north, 
and the hill of Evil Counsel on the south. 
It is here that Hinnom properly begins, and 
it terminates at Bir Eyub, where it joins 
the valley of Jehoshaphat. The cliffs on 
the south side especially abound in ancient 
tombs ; and it was this part that was called 
Tophet' (The Land and the Book, p. 641). 
' There is something,' says Bartlett, 'in the 
scenery of this valley, and the hill above ; 
its tombs hewn in the rock, long since 
tenantless; the gray gloom of its old fig 
and olive-trees starting from the fissures of 
the crags ; the overhanging wall of Zion, 
desolate almost as in the time of her cap- 
tivity, that forcil)Iy recals the wild and 
mournful grandeur of the prophetic writ- 
ings. Within it, too, is the traditionary 
" Aceldama," or field of blood, of the traitor 
Judas, a small plot of ground, overhung 



hippopotamus] 



384 



wUh one precipice, and looking down 
another into the glen below, on which is a 
deep charnel-house, into which it was foi- 
merly the custom to throw the bodies of the 
dead, as the earth was supposed to liave the 
power of rapidly consuming them. The 
place was selected as the burial-place for 
pilgrims who died at Jerusalem m the 
middle ages. Such are the scenes that have 
passed in Hinnom-it is like tlie scroll of 
the prophet, "written withm and without 
with mourning, lamentation, and woe, 
nVctlks about Jerusalem, pp. 62, 63). teee 
Gehexxa, Tophet. The modern name is 
Wady Jehennam. . 

HIPPOPOTAMUS. A large animal inha- 
biting the banks and beds of great African 
rivers and lakes. At present it is found 
in the upper Is ile : anciently there is reason 
to believe it haunted also the lower part 
of that stream. It also frequents the sea- 
shore The hippopotamus is little inferior 
iu bulk to the elephant, though lower in 
stature, on account of the shortness of its 
legs. The head is large, and the mouth 
wide. The lips are studded with bristles : 
the nostrils open on the top of the muzzle ; 
and the small eyes are high m the head. 
Hence, raising only a small part of its head 
above the water, the animal can_ breathe 
and look round. The hide is thick, of a 
dusky brownish red. The hippopotamus 
generally remains in the water during the 
day, rising every five or six minutes to 
breathe. At night it comes to land, and 
feeds on vegetables and green crops. Its 
strength is great ; and when attacked it 
becomes very furious. There can be little 
doubt that it is the behemoth of scripture 
(Job xl. 15-24). See Behemoth, and the 
points of resemblance carefully drawn out 
by Carey {The Book of Job, pp. 401-406). 

HrRAH (nohle Uith). An Adullaraite 
the friend of Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). 

HI'HAM (iioUe, hicjli-born).—l. A king oi 
Tvre, the ally and friend of David and 
Solomon. He is said to have been made 
tributary to Israel by David Eupol m 
Euseb., Prcep. Evang., lib. ix. 30) ; but of thi. 
the scripture says nothing. Hirara (called 
also Huram) supplied David with materials 
for his palace, and with artisans (2 Sam. 
V 11 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 1). He congratulated 
Solomon on his accession to the throne, 
made a treaty with him, and assisted him 
in the erection of the temple (l Kings v. 
1 19 18 ix 11-14). He also allowed the He- 
brew monkrch to share in the Tyrian com- 
merce (26-28, X. 11. 22). More of Hiram s 
history we do not certainly know. Jewish 
and other traditions relate various particu- 
lars, which, resting on no sound authority, 
need not be here detailed. His veign is 
said to have lasted thirty-four years. 1023- 
990 B C.-2. An artificer, son of a Tyrian by 
a woman of Naphtali, who Avas probably by 
birth of the tribe of Dan, and married to a 
inan of Naphtali (see 2 Chron. n- .^^d 
Keil's Comm. on Kings, vol. i. p. li-) . ne 
was sent by king Hiram to snpermteiid the 
works of Solomon's temple (l King* ail 13, 
14, 40, where in marg. Hirom, 45). He also is 
I'-alled Huram. See Huram, 3. 
iT7i?ci'.VC^>§ (2 Mac<',. iii. n). A person 



spoken of as having much treas'ire iu the 
temple at Jerusalem. 

HIRELING. One who was employed on 
stipulated wages for a limited time (Job 
vii 1 2. xiv. 6). A labourer thus hired was 
by 'the Mosaic law to be paid when his work 
was completed (Lev. xix. 13 ; Mai. in. 5). 
But, serving merely for gain, and with no 
nermanent interest, he could often have 
little real concern for anything he was set 
to keep. Hence our Lord's contrast be- 
tween the good shepherd and the hireling 
(John X. 11-13). ^ „ ^ 

HI'PtOM (1 Kings vii. 40, marg.). See 

"^HISS' "'The original word sliarak is, like 
our words 'hiss,' ' whistle,' onomatopoetic, 
expressive of its own meaning. It implies 
sometimes to summon by a hiss or whistle, 
as bee-keepers are said to do (Isai. v. 26, yii. 
18), sometimes to hiss at in scorn (Job 
xxvii 23 : comp. Jer. xviii. 16 ; Mic vi. 16). 

HISTORY. Even though the bible were 
not reearded as an inspired book, and apart 
from its doctrinal lessons, it would have the 
highest value as a historical record. It 
contains the oldest history in the world, 
delivered with such an air of truth, and 
witli so much simplicity and self-consis- 
tencv, that a candid reader, if insensible to 
its hkher claims, must feel that he has be- 
fore iiim a narrative of facts. It becomes 
thus a standard by which to estimate and 
check other liistories,the key, indeed, to the 
history of the world. Other histories have 
their value, too, in elucidating scripture ; 
so that the interpreter of scripture must 
be a diligent student of history in general. 
The Hebrew people were to be specially the 
familv of God. Nevertheless they had re- 
lations of some kind, hostile or pacific, 
with the nations around them. They had 
commercial intercourse with Egypt, Arabia, 
and Phcenicia : they were frequently at war 
with the Philistines and Syrians: they 
were subjected by the Assyrians, Babylo- 
nians, and Romans. To the deeds of the^e 
people, to their manners, customs, and re- 
lio-ion there is much reference in the sacred 
volume. The prophets also frequently ad- 
dressed or threatened the heathen ; so that 
many of their predictions, to be perfectly 
intelligible, must be read i^t^^e Light of 
history. It is true that much of Pjofane 
history has perished, and much of that 
which remains to us is not trustworthy 
But modern research has discovered most 
valuable materials. Layard, Rawlinson and 
others, have brought to light annals of the 
Assyrian and Babylonish empires, which 
wilVinstract us in many things respecting 
them of which we were ignorant. W ith- 
out entering here into details, it may 
be observed that secular history confirms 
o-enerallv the truth of the bible, and that the 
Itudy of it will often elucidate scripture, 
and is of extreme importance in scripture 
interpretation. 

HIT'TITES The tribe or nation de- 
scended from Heth.the son of Canaan (Gen. 
X 15- 1 Chron. i. 13). They were inhabitants 
of Canaan in the time of Abraham (Gen. 
XV '^0) They then occupied the southern 
part of tbeland as Hebron fxxiii 3-1 8^ ex 



8«5 



tending towards Becr-sheba ; since Esau 
married Hittite wives, and Isaac and Re- 
bekah feared that Jacob might follow his 
example Cxxvi. 34, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 10). Hit- 
tites evidently, therefore, were in the neigh- 
bourhood : they were subsequently in the 
mountainous region near the Amorites and 
Jebusites (Numb. xiii. 29; Josh. xi. 3), and 
were perhaps some of the original inhabit- 
ants of Jerusalem (Ezek. xvi. 3, 45), as well 
as in the neighbourhood of Beth-el (Judges 
i. 22-26). Indeed they had spread so exten- 
sively, that Canaan, or at least the northern 
part of it, was caUed ' the land of the Hit- 
tites'(Josh. i. 4). Miss Corbaux includes 
under the term ' Hittites,' used generally, all 
the junior branches of the two great Ca- 
naanitish stocks, descendants of Zidonand 
Heth, though more particularly she thinks it 
denotes but the elder tribe of the children 
of Heth {Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Oct. 1851, p. 166). 
Some suppose them to have been a commer- 
cial people (Gen. xxiii. 16) : this is, how- 
ever, questionable ; for they took fully 
theirpart in resisting Joshua (Josh.ix. 1,2). 
In subsequent times we find two of David's 
warriors Hittites, Ahimelech (1 Sam. xxvi. 
6) and Uriah (2 Sam. xi. 3). Solomon ren- 
dered those that yet remained in Palestine 
tributary (1 Kings ix. 20) ; and they are 
mentioned after the captivity (Ezra ix. 1). 

But there are some remarkable notices of 
tribes of Hittites (Judges i. 26;-l Kings 
X. 29 ; 2 Kings vii. 6 ; 2 Chron. i. 17), which 
seem to point to a people, a branch of the 
great family, or the descendants of those 
expelled from Palestine, who were settled 
independently beyond Lebanon^ and it may 
be on the south-eastern frontier towards 
Arabia. And Egyptian annals speak of a w^ar 
with Hittites ; and Egyptian pictures are 
believed to represent Hittites. These re- 
presentations may be taken not unfairly to 
figure the old Hittites of Canaan. We have 
them in both civil and warlike attire. 'The 
complexion given to them by the Egyptian 
artists is, though dark, rather florid than 
sallow, with black hair, regular features, 
with a very prominent and somewhat- 
hooked nose. The civil dress is a plain 
bright-coloured tunic, with a deep edging 
of lace or embroidery, gathered into a knot 
on the left shoulder, so as to leave the right 
arm at freedom. Under this was worn a 
kind of kilt or skirt, of similar colour and 
pattern, but reaching only to the knees. 
They shaved not only the beard and mous- 
tachios, but even the eye-brows, as did 
many other of the nations of Ganaaia ; be- 
sides which the Hittites had an almost- 
peculiar custom of their own, of shaving a 
square place just above the ear, leaving the 
hair on the side of the face and whiskers 
hanging down in a long plaited lock. This 
frightful custom, and other eccentric deal- 
ings of the nations with their hair, throw 
some light upon the injunctions to avoid 
such customs, which we find in the books of 
the law. If we want to know what is meant 
by "marring the corners of the beard" 
(Lev. xix. 27), we have only to look at such 
pictures to be perfectly satisfied.' ' It re- 
mains to notice the war-dress of the Hit- 
tites. It consisted of a helmet skull-cap, 



[hizkiah 



extending down the neck, cut away high 
and square above the ear, so as to expose 
that bald place, which they seem to have 
regarded as peculiarly charming. It was 
fastened by a strong band or cheek-string, 
probably, like the helmet, of metal. The 
badges of distinction were one or two os- 
trich feathers worn drooping. They wore a 
kind of cape, or short mantle, tied close in 
front, either by the two ends of the cloth, 
or by a cord with tassels at the end. Over 
this was the girdle, which was broad and 
thick, and hung down in front with a long 
end, terminating in a ball and tassel. It 
was long enough to pass round the neck, 
across the breast, and tlius formed a species 
of defensive armour, illustrative of the 
tnilitary use of the girdle so often men- 
tioned in scripture. The only weapon as- 
signed to the Hittites by the Egyptian 
artists is the arrow ' (Kitto, Daily Bible Il- 
lustrations, forty-second week, fifth day). 

HPYITES (mWf't/ers, according to some, 
serpents'). The name of a tribe (uniformly 
found singular in the original, though fre- 
quently made plural by our translators) 
descended from Ham by his son Canaan 
(Gen. X. 17 ; 1 Chroh. i. 15). They are enu- 
merated among the nations of Canaan, 
whom the Israelites were to dispossess 
(Exod. iii. 8, 17, xiii. 5). They appear to 
have gathered round two principal cen- 
tres, in the middle of Palestine, and to- 
wards the north. We first meet with ihem 
in Jacob's history, occupying Shechem, and 
very ready to be induced by what appeared 
worldly advantages to intermarry with 
the Hebrews at the cost of personal pain 
(Gen. xxxiv. 2, 20-24). Esau is also said to 
have taken a Hivite wife (xxxvi. 2) : see 
however, Beeri. The inhabitants of Gi- 
beon and the neighbouring towns were Hi- 
vites (Josh. ix. 7, 17) ; and in the deception 
they practised upon Joshua we may see 
somewhat of the same crafty calculating 
spirit which had distinguished this tribe 
at Shechem. As, however, these Hivites 
w^ere not very powerful, and possibly be- 
cause they Avere intermingled with others, 
they seem to have been sometimes termed 
Amorites (Gen. xlviii. 22 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 2). 
There was a large division of this tribe in 
the north, in Lebanon, under mount Her- 
mon (Josh. xi. 3) ; and these were left in a 
measure unsubdued by Israel (Judges iii. 
3). There were Hivite cities here at the 
time of David's census (2 Sara. xxiv. 7). The 
remnant of them were brought under tri- 
bute by Solomon (1 Kings ix. 20 ; 2 Chron. 
viii. 7). 

A writer in the Journ. of Sacr. Lit., Jan. 

1860, pp. 266-283, suggests that Seir was ori- 
^ ginally a Hivite chieftain of the Lebanon, 
j and that he emigrated, before Abraham's 
I settlement in Canaan, into the south,where 
I mount Hor received its name from the 

northern Hor, and various Hivite cities 
I were founded, from which they were eject- 
. ed by the Edomites. These Hivites were 
I also called Horites, from, as the writer 
I supposes, their mount Hor. But his theory 
I cannot be fully admitted. 

HIZKI'AH {Jehovah strevgfhcns). An 
' ancestor of Zephaniah the prophet (Zcpli. i 



hizkijah] 



386 



1) The name is the same with that of 
Hezekiah king of Judah ; and it is very 
prohahle that that monarch was the person 
intended. ^, 

HIZKT'JAH {id.). A name among those 
who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 17). Pos- 
sibly it should he joined with Ater, which 
precedes : see Ater. 

HIZKIJA'HU {id.) (1 Chron. in. 23, marg.). 
A form of Hezekiah. _ ^ . , , 
HO'BAB (beloved). The father-in-law of 
Moses, who visited him in the desert after 
the departure from Egypt, and whom Mo- 
ses invited to accompany Israel into their 
land with a promise of good. Hohah, it 
would seem, at first declined the offer, and 
returned to his own habitation ; hut after- 
wards he or his children must have com- 
plied, as we find descendants of theirs located 
in Palestine (Numb. x. 29-32 ; Judges iv. 11). 
Hobab was called also Jetjiro, which see. 

HO'BAH Qvidden, hiding-place). The place 
to which Abram pursued the confederate 
kings (Gen. xiv. 15). It was to the north of 
Damascus. The village of Jobar, where the 
Jews have a synagogue dedicated to Eh]a,h, 
is said by them (Mr. Porter tells us) to be 
the ancient Hobah, 

HOD {splendour). A chieftain of Asher (1 
Chron. vii. 37). ^ ^ ^^ ^ 

HODAI'AH {praise ye Jehovah). One of 
the descendants of David (1 Chron. iii. 24). 

HOD ATI' AH {id.).— I. A chief of Manas- 
seh east of Jordan (1 Chron. v. 24) .-2 A 
Benjamite (ix. 7).-3. A Levite whose de- 
scendants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
ii 40). He seems to be the Judah of in. 9, 
and is called Hodevah in Neh. vii. 43. 

HO'DESH {the new moon). The wife ot 
Shaharaim a Benjamite (L Chrom vui. 9). 
Possibly she maybe identical with Baara (8). 

HO'DBVAH {pi-aise ye Jehovah) (Neh. vii. 
i3). See HODAYIAH, 3. , 

HODI'AH {splendour of Jehovah). A wife 
of Ezra, one of the descendants of Judah 
(1 Chron. iv. 19). She is probably the J ehu- 
diiah of 18. The name is identical with 

HODI'JAH {id?).—l. A Levite who as- 
sisted when Ezra read the book of the law, 
and sealed the covenant (Neh. viu. 7, ix. 5, 
-jj- 10) —2. Another Levite who sealed the 
covenant (13).— 3. One of the people who 
sealed (18). _ „ ^, ^ , 

HOG'LAH {partridge). One of the daugh- 
ters of Zelophehad, in whose favour certain 
regulations were made as to the descent of 
property to a female (Numb. xxvi. 33, 
xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 11 ; Josh, xvii. 3). 

HO'HAM (perhaps, whom Jehovah impels). 
A king of Hebron, who joined a confede- 
racy to resist the Israelites after the cession 
of Gibeon. He and his allies were signally 
defeated (Josh. x. 3, 5, 16-27). 

HOLINESS. The perfectly pure rectitude 
of God, being that excellent attribute of 
his which is opposed to evil or sm. In 
created beings holiness may be regavaed as 
such a conformity to the nature and will 
of God, as evidences itself in purity of 
conduct. Holiness is predicated of the 
Deity (Psal. xxii. 3 ; cxlv. 17 ; Isai. Ivii. 15) ; 
and distributively of the Father (John 
xvii 11), of the Son (Luke i. 35 ; Acts ii. 
27 iii 14 iv. 30). of the Spirit (i. 2, 5; 



2 Cor. xiii. 14). So angels are called holy 
(Matt. XXV. 31) ; and their holiness is a per- 
fect holiness. Holiness is ascribed to men, 
to such as are sanctified by the Holy Ghost ; 
their hearts being renewed and cleansed 
(Heb. iii. 1 : corap. Gal. v. 22-25). And, 
though perfect holiness is not attained in 
this sinful world, it is set before the believer 
as the privileged state to which he is called 
(1 Thess. iv. 7 ; 1 Pet. ii. 9), as the end to 
which he is to aspire (i. 15, 16). So 
prophets are called holy (Luke i. 70), also 
apostles (Eph. iii. 5) ; and the brethren 
generally (1 Thess. v. 27). The term is de- 
scriptive of persons and things dedicated to 
God (Exod. XXX. 25, 35 ; Luke ii. 23 ; 1 Cor. 
vii. 14). It denotes, therefore, sometimes 
what men ought to be rather than what 
they are (Numb. xvi. 3). And in the sense 
of dedication or consecration to a holy pur- 
pose, or as a means of worshipping God, 
or leading men to him, the word is applied 
to a multitude of things, to the scriptures 
(Rom. i. 3), the sabbath (Exod. xvi. 23), the 
ark of the covenant (2 Chron. xxxv. 3), the 
furniture of the tabernacle and temple 
(1 Kings viii-. 4), the city of Jerusalem 
(Matt, xxvii. 53), the temple (Jonah ii. 4), 
&c. And specially the inner part of the 
tabernacle and temple was regarded as holy, 
and that beyond the inner vail as the holy 
of holies (Heb. ix. 2, 3, 24). The name of 
God, too, was peculiarly holy (Psal. cxi. 9). 
Sometimes the term means pure, chaste, 
undefiled (1 Sam. xxi. 5 ; Rom. xvi. 16). 
Several words, especially in the New Testa- 
ment, are used which present different 
shades of meaning, but in which hohness is 
the fundamental idea. Holiness of heart 
and life is inculcated upon Christians, whom 
God would have to be 'holy and without 
blame before him ' (Eph. i. 4). 

EOLM-TREE (Hist. Sus. 58). Most pro- 
bably the Quercus coccifera. 

HOLOFEE'NES (Judith ii. 4, and else- 
where). An Assyrian general sent to invade 
Judea, and said to have been killed by J udith. 

HO'LON {sandy).— 1. A city in the hiU- 
country of Judah, assigned to the priests 
(Josh. XV. 51, xxi. 15). In 1 Chron. vi. 58 it 
is called Hilen.— 2. A town in the plain 
country of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 21). Nothing 
is known of it. . , ... 

HOLT CITY (Neh. xi. 1, 18 ; Isai. xlvin. 
2 Iii. 1 ; Dan. ix. 24 ; Matt. iv. 5, xxvii, 53 ; 
Rev. xi, 2, xxi, 2, xxii. 19). See jERUSALEii. 
HOLY DAY. See Festival. 
HOLY GHOST. The distinctive name of 
the third Person of the blessed Trinity, 
designated also the ' Holy Spirit,' the ' Spirit 
of God,' the ' Comforter,' and with various 
attributive additions to the word Spirit, as 
the ' Spirit of adoption,' &c. , , ^. . 

The name Spirit is given to this divme 
Person not simply as if he alone of the sa- 
cred Th^ee were a spirit, but as specially 
indicating his relation to the Father and 
the Son, from whom he is breathed forth, 
emanates, eternally proceeds, and as being 
the Agent of divine operation upon men, 
the breath of grace (John xx, 22), like the 
wind blowing where it listeth, communica- 
ting the heavenly gift. He is called ' holy 
both as in himself essentially holy, and also 



387 



[hook 



as the worker of holiness in men, the Sanc- 
tis er of God's church. 

The personality and the Deity of the Holy 
Ghost are ahundantly proved in scripture. 
For, just as the Father and the Son are 
known to be persons by the operations and 
the power ascribed to them, so is the Holy 
Ghost distinctly said to work, to be sent, 
to come, to will, to have a mind that is 
known of God, &c. (John xvi. 7-15 ; Rom. 
viii. 26, 27 : 1 Cor. xii. 11). Such expressions 
would be improper and unintelligible if the 
Holy Ghost were but a quality. See also 
Matt. iii. 16, 17. Again,he speaks by the pro- 
phets (Acts xxviii. 25 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1) : he 
teaches (Luke xii. 12) : he may be grieved 
(Eph. iv. 30) ; and he is joined with^and yet 
distinguished from, the Father and the Son 
in the form prescribed of Christian baptism 
(Matt, xxviii. 19). This last text alone 
would prove that, if the Father and the Son 
are persons, so is tlie Holy Ghost. As to 
bis Deity, he is called ' God' (Acts v. 3, 4). 
And the body of the believer is called the 
•temple of God' because the Holy Ghost 
dwells therein (1 Cor. iii. 16, 17, vi. 19 ; 2 Cor. 
vi. 16). This last argument Augustine 
thinks very convincing, and says that, if 
we were commanded to build him a temple 
like Solomon, of wood and stone, it would 
show that we were to pay him divine wor- 
ship ; but far more must this be when we 
do not make him a temple, but are his tem- 
ple {Epist. ad Max., clxx. 2. Op. Ed. Bened. 
tom. ii. cols. 608, 609). Still further, he may 
be sinned against ; and sin against the Holy 
Ghost hath no forgiveness (Matt. xii. 31, 32). 
From this his essential Deity is easily con- 
cluded. Sin against the Holy Ghost, it 
may be added, is so fatal because it is sin 
against him who alone communicates spiri- 
tual life : it is a refusal therefore of the 
means of salvation, a rejection of that gra- 
cious agency by which men are brought to 
avail themselves of the precious blood-shed- 
ding of the Lord Jesus Christ. It is not that 
coming to Christ they are refused, but that 
they will not come to him. See Blasphemy. 

The Holy Ghost is said to proceed from 
the Father and the Son. He is distinctly 
said to proceed from the Father (John xv. 
26), and as distinctly is termed the Spirit of 
the Son (Gal. iv. 6). 

The Lord the Spirit is called *the Giver 
of Life.' He convinces men of sin, he shows 
them their need of a Saviour, he leads them 
to Christ, rendering Christ's work effectual 
for their salvation : he sanctifies them also 
by conforming them to Christ's image 
(John xiv. 26, xvi. 8, 14 : Rom. viii. 9-11, 13, 
14 ; Gal. V. 16-25). ' The Father as goodness,' 
says Hooker, ' the Son as wisdom, the Holy 
Ghost as power, do all concur in every 
particular, outwardly issuing from that 
one only glorious Deity which they all are. 
For that which moveth God to work is 
goodness and that which ordereth his 
work is wisdom ; and that which perfecteth 
his work is power .... Life, as all other 
gifts and benefits, groweth originally from 
the Father, and cometh not to us but by the 
Son, nor by the Son to any of us in particu- 
lar, but through the Spirit {Eccles. Pol., 
book V. 56). 



HOLY LAND (Zech. ii. 1-2). See Canaan, 
Palestine. 

HOLY OF HOLIES. See Tabernacle, 
Temple. 

HOLY SPIRIT. See Holy Ghost. 

HOM'AM {destruction). A descendant of 
Seir the Horite (1 Chron. i. 39). In Gen. 
xxxvi. 32 the name is Heman. 

HO'MER (a heap) (Lev. xxvii. 16, and else- 
where). See Measures. 

HONEY. Canaan is frequently described 
as a land 'flowing with milk and honey' 
(e.g. Exod. iii. 8, 17, xiii. 5). And travellers 
now speak of the immense swarms of bees 
found in some rocky parts of the country 
(Thomson, The Land and the Book, p. 299 : 
comp. 253). Several Hebrew words are in 
our version rendered 'honey.' Ya'ar, or 
ya'drdh, is honey from the bee (1 Sara. xiv. 
27 ; Sol. Song v. 1), flowing from the combs. 
Nopheth is also honey dropping from the 
combs, and is often joined with a word sig- 
nifying comb (Psal. xix. 10 ; Prov. v. 3, 
xxiv. 13, xxvii. 7 ; Sol. Song iv. 11). There is 
another term of wider signification, debash, 
meaning sometimes be«-honey (Deut. xxxii. 
13 ; Prov. xvi. 24), and sometimes honey of 
grapes, syrup, that is, the newly-expressed 
juice of grapes boiled down to the half or 
third part. This, called dibs, *is still pre- 
pared in many parts of Syria and Palestine, 
especially in the neighbourhood of Hebron, 
and is in great quantities exported into 
Egypt. Diluted with a little water, it is 
frequently used instead of sugar, or as a 
substitute for butter ; and sometimes it is 
applied to wounds instead of wine. The 
same product is likewise mentioned, to- 
gether with balm (Ezek. xxvii. 17), and is 
stated to have been sent from the land of 
Israel to the markets of Tyre. As Egypt 
abounds in excellent bee-honey, but was 
perhaps unacquainted with the preparation 
of grape-jelly, the latter was appropriately 
chosen as a part of Jacob's present' (Gen. 
xliii. 11), Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 667, 668. There is a vegetable honey 
distilling from trees, found in the peninsula 
of Sinai. Some have supposed this the 
• wild honey' John Baptist ate (Matt. iii. 4) ; 
but his food was more probably the honey 
of wild bees. There was, still further, a 
krnd of honey-syrup obtained from dates. 
Honey was forbidden as an offering (Lev. ii. 
11), most likely because it fermented. It is 
often joined with milk, both being natural 
products ; and * honey and milk' are some- 
times figuratively put for pleasant discourse 
CSol. Song iv. 11). 

HOOD (Isai. iii. 23). A tiara or turban as 
wound or folded round the head. But Hen- 
derson (note on Isai. iii. 23) says ribands for 
binding the hair, or a sash of fine linen 
round the bottom of the tiara. See Dress, 

HOOK, HOOKS. The word frequently 
occurs in scripture, as the translation of 
various Hebrew terms. Thus there were 
hooks or pins from which the curtains of 
the tabernacle were suspended (Exod. xxvi. 
33, 37). There were also flesh-hooks, with 
which flesh was taken from the pot (xxvii. 3; 
Numb. iv. 14 ; 1 Sam. ii. 13, 14) : these seem 
to have had three teeth. There were hooks. 



hope] 



388 



or rather rings, sometimes put tl rough the 
nose of wild beasts hy which to lead them 
Captives were similarly treated (2 K gs 
xii 28 : Ezek. xxix. 4), a practice illus- 
Trated by some of the Assyrian monuments : 
comn Job xl. 24. Such a ring was used to 
secu?e a fish or maruie animal; a cord 
Sg attached, so that it might be pre- 
served alive, without being able to escape 
(xh 2) : see Carey, The Book of Job, VJ?. 

407. Further there ^^f ^.J P™if' 
hooks' (Isai. ii. 4, xviu. 5), 'fish-hooks 
rAmosivS: comp. Isai. xix. 8, where our 
%4S?on has 'angle'), and « hooks' (Ezek. 
xl 43), with regard to which f un^cj" 
ta ntv exists. Perhaps they might be forked 
JrSectSg pins in the part of the court where 
Ihe victims were killed, on which tho.e 
victims were suspended m order to take ofE 

'^^HOPE The reasonable expectation of 
good to' be enjoyed, based on sufficient 
|?ounds, and encouraging to Pf^ent Per- 
severance in the proper means for the at- 
Siment of it. It is reckoned as one of 
ttie Three chief Christian graces (1 Cor. 
xifi 3) - and its excellencies are frequently 
described It is lively (1 Pet. i. 3) : it is in- 
vi-oraUng (Tit. i. 2) : It is joyful (Rom. v 2, 
xif 12) it tends to sanctiflcation (i John 
iii 3) The Christian hope is sure (Heb. 
ii'e vi 11); whereas the hope of the un- 
godly shall perish (Job viii. 13). Indeed the 
wicked are characterized as 'paving no 
hope' (Epli- ii- 12), that is, no well-grounded 
hope, or hope of salvation. Sometimes hop^^ 
is nut for the thing hoped for (Tit. ii. 13), 
or tlie person in whom we hope. Thus 
cList is caued the 'hope' of his people 

^^HOPH'Ni (Jboxer). One of the sons of Eli, 
whose licentious conduct brotight down 
indsrment upon their tamily. They ^\ere 
ioth slahi in a ^^tt^e with the Phihstines 
when the ark of God was taken (1 Sam. i. 

^'hopH'RA (Jer^xliv. 30). See Pharaoh, 

^^HOR (moTintain).-!. A noted mountain 
on the frontier of Edom (Numb, xx 23 
xxxiii. 37). The Israelites reached it on 
their march from Kadesh, their next sta- 
Son Sg Zalmonah on their way round 
the Edomitish territory (xx. 22, xxi. 4, 
xxxiii 37 41). It was while they were en- 
?amped by Hor that the divine command 
was issued for Aaron (who, on account of 
his disobedience at the water of MeriDan 
was not to enter Canaan) to go up and die 
ihere Moses and Eleazar accompanied the 
ag-d pr est to his death ; the eyes of the 
Sngregation being A/f an them as t^i^^^ 
appended The sacerdotal garments were 
Sken from him and put upon Eleazar his 
son So Aaron died; and Moses and 
Szar returned ; and the peop^e mourned 
for him thirty days (xx. 24-29, xxxiii. d», , 
Deut ?xxi . 50). It is true that Mosera is 
elsewhere named as the place of Aaron's 
death (X. 6); but Mosera was close by tne 

"\To"SiHorison.the eastern side of the 
Arabah a conspicuous object m tut 
Edomftish chain, rising just to the west of 



the city of Petra, 4800 feet above the sea- 
level It is entirely of sandstone, and has a 
double top. In the little hollow between 
the peaks it has been supposed that Aaroa 
died On the highest, the northernmost is 
a sinall building 28 feet by 33 inside 
It consists of two apartments one below 
the other : in the undermost is a recess, 
regarded as Aaron's tomb. This may be 
ancient: the structure above is modein. 
Mount Hor is now called Jehel Neby Harfiu: 
the view from it on which Aaron's eyes must 
have tested just before he closed them on 
the world for ever is thus described by Di. 
Stanley : ' He looked over the valley oi the 
Irabah countersected by its l^uf/ed wa- 
ter-courses, and beyond over the white 
mountains of the wilderness they had so 
long traversed; and at the northern edge 
of !t there must have been visible the 
heights through which the Israelites had 
vainly attempted to force their way into 
the promised land. This was the western 
V ew Close around him on the east were 
the ru-ged mountains of Edom, and far 
a^onl tSi l^orizon the wide downs of mount 
Seir, through which the passage had been 
denied by the wild tribes of Esau who 
hunted over their long slopes. .... a 
d?eary ..: scene, such it must have 

seemed to the aged priest The pecu- 

Sy of the view is the combination of 
wtde extension, with .the scarcity of 
marked features. Petra is shut out by in- 
tervening rocks. But the survey of the 
desert on one side and the mount^ains of 
Edom on the other is complete; and of 
these last the great feature is the mass 
of red bald-headed sandstone rocks, lutei- 
sectednot by valleys, but by deep seams 
{Sinai and Palesti7ie,v.87)- ^^„„t TTnr 
But the traditional site of mo^nt Hor, 
that hitherto described, is rejected by Mr. 
Wilton ?n his excellent book ^^/^^^^^^^J (J'i'- 
126-134), so frequently referred to m the^e 
pages. He thinks it highly improbable tha,t 
a mountain by which the Israelites were 
encanCd and where the solemn close of 
laron's life occurred, could be in the heart 
of Edom hard by the capital of a nation 
whose territory the Hebrews were not to 
iouch, and from which they are sa d 
just before to turn Os^^^'-J^'^f' Jgl 
he therefore supposes that the Jebei 
Moclerah, some distance to the north-ea^t 
on the opposite side of the Arabah is the 
heritable Hor. He thinks that the locality 
ISS'Suc? better with the ^ij^orjf^^^^^ 
attack of the king of Arad shoitly after 
the high priest's death • /-^.^j^.^ 
striking appearance J^hel Modeian 
nuite iustifles the appellation of Hor tne 
SntSn,' i.e. the i;emarkabl^ mountam^ 
for such is the definite meaning of the on- 

liMlTand His if^l^'^dom"'*?^" 2°3 
the e&se of the land of Edom (xx. /^j, 
ixxi?^ 37)rand is so situated that any 
fSsaction on its summit would be m full 
vfew, ' in^^^^^ of the congregation' 

(ix 27) encamped on the plain below. 
^ Mr WiUon's^iore extended arguments 
must be sought in the Place re erred to of 
liis book : they are, to say the lea^c, oi 
considerable plausibility and weight. 



389 



2 Mount Hor is mentioned as the north- 
ern border of Palestine (Numh. xxxiv. 7, 8). 
We nowhere else find the name given to 
any northern height. But there can be 
little doubt that Lebanon, or some spur or 
peak of that range must be intended, _ 

H'OE-AM {lofty, mountaineer). The king 
of Gezer, who, coming to help Lachish, was 
destroyed by Joshua (Josh. x.33). 

HO'ilEB {dry, desert) (Exod. iii. 1, xvii. 6, 
xxxiii. 6 ; Deut. i. 2, 6, 19, iv. 10, 15, v. 2, ix. 
8, xviii. 16, xxix. 1 ; 1 Kings yiii. 9, xix. 8 ; 
2 Chron. v. 10 ; Psal. cvi. 19 ; Mai. iv. 4). See 

SiXAI. , ,^ 1 ^ T 

HO'REM {devoted). A city of Isaphtali 
(Josh. xix. 38). ^ , ^0^7, 

HOR-HAGID'GAD mount of thunder 1 the 
conspicuous mountain 1). One of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites in the wilderness 
(Numb, xxxiii. 32, 33). It is in all probabi- 
lity the same with Gudgodah (Deut. x. 7). 
It is true that the order of the stations is 
different ; but in the one case the direction 
of the journey is upwards (Numb, xxxiu. 

i 31) then downwards (32-35), while in the 
other (Deut. x. 6, 7) it is altogether down- 
wards. See Hengstenberg, Diss, on Genmne- 
nefis of Pent, diss. vii. vol. ii. pp. 350-357. 

Mr. Wilton is inclined to regard the visit 
to Hor-hagidgad (Numb, xxxiii. 32) as dis- 

; tinct from the journey to Gudgodah (Deut. 

■ X. 7) ; so that the two places are not abso- 
lutely identical. Gudgodah he considers the 

; wady or valley, and Hor-hagidgad a moun- 

■ tain near. Now Dr. Robinson describes here 
' 'a lone conical mountain' which 'forms 
i a conspicuous landmark for the traveller.' 

This, now called Jebel Ardif en-Ndkah, may 
be Hor-hagidgad {The Negeh, pp. 131, 132). 

HO'RI {a diveller in caverns).—!. A son 
of Lotan and grandson of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 
22 ; 1 Chron. i. 39). Hori in Gen. xxxvi. 30 
should be rendered ' the Horites,' as m 29. 
—2. The father of Shaphat selected from 
the tribe of Simeon to spy out the land 
(Numb. xiii. 5). . . , 

HO'RIMS, HO'RITES {id.). The original 
inhabitants of mount Seir (Gen. xiv. 6) ; 
they were smitten by Chedor-laomer and 
his confederates, and afterwards entirely 
dispossessed by the descendants of Esau 
(Deut. ii. 12, 22). Their genealogy is given in 
Gen. xxxvi. 20-30 ; 1 Chron. i. 38-42 ; but no- 
thing further is recorded of them. They 
are probably designated more according to 
their mode of life than their specific race. 
See HiviTES. 

HOR'MAH {place desolated). The city of 
a Canaanitish king who attacked the Israel- 
ites : on which they vowed that if they 
succeeded in defeating their assailants they 
would utterly destroy the city. It had be- 
fore been called Zephath ; but it had at 
once, as adeemed place, the name Hormah 
given it, though the vow does not seem to 
have been accomplished till a later period 
(Numb. xiv. 45, xxi. 1-3; Deut. i. 44). The 
king is enumerated among those that were 
destroyed in the general war (Josh. xii. 14); 
and the town was allotted first to Judah, 
afterwards to Simeon (xv. 30, xix. 4). It 
was Judah, therefore, and Simeon who 
sacked Hormah ; but it seems to have been 
6ul)sequently re-built (1 Sam. xxx. 30; 1 



Chron. iv. 30). Robinson identifies the pass 
es-Sufdh with Zephath or Hormah : it is a 
gap in the southern mountain-barrier of 
Palestine. Mr. Rowlands, however, came 
upon a site called Sebata, considerably more 
to the west, on the road from Khulasah to 
Suez, near the well of Rehoboth. This Mr. 
Wilton adopts as the true Hormah {The 
Negeh, pp. 203-206). 

HORN, A weapon of defence with which 
many animals are furnished. The ordinary 
uses of it are sufficiently well known. 

We find the original word for horn ap- 
plied to a musical instrument. Such an in- 
strument was probably at first made of this 
material ; and afterwards, whatever the ma- 
terial, the name was retained (just as 
'French horn' among ourselves). The 
translation, however, 'rams' h-orns' (Josh, 
xi. 4, 5, 6, 8) can hardly be maintained. The 
word also signifies 'a flask' (1 Sam. xvi. 
1, 13 ; 1 Kings i. 39) ; flasks having probably 
been made of horn (like our ' powder-horn '). 
There are other uses of the term derived 
from a real or supposed resemblance to a 
horn. Thus the projections at the corners 
of the altar were called its ' horns ' (Exod. 
XX vii. 2, xxix. 12; 1 Kings i. 50; Psal. 
cxviii. 27) : a hill or peak was a horn (Isai. 
Y. 1, marg.) ; and elephants' teeth were 
' horns of ivory ' (Ezek. xxvii. 15). 

We further find 'horns' used symbolic- 
ally in prophetical language to signify 
powers, kingdoms, or sovereigns (Dan. vii. 
7, 3, 20, 21, 24, Viii. 3, 5-9, 20 22 ; Zech. l. 
18-21; Rev. xii. 3, xiii. 1, 11, xvii. 3, 7, 12, 
16) ; the horn being the emblem of strength, 
or attacking force. We have hence the ordi- 
nary figurative meaning. God is called the 




A Druze lady of mount Lebanon. 



horn of the psalmist's salvation (Psal 
xviii. 1), as being his powerful protector 
Similarly, 'the horn of Moab is cut off' 
(Jcr xlviii. 25), i.e. his strength is broken. 



cornet] 



390 



So God exalts the liorn of any one (Psal. 
Ixx^ix 17), i. e. increases his dignity (comp. 
I Sam^ii. 1 ; Amos vi. 13). To litt the horn 
of God (1 Chron. xxv. 5) most prohahly is 
to praise him. Sometimes the expression 
is employed in a had sense (Psal. i:s:xt. 4 5) 
to denote proud self-sufficiency. Other 
u=ies of the word occur, as when the horn 
is" said to he defiled in the dust (J oh xvi. 
15), the honour heing brought h)W. 

411 these phrases are singularly illus- 
trated hy a fashion still prevailing among 
the Druze women in Lebanon of wearing 
artificial horns. ' I have seen them, says 
Dr Thomson, ' only a few inches long, made 
of "paste-board, and even of common pot- 
tery Bv degrees the more fashionable la- 
dies' used tin, and lengthened them : then 
rivalry made them of silver, and still fur- 
ther prolonged and ornameiiiedthem ; until 
finally the princesses of Lebanon and Ser- 
mon sported gold horns, decked with jew- 
el^ and so long that a servant had to spread 
the veil over them' (T/ie Land and the Book, 
pp 73 7-4). Men have in some parts of tfie 




Head-dress of Buffalo horns, .vorn hj an African 
tribe, Londa. See Livingstone's Travels, p. 4d0. 



world worn similar horns : comp. 1 Kings 

^^The'^horns coming out of God's hand 
CHab. iii. 4) are rays of light. ^ ^Arabian 
poets are said to compare the first beams of 
the rising sun to horns. 

HORXET. The Hebrew name for this 
insect implied striking, i.e. when it stings 
God promised that he won d send hoi net. 
befoi-ie the Israelites to drive out the na- 
tions of Canaan from before them (Exod 
xxiii ''8: Deut. vii. 20; Josh. xxiv. 12). It 
is Questioned whether this is to be taken 
literally, or whether, as enemies are some- 
mes said to cluster like.bees.(Psal. cxvm^ 
12) and as when foreign invasion is Uiieat- 
ened the Lord is said to 'hiss for the fly 
in the uttermost part of Egypt, and foi 
the bee' in Assvria (Isai. vii. 18), we may 
not rather imagine that the insect is spoken 
Sf metaphorically to indicate the cons er- 
nation with which the Canaanites should 
b- overwhelmed. Had the Canaanites never 
ventTired to resist, the metaphorical sense 
might be preferable ; but as the case stands 
R Abetter to interpret literally. Armies 
have been put into confusion by such insects 
( Elian , De Animal, lib. xi. 2^, xvii. 3o). 
That hornets abounded in some parts of 
Srestfne is clear from the fact that there 
was a place called 'hornets town cZoi^^^^^^^^ 
HORONA'nr (two caverns). A Moabinsh 



town, possibly upon an eminence (Isai. xv. 
5; Jer. xlviii.3, 5, 34). _ ^ 

HO'ROJJITE. This terra is applied to 
Sanballat (Neh. ii. 10, 19, xiii. 28). He was 
verv probably a native of Horonaim. _ 

HORSE. This most valuable animal, 
Equus caballus, is thought to be a native of 
the deserts north of India and Persia : it 
was first domesticated in the east, and was 
probablv brought by those who emigrated 
westward from Asia into Arabia and Egypt. 

Jso mention is made of horses as forming 
anv part of the possessions of the patri- 
archs ; nor are any noticed among the pre- 
sents Abraham received from the kings oi 
E^vpt Hiid Gerar (Gen. xii. 16, xx. 14). The 
fact appears to be that the horse was not in 
those early times used except for military 
purposes ; indeed we find scarcely an allu 
sion in scripture to its employment for the 
farm or any ordinary domestic service. 
Once the horse is said to tread out some 
species of corn risai. xxviii. 28) ; but it is 
as a war-horse, strong and fierce, that he is 
specially noted and commended (J ob xxxix. 
19-^5) In armies horses were introduced 
as mounting cavalry, and also as drawing 
the formidable war-chariots. But the Is- 
raelites employed them in neither of these 
wavs • and a positive command forbade 
them to multiply horses (Deut. xvii. 16) ; so 
that long afterward David contrasts the 
dependence placed by foreign potentates 
on chariots and horsemen with the simple 
trust that Israel without either reposed in 
the Lord their God (Psal. xx. 7). David, 
however, was induced to form a chariot- 
force (2 Sam. viii. 4) ; and from that tirne 
we find repeated mention of them in_ Is- 
raehtish history. Absalom had chariots 
and horses for the purpose of display 
(XV 1) ; and Solomon possessed large num- 
bers of chariot and riding-horses, which 
he kept partly at Jerusalem and partly in 
certain appointed cities (1 Kings iv. 26 ;^ 
Chron ix. 25). The number, it may be ob- 
<served in the first-named of these places 
is incorrect, no doubt by error of transcrip- 
tion : 4,000 horses will suit better with the 
number of Solomon's chariots, 1,400 (1 
Kings X. 26). This monarch also appears 
to have established a regular trade m horses 
with Egvpt, for the supply of both himself 
and other nations (28, 29). See Keil, Comm. 
on Kings, transl, vol. i. pp. 80, 81, ISO, 181. 
After this horses were freely used in Israel 
(1 Kings xxii. 4 ; 2 Kings iii. 7, ix. 21, 33, xi. 
16 ; Isai. ii. 7) ; and the Jews possessed some 
on'their return from captivity (Ezra li. 66 ; 
Neh vii 68\ Among other nations they 
had 'been used from a very early period 
There were horses in Egypt in Josephs 
time (Gen. xlvii. 17, xlix. 17, 1.9). They 
were in the armies of Egypt (Exod. xiv. 7 ; 
" Chron xii. 3\ of the Canaanites (Judges 
iv 3) of the Philistines (1 Sam. xiii. 5), of 
the Syrians (2 Sara. viii. 4), of the Ethio- 
pians ICushites) (2 Chron. xiv. 9), &c. Aniong 
the Persians we find swift horses used for 
posts (Esth. viii. 10) ; and horses are men- 
tioned as articles of trade between the Ty- 
rians and the house of Togannah ^Ezek. 

'^?he furniture of the horse among the 



391 



3i3t^ll^ l^U0ll3lClJSe» [hOSEA, THE BOOK OF 



Hebrews appears to have been simple; a 
bridle, probably a mere slip-knot (Isai. xxx. 
28), and a curb (Psal. xxxii. 9). Saddles 
were not used, only a cloth, or afterwards 
a pad. Nor were horses shod ; hence it was 
desirable that their hoofs should be hard 
(Isai. V. 28). But the harness of Assyrian 
tiorses was decorated (Ezek. xxiii. 6, 12), 
also of those of Persia (Esth. vi. 8, 9). The 
Assyrian sculptures prove this. Furniture 
for chariots is amoug the merchandise of 
Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 20). 

HORSE-GATE. One of the gates of Je- 
rusalem near the temple (2 Chron. xxiii. 15 ; 
Neh. iii. 28 ; Jer. xxxi. 40). 

HOPiSE-LEECH. The leech is mentioned 
once only (Pro v. xxx. 15), where in our ver- 
sion the sense is weakened by the insertion 
of ' crying.' ' Give, give ' are the two daugh- 
ters. Dr. Thomson speaks of 'countless 
millions of leeches' in the Birket Earn, 
lake Phiala {The Land and the Book, pp. 
240, 241). The medicinal leech, Hirudo, or 
Sangiiisuga medicinalis, the horse-leech, 
Hcemopis sanguisuga, and other species are 
all found in Palestine : see Duns, Bibl. Nat. 
Science, vol. ii. pp. 442, 443. 

HO'SAH (a refuge). A Levite of the fa- 
mily of Merari, appointed one of the por- 
ters or door-keepers before the ark (1 Chron. 
xvi. 38, xxvi.lO). 

HO'SAH {id.). A city of Asher, a border- 
place towards Tyre (Josh. xix. 29). 

HO'SAI (2 Chron. xxxiii. 19, marg.). In 
the text this word is translated 'the seers.' 
Gesenius is inclined to believe it the proper 
name of an individual, 

HOSAN'NA {save noio). An expression of 
joyful gratulation : it occurs in the original 
of Psal. cxviii. 25. At the feast of taber- 
nacles it was customary for the Jews to re- 
cite the Great Hallel, viz. Psalms cxiii.- 
cxviii., and at certain points, varying ac- 
cording to the teaching of diiferent doctors, 
loud response was made by the multitude, 
waving the branches which they carried in 
their hands, and ejaculating Hallelujah, 
Hosanna, or Psal. cxviii. 25 ; children also 
ijeing expected to take their part. The 
seventh day of the feast was called, from 
the reiterated ceremonies, the great Ho- 
sanna. Hence the branches, the prayers, 
Che feast itself received the name Hosanna ; 
and, as it was not unusual for the mode of 
rejoicing then observed to be transferred 
to other occasions of national exultation, 
it was natural that our Lord's entry into 
Jerusalem should be so welcomed (Matt, 
xxi. 8, 9 ; Mark xi. 8-10 ; John xii. 12, 13). 

HOSE'A {deliverance, safety). Hosea is 
o'tated (Hos. i. 1) to be the son of Beeri, 
whom some would erroneously confound 
with Beerah, prince of the Reubenites (1 
Chron. v. 6) ; but we have no further certain 
information of the prophet's family or life. 
It is, however, reasonable to suppose that 
he was an Israelite. For his predictions 
have to do mainly with the kingdom of the 
ten tribes ; and, had he been sent from Ju- 
dah to utter them, it is not unlikely that, 
as in the analogous cases of I Kings xiii.; 
Amos i. 1, vii., the fact would have been 
stated. Corroboration has been found in 
his rough Aramaizing diction, which seems 



to indicate the north as his residence. In- 
genious men have amused themselves with 
imagining further reasons, taken from a 
supposed special acquaintance with the Is- 
raelitish localities, &c. ; but these are of no 
weight. And one critic (Ewald, Die Pro- 
pheten des A.B., vol. i. pp. 118, 119) tells us 
that, after having completed his mission in 
Israel, Hosea retired into Judahto compose 
hi-s book. There is no evidence in regard 
to this either one way or the other. 

Hosea occupies the first place, in our 
bibles, of the minor prophets. His ministry 
extended over a long period of time, 1)eing 
exercised in the reigns of TJzziah, Jotham, 
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in 
that of Jeroboam II. king of Israel. The 
chronology of Uzziah and Jeroboam is some- 
what confused ; and it is diflQcultto say how 
long the two monarchs were contemporary 
on their respective thrones. Possibly the 
death of Jeroboam was about 783 B.C., and 
an interregnum occurred before the short 
reign of his -son Zachariah. The predic- 
tion in Hos. i. 4 was apparently delivered 
under Jeroboam : perhaps therefore the 
prophet's ministry commenced 784 B.C., and, 
if we suppose that it closed before the full 
accomplishment of the threatenings against 
SamOTia, which was taken in the sixth year 
of Hezekiah, 721 B.C.— else surely he would 
have noticed it— we may believe that it ex- 
tended over over full sixty years. There is 
no improbability in this to outweigh the 
evidence furnished. 

HOSE'A, THE BOOK OF (784—723 B.C.) 
The contents of this book are mainly direct- 
ed against the corrupt Israelitish kingdom. 
The sins of the people, committed against 
mercy andprivilege, are denounced in strong 
language; and judgment is threatened 
against them. Judah is to take warning by 
her sister's fall ; and promises of forgiveness 
to the returning backslider, with predic- 
tions of future blessing, to have their ac- 
complishment In Messianic times, are given 
and enforced. 

This book may be arranged in two parts 
the first including i.-iii., in which we find 
the relation of certain symbolical actions : 
the second, iv.-xiv., is a series of prophetic 
addresses. The title, i. 1, has been made the 
subject of discussion : some suppose it an 
addition by a later hand : others with 
more probability believe that it was pre- 
fixed by Hosea himself. But, even if this 
were not the case, there is no reason, as we 
have seen, in the preceding article, to 
doubt its accuracy. The contents of the 
book prove this. For there are predictions 
which we must suppose uttered while the 
house of Jehu was yet on the throne of 
Israel ; and there are descriptions which 
suit exactly with the state of things at afar 
later period : e.g. v. 10 may well be supposed 
to point to the conduct of Ahaz as narrated 
in 2 Kings xvi. 10-18. Then, again, Hos. x. 14, 
there is little doubt, refers to the invasion 
of Samaria by Shalmaneser, who must be 
identified with Shalman, while Beth-arbel is 
probably Arbela in Galilee, and the sack- 
ing of it occurred on the Assyrian's march 
towards Samaria (2 Kings xvii. 5, xviii.9). 
Ewald's supposition that Arbela was the 





city so called on the Tigris, aiid Shalraan 
the name of some unknown Assyrian km g 
i%iM supr. vol. i. p. 157^ is, to say the least, 

^"o?the first portion of the book, chaps. 
i iii are in prose. With regard to the syra- 
holical actions narrated in tliis part, some 
critics believe that they were literally per- 
formed ; that the prophet really contracted 
marriage as described. Others-and the 
opinion is now more generally adopted— 
suppose the whole a figurative representa- 
tion, to inculcate more clearly the sin and 
ultimate destiny of Israel and Judah There 
are obvious reasons w^hy we should inter- 
pret these chapters figuratively; and, as 
Bleek sensibly observes (Einleitung in das 
A T V 521), several years would have been 
required for the literal occurrence of the 
events ; so that the impression intended to 
be made upon the people would have been 
frittered away. The second part (iv.-xiv.) 
has been divided into separate discourses ; 
but critics do not agree upon the number 
of them ; and all attempts at division are 
uncertain. It may be that Hosea uttered 
many more predictions, and that, when he 
collected and arranged his book, he did not 
comprise in it all the words he had spoken, 
but, under the guidance of tlie divine Spirit, 
those only which, not intended for mere 
temporary use, Avere to be the church s 
treasure for ever. This may in a measure 
account for the obscurity of Hosea s writ- 
ings which are marked by conciseness and 
abrupt transitions. But he evinces great 
poetic power : his descriptions are viyid, 
and his imagery rich : he is often, too, 
tender and pathetic. 

There are several distinct quotations ot 
Hosea in the New Testament, besides oc- 
casional adoption of his language : thus 
Hos. i. 10 is cited in Rom.ix. 26 ; Hos. n. 
23 in Rom. ix.25; 1 Pet. ii. 10 ; Hos. yi 6 
in Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7 ; Hos. xi. 1 m Matt^ ii. 
15 ; Hos. xiii. 14 in 1 Cor. xv. 55 ; and Hos. 
xiv 2 in Heb. xiii. 15. There would seem 
also an allusion to Hos. yi. 2 in 1 Cm;- 
XV. 4, and to Hos. x. 8 m Luke xxui. 30, 

^Bp Horslev's commentary on Hosea, ISO! 
1804, is full of learned matter. 

HOSEN (Dan. iii. 21). Under-garmeuts, 
tunics. Sec Dress. 

HOSHAl'AH cwhom Jehovah }elps).— 
1 One who led half the princes of Judah at 
the dedication of the wall of Jf^^a em 
fNeh xii 32).— 2. A Maachathite, father of 
Jezaniah,"jaazaniah, or Azariah, which are 
most probably the varying names of one 
person (2 Kings xxv. 23; Jer. xl. 8, xlu. 1, 

'^^HO^SHAMA (whom Jehovah hears). A 
descendant of the house of David (1 Chron. 

^"hOSHE'A (salvation).— I (Deut. xxxii. 44). 
See J0SHUA.-2. The son of Elah : he con- 
spired against Pekah king of Israe , and 

, iT- ,,1 o-Ftov onmp time e<5tablishec 

';1pw him, and alter soiiit; lhhc cpkhjhohv-va 

himself as his successor (2 Kings xv. 30, 
xvii 1) The conspiracy against Pekah was 
in the tw^entieth year after Jotham's sole 
reign began, i.e. in the fourth year of Ahaz 
and the acknowledgment of Hoshea's rule 


to be understood by the phrase 'began to 
reign,' was in the twelfth of Ahaz. Hoshea 
reigned nine years, 729-721 B.C. He was not 
a godly king, but he was less wicked than 
his predecessors. Now, however, the cup 
of Israel's iniauity was full. Shalmaneser 
invaded the land, and made Hoshea tribu- 
tary Endeavouring to evade his engage- 
ments by the help of So, king of Egypt, he 
was again attacked by the Assyrian, who 
besieged Samaria, which was taken in the 
third year, and the tribes carried away cap- 
tive Hoshea was made a prisoner, whether 
before or after the siege is not clear 
(xvii. 2-6, xviii. 1, 9, 10) ; nor is his 
death recorded : he disappeared, ' cut off as 
the foam upon the water' (Hos. x. 7)_._ See r 
Keil, Comm. on Kings, transl., vol. ii. pp. 
50-54—3. The ruler of Ephraim m Davids 
time (1 Chron. xxvii. 20).— 4. One who sealed 
the covenant (Neh. X. 23). 

HOSPITALITY. We find the practice of 
entertaining strangers largely illustrated 
in the Old Testament history. Their com- 
pany was solicited as a favour : water was 
brought to wash their feet : entertainment 
was given to themselves and to their beasts ; 
and they were protected from rudeness and 
injury, sometimes even at the risk of ex- 
treme sacrifice and suffering on the part ol 
the host (Gen. xviii. 2-8, xix. 1-9, xxiv. 
25, 29-33 ; Exod. ii. 20 ; Josh. ii. 1-6 ; Judges 
xix 15-24 ; Job xxxi. 32). The Mosaic law 
enjoined kind and hospitable treatment of 
strangers and sojourners (Lev. xix. 33, 34 ; 
Deut. xiv. 29), pressing the observance of it 
by the fact to be continually remembered 
that the Israelites had been themselves 
strangers in the land of Egypt. The one 
marked exception to the obligation of hos- 
pitality is the case of Jael in her behaviour 
to Sisera (Judges iv. 17-22) ; nor can this 
woman's conduct be excused on any other 
ground than the supposition that she had 
received some divine intimation that the 
enemy and oppressor of Israel was not to be 

^^Iiftiie^New Testament the same principle 
is found. Hospitality is frequently enjoined 
and commended ; and it is insisted on as 
a necessary qualification for ecclesiastical 
office (Matt. x. 40-42, xxv. 35, 43 ; Rom. 
xii. 13 ; 1 Tim. iii. 2 ; Tit. i. 8 ; Heb. xiii. 2 ; 1 Pet. 
iv 9 ;3 John 5). It was specially required 
among Christians because of the ban under 
which, on account of their religion, they 
were laid. A significant exception is, how- 
ever, made. The faithful are forbidden to 
receive those who had rejected the cardinal 
doctrine of the gospel (2 John 9-11). No 
stronger expression of censure could have 
been conveyed. ^ ^ 

Hospitality of the kind commanded m 
scripture is to be found to this day anioiig 
races of men of simple and primitive habits. 
The Arabs of the desert are especially re- 
markable for their practice of it. It is the 
more necessary in regions w^here there is 
no provision made (as in western Europe, 
for the comfortable lodging of travelleis in 
well-appointed inns. Even in the east 
there is some difference between the usage 
in towns and that among the w^anderiug 
tribes, who pitch their teuts when and 



393 



[house 



where they choose. Travellers give iis 
graphic descriptions of this hospitality. 
Thus Buckingham, speaking of the country 
beyond the Jordan, says, ' A foot-passenger 
can make way at little or no expense, as 
travellers and wayfarers of eveiy descrip- 
tion halt at the sheikh's dwelling, where, 
whatever may be the rank or condition of 
the stranger, before any questions are asked 
him as to where he comes from or whither 
he is going, coffee is served to him from a 
large pot always on the fire, and a meal of 
bread, milk, oil, honey, or butter, is set be- 
fore him, for which no payment is ever de- 
manded or even expected by the host . . . 
though it is considered as a necessary conse- 
quence of his situation as chief of a com- 
munity,that he should maintain this ancient 
practice of hospitality to strangers.' In 
towns or villages, places of entertainment 
are often provided at the cost of the inhabi- 
tants. 

Burckhardt tells us that he found eight 
such places, called medhafes, in Kerak, a 
town about nine or ten miles east of the 
Dead sea. ' Their expenses are not defrayed 
from a common purse; but, whenever a 
stranger takes up his lodging at one of the 
medbafes, one of the people present declares 
that he intends to furnish that day's enter- 
tainment ; and it is then his duty to pro- 
vide a dinner or supper, which he sends to 
the medhafe, and which is always in suffi- 
cient quantity for a large company. A goat 
or a iamb is generally killed on the occa- 
sion ; and barley for the guest's horse is also 
furnished. . . . There are Turks who every 
other day kill a goat for this hospitable 
purpose. . . . Their love of entertaining 
strangers is carried to such a length, that 
not long ago, when a Christian silversmith, 
who came from Jerusalem to work for the 
ladies, and who, being an industrious man, 
seldom stirred out of his shop, was on the 
prtint of departure after a two months' re- 
sidence, each of the principal families of 
the town sent him a lamb, saying that it 
was not just that he should lose his due, 
though he did not choose to come and dine 
with them. The more a man expends upon 
his guests, the greater is his reputation and 
influence ; and the few families who pursue 
an opposite conduct are despised by all the 
others ' {Travels in Syria, p. 384). Traces of 
this hospitality are to be still found in 
countries which have ceased to be under 
eastern sway. Thus it is in Spain a mark of 
only common civility for persons at a meal 
to invite a passer-by to sit down and share 
it. And it is to this principle that we may 
ascribe the claim which the even accidental 
tasting of another's salt is held to give to 
his protection. 

For a notice of hospitality as practised 
among the classical nations of antiquity, 
reference may be made to Smith's Diet, of 
Greek and Roman Antiq., art. ' Hospitium.' 

HOST, HOSTS. See Army. 

HOST OF HEAVEN. This expression is 
used in different senses. It sometimes 
means the angels (1 Kings xxii. 19 ; 2 Chron. 
xviii. 18 : comp. Luke ii. 13). Hence the 
Lord is called 'Jehovah (God) of Hosts,' i. e. 
of the celestial armies. Sometimes the sun, 



moon, and stars, are Intended, the visible 
host or multitude of heavenly bodies (e.g. 
Deut. iv. 19 ; Jer.viii. 2), whom the heathen 
worshipped. Sometimes also the expres- 
sion is employed figuratively to designate 
rulers, perhaps specially ecclesiastical ru- 
lers (Dan. viii. 10 : comp. Isai. xxiv. 21). 

HOSTAGE. It was common to give 
pledges as security for a debt : see Pledge, 
But there is no mention of persons being 
so detained till the victory of Jehoash, king 
of Israel, over Amaziah, king of Judah 
(2 Kings xiv. 14; 2 Chron. xxv.24);when 
hostages were taken for the liberation of 
Amaziah : see Keil, Comm. on Kings, transL, 
vol. ii. p. 14. 

HO'THAM (a signet-ring). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 32). 

HO'THAN {id.). The father of two of 
David's worthies (1 Chron. xi. 44). The 
name Hothan is an error in our translation 
for Hothara. 

HO'THIR (whom Jehovah left, or saved ?). 
A son of Heman, one of the chiefs of the 
musicians (1 Chron. xxv. 4, 28). 

HOUR. The twenty-fourth part of the 
day. Such a mode of dividing time was not 
originally employed among the Hebrews. 
And, when the word ' hour' first occurs, it 
is used loosely and indefinitely (Dan. iii. 
6, 15, iv. 19, 33, V. 5) ; as it is frequently in 
the New Testament (Mark xiii. 32 ; John ii. 
4) ; and as very commonly among ourselves. 
At a very early period the Egyptians di- 
vided the day into twelve hours ; and the 
same reckoning prevailed among the Baby- 
lonians, from whom the Greeks took it. It 
is likely that the Jews learned and adopted 
it at the period of the captivity. In our 
Lord's time, the day, that is, the space be- 
tween sunrise and sunset, was confessedly 
distributed into twelve hours (John xi. 9) ; 
these, therefore, varied in length according 
to the season of the year. Generally, how- 
ever, we may say that the third hour cor- 
responded with our 9 A.M., the. sixth with 
our noon, the ninth with our 3 p.m., &c. In 
Acts xxiii. 23, the hours of the night were 
reckoned from sunset ; consequently the 
time named would nearly correspond with 
our 9 p.m. 

Some difficulty has been felt in reconciling 
Mark xv. 25 with John xix, 14. But, as 
it is unreasonable to imagine that there 
is really a contradiction in regard to 
the most momentous event that ever oc- 
curred, we may fairly conclude that St.. 
John, viTiting out of Judea, adopted a dif- 
ferent mode of computation, reckoning, as 
we do, from midnight ; so that the bring- 
ing forth of Jesus to the people was at 
6 A.M., the actual crucifixion at 9 a.m. See 
this fully illustrated by Davidson, Sacr. 
Herm., chap. xii. pp. 563, 564 ; Lee, Thelnsp. 
of Holy Script, lect. viii. note, pp. 391, 392. 

HOUSE. The habitations of the early 
races of mankind were doubtless very sim- 
ple. Clusters of them would, however, na- 
turally be gathered for mutual help and 
security. Hence we find Cain mentiont-d 
as having built a city (Gen. iv. 17). The 
advantages of a locality would of course 
invite permanent occupation ; while the 
j allurements of the chase, the necessity ol 



aousEj 



394 



finding sufficient pasturage for cattle, and 
nrobably tlie change of seasons, would fos- 
ter roving habits. So that various tribes, 
dwellers in tents, which could be easily re- 
moved, were soon distinguished from those 
who inhabited cities. Such movable habi- 
tations were constructed with a view to 
mere temporary convenience ; and orna- 
ment would have been wasted on them. 
The fathers of the Israelitish nation for the 
most part dwelt in tents. They were, in 
the providence of God, pilgrims m a land 
which should be given as a settled home to 
their posterity ; wholesome lessons being 
thus taught them, and their example being 
to be afterwards quoted for the confirma- 
tion of the faith of the church (Acts vii. 
4 5 ; Heb. xi. 8-10). Jacob indeed is said to 
have 'built him a house at Succoth' (Gen. 
xxxiii 17) ; but the original word so ren- 
dered is of vague signification, and com- 
prises ah-nost every kind of erection, from 
the humblest hut or even tent to the gor- 
geous palace or sacred temple. _ After leay- 
u'^ Egypt, the Israelites inhabited tents m 




rious tribes took possession of them. Sea 
\RGOB, Bashax, Cities, HAUiiAJf, 

It is probable that the houses generally ol 
the ancient Israelites differed little from 
those inhabited by modern oriental nations. 
We may well, therefore, derive our illustra- 
tions of such as are mentioned in the bible 
from usages of the present day. 

The houses of the poor are commonly 
rude huts of a single story, and often coin- 




Model of ancient Egyptian house. Brit. 
Museum. 

prise but a single apartment, shared by the 
cattle with the family, who are sometimes 
exalted upon a kind of platform. But occa- 
sionally a narrow court for the cattle is 
attached. The windows are small holes, 
perhaps with wooden bars, high up in the 
wall. The roofs, of hardened mud, are usu- 
ally flat, and -are common sleeping-places 
in summer. The materials of such tone- 



Outline of Assyrian house. Nineveh marbles. 

the Wilderness ; so that it was not till they 
occupied Canaan that they were domici led 
in houses properly so called. In the citie^ 
which they took (the few excepted whicli 




























5 


m 



Assyrian house, with gable roof. Nineveh 
marbles. 

they were commanded to destroy) they 
found houses ready to their hand (Dent. vi. 
10 11; Josh. xxiv. 13). Some of these 
houses are still existing— the massive dwel- 
lings of Bashan, little altered, it would 
^eem from what they were when the victo- 



Ancient Egyptian house. From a painting. 

ments are mud or sun-dried brick; they 
are therefore easily swept away by violent 
rains or floods (Matt. vii. 26, 27). In some 
districts stone is used. Caves, too, are not 
seldom still occupied as dwellings; of 
which indeed there are many examples in 
western Europe. 

The materials of the better class of 
houses were stone, marble, and other costly 
kinds, perhaps porphyry, basalt, &c. (1 
Cbron. xxix. 2), carefully squared, panelled, 
and fitted (Amos v. 11), cemented in Baby- 
lonia with bitumen (Gen. xi. 3), with claj', 
or mortar composed of lime, ashes, and 
«and, straw being sometimes added. In- 
ferior materials, and want of proper mixing, 
would make this mortar iiaoie to cruoibl^ 



395 



[house 



(Ezek. xiii. 10-15) in rainy weather. Some- 
times stones were fastened together with 
Iron clamps or lead. Bricks, kiln-burnt, were 
probably also used. Other materials were 
timber, such as cedar, shittim (acacia), syca- 
more, olive, and in palaces algum and cy- 
press (ExoQ. xxvi. 15 ; 1 Kings vi. 15, 16, 32- 
34, vii. 8, 12, X. 12 ; Isai. ix. 10). The precious 
raetals and ivory were also employed for 
overlaying wood-work, &c. U Kings vi. 35, 
xxii. 39 ; A.mo.s hi. 15). 

The general plan of an eastern house pre- 
sents a dead wall to the street, and one or 
more interior courts. There is a low en- 
trance-door with an inscription from the 
Koran, and over it a latticed window, or 
kiosk.sometimes projecting like our antique 
bav-wiudows ; there may be also a few other 
sm'all latticed windows high up in the wall. 




; round plan of ancient Egyptian house. From a 
painting. (A) fountain. 

.\ passage from the outer door, which is at- 
tended to by the porter (John xviii. 16, 17 ; 
Acts xii. 13, 14), leads into the first or outer 
court, but is so contrived that the entrance 
to the court is not exactly opposite to the 
external door ; so that no view of the court 
is obtained from the street, nor any of the 
street from the court. The principal apart- 




other balustraded gallery. In the corner 
of the court are the stairs to the upper 
apartments. Immediately opposite the side 
of entrance is the principal reception-room, 
open to the court. It has a raised terrace 
or platEorm, and is richly fitted up with 
sofas (the divdyi) round three sides, and pro- 
bably with a fountain in the centre. Here 
the master of the house receives his visitors, 
his place being the corner of the divan, 
and each person taking off his shoes before 
he steps upon the raised portion of the 



Ground plan of modern Syrian house. (A) Foun- 
tain in centre of court. 

ments look into this court, and some of thera 
are open to it. It is occasionally shaded by 
an awning ; and on the floor or pavement of 
it carpets are spread on festive occasions ; 
while in the centre there is of ten a fountain. 
A-round the court or part of it a verandah 
runs, and over this, when the house has 
ftiore than one story, there is probably an- 




Modern Syrian house, with alliyeh (upper 
chamber) looking into the court. 

apartment. On another side of the court 
but separated by lattice-work from it, filled 
with coloured glass, is generally another 
large apartment like the reception-room, 
and used for it in winter, or appropriated 




House at Khonas, or Chonas, ancient Colosse. 

to some visitor of rank. There are othe 
smaller rooms for visitors and retainers oi. 
this first floor ; while beneath, on whatma^ 
be called the basement, are servants' offices 
and store-places. If there be but one court, 
the apartments for the females are in th( 
upper part of the house : if there be tw( 
courts, the innermost one is theirs ; if mon 



SOUSE 

t-han two the master nccupies the second, 1 alone, besides the occupants, has access : 
n^^sSl ereXsfof his^family whom he here he can ^'eP^f^^f ^fjji^ff ^^^S 
chooses to summon from the third court, ml however intimate a fnenu, admitted. 




which they live (Esth. iv. 11). The entrance 
to the second court is usually at the corner 
of the first, hy a door nnd passage similar 
to that from the street into the first. 
The interior or women's court is usually 



Hebrew ladies were not subjected to the re 
straint at present customary in the east 
nevertheless we find notices of a specially 
private part of a house— the v.-omen's apan 
ment— sometimes resorted to as a secun 




Modern Syrian house. Court, with apartment beyond. 



larger than the first : it is paved, except m 
the middle, where is a tank for bathing 
(2 Sam. xi. 2), and where a few trees, seidom 
more than two, and shrubs are planted. To 
the harem or women's apartment the master 



hiding-place (Judges xr. 1 ; 1 Kings vii. 8= 
XX 30, xxii. 25). The arrangements of the 
inner court are similar to those of the outer. 
There are galleries or verandahs ; m the 
centre of the principal front, a large open 



397 



[humility 



room, aud other larger or smaller apart- 
ments, closed ordinarily with curtains in- 
stead of doors. The roof of a house is flat, 
except where domes are introduced. Twigs, 
matting, and earth are laid upon the rafters, 
trodden down, and covered with a compost, 
hard when it is dry. But it is necessary 
carefully to roll it after rain. On such roofs 
weeds often grow, hut are speedily dried 
up and wither (Psal. cxxix. 6, 7 ; Isai. 
xxxvii. 27). These roofs were to he care- 
fully protected by a battlement or parapet, 
lest accidents should occur (Deut. xxii. 8). 
This towards the street is a wall, towards 
the interior court usually a balustrade. It 
may have been through this that Ahaziah 
fell (2 Kings i. 2). The roof is reached by 
an external stair-case, so that it is not neces- 
sary to traverse any of the rooms in ascend- 
ing or descending (Matt. xxiv. 17). Many 
uses were and are made of these roof-plat- 
forms. Linen and other articles were spread 
there to dry (Josh. ii. 6). They were places 
of private conference, of recreation, and 
for sleeping (1 Sam. ix. 25, 26 ; 2 Sam. xi. 2 ; 
Prov. xxi. 9) : booths were erected there at 
the feast of tabernacles (Neh. viii. 16), and 
tents (2 Sam. xvi. 22). In times of public 
calamity, lamentations were uttered there 
(Isai. XV. 3, xxii. 1 ; Jer. xlviii. 38). There, 
too, was private prayer made, and some- 
times idolatrous rites performed (2 Kings 
xxiii. 12 ; Jer. xix. 13, xxxii. 29 ; Zeph. i. 5; 
Acts X. 9). 

A few additional particulars may be noted. 
Ceilings were made of cedar, and artistically 
coloured (Jer. xxii. 14, 15 ; Hagg. i. 4). There 
were no chimneys: that so called (Hos.xiii.3) 
was but a hole : indeed there were ordinarily 
no fires except in a kitchen, where, on a kind 
of brick platform, places were provided for 
cooking. Apartments were warmed when 
needful by fire-pans: see Hearth (Jer. 
xxxvi. 22) ; or fires were kindled in the court 
(Mark xiv. 54 ; Luke xxii. 55 ; John xviii. 18). 
Different rooms, too, as already mentioned 
in modern practice, were used in summer- 
time and in winter-time (Amos iii. 15) ; and, 
whereas those for use in warm weather were 
open to the court, those for colder seasons 
were closed in with lattice-work, and cur- 
tains, and, probably for want of glass in 
the windows, with shutters. There were no 
rooms specially appropriated as bed-rooms : 
just as it is com)non at the present day 
to sleep on the divan in the ordinary apart- 
ments. Hence the assassins would have 
easier access to Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. iv. 5-7). 

The various notices we meet with in 
scripture will be easily understood, if the 
previous descriptions be borne in mind. 
The chamber on the wall designed for Elisha 
(2 Kings iv. 10) was probably the room over 
the gate, with the projecting window. Per- 
haps also the summer-parlour where Ehud 
found Eglon (Judges iii. 20) was the same. 
The * guest-chamber' where our Lord com- 
manded his disciples to prepare for the last 
supper (Luke xxii. 11, 12) was one of the 
large reception-rooms in an upper story. It 
was in such a I'oom, but on the first floor, in 
the palace of the high-priest that Christ was 
examined, whence he could look down upon 
Peter at the fire in the court (61). The 



'upper room' where the disciples assembled 
after the ascension (Acts i. 13) was similar 
to the * guest-chamber' mentioned above. 
Similar also was that in which Paul was 
preaching (xx, 8, 9). Eutychus sat by the 
latticed window and fell through it into the 
court below, whither Paul went down to 
him. Such also may have been the lattice 
through which Ahaziah fell, instead of from 
the balustrade at the house-top. The cir- 
cumstances attending the cure of the para- 
lytic (Mark ii. 2-4 ; Luke v. 18, 19) may hence 
also be explained. Our Lord was perhaps 
in the verandah ; while the people crowded 
the court and impeded the passage from the 
street. The bearers therefore went to the 
roof, and, taking away part of the covering 
of the verandah, let the sick man down. Or 
it might be that Christ was in a small house 
with a single room, and that the friends, 
having mounted to the top by a ladder, 
either breaking through the battlement let 
down the sick man by the side of the house, 
or, actually uncovering the roof, passed the 
bed through the hole. Either of these modea 
was very practicable according to the cir- 
cumstances, and will satisfy the terms of 
the narrative. 

The house or temple, which Samson de- 
stroyed at his death by pulling down the 
central pillars (Judges xvi. 26-30), may be 
supposed to have had tiers of balconies, in 
which the spectators were accommodated. 
The cross-beams, loaded with an unusual 
weight, would probably break, the side- 
walls be forced out, and the roof fall ; the 
whole structure thus becoming a ruin : see 
Pict. Bible, note on Judges xvi. 29. 

It may be added that, when a man had 
built a house and had not dedicated it, he 
was free from military service (Deut. xx. 5) 
The use of the word in such passages as 
Exod. ii. 21 ; 1 Sam. iii. 12 ; 2 Sam. iii. 1, vii, 
11 ; Ezek. ii. 5, is easily understood. 

HUK'KOK (decreed, according to some, 
moat). A border-place of Naphtali (Josh, 
xix. 34). On its site is the modern village 
Yakuk, to the west of the northern end of 
the sea of Galilee. 

HU'KOK {id.). A Levitical city of Asher 
(1 Chron. vi. 75). For this we find Helkath 
in Josh. xxi. 31. 

HUL {circle), A son of Aram, and grand- 
son of Shem (Gen. x. 23 ; 1 Chron. i. 17). His 
descendants probably occupied the district 
to the north of the lake Merom, now RUleh. 

HUL' DAH (a weaseD. A prophetess, the 
wife of Shallum, keeper of the wardrobe, 
perhaps the royal wardrobe. Her residence 
was in the 'college,' or 'second part' 
(2 Kings xxii. 14, marg. : comp. Zeph. i. 10), 
probably the second or lower city, after- 
wards called Akra. To her Josiah sent for 
counsel on the finding of the book of the 
law (2 Kings xxii. 12-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 
20-28\ Jeremiah had begun to prophesy 
before this time, and it has been questioned 
why the king did not apply to him ; but he 
was young, and was, it is most likely, still 
residing at Anathoth (see Keil, Comm. on 
Kings, transl, vol. ii. pp. 138-140). 

HUMILITY. A Christian grace, the op- 
posite of pride and self-confidence. This 
grace it was, perhaps, which could least be 



aTJMTAHj 



anderstood by the heatlien ; words exactly 
to express the idea not existing in the 
Greek and Latin languages ; and, so fai as 
it was comprehended, it was contemned 
proud and vain-glorious men Humility is 
impressed on believers both by tl e exam- 
iDle of Christ (John xiii. 2-15 ; Phil. n. 5-8), 
Ind by p ecept a Pet. v. 5, 6). It was the 
Mt of the Spirit; and emotions were 
given against a false humility (Col. ii. 18). 

A specfal use of a kindred word may be here 
noted To ' humble ' a woman is to have un- 
justifiably carnal connection with her Gen. 
xxxiv. 2, marg. ; Dent. xxi. 14 ; Ezek. xxii. 10). 
' 'hUM'TAH iaplaze of lizards, or, possibly, 
abulwai^. A ci(r in the hill-country ^^^^ 
Judah (Josh. XV. 54). Its site has not been 

^^HUNTING We read of hunters in the 
earlv ages of the world, as Nimrod (Gen. x. 
9) Ishmael (xxi. 20), Esau (xxv 27). There 
were savage beasts P^^estine (^xod. 
xxiii. 29), lions (Judges xiv 5 ; 2 Sam xx i . 
90 • 1 Kings xiii. 24, xx. 36 ; 2 Rings xmi. 
25 Jer. xlix. 19), wild boars (Psal. texx. 
1?). bears (1 Sam. xvii. 34; 2 Kings i. 24) 
&c - and it must have been necessary to 
hunt and destroy them for personal pro- 
t^c^ion. There were also harts, roe^-bucks 
and fallow-deer, animals coming under the 
descrtption of game (1 Kings iv. 23), which 
were hunted and captured for food (Prov. 
xii. 27). BOWS and arrows ^^e^. used by 
the hunter (Gen. xxvii. 3). Pitfalls ^^ ere 
a^so employed for larger and fiercer beasts 
(Ezek. xix. 4\ also nets (Isai. li. 20 , Ezek 
xix. 8), and traps (Job xvui. 9, 10 , Pro^ 
xxii 5) Care was taken, when animals for 
food w^re caught in the ciiase, to pour on 
their blood on the ground ^s 13^2?^ m^ 
not be eaten (Lev. xvii. 13 14). Hf^^ tde 
Great, we are told by Josephus was a keen 
?uortsman : he kept a regular huutmg- 
StabUshment, and was often very success- 
ful (Antiq., lib. xv. 7, § 7, xvi 10, § 3 , Bell. 
JufZ lib i. 21, § 13). Hunting was a fa- 
vourite pastime in Egypt and Assyria ; and 
hunting scenes are represented on the 

"^Terns' connected with hunting and fowl- 
ing a?e often figuratively used to mdica e 
thi wiles of treacherous enemies and the 
dangers to which men are expose^d (Psa . 
IT 16 Ivii. 6, xci. 3; Prov. xx , i. 27 , isai. 
xxiv 17, xiii. 22 ; Jer. V. 26. xvi. 17, xlvm. 
44 ; Amos iii. 5). See Fowling , 
HTJ'PHAM (perhaps coastmaii). One of t^e , 
children of Beniamin (Numb. xxvi. 39) He 
is called Huppim in Gen. xlvi. 21 ; 1 Chron. 

^' HU'PHAMITES. A family of Benjamin 

^^HUP'pJH^a^cor^rn.?, a bridal bed). A 
priest, the head of one of the courses (1 

^ HUPTOI Coverings). A son or descen- 
dant of Benjamin ((^n. xlvi. 21 1 Chi on. 
vn 12, 15). He is called Hupham m Aumb. 

^"mJR'icaverri).-!. A person intimately 
a^^Kiated with Moses and Aaron, and, ac- 
cording to Jewish belief, Miriain's husband 
?Exod xvii. 10-12, xxiv. 14). We may very 
SnaWy suppo'se that it was the same 



who was of the tribe of Judah and the grand- 
father of Bezaleel (xxxi. 2, xxxv. 30, xxxyin. 
22 ; 1 Chron. ii. 19, 20, 50, iv. 1 ; 2 Chron. i. 5). 
In 1 Chron. iv. 4 he is called the father of Beth- 
lehem, probably because his descendants 
colonized or settled in that town : com p. 
ii 50 51.— 2. One of the Midianitish chief- 
tains slain by Israel (Numb. xxxi. 8 ; Josh 
xiii 21). It might seem from the last-named 
pa^^age that these chieftains were deven- 
dant upon Sihon.— 3. One whose son (Ben- 
hur) presided over Solomon's commissariat 
service in mount Ephraim (1 Kings iv. S}.-- 
4 The father of Rephaiah, who helped to 
repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. in. 9). 

HU'RAI (perhaps loorker in linen). One 
of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 32). He 
also called Hiddai (2 Sam. xxiii. 30 . 

HU'BAM OwUe, Mgh-born).-l. Adescen 
dant of Benjamin (1 Chron. viu. 5) - 2. A 
king of Tyre (2 Chron. ii. 3, 11, 12, viii. 2, 18, 
ix 10, 21). See HiKAM, 1.-3. The artificer 
sent bvthe king of Tyre to superintend 
the works of Solomon's temple (u. 13, iv. H, 
16) The honourable title ' father is here 
added to his name, which is not, as some 
have fancied, part of the name, but signi 
fies master, counsellor, and shows the esti 
mation in which he was held. See Hitiam,2 
HU'RI {worker in linen). A descendant oi 
Gad (1 Chron. v. 14). 
HUSBAND. See MARRIAGE. 
HUSBANDMAN, HUSBANDRY. See 
AGRICULTURE. ^ , . 

HU'SHAH {haste). A name found m the 
genealogies of Judah : it may designate a 
person, but more probably a place a Chron. 

i Hli'SHAI {hasting). A person styled Da- 
' vid's friend ; whom the king desired to stay 
• in Jerusalem during Absalom's rebellion 
; that he might defeat the sagacious counsel 
of Ahithophel. Hushai was completely suc- 
cessful (2 Sam. XV. 32-37, xvi. 16-18, xvii. 5- 
16 • 1 Kings iv. 16 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 33). He 
is called the Arghite, which see. _ 
1 B-WSUAM {h<iste).. One of the early kings 
' of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 34, 35 ; 1 Chron i 
i 45 46). Mr. Wilton supposes him connected 
! with Heshmon,a town of Judah {TlieJsegeb, 

' ^^HU^SHATHITE. This designation is 
given to Sibbechai, one of David's war- 
riors (2 Sam. xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chron. xi. 29, xx.4, 
xxvii 11) : in the last-cited passage he is 
said to be of the Zarhites, i. e. the desceiv 
dants of Zerah. the son of Judah. It is inost 
probable that Mebunnai (2 Sam.xxin. 2/) is 
the same person. See Hushah. 

HU'SHIM {the hasting).-}. The son o± 
-nan (Gen xlvi. 23),. called also Shuham 
'lZn^. fiXm.-2. A descendant of Ben- 
amir a Chron. vii. 12).--3. .One of the 
wives of Shaharaim,aBen]amite(viii.8,ll). 

HUSK The 'husk' of Numb. vi. 4 is 
the translucent skin of the grape. By the 
word rendered' husk' in 2 Kings i v. 42 
Gesenius understands a sack or bag. see 
mare, rendering. We once more meet with 
'husks' (Luke XV. 16). ' These,' says abp. 
Trench {Notes on tM Parages, p. 398, note, 
6th edit.) 'are not the husks or pods of 
some other fruit,' as of peas or beans, but 
themselves the fruit of the carob-tree. . . . 



399 



[hyssop 



They are in shape something like a bean- 
pod, though larger and curved more . . . 
thence called little horn (the literal mean- 
ing of the Greek word). . . . They have a 
hard dark outside and a dull sweet taste : 
the shell or pod alone is eaten. 

HUZ (light sandy soil ? ). The eldest son of 
Nahor, Abraham's brother (Gen. xxn. 21). 
The original word is that elsewhere ren- 
dered Uz : see TJz. . 

HTJZ'ZAB (Nah. li. 9). The meanmg of 
this word can only be conjectured. Ewald 
supposed it the name of the queen of Nm- 
eveh (Die Propli. des A. B., vol. i. pp. 356, 
357). Rawlinson suggests the Zab country 
(Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 842, 843). 
Gesenius, uniting the word to the precedmg 
^erse, translates ' the palace is dissolved 
and made to flow down ' ; while Henderson, 
preferring an exactly opposite meaning, 
has ' the palace is dissolved, though firmly 
established' {Minor Prophets, p. 282). 

EYjENA. This word occurs in our ver- 
sion only in the Apocrypha (Ecclus.xiii. 18). 
But some critics believe that the hysna is 
meant in Jer. xii. 9, rather than ' speckled 
bird.' This ferocious animal is common to 
the present day, and no doubt existed for- 
merly (for Zeboira, mentioned in 1 Sam. 
xiii. 18 ; Neh. xi. 34, means place of hyaenas) 
in Palestine ; but the great difficulty of 
such a rendering is that a word is adjoined 
in the passage in question which wherever 
else it occurs implies a bird. Perhaps 
therefore it is better to adhere to the read- 
ing of our translation. 

HYBAS'PES (Judith i. 6). It is uncer- 
tain what river is meant. 

BLYMENE'ITS {belonging to Hymen, nup- 
tial). One who is said to hai^e erred from 
the faith, and, in conjunction with Philetus, 
to have taught that the resurrection was 
past (2 Tim. ii. 17, 18). He is elsewhere 
coupled with Alexander, and was, we are 
told, ' delivered to Satan,' i. e. excommuni- 
cated (1 Tim. i. 20). But probably this in- 
tends something more than mere exclusion 
from the church. There was a special power 
for remedying disorders, with which the 
apostles were invested (2 Cor. x. 8, xiii. 10) ; 
and some peculiar exercise of this may be 
meant. See Bingham, Orig. Eccles., book 
xvi. chap. ii. 15. 

HYMN. Our Lord is said to have sung 
an hymn' with his disciples on the night of 
his passion, just before he went out to the 
mount of Olives (Matt. xxvi. 30 ; Mark xiv. 
26). Critics are not altogether agreed what 
this ' hymn ' was. Many suppose it to have 
been a part of what the Jews called the 
Great Hallel, i.e. Psalms cxiii.-cxviii. ; of 
which Psalms cxiii., cxiv. were sung before 
the rest after the passover-fcast. Hymns 
are generally distinguished from psalms in 
the New Testament (Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16) ; 
and the term may probably have been ap- 
plied first to some of those sacred compo- 
sitions (apart from psalms) which are pre- 
served in scripture, such as the songs of 
Moses, of Hannah, of Zacharias, of the 
Virgin, of Simeon, &c., and also to those 
praises which spiritual persons had the gift 
of uttering (1 Cor. xiv. 26). In this last- 
named place, however, it is observable that 



the composition is called 'a psalm.' Paul 
and Silas perhaps sung hymns in the Phi- 
lippian prison (Acts xvi. 25) : and, no doubt, 
the grateful joy of the first believers would 
soon find vent in hymns of praise ; of which 
the doxology, the angelical and cherubical 
hymns in the Communion office are ex- 
amples. Bingham traces the progress of 
hymnology in the early church in Orig. 
Eccles., book xiv. chap. ii. ; and a writer in 
the Quarterly Review gives a compendious 
account of Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, 
and other hymns (vol. cxi. pp. 318-355), 
which, with the works there referred to, 
may be consulted with advantage. 

HYPOCRITE. One who merely acts a 
part, i. e. a dissembler in religion, who has 
the form without the power of godliness. 
There are many severe censures upon hy- 
pocrites in our Lord's addresses (Matt. vi. 
2, 5, 16, and elsewhere). The word rendered 
'hypocrite' in Job viii. 13, xiii. 16, and 
elsewhere, is more properly godless, pro- 
fane. 

HYSSOP. St. Augustine long ago re- 
marked that readers of the scripture who 
did not know what hyssop was could not 
comprehend the full force of several of the 
passages in which the mention of it occurs 
{Be Boctr. Christ, lib. ii. 24, edit. Ben., tom. 
iii. col. 29 : comp. 62, col. 43). Augus- 
tine describes hyssop as a lowly and short- 
stemmed plant, with roots penetrating 
rocks or stones, and of purgative qualities. 
It is a singular fact, however, that even to 
the present day naturalists are by no means 
agreed what really was the hyssop of scrip- 
ture. 

Hyssop is first mentioned in the com- 
mand to the Israelites to sprinkle with it 
the blood of the paschal lamb on the lintels 
door-posts of their houses (Exod. xii. 
22). The plant, then, must have been com- 
mon in Lower Egypt, and it must have been 
large and leafy enough to be used for 
sprinkling. There are further notices of it 
in the books of Leviticus and Numbers. 
Thus, in the direction for the cleansing 
of the leper, hyssop was to be taken (Lev. 
xiv. 4, 6, 7, 51, 52) ; also in the ordinance 
about the red heifer (Numb. xix. 6, 18). 
Hence hyssop must have been procurable 
in the wilderness and on the outskirts of 
Palestine, and, if not bushy, it would not 
have been suitable to sprinkle with. To 
this use of it the Psalmist and a New 
Testament writer allude (Psal ,11. 7 ; Heb. 
ix. 19). Again, when Solomon's knowledge 
of natural history is spoken of, it is said 
that he described ' trees, from the cedar- 
tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hys- 
sop that spriugeth out of the wall ' (1 Kings 
iv. 33). Hyssop then must have grown 
(though not necessarily always) upon walls ; 
and some have inferred that it was a small 
plant, being contrasted with the lofty cedar. 
Once more, the sponge full of vinegar of- 
fered to our Saviour on the cross, we are 
told (John xix. 29), was put upon hyssop. 
St. Matthew and St. Mark, however, do not 
mention the hyssop, but say that the sponge 
was put on a reed (Matt, xxvii. 48 ; Mark xv. 
36). It is hence obvious that the hyssop was 
a plant of Judea, found in the neighbour- 



ibhar] 



400 



hood of Jerusalem ; and it is inferred irom 
a comparison of the evangelists tliat it had 
a long stalk, which might be used as a stick 
or reed. , j l 

Manv conjectures have heen made CJ va- 
rious writers to identify hyssop, and to 
find some plant wliich shall satisfy the con- 
ditions referred to. Celsius enumerates 
no less than eighteen ; each of which has 
had its supporters. Among these are rose- 
mary, thvme, marjoram, &c. That niost 
generally favoured is the Hijssopus ojnci- 
naLis, common garden hyssop, a perennial 
plant, usually very smooth. The root 
throws up several leafy stems, which are 
woodv at the base, diffuse, and much 
branched : the branches are from one to 
two feet long. Dr. Kitto was at first in- 
clined to believe hyssop the Phytolacca de- 
candra, but he afterwards relinquished his 
own opinion in favour of that of Dr. Forbes 
Rovle, who contributed two papers on the 
subject to the Church of England Magazine, 
vol XTiii. pp. 92-94, 179-181 : to these papers 
the present article is greatly indebted. 

Dr Royle's attention was directed to a pas- 
sage' in Burckhardt's Travels in Sima, in 
which he speaks of the aszef which he saw m 
the Sinai peninsula. ' On noticing its pre- 
sence in Wady Kheysey, he describes it as 
a tree which he had already seen m several 
other wadies. It springs from the fi ssures in 
the rocks ; and its crooked stem creeps up 
the mountain-side like a parasitical plant 
According to the Arabs it Produces a fruit 
of the size of the walnut, of a blackish 
colour, and very sweet to the taste. The 
bark of the tree is white ; and the branches 
are thickly covered witn =mall thorns : the 



leaves are heart-shaped, and of the same 
<shade of green as those of the oak' (/Syria, 
pp 536, 537). Dr. Royle was from this de- 
scription led to imagine that the plant 
Burckhardt saw was a species of Cap- 
paris; and on further investigation he 
found that the Capparis spinosa, or caper- 
tree (called by the Arabs asuf, a word very 
similar to the Hebrew term rendered ' hys 
sop') was to be met with in all the situa 
tions— Lower Egypt, Sinai, and Palestme- 
where it is mentioned in the bible. Dr. Roy lu 
concludes : • Its habit is to grownpon the 
most barren soil, or rocky precipice, or the 
side of a wall. ... It has, moreover, always 
been supposed to be possessed of cleansing 
properties : hence, probably, its selection 
in the ceremonies of purification; or its 
employment in these may have led to the 
supposition of its possessing the power of 
curing diseases like leprosy. Finally, the 
caper-plant is capable of yielding a suck to 
which the sponge might have been affixed ; 
as we learn from St. John was done with 
the hyssop, when the sponge dipped m 
vinegar was raised to the lips of our Sa- 
viour A combination of circumstances— 
and some of them, apparently, too impro- 
bable to be united in one plant— I cannot 
believe to be accidental, and therefore con- 
sider myself entitled to infer, what I hope 
I have now succeeded in proving to the 
satisfaction of others, that the caper-plant 
is the hvssop of scripture.' It is fair to 
add that naturalists are not prepared fully 
to adopt Dr. Royle's conclusion. In the 
present state of our knowledge, however, 
his opinion is entitled to very great defer 
ence. 



IB'HAR (whom God chooses, chosen). One 
of the sons of David (2 Sam. v. 15 ; 1 Ohron. 

^"iB'LE \M (he consrmes the people). A city 
belonging to Manasseh, but territorial y 
within the district of another tribe (Josh 
xvii 11; Judges i. 27; 2 Kings ix. 27). It 
is perhaps identical with Bileara (1 Chron. 

^\w^l' AS (Jehovah will luilcT). A Ben- 
jamitewho dwelt at Jerusalem (1 Chron. 

^^IBXI'JAH (M.). A Benjamite a Chron. 

^^IB'RI {Eebrevfs. A descendant of Merari 

S'?AN^(perhaps of tin, or sp J en doiir). One 
of the judges of Israel (Judges xii. 8-10) It 
s very uncertain whether the Beth-lehem 
to which he belonged was that in Zebulun 
or the more illustrious Beth-lehem of Judah, 
perhaps the former. Some have ground- 
lessly fancied Ibzan the same with Boaz 

ICE Ice.or congealed water, is repeatedly 
meationed in scripture, usually as giving 



point to an illustration (Job vi. 16, x^^yii.^. 

99) Perhaps the Hebrews cooled their 
drinks with Ice or snow (Prov. xxv. 13^ In 
Psal. cxlvii. 17 it is put poetically f or hail 
I'CHABOD {inglorious). The son of Pam(> 
has and grandson of Eli, born when the ark 
of God was taken, and so named on account 
at that calamity '(1 Sam. iv. 19-22). He was 
vounger brother of Ahitub, father of Ahiah 
or Ahimelech (xiv. 3). ^.p Acio 

IC0'2^IITM. A considerable city of Asia 
Minor, generally considered as belongmg 
to Lvcaonia, though Xenophon Unab.,lih. i. 
cap ii. 19) calls it the last city of Phry gia, and 
Ammianus Marcellinus (Rer. Gest. lib xiv 
2) places it in Pisidia. It lay m a fertile 
plain at the foot of Taurus, on the great 
line of communication between Ephesiis 
and the more eastern cities of Tarsus and 
Antioch, and the Euphrates. In the decline 
of the Romau empire it was made a colony, 
and in the middle ages Iconium was stil l a 
place of consequence, as the seat of the 
Seliukian sultans. It is now called Komeh 
and has a population of about 30,000, with 



some imposing remains of Saracenic archi- 
tecture. St. Paul first visited Iconium with 
Barnabas from Antioch in Pisidia (a town 
to the west); and their preaching and mi- 
racles were made effectual to the conver- 
sion of many ; hut, a persecution heing 
stirred up hy the Jews, the apostles fled to 
Lystra and Derhe. They visited Iconium 
again, however, before returning to the 
Syrian Antioch (Acts xiii.50,51,xiv. ; 2 Tim. 
iii. 11). St. Paul must have been at Iconium 
in his next journey with Silas (Actsxvi. 1-6), 
and very possibly at a later period (xviii, 
23). It was well suited for a centre of mis- 
sionary operations. 

ID'ALAH (variously explained, as ivhat 
God exalts, memorial stone of God, or he goes 
softly). A town of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 15). 

ID'BASH {honied). A descendant of Ju- 
dah (1 Chron. iv. 3). 

ID'DO (timely). The father of one of So- 
lomon's commissariat officers (1 Kings iv. 
14).— 2. A Gershonite Levite (1 Chron. vi, 
21) called also Adaiah (41).— 3. The grand- 
father of the prophet Zechariah, a priest 
who returned with Zerubbabel from Baby- 
lon (Ezra V. 1, vi. 14 ; Neh. xii. 4, 16 ; Zech. i. 
I, 7). There are some variations in the 
Hebrew in the spelling of this name. 

ID'DO {loving). The ruler in David's time 
of Manasseli east of the Jordan (1 Chron. 
xxvii. 21). 

ID'DO (nearly allied in meaning to the 
name of the first Iddo, with which it is 
sometimes interchanged). A seer, whose 
• visions against Jeroboam the son of Nebat,' 
and book 'concerning genealogies,' and 
' story' imidrash) or chronicle of the acts of 
Abijah, are referred to by the author of 
Chronicles (2 Chron, ix. 29, xli; 15, xiii. 22), 
There is a Jewish tradition that he was the 
disobedient prophet of 1 Kings xiii. 

ID'DO (calamity). A chief of the Nethinim 
at Casiphia, to whom Ezra sent for Levites 
to join his caravan (Ezra viii. 17). Thirty- 
eight Levites, and two hundred and twenty 
Nethinim responded to the call (18-20). 

IDLE. The word 'idle' does not often 
occur in our version, and generally is at 
once intelligible. But in Matt. xii. 36 the 
meaning of an 'idle word' has been ques- 
tioned. It may best be taken as indicating 
the empty insincere language of a man who 
carelessly says one thing and meaa& an- 
other, * conducing neither to instruction 
nor innocent entertainment . . . not conse- 
crated by any seriousness of purpose what- 
ever' (Dr. Goulburn's Tlie Idle Word, p. 93). 

IDOL. A representation of some princi- 
ple or being to whom worship was paid. 
It was intended to- convey through the ex- 
ternal senses a more vivid notion to the 
mind of the object adored, and thus to be 
simply a medium— as the Israelites meant 
to honour Jehovah by nseans of their calf- 
like image (Exod. xxxii. 5). But grosser 
ideas naturally prevailed ; and men, having 
regarded the representation as sacred to 
the deity, came very often to consider it 
the deity itself, at least to offer it worship, 
as if tlie senseless stone or piece of metal 
could hear and help them. Sometimes liv- 
ing creatures, animals or reptiles, were ob- 
jects of adoration ; sometimes idols were 



molten or graven images, formed * by art 
and man's device.' All such are equally 
prohibited in Fcripture. There are a vast 
number of words in the Hebrew bible by 
which idols are designated, some of a moral 
cast, to indicate the detestation in which 
they should be held, others implying that 
they represented some object, or idea, or 
attribute of a deity, and others having re- 
ference to the material of them, or their 
workmanship. To give lists and definitions 
of all these would pass beyond the limits 
and purpose of the present work. A writer 
in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 
848-852, enumerates twenty-one such terms: 
to that, or to lexicons or similar books, the 
reader must be referred. Our word * idol,' 
it may be observed, is from the Greek eido- 
lon, an image, spectre, or shade. The forms 
of idols were and are multifarious, from a 
shapeless block of wood or stone, to the 
elaborately-figured and ornamented human 
or bestial representation. Specimens of 
them, ancient and modern, are plentiful in 
the museums of the curious. Idols had 
temples where they were set up and fastened 
(Tsai. xli. 7 ; J er. x. 4), and priests appointed 
for the rites of their worship. Here as 
trophies the arms of defeated foes were 
hung (1 Sam. xxxi. 10). And sometimes 
idols were carried out to battle (2 Sam. v. 
21). But they were essentially an affront 
and detestation to the holy Lord of heaven 
and earth (comp. 2 Chron. xv. 16, marg.), 
whether they were literal material idols, 
or whether merely some object or pursuit, 
incompatible with his service, to which the 
heart was given : see next article. 

IDOLATRY. The worship of other ob- 
jects or beings besides the one true God. 
This must have arisen from the neglect and 
depravation of that knowledge of himself 
which the great Creator communicated to 
the common father of the human family. 

Probably the heavenly bodies were among 
the earliest objects of idolatrous reverence. 
Their glorious splendour, and the influence 
which it was soon perceived they exercised 
upon mundane things, naturally impressed 
the minds of men, who, with indistinct no- 
tions of the mighty Former, transferred to 
them the honour due to him. This kind of 
idolatry is noticed in the book of Job (Job 
xxxi. 26-28 : see some good remarks in 
Kitto's Pict. Bible, note on Job xxxi. 26). But 
a more subtle principle was introduced, re- 
gulating and intertwined with this worship. 
The power of nature was deified, that gene- 
rative power, according to which life was 
communicated, and forms of existence were 
continually reproduced. And this power 
was separated into active and passive, 
male and female, the one, after the highest 
notion, the source of spiritual, the other of 
physical life. These powers were personi- 
fied, sometimes separately, and sometimes 
in combination. Thus the sun and moon, 
the Baal and Astarteof Phoenician worship, 
were regarded as embodying these active 
and passive principles respectively. And 
the idol deities of other nations bore simi- 
lar characters. It is easy to see how such 
worship would be tainted by licentiousness 
of thought, and that the riles of it would 
D D 



i 





be immoral and obscene. Unnatural lusts t 
would be indulged, till tliefriglitful picture i 
drawn by tbe apostle Paul ot beatbenism . 
was abundantly realized among _ even the 
most refined nations of antiauity (Rom. ] 
1 18-32) It was in order to guard the Is- ^ 
raelites against such abominable things 
that manv of the enactments of the Mosaic 
law were directed (e.g. Deut. xxii. 5). 

It is impossible to foUow out here the 
large subject of heathen idolatry, which 
would demand a volume for a full illustra- 
tion and history of it. It will be more suit- 
able to trace rapidly the course of that infec- 
tion derived from their heathen neighbours, 
which tainted from time to time the Hebrew 
nation, and involved them in the guilt of 
idolatrv; a sin which, because Jehovah 
had taken them into intimate covenant 
with himself, is often stigmatized as whore- 
dom and adultery (e.g. Jer. iii. 1-3; Hos. ii. 2-5). 

There are indications of idolatrous wor- 
ship among the early patriarchs, relics, it 
is likely, of that from which God withdrew 
Abraham, intending to raise from him m 
his seed a covenant people (Josh, xxi v. 2). 
Thus Laban had images, which Rachel (it 
is to be feared with no good motive) pur- 
loined. And some such images continued 
ill Jacob's family (Gen. xxxi. 1? 3o 32-3o 
XXXV 2 4) That the symbolic idolatn of 
Egypt made an impression on the Israelites 
may be concluded from the form of the 
image manufactured when Moses was in 
the mount (Exod. xxxii. 4 : comp. Josh xxn 
14) Also that there was some kind of stai- 
woVship practised in the wilderness we may 
conclude from Amos v. 26 ; Acts vii 43. Be 
this, however, as it may, we see at a late 
period of their wanderings the licentious 
worship of Baal-peor, contracted from the 
Moabites and Midianites (Numb, xxv ). It 
was so fearfully punished, that the Hebrews 
when they entered Caanan kept themselves 
^urefrom idolatry; and thisfaithfulcondu^^ 
lasted during Joshua's life and that of the 
elders of that generation ^J'^ ?^/V,^^d him 
(Josh. xxiv. 31). Afterwards the slackness 
of the people to take possession of the 
whole country, and their living m proximity 
to so many of the original possessors, and 
ttie'? habits of intercourse with them, pro- 
duced a very natural effect. Again and 
again durin| the rule of the judges they 
Ifrv^dBaal and Ashtaroth, until warned by 
chastisement they returned to the God of 
ttieir fathers (Judges ii. 10-19). From al 
the dolatrous nations that were on their 
birdersfeast as well as west, they ^oiTOwed 
dpities from the PhCEnicians and Philis- 
t1netfeomtlieSyrians,fropMoa^^^^^^^^^^ 
Ammon (x. 6). It was not till the days ot 
Samueftkt anything like a co^-P V,^; 
formation was effected (1 Sam. ^i^- J^oj. 
But after this, through the reigns of the 
fir^t kings, idolatry s^ems to lia\e dis- 
appeared in Israel, till the miserable folly 
S Solomon, who was perverted m his o d 

KJL ouiuiiiwi. , Tc-iiroa 1p>-1 him to builc 

fic-p bv his foreign wn es, lea uiui tju-n^^ 
IhrinL for the false gods of Moab and 
Ammon and Phcsnicia ]ust in front of his 
o™glorious temple, in ^nnatural rivalr 
rith Jehovah who had deigned to dwel 
Vera a kiugs xi. 1-8). After theschism ol 


he kingdom idolatry prevailed very gene- 
allv among the ten tribes. The device ol 
leroboam to prevent his subjects from wor- 
4iipping at Jerusalem led easily to worse 
practices ; and the alliance formed by Ahab 
n-ith Jezebel well-nigh made Baal-worship 
the established religion of the land (xii. 26, 
27 xvi 31-33). This received a check, indeed, 
from Elijah (xviii. 40), and was eradicated by 
Jehu (2 Kings x. 18-28) ; still other forms 
of idolatrous worship were substituted or 
lasted on, till at length in just punishment 
for such defection God removed Israel by 
the hand of the Assyrian kings to distant 
exile (xvii. 6-18). Colonists from the east 
occupied their cities ; and a mixed religion 
then prevailed, a certain fear of Jehovah 
combined with the worship of the idols of 
the respective peoples who had been intro- 
duced (24-41). Judah did not escape infec- 
tion. Rehoboam copied the worst part of 
his father's doings (1 Kings xiv. 21-24). And, 
though Asa and Jehoshaphat promoted re- 
formation (XV. 11-13, xxii. 43), yet the alliance 
with the house of Ahab (2 Kings vni. 18) 
produced the most evil consequences ; and 
even the better-disposed kings by leaving 
the hish places supplied opportunities tor 
renewed apostasy. Hezekiah's reformation 
was more thorough (xviii. 4-6) ; and so was 
Josiah's subsequently (xxiii. 1-20) ; yet the 
work of these pious sovereigns passed away 
with them ; and the last days of Jerusalem 
were her worst (Jer. ii. 28, vii. 17, 18, xi. 13) ; 
and Judah too was carried into captivity. 

Besides that open idolatry which con- 
sists in worshipping false gods there was 
a^so continually the sinful endeavour to 
honour Jehovah by means of some image 
or representation. This was the fault of 
Israel when they erected the calf in tbe 
wilderness. We see traces of it in Lhe 
epbod of Gideon (Judges viii. 2/), m the 
house of gods which Micah made (xvu. 3-5, 
13) and more fornially in the calves of 
Jeroboam (1 Kings xli. 28-33). These two 
forms went hand in hand, the one easi y 
leading to the other ; for Israel entirelj^ 
forgot that, if the one was a violation of 
the first commandment, the other was of 
the second (Exod. XX. 3-6). 

The severe chastisement of the captivity 
in a great measure did its work. Perhaps 
those who went into Egypt were the worst 
cla«s of the Jews (Jer. xliv. 15-30). Yet 
even there idolatry did not last among 
them And, though after the return there 
was much lukewarmness shown, and al- 
liances -were afresh made with ungodly na- 
tions, and false prophets appeared (Ezra ix. 
1 2 : Neh. vi. 14), yet, so far as we can ]udge 
by the national covenant (x.) and the general 
strain of the post-exilian prophets, Haggai, 
Zechariah, and Malachi, idolatry scarcely, 
if at all, existed. And subsequently, when 
\ntiochus Epiphanes attempted to force 
idolatrv upon the Jews,though some through 
fear complied (1 Mace. i. 43-50, 54), yet the 
heart of the nation was sound ; and this 
tvrannical attempt roused that spirit _oi 
resistance which led to the Mac cabean vic- 
tories (ii., iii., &c) ; and the general establish, 
nient of svnagogues in which the sacred 
books were publicly read contributed 



408 MihXt ^nQMtHQt. [image or god 



preserre the purity of the faith. See this 
topic well illustrated hy Garbett {Divine 
Fkm of Revelation, 1864, lect. vii. pp. 435-444), 
who justly observes that the change in the 
national mind, if we ' endeavour to account 
for it on ordinary and human principles, 
becomes inexplicable.' 

The modesof idolatrous worship which we 
find noted in scripture were reverent 
salutations (Job xxxi. 27), vows (Hos. 
Ix. 10), offerings of incense (1 Kings xi. 8 ; 2 
Kings xxii. 17, xxiii. 5 ; Jer. i. Id, vii. 9, xi. 
12, 13, xviii. 15, xxxii. 29), unbloody (vii. 18) 
and bloody offerings (2 Kings v. 17), among 
which were human sacrifices: see MOLacH. 
These offerings were made on high ijlaces 
and rocks (1 Kings xi. 7 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 5 ; 
Isai. Ivii. 7 ; Jer. ii. 20, iii. 6, xiii.27 ; Hos. iv. 
13), on the roofs of buildings (Jer. xix. 13, 
xxxii. 29), under shady trees (1 Kings xiv. 
23 ; 2 Kings xvi. 4, xvii. 10 ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 
4 ; Ezek. vi. 13, xx. 28), in valleys (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 3 ; Jer. ii. 23), and gardens (Isai. i. 
29, Ixv. 3). Uncleanness and unnatural 
sexual commerce have been already hinted 
at. There was also a frequenting of graves, 
possibly to pacify the spirits of the dead 
(4). And indeed much of the system of 
idolatry implied that the beings worshipped 
were malignant, and must be conciliated 
in order to avert injury from the worship- 
pers. The numbers of an idolatrous priest- 
hood were commonly large (1 Kings xviii. 
22 ; 2 Kings x. 21) ; and some of their prac- 
tices are described in 1 Kings xviii. 26, 28, 
29; Hos. X. 5: see Winer, Bibl ETFjB., art. 
* Gotzendienst.' 

In the New Testament the Christians, who 
were continually brought into contact with 
idolaters through the extent of the Homan 
empire, were cautioned as to their behaviour. 
I Not only were they to abhor idol-worship 
I itself, but they were also to abstain from 
I meats which had been offered to idols (Acts 
I XV. 29). It was true that the meat itself 
was not thereby defiled, for an idol was 
nothing ; and therefore Christians need not 
be too particular in enquiring into the his- 
tory of what was set before them. But, if 
any one apprised them that it had been so 
presented, they were not to eat, lest an 
occasion of offence should be given to a 
brother or to a censorious heathen (1 Cor. 
Viii. 4-13, X. 25-32). 

Sometimes, it would seem. Idolatry is used 
in a figurative sense. God ought to have 
the whole heart. If a man sets it on any 
created object, he defrauds God of his right, 
and really pays worship to something else. 
And so his conduct is stigmatized as idol- 
atry (Eph. V. 5; CoL iii. 5, and perhaps 1 
John V. 21). 

ID'UEL (1 Esdr. viii. 43). Ariel (Ezra 
viii. 16). 

IDUME'A (Isai. xxxiv. 5, 6; Ezek. xxxv. 
15, XXX vi. 5 ; Mark iii. 8). See Edom. 

IDUME'ANS (2 Mace. x. 15, IG). The in- 
habitants of Idumea or Edom. See Edom- 

ITES. 

IG'AL (God will avenge). — 1. The spy se- 
lected from the tribe of Issachar (Numb. ; 
xlii. 7).— 2. One of David's warriors (2 Sam. ^ 
xxiii. .%). He is also called Joel a Chron. 
x\. 38). 



1 IGDALI'AH (Jehovah tcill make great). A 
! person, named only once (Jer. xxxv. 4), as 
' a man of God.' 

IG'EAL (God will avenge). A descendant 
of David (1 Chron. Iii. 22). The name Is 
identical with Igal. 

I'lM (ruiiis, rubbish).—!. One of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites (Numb, xxxiii. 45) : it 
is identical with Ije-abarim, which see. 
—2. A town in the extreme south of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 29). Wilton connects it with 
Azem which follows, supposes the real place 
to be Ije-azem, and identifies it with the 
rums of el-'Aujeh(ov 'Abdeh) of the 'Azazimeh 
Arabs {The Negeb, pp. 155-160, 169-172, 176). 

I'lM (Isai. xiii. 22, marg.) This word is 
rendered in the text 'wild beasts of the 
islands :' it is doubtless jackals, from a word 
signifying a wailing cry. In Isai. xxxiv. 14, 
marg., it is Ijim. 

I'JE-ABA'RIM {ruins of Abarim, or of the 
fuHher regions). One of the stations of the 
Israelites (Numb. xxi. 11, xxxiii. 44), called 
also Iim (45). It must have been near the 
south-east frontier of Moab. 

I'JIM (Isai. xxxiv. 14, marg.). See 2nd 
Iim, 

I'JON (a ruin). A city belonging toNaph 
tali, in the north of Palestine. It was taken 
by Ben-hadad king of Syria, at the instance 
of king Asa (1 Kings xv. 20 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 4), 
and afterwards fcy Tiglath-pileser in the 
reign of Pekah. Its site has been identified. 
To the south of Lebanon there is a pretty 
plain, six miles long and two broad, called 
Merj Aiyun. At its north end is a great 
mound. Tell Mamo, or Tell Dibbeen : the top 
of this mound is covered with the rubbish 
of the ancient city (Dr. Thomson, The Land 
and the Book, pp. 222, 223). 

IK'KESH {perverse). The father of one 
of David's warrioi-s (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 : 1 Chron 
xi. 28, xxvii. 9). 

I'LAI {supreme). One of David's heroes 
(1 Chron. xi. 29). He is called Zalmon in 
2 Sam. xxiii. 2'8. 

ILLYR'ICUM. A country of Europe, 
named by St. Paul (Rom. xv. 19) as the 
farthest district to which he had ' preached 
the gospel of Christ.' lUyricum was then 
a Roman province, along the eastern shores 
of the Adriatic. It appears to have com- 
prised Liburnia, lapodia, and Dalmatia 
(comp. Ptolemy, Geograph.,lih.u. cap.xvil.). 
See Dalmatia. 
IMAGE. See Idol. 

IMAGE OF GOD. Man was at first created 
after God's 'image,' in his 'likeness' (Gen. 
1. 26, 27). By this must be understood both 
a natural and a moral similitude to the 
Creator. The first consisted in that high 
prerogative of mind, the intellectual power 
by which man stands altogether above and 
distinguished from the brute creation ; the 
other in that purity of heart in which his 
will was in unison with the holy will of God. 
By transgression this was lost : and perhaps 
the high faculties of the mind were also 
deteriorated. So that now men bear ' th^- 
image of the earthy;' and it needs the 
great power of God's Spirit to assimilate the 
descendants of 'the first man Adam' to 
' the last Adam.' They must be renewed in 
the spirit of their mind ere they can 'bear I 



IMAGE OF jealousy] EXtK^nV^ flt 



404 



the image of the hearenly ' (John in. 6 ; Rom. 
viii. 9 ; 1 Oor. xv. 45, 49\ See Adam. 

lAlAGE OF JEALOrST (Ezek. Tin. 3, o). 

If any particular idol be here meant, it may 
have' been Baal or Ashtoreth. But, as the 
Lord is described as a ' jealous God, who 
will not bear the estrangement of his people, 
more probably the phrase is used general y, 
applvins ro all the abominations which the 
prophet afterwards witnessed 
IMAGERY, CHAMBERS OF. See CHA:ii- 

BERS OF lilAGERY. 

IM'LA. or IM'LAH (whom God makes 
fulf) The father of the prophet Micaiah 
(1 Kings xxii. 8, 9 ; 2 Chron. xvin. 7, 8). 

IMM\^''UEL {God icitli us). The symbolic 
name siven to the child whose birth the 
prophe^t Isaiah was commissioned to an- 
nounce to Ahaz on occasion of the confede- 
racy formed by Israel and Syria against 
Judah (Isai. Tii. 1-16\ . k 

This passaee has been cited by St. 
MattheTV, and^ specially applied to the birth 
of Christ (Matt. i. 22, 23), who, though not 
bearing Immanuel as au ordinary name, is 
riehtly regarded as ' God with us ' m the 
conjunction formed in his person betwixt 
the Godhead and the manhood, and as ever 
present in his church, and with his people 
through the ages of the world (xxvni. 20). 
A^ an expressive title of honour therefore, 
as^an appellation most dear to his believing 
followers, the name Immanuel has been 
alwavs given to the Lord Jesus Christy It is, 
however, fair to say that much difficulty 
ha= been felt in the application of the pro- 
phecy to the birth of Christ. Soine years 
a^o an opinion was expressed m Home s 
Introd., VOL ii. pp. 202, 203, edit. Ayre ; and 
siubsequent consideration has not m any 
de^-ee modified the view there propounded. 
There can therefore be no impropriety in 
transferrins: to these pages, with a few 
slight verbal alterations, the remarks here- 
tofore published. ^ , 
Opinions vary as to the aspect of the 
transactionwhichtheprophet records Some 
have denied its real connection witn Christ • 
and some, who allow it a Messianic cnarac 
ter believe that an event occurring m the 
time of Ahaz was the primary object of the 
prediction. Thus the 'virgin is regarded as 
I=aiali's wife, the son to be born one ox the 
prophet's children, actually receiving the 
name Immanuel. All this is gratuitous. 
There is no notice of the birth of such a son, 
a? there is of Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isai. 
viii 1-4) ; and it is difficult to conceive why, 
if it were so, the land should be called Im- 
raanuel's (8). If there must necessarily be 
some immediate fulfilment of the prediction 
i to encourage those who were then aUve, it 
' ig not unreasonable to imagine that the child 
referred to fvii. 16) was Shear-jashub, for 
whose presence (3) there is otherwise no ade- 
auate ground. But this need not be insisted 
on The main reason for some present ful- 
filment is the supposition that the birth 
of Me==iah, centuries after, could not be a 
sign to Ahaz. This, however, is to forget 
the fact that the mere utterance of a pro- 
phecv or promise is often regarded as a 
si'^n' Thus, when Moses first hesitates 
about undertaking the divine commission. 



he is told, ' This shaUbe a token unto thee, 
that I have sent thee : when thou hast 
brought forth the people out of Egypt, ye 
shair&erve God upon this mountain' (Exod. 
iii. 12\ It might ecLually be said that this 
could have been no encouragement to Mo- , 
«e« to attempt the liberation of his people, 
since it was not to be fulflUed till that li- 



beration had been accomplished. In Isaiahs | 
own time there was a similar fact. When 
Hezekiah was alarmed by Sennacherib s de- 
clared intention to destroy Jerusalem, he , , 
was told that God would interpose to de- i 
fend his chosen city, so that the Assyrian 
ho^t should be consumed. Hezekiah's ter- ! 
ror was great ; for the danger was pressing, ; 
the foe at hand. But the sign given for his j 
encouragement was comparatively distant. , 
' This shall be a sign unto thee. Ye shall 
eat this vear such as groweth of itself, and 
the second vear that which springeth of the 
same ; and in the third year sow ye and 
reap, and plant vineyards, and eat the fruit 
thereof (xxxvii. 30). The sign would 
not be completed till after the invading 
enemv was discomfited. There is no neces- 
sity, therefore, for placing the fulfilment of 
the prediction of Immanuel in the time of 
4Lhaz But, even if any such inferior fulfil- 
ment then occurred (of which scripture 
says nothing), adumbrating the future, it 
would not derogate from the grand purpose 
of announcing the wonderful birth of him 
to whom the law and the prophets point. 

There was reason for the announcement 
at that time : Syria and Israel were con | 
federate against Judah. Their purposa i 
was not to make an ordinary inroad, but to 
dethrone the heir of David, to bring to : 
nought, that is, the Lord's covenant with 
that house. He that then filled David's ; 
throne was indeed unworthy of the honour; ' 
still God's counsel would stand. The con- 
federate kinsrdoms should be put to shame ; i 
and, thouarh on Ahaz and his people just 
punishment must be inflicted (17-21), and : 
Judah be eventually laid waste, yet the de- 
=im of Svria and Ephraim should be sig- 
nallv frustrated, and that glorious promise 
be fulfilled in establishing the sovereignty 
of David's divine Son, who should in special 
manner show that God, the covenant God 
of his people, would be with men. The 
evangelist takes up the prediction in its 
broadest meaning, and shows how it was 
accomplished. Before this every other in- 
terpretation is mean and inadequate : this 
was the mind of the inspiring Spirit, fuUy 
brought out in no other event than the m- 
carna'tion of the Son of God. He only is 
the true Immanuel. And before his advent^, 
not just the kings whom Judah trembled 
pt (14), but their very kingdoms, had been 
<swept away. There is no mere accommoda- 
tion here : the event had come to pass for 
which the world had waited. 

It is not possible to discuss in this place 
the minuter points of the phraseology em- 
ployed : for such discussion the reader 
must consult other books. It may be added 
that a lucid view of this prophecy and its 
fulfilment is given in Fairoairn's Henn. 
2>[onnaJ. part iii. sect. ii. pp. 416, &c. 

IM'MER {talkative). A priest whose de- 



405 



[INDIA 



Bcendants are mentioned (1 Chron. ix, 12 ; 
Neh, xi. 13) after the return from captivicy. 
He is probably the same with the chief of 
the sixteenth course (1 Chron. xxiv. 14). 
Some of the family returned to Jerusalem 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 37 ; Neh. vii.40) : 
two of them had married foreign wives 
(Ezra. X. 20) ; and one aided in repairing 
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 29\ Per- 
haps Pashur (Jer. xx. 1) was of this family. 
See Amariah. 

IM'MER (id.). A place from which some 
Jewish exiles returned who could not prove 
their pedigree (Ezra ii. 59 ; Neh. vii. 61). 

IMMORTALITY. A state of exemption 
from death. God is said alone to possess it 
(1 Tim. vi. 16), because it is his of his own 
essence, not derived from or held at ano- 
ther's will, as is the case with beings who 
are made immortal, as the risen dead shall be 
(1 Cor. XV. 53). In 2 Tim. i. 10 Christ is said 
to have 'brought life and immortality to 
light through the gospel.' But the original 
word here differs from that before used : 
it is better expressed by ' incorruptibility.' 
The Lord Jesus disclosed, uncovered from 
the original gloom, that new and glorious 
life of the Spirit, which undecaying is like 
a light that shines more and more unto the 
perfect day. 

IM'NA (whom God keeps hack). A chief- 
tain of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 35). 

IM'N AH (good fortune). ~1. The eldest son 
of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 30). He is also called 
Jimna and Jimnah (Gen. xlvi. 17; Numb 
xxvi. 44). — 2. A Levite (2 Chron. xxxi. 
14). 

IMPRECATION, IMPRECATORY 
PSALMS. See Psalms. 

IMPUTE. This word is used in reference 
to Abraham's faith. He believed God ; and 
it was 'counted to him (imputed, reckoned) 
for righteousness' (Gen. xv, 6 ; Rom. iv. 3, 22 ; 
Gal. ill. 6; James ii. 23). And this is pro- 
pounded as the pattern of our justification 
(Rom. iv. 1], 23, 24). It is not that faith is 
meritorious ; but, as Abraham, believing 
the revelation made to him, grasped the 
promise, and had therein the blessing, so 
those, who now accept by faith the offer of 
free pardon made to them in Jesus Christ, 
are no longer treated and condemned as 
sinners : they are 'made the righteousness 
of God in ' Christ (2 Cor. v. 21). See Justi- 
fication, and comp. Dr. Alford's remarks 
(TJie Greek Test., note on Rom. iv. 2, 3). 

IM'RAH (refractory). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 36). 

IM'RI (eloquent). — I. A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. ix. 4).— 2. A person whose 
son helped to build the walls of Jerusalem 
(Neh. iii. 4). 

INCENSE. A fragrant composition 
burnt according to the Jewish ritual upon 
an altar (see Altab) before the Lord. The 
composition of it is minutely described by 
Moses : ' Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, 
and onycha, and galbanum, these sweet 
spices with pure frankincense: of each 
shall there be a like weight. And thou 
Shalt make it a perfume, a confection after 
the art of the apothecary, tempered (salted, 
marg.) together, pure and holy. And thou 
Shalt beat some of it very small, and put of it 



before the testimony in the tabernacle of 
the congregation, where I will meet with 
thee : it shall be unto you most holy (Exod. 
XXX. 34-36). There was a special prohi- 
bition added, that no man should make the 
like for private use (37, 38). According to 
Jewish writers there were other ingre- 
dients, the use of which was perhaps intro- 
duced at a later time. These may be found 
enumerated in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. i. p. 865. 

Incense was to be burnt on the altar spe- 
cially appropriated for the purpose twice a 
day, in the morning when the lamps were 
dressed, and also when they were lighted in 
the evening. It might seem as if this office 
were restricted to the high priest (Exod. 
XXX. 7, 8) ; but certainly the ordinary priests 
are found burning incense (Lev. x. l) ; and, 
in later times at least, those who so officiated 
were chosen by lot (Luke i.8, 9) ; the people 
being of course without (lO), and probably 
praying in silence (comp. Rev. viii. l, 3). 
There was another solemn burning of in- 
cense—and this was the high priest's pecu- 
liar office— on the great day of atonement 
(Lev. xvi.13). The burning of incense ap- 
pears to have been customary among other 
nations. Thus the Egyptians burnt resin to 
the sun when it rose, myrrh at noon-day, 
and a mixture which was called kuphi at 
sunset (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt., vol. v. p. 
315). We find this also making a part of 
Jeroboam's idolatrous service (1 Kings xii. 
33, xiii. 1) ; while TJzziah, for presuming to 
burn incense, as if he had been a priest, in 
the temple, whs smitten with leprosy (2 
Chron. xxvi. 16-21). The burning of incense 
to false gods is frequently reprehended (2 
Kings xvii. 11 ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 3}. 

Jewish writers have said that the incense 
was to counteract the unpleasant smell 
which might arise from the carcases of vic- 
tnns. But it had a higher purpose. Thepsal- 
mist (Psal. cxli. 2) indicates this ; his words 
implying that prayer was in reality what 
incense was in the symbol. And Dr. Fair- 
bairn well remarks on. the natural connec- 
tion of the two, that the odours of plants 
and flowers are the sweet breath which, so 
to speak, they exhale, while prayer can 
hardly ' be more suitably regarded than as 
the breath of the divine life in the soul ' 
(Typol. of Script, book iii. chap. iii. sect. 6, 
vol. ii. pp. 320, 321). 

IN'DIA. This word occurs in Esth. i. 1, 
viii. 9. The Hebrew name is nearly identi- 
cal with the old Persian Hidhus, for the 
Sanscrit Si7idhus, the land of Sind (the In- 
dus) . It is evident that India as here men- 
tioned did not include the peninsula of 
Hindostan, but the districts around the In- 
dus, the Punjab, and, it maybe, Scinde. In- 
dia, in the same sense, occurs in the Apo- 
crypha (1 Esdr. iii. 2 ; Rest of Esth. xiii. l, 
xvi. 1) ; it is also mentioned (but by mis- 
take, probably for Ionia) in 1 Mace. viii. 
8. Though, however, India proper is not 
named in scripture, yet it is very likely 
that Solomon and the Tyrians carried on an 
Indian trade ; and, at a later period, natives 
of that country seem to have been employed 
in guiding the elephants which were used 
in war (1 Mace. vi. 37). 



in-gatherxn-g] 



406 



IN-GATHERING, FEAST OF (Exod. xxiii. 

16) See TABERNACLES, FEAST OF. 

INHERITANCE. In the earlier ages, in- 
heritance seems to have been very mainly 
at the ^^^ill of the father (Gen xxv. 5 6) 
Afterwards, when the land of CaJiaan had 
been divided among the several tribes of 
Israel, that division was to be presei-ved : 
laud was not to pass from tribe to tribe. 
Hence, when a man's daughter was an 
heiress, she was to marry only widiin her 
own tribe (Numb, xxxvi.). The chi dren 
aiherited the possessions of the fathei , 
the first-born having a double poition 
(Deut. xxi. 15-17). But, according to the 
principle just noted, provision was made 
that they should not be alienated altogethei 
from the family, nor from their due distri- 
Initiou among the various branches of the 
family. For, if a married person died with- 
out children and left a widow, his brother 
was to take his wife to raise up seed to his 
brother : and the first-born of such an 
union would succeed to the name and 
inheritance of the dead (xxv. 5, 6)_. Again, 
there was a regular succession pre- 
scribed. In failure of sons, daughters m- 
herited ; if there were no daughters, the 
brothers of the dead man ; if he had no 
brothers, his father's brothers ; and, fail- 
ing these, the next of kin (Numb, xxvii. 
8-11). Besides, if any one alienated or mort- 
gaged his inheritance, it could be only for 
a term of years. The land was Jehovah s 
as sovereign Lord, and as held under him 
it must descend in the course he prescribed 
iLev. xxv. 23). In the year of jubilee, there- 
Eore, every possession returned to the line ot 



ing to the number of years which remained 
till that time. There were some excep- 
tions made, as that houses m walled towns 
could not be redeemed after a year, and 
did not return at the jubilee. The Leyites. 
however, might redeem houses at any time ; 
and their houses did return to them at the 
nWlee! But they were forbidden to sel 
' the field of the suburbs of their cities 
r94-34) We see from all this why Laboth 
refused (which otherwise might seem a 
chuiiish act) to sell Ahab his vineyard 
1 Kinsrs xxi. 3). Wills, under such legal 
dispositions, were little needed ; and we do 
not read of them in the Old Testament. 

It may be added that the heavenly inhe- 
ritance Is illustrated ^l^^^ .^^^Vn 
the Mosaic regulations (1 Pet. i. 4 : comp. 
Eph. i. 11 ; Col. i. 12). 

INIOTJITY. The want of equity_ or 
righteousness, that which is done against 
or regardless of the law of God. To beai 
iniquity is a phrase used both of one who 
suflerff or his own sin (Numb xiy 34), and 
of one who makes expiation for the sin oi 
another (Exod. xxviii. ^8 ; Lev. x 1- xvi. 
92) And so it was predicted of Messian, 
that he should bear men's iniquities, i. e 
suffer the punishment which they had 
merited (Isai. liii. 4, 6, 11, 12). See Hender- 
son, The Prophet Isaiah, note on liu. 4 

INK INK-HORN (Jer. xxxvi. 18 ; Lzek. 
ix. 2, 3,' 11 ; 2 Cor. iii. 3 ; 2 John 12 ; 3 John 13). 
See Writ IK G. 

INN The word so rendered means ra- 
ther a 'lodging-place : inns in our sense of 
the term were anciently unknown m the 
east ; and even now they are hardly to be 





Eastern inn or caravanserai. From an original sketch. 



its original owner. So that land could be 
mortgaged only till the next jubilee ; and the 
value was greater or less according to the 
distance of the time of general release. Also 
the person who had alienated might, either 
himself or by his kinsman, redeem the in- 
h'^ritance before the jubilee, paying accord- 



met with, except where established by En 
ropeans. The inns, therefore, of Gen. xl 
27 xliii. 21; Exod. iv. 24 were merely the 
ha^thig-places of caravans. Hospita ity 
^^4s generallv practised ; so that a travellei 
Ld little difficailty in obtaining shelter and 
fo(^d wherever he reauired it (ben. K\in 



407 



[mSPIRATlOH 



1-5, xix. 1-3). As travelling became more 
frequent, and the accommodation of way- 
faring persons began to be felt a burden, it 
is likely that a custom was introduced, 
which still subsists, of the inhabitants of 
a place making an allowance to the chief 
for him to entertain strangers. Then, too, 
khans, or carayanserais, were erected — 
large structures where the traveller might 
freely repair and find lodging and water 
for himself and his beast ; he himself pro- 
viding food and forage. Many such khans 
were placed at regular intervals in Persia, 
And to such a place was it, though already 
crowded, that Joseph and Mary resorted 
at Beth-lehem (Luke ii. 7). Dr. Kitto thus 
describes one : ' It presents an external 
appearance which suggests to a European 
traveller the idea of a fortress, being an 
extensive square pile of strong and lofty 
avails, mostly of brick upon a basement of 
stone, with a grand archway entrance. 
This leads ... to a large open area, with a 
well in the middle, and surrounded on 
three or four sides with a kind of piazza 
raised upon a platform, three or four feet 
high, in the wall behind which are small 
doors leading to the cells or oblong cham- 
bers, which fonn the lodgings. The cell, 
with the space on the platform in front -of 
it, forms the domain of each individual 
traveller, where he is completely secluded ; 
as the apparent piazza is not open, but is 
composed of the front arches of each com- 
partment. There is, however, in the cen- 
tre of one or more of the sides, a large 
arched hall, quite open in front, . . . The 
cells are completely unfurnished, and have 
generally no light but from the door; and 
the traveller is generally seen in the recess 
in front of his apartment, except during 
the heat of the day, . . . Many of these 
caravanserais have no stables ; the cattle of 
the travellers being accommodated in the 
open area. But in the more complete es- 
tablishments . . there are . . spacious sta- 
bles, formed of covered avenues extending 
between the back wall of the lodging- 
apartments and the outer wall of the whole 
building ; the entrance being at one or 
more of the corners of the inner quad- 
rangle. The stable is on the same level 
with the court, and thus below the level of 
the tenements which stand on the raised 
platform. Nevertheless this platform is 
allowed to project behind into the st-able, 
so as to form a bench, ... It also often 
happens that not only this bench exists in 
the stable, forming a more or less narrow 
platform along its extent, but also recesses 
corresponding to these in front of the 
cells towards the open area, and formed in 
fact by the side-walls of these cells being 
allowed to project behind to the boundary 
of the platform. These, though small and 
shallow, form convenient retreats for ser- 
vants and muleteers in bad weather. . , . 
Such a recess we conceive that Joseph and 
Mary occupied, with their ass or mule— if 
they had one, as they perhaps had— teth- 
ered in front: ... it might be rendered 
quite private by a cloth being stretched 
across the lower part ' (Daily Bible Ilhist., 
Sf'C. Ser., twenty-eightli week, seventh day). 



The khan or inn mentioned in Luke x, 34, 
35, appears to have had a host or keeper, who 
attended to some of the wants of travellers. 
In Egypt houses of entertainment are said 
to have been kept by females, whose cha- 
racter was generally not reputable (comp. 
Josh, ii.), 

IlsSCRIPTIOK It is sometimes objected 
that the inscription placed upon our Lord's 
cross is variously given by the different 
evangelists (Matt, xxvii, 37 ; Mark xv. 26 ; 
Luke xxiii. 38 ; John xix. 19). Dr. Townson 
had lucidly shown that, as it was thrice re- 
peated, in three languages, it is likely that 
there would be differences ; and Mr, Coker 
Adams has investigated the matter In a 
sensible way (TJie Inscription on the Cross, 
&c., a Sermon, &c., Oxford, 1858, pp. 23, 24). 
He believes that St. John records the very 
words written by Pilate, and that the three 
other evangelists have preserved the in- 
scription in the three languages, Matthew 
in Hebrew, Mark in Latin, Luke in Greek. 
There could have been but a narrow 
space upon the cross ; and yet the writing 
was to be fully legible. Now, if ' Jesus of 
Nazareth ' were placed separately above the 
rest, and also larger, and if the three lines 
below declare-d th-e crucified to be ' the 
King of the Jews,' all the expressions 
would fall naturally into order : 

JESUS OF NAZARETH. 
THIS IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS. 
THIS IS THE KING OP THE JEWS. 
THE KING OF THE JEWS. 

'With this interpretation,' says Mr 
Adams, 'every word and particle of the 
accounts given by all the four evangelists 
agree both with each other and with pro- 
bability; the first three announcing the. 
derisive yet true proclamation of their 
Lord to those three great nations, the 
fourth relating those words which visibly 
on the cross, no less than really in their 
sense, belonged alike to all.' 

INSPIRATION. It has been elseM^here 
shown (see Canon op Scripture) that the 
book which we call the bible contains the 
authoritative documents always appealed 
to as the source from which the doctrines 
of Christianity are to be learned : it is ne- 
cessary to enquire whether these docu 
ments convey merely the opinions of men, 
or whether they are to be considered as 
in any respect communications from the 
Deity, The writers may be honest and 
trustworthy, so far as their own opportu- 
nities of observation extended; but we 
want to know, further, whether they were 
divinely guided in what they have recorded. 
Else we cannot be bound to submit our 
judgment to theirs : we may be as compe- 
tent as they were to decide what is and 
what is not truth. 

This is confessedly a difficult question. 
For it is acknowledged on all hands that the 
writers of scripture were men of like Infir- 
mities with ourselves. It is palpable, 
therefore, that there is a human element 
in the bible ; and, if the presence also of 
a divine element is asserted, we cannot 
readily say how the two combine, or.draw 
the separating line between them. But the 
same mystery runs through the whoI» gos- 



inspiration] 



408 



p^^l We believe that our blessed Saviour 
\ra,s perfect God and also perfect man ; but 
mortal eve could never discern the meet- 
ins-point of Deity and humanity, or ex- 
pound the mode of that widrous combi- 
nation. It is enough for our consolation 
and salvation that ve accept the tact, 
which yet in the way of its subsistence we 
cannot comprehend. , 

So it is with scripture : it is essentially 
divine ; it is yet intensely human. Let us 
take a few of the proofs which piay be al- 
leeed for each of these assertions, , 

If it be granted that a revelation at all is 
made to men, the reason of the thing shows 
that the writers of the book in which it is 
contained must be divinely commissioned. 
If the bible be no more than a collection ot 
histories, of letters, of moral precepts, and 
devotional reasonings, flowing only from 
human thought, its authority must be very 
light. The productions of gifted men may 
be admired and approved, but they may be 
superseded by others ; so that we could have 
no assurance that the conclusions of to-day 
misht not be recalled or overshadowed by 
those of to-morrow. The divine element 
Is required to produce a standard. It would 
be easv to suppose greater poetic power 
than tlmt manifested l)y the sacred poets 
a larger intellect than was possessed b,. tne 
simple-minded fishermen of Galilee ; and we 
mav call such genius, such philosophic ca- 
pability, inspiration if we "^1 ^^J^ 
lacks the essential quality of being the au- 
thoritative message of the Deity such in- 
spiration is in its nature diverse from that 
of writers who were to convey heaven s 
message to the men of earth. That mes- 
sage mav be conveyed in a rude and homely 
«hape : it is not the outward accompani- 
ment, it is the internal authority which 
constitutes the communication a veritable 
word of truth, announcing the will of the 
Highest to his creatures. So that, if there 
is anv authoritative declaration of God s 
will in the bible, any standard established 
to be a certain rule for human conduct, it 
cannot be merely of man's devising ; by 
the reason of the thing it must in some . 
wav come from God. . ! 

The mode in which the scripture has al- 1 
wavs been treated is no contemptible proox , 
of a divine orisinal. First of all placed so- j 
lemnly before the Lord, when but a portion , 
of it was written (Deut. xvii. 18, xxxi.9, 2o, 
26), regarded afterwards, as it grew as tne . 
rerv message of Jehovah (Psal. xix 7-11, ! 
cxix.), subinitted to as of divine authority 
(2 Kings xxii. 8-11 ; Zech. i. 6), held fast m 
^pite of tvrannical persecution (1 Mace, 
i 57\ appealed to by Christ himself as set- 
tling controversy (Matt. xxii. 29-32, 43-4o ; 
Luke X. 26), and preserved for ages, even by 
t io-e whose conduct it most severely cen- 
sured, while other books have been mu- 
tilated and lost-how can all this if ac- 
counted for except on the surpositton that 
the=e books were from Ood? Whence came 
t eVeverence paid to them ? Was it a mere 
fancv-a superstitious notion, grounded 
on nothing, and t^^^^^^J"^^, 
without any of the sages thix-,ugh who.e 
hands tbe scripture passed detecting and 



exposing the delusion? Such a continuous 
mistake is more hard to be believed than 
the fact that God has really spoken to men. 

4L'^ain the contents of the bible offer ad- 
ditional proof. Granting that it is gene- 
rally credible, it delivers things which 
could not have been knoA^Ti but by divine 
help. The narrative of creation, the notices 
of angels, the announcement of God's 
counsels, the description of the happy fu- 
ture inheritance of the righteous, and spe- 
cially the utterances of prophecy, cannot 
have proceeded from man's unassisted 
powers. Either those high mysterious an- 
nouncements are the vain speculations of 
an unbridled imagination, or they have 
been communicated by some divine teach- 
in°- Either the predictions of the bible 
are"the mere guesses of sagacious men, or 
they are veritably the oracles of God. But 
see' for a moment if they com be happy 
o-uesses. Let all licence be given for ex- 
plaining events by calling them coinci- 
dencesriet the times when they were uttered 
be brought down as low as ingenious critics 
de=ire fo bring them ; you have still the 
fact that, in the age of Christ, nay two cen- 
turies before Christ, there was a body of 
writine-s, referring to the future condition 
of the Jews, of Tyre, of Egypt, of Babylon, 
which the events of successive centuries, 
even to our own days, have been only more 
clearly confirming ; so that we have stand- 
ing proof before our eyes that things have 
happened, contrary to the proba^^'lities of 
the times when these prophecies were de- 
livered, but in singular accordance with 
the prophecies themselves. How is this to 
be explained? The only satisfactory con- 
clusion is that the writers of such words 
were divinely guided. Any other hypo- 
thesis presents difiiculties of the most for- 
midable cast. , , , , 

Further, how came the wonderful scheme 
' of man's salvation into any one's thoughts 
; unless bv a divine communication ? Chris- 
I tianitv, 'so wonderful in its plan, so gra- 
I clous in its purpose, so marvellously adapted 
: to human wants, so productive of human 
happiness (see Christia>'ity), how was it 
devised ? Was it the offspring of Grecian 
wisdom, or excogitated by the masculine 
mind of Rome? Did Egyptian sages dis- 
cover it? or can you trace it to Persian 
lore ? jS'av, none of these suppositions can 
be maintained. The volume in which you 
find that wonderful delineation of a perfect 
character, in which you have adequate no- 
tions of the Deity produced, was composed 
by despised Jews ! Who guided their minds 
to achieve such a moral wonder ? 

And as:ain, the scripture consists of a 
multitude of books, written in different 
ages by men of different ranks and natural 
eifts. How is it that a unity pervades the 
whole? that you have in the first the germ 
of a religious svstem of which the last are 
but the harmonious development? This 
fact alone is suflicient to prove that there 
is something more than mere human com- 
position in the bible. One may conceive of 
a single fanatic; but a series of them 
through successive centuries, all with the 
same bias, one taking up the strain where 



409 



[iNSPIliATIOls 



nnother ceased, producing only louder 
clearer gushes -of the same harmony— how 
can you account for this save on the prin- 
ciple that the influence of one master mind 
pervaded all, the master mind of the 
changeless Deity, with whose message these 
his servants were entrusted ? This topic is 
well illustrated in Garbett's Divine Plan of 
Revelation, 1864. 

Still further, the writers of the hooks of 
scripture most distinctly claimed for them- 
selves and their fellows to have the positive 
assistance of God. Large parts of the bible 
are prefaced with the solemn formula, ' Thus 
saith the Lord.' The writers give special 
words which they say the Deity uttered : 
thev convey messages with which they say he 
commissioned them : they denounce tlireat- 
enings which they say are by his command. 
And the later writers aflQrm of their pre- 
decessors that 'all scripture is given by 
inspiration of God,' 'the holy scriptures' 
being 'able to make wise unto salvation' 
(2 Tim. ill. 15, 16), and that ' holy men of 
God spake as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost ' (2 Pet. i. 21). Now it is clear either 
that these assumptions and declarations 
are based upon a lie, or that there was 
really some divine influence exerted. And 
that divine influence is said to be of the 
Holy Ghost, in such a way that the sayings 
of the ancient prophets are sometimes 
quoted as the sayings of the Holy Ghost 
(Acts i. 16, xxviii. 25 ; Heb. ill. 7, ix. 8) ; at 
other times these prophets are described as 
speaking in spirit (Matt. xxii. 43: comp. 
2 Sam. xxiii. 2). Corroborative testimony 
is found in the fact that our Lord promised 
his disciples that in pressing emergencies 
they need not be solicitous as to the way in 
which they should defend the faith : ' For 
it is not ye,' he said, ' that speak, but the 
Spirit of your Father which speaketh in 
you' (Matt. x. 20). And they were instructed 
to suspend the assumption of their office 
as teachers of the gospel till they were en- 
dued with power from on high. That power 
was imparted in the miraculous descent of 
the Holy Spirit on them on the day of pen- 
tecost (Luke xxiv. 49; Acts i. 8, ii. 1-4). 
And afterwards, in deciding a weighty 
point of Christian doctrine, they did not 
hesitate to say, 'It seemed good to the 
Holy Ghost and to us' (xv. 28). If in the 
decision of controversy, if in promulgating 
the gospel generally, they had this super- 
natural assistance, they had it surely in 
their authoritative writings. The scrip- 
ture, therefore, there can be no doubt, em- 
phatically claims for itself a divine ele- 
ment : it claims to be not merely ' the word 
of man,' but ' the word of God.' This claim 
has been generally allowed in the Christian 
church. So that testimonies of fathers and 
ecclesiastical writers in abundance might 
be produced, exhibiting the universal con- 
sent of Christendom to the fundamental 
truth that the Holy Ghost spoke by pro- 
phets and apostles. These testimonies 
have been collected and classified by Dr. 
Lee in his valuable treatise, ' The Inspiration 
of Holy Scripture, append. G. pp. 484-527, 
2nd edit. 

Let us now turn to the other side of the 



question. The scriptures are intensely hu- 
man. Had they been simply the voice of 
God authoritatively promulgating his will, 
thev would prohably have altogether taken 
the'f orm of those laws— the ten command- 
ments for example— to which the Deity did 
give utterance. But we find them a collec- 
tion of treatises, histories, annals, poetry 
of various kinds, letters, biographies, &c., 
making to be sure a complete whole, and 
such a whole that one book or composition 
could not be taken from it without seriously 
impairing the symmetry. We further find 
these various books presenting unmistak- 
able characteristics of the several Avriters. 
They differ not only in subject-matter, but 
in style and language; so that we see 
clearly that they are not just repeating a 
dictated message, but that each expresses 
what he has to say after his own fashion. 
Nothing is more evident than that the wri- 
ters of scripture were men of like passions 
and infirmities with ourselves. They use 
popular terms : they often let us see (as 
David, Jeremiah, and others) what their own 
feelings, of grief, and joy, and anxiety, &c. 
were : they are not angels describing as it 
were apart things not personally belonging 
to them : they are human beings most inti- 
mately connected with the things they 
record. 

Moreover, these writings confessedly 
contain much which in itself is imperfect 
and erroneous. For example, Satan is in- 
troduced, distinctly contradicting God's de 
clarations. The words and deeds of evil men 
are chronicled ; and sometimes there are dis 
cussions in which a subject is more or less 
rightly handled, and inwhich therefore some 
of the opinions maintained are by no means 
to be taken as just. It would seem hax'dly ne- 
cessary to give a caution on this point. Yet 
persons have fallen into the absurd mistake 
of denying the inspiration of scripture be- 
cause Job and his friends advance positions 
which cannot be defended. They might as 
well object to the inspiration of the Gospels 
because Herod and the scribes and Pharisees 
and the chief priests therein utter untruths 
or malicious slander. The real conclusion 
to be drawn is that the bible is the work of 
men's hands, delivering according to the 
wisdom possessed by them narratives of 
good and evil, coming by these narratives 
into closest contact with the various phases 
of human life, but never intending to set 
up as a standard of thought or action the 
words and deeds of all whose history they 
chronicle. 

There is a divine element, then, in scrip- 
ture; and there is a human element ; and the 
great question is, How far does the divine 
control the human ? how far does tlie human 
overmatch the divine ? Does the first pre- 
serve the second from error ? or does the 
second alloy the first with imperfection? 
We know that the sacred writers, prophets 
and apostles, erred while they were upon 
earth in speech and action ; the difference in 
the voice of a holy man or prophet when 
speaking from his own judgment, and when 
with a message from God, is seen in Nathan's 
two replies to David (2 Sam. vii. 1-17) : did 
they— here is the weighty point for soiutior 



Es'SPIEATION] 



&cagury of 



410 



-did they err In these writings ? They liad its grandest cliaractenstics f .^he book- 
^Tiptimes to sneak of natural things, of not of an age, or a class, or a station-buc 
Sch the men of their aie were ignorant, of ancient and modern times, of old men and 
who ronseguently S notions which we ! children, of princes and peasants, of Jews 
now knSw to be erroneous: did tlie scripture j and Gentiles, of bond and free the hook lo 
Jr.^p.., „.^„„p errors? all, empnatically for the race of man bo 

^o^ il m^^^^ ^as never grown antiquated it 

whi?lTthebibl1 was composed It was not travels as it were along with successive 
fo each listToL^ny or p^^ except bo : generations an^ it must be^^^ 
far as to lead the mind up from created even by those who question its accuiacy, 
wJrks to the creative hand! not to deliver , that, though written most of it m a distant 
^sto^ except lo L as to e^^ the di- j antiquity, the bible does not shock us, as 
v ne SVeniance 0^^ the world f not to settle I some other prof essedly-sacred books do, by 
chronologv further than to Uustrate the | absurdities and violent misstatements. 
tS and fittin^^^^^^ in which God's But, af rer all that has been so far conced- 

gi^at pfans were to be developed. We must ed, ^^^^r the admission of th^^ ^Hlf^t^. 
nni- look for scientific information in the human character of this book, it ib reason- 
Soly book Ve may ^^^^^^^^ that the able to.expect that the divine mflue^^^^^^ 

=?cred penmen spoke on these topics as men divine mfiuence there is, will be fuUj relt. If 
of ^hifdav wou^Id ordinarily speak. And the book wera to open wuh a demonstrably- 
hence wf Jh^uhi expectT^ we find, the false account of creation, if it were to cou- 
Sl incoriect exp^^^^^^^ the sun's tradict the proved facts of history, an un- 

rSinL ind the 'un^^^^^^^^^^^ And we need favourable conclusion must necessarily be 
noUmShlP at Th- noe ical description of , reached. But then it wouldbe a conclusion, 
fht luZnaiw comln'i as^i^^^ from his : not that the human element predominated 
tabeSe nke a bVide^room from his ' over the divine, but that there was no dmne 
cfamblr and mallng hfs circui from the element in the book at all. If it can be 
one end of thfl^^^^^^^ to the other (Psal. proved, and considerations adverted to 
Te) Such expressions are common above show that it can be proved, tnat a di- 



vine Influence guided the sacred writers, 
thoueh it did not annihilate their person- 
alitv,^or interfere with their being the very 
authors severally of their books, we need 
not be solicitous to determine the exact 
point— difficult enough it has been said— 
where the two elements combine. It 1? 
ufQcient to know that they do combine foi 



now; nor would the most accomplished 
a-tronomer hesitate in speaking or writing 
thus. There are necessary imperfections m 
language. TThen we have to speak of God, 
we must describe his piercing eye, his 
powerful hand, his melting heart. Is there 
anything inconsistent with the dignity of 

S^^'eo??.i?c»racV\ '?onsfd«aUon^fite Se"gr7ate5t-5racUcargood ; and the lac. 

diiSe of a larie ma^s 01 ob^ that they, so harmoniously and perlectl; 

^WrS^sisd-^^ ^-ii^o^^^ i?utS =s 

he ?acrtrTv^-fter^ had nJ^spo^^^^^ a bible is the word ol God. It is not, as some 

cSVtantlv teaching "S to describe known cordant, which shrewd men may easily dis 

Sets iifnU TangSfee ^^^^^^ the language of sever, and, picking out the pieces, may lay 

"',.^5 ,ame ; and not onlv each sort apart ; it is rather that wondrous 

^^buf the SnSa-e of sJribture is neces- interpenetration of divine and human each 

^ri^radauted tfuifcoim^^^^^^ element being united in eveiT particle so 

FnSnecS de\Vlopei^^^^^^^^ which he is that the whole is bone of our bone, flesh ol 

nimioid not to li^ of science, our flesh, men speaking like men to men, 

ESlSk^r^iSlS SKH! S^fAtA^^f f dffatpl 

aot on tnat account uie le.. ii c _ that which men mechanically wrote down ; 



not on that account 

proper purpose. For, if any terms had been 
used adapted to a more advanced state of 
icnowledee, they must have been unintel- 
ligible anions: those to whom the scripture 
was first addressed' {Indications of the 
Creator, p. 175). Among ourselves, when 
cnowledae has increased, and scientific re- 
-earch been widely diffused, works written 
with scientific accuracy of expression would 
nnquestionablv be beyond the comprehen- 
sion of the people. For the bible to come 
home, as it was intended, to every man's 
■lOuse and heart, it must meet hira on the 
Threshold of his own knowledge and 
aoti-ns; it must intertwine Itself with his 
'verv-day thoughts ; else it could be but a 
.^qlp'l bonk to him. and it would lose one of 



even without this we acknowledge fully here 
the utterances of eternal truth. Very sen- 
sibly does Dr. Hannah {Bampton Lectures^ 
1863, pp. 139-14n reason on this part of the 
subject : ' If we have realized the influence 
of that special inspiration which distin- 
guishes the sacred writers from every other 
class of human agents, the strength of our 
own faith should be enough to save us from 
sharintr in the fears which have been 
aroused by the assertion that the human 
element, through which those divine gifts 
were communicated, was not only moulded 
by the individual characteristics of the 
writers, but was adjusted to the scientific 
opinious and literary habits of the times in 



411 



[INSPIRATIOJ* 



which they severally lived We have 

dwelt on some few of the leading features 
which prove the reality and influence of 
Chat divine presence which shines through 
every part of scripture, reconciling the 
seeming contrarieties of human formulas, 
and spreading out a hroad range of divine 
significance as the basis on which the human 
language rests . . . When we are now asked 
to gaze with reverence but with firmness on 
the nature of the earthly apparel in which 
these shapes of heavenly truth are robed, 
we may surely enter on the task in a spirit 
of frank confidence, and with entire freedom 
from any unworthy alarm. We risk but a 
small venture on the sex^arate value of the 
earthen vessels, when the possession of the 
heavenly treasure is secured .... Setting 
forth from the firm foundation of faith, we 
shall find that disputes on details have a 
growing tendency to settle themselves and 
disappear. It is a dangerous and mistaken 
policy to raise these disputes to adven- 
titious importance, by treating them as 
though they necessarily involved the issue 
of our highest interests.' 

No exact definition of inspiration has as 
yet been given ; but the observations already 
made will tend to illustrate it. It is that 
guiding infiuence which, while it gives free 
scope to the natural qualities of the sacred 
writers, and makes itself known to men by 
human organs, elevates the message thus 
delivered so that it is the word of God. In 
this aspect of it some of the common ob- 
jections are seen to be irrelevant. It is 
asked with apparent triumph, Did St. Paul 
need inspiration to send for the cloak he 
had left at Ephesus (2 Tim. iv. 13^ ? Of 
course not ; but this direction is found in a 
letter written under divine guidance, a let- 
ter, instinct with all human feelings, from a 
suffering man to a trusted friend. The ob- 
jection that there are touches of humanity, 
of common-place humanity, in the bible, as 
if that excluded the divine element, is quite 
beside the mark. It has been shown that 
the great cause of this book's being just 
suited to man's necessities and feelings 
and confidence is that it was written by men. 
There may be noted, too, the distinction, 
sometimes lost sight of, between inspira- 
tion and revelation. Mr. Westcott has 
characterized them very well . ' By inspira- 
tion,' he says, ' we conceive that' man's ' na- 
tural powers are quickened ; so that he con- 
templates with a divine intuition the truth 
as it exists still among the ruins of the 
moral and physical w^orlds. By revelation 
we see, as it were, the dai'k veil removed 
from the face of things ; so that the true 
springs and issues of life stand disclosed in 
their eternal nature ' {Introd. to the Gospels, 
p. 8). 

Various examples of inaccuracy in scrip- 
ture are produced. The narrative in one 
place, it is said, does not agree with the nar- 
rative in another. In addition to the fact 
that the bible was written by human pens, 
must be taken that other fact, that it has 
been preserved by human hands. ISTo mira- 
cle was wrought to keep it from the usual 
fortune of books. Those that copied it 
were as likely to make mistakes as those who 



copied other works. Accordingly we find a 
multitude of various readings in the present 
text of scripture, which critical sagacity 
may well investigate, and through which 
we must, as nearly as we can, reach the text 
as it proceeded from the pen of the writer. 
Many of the errors now found or fancied 
are errors of number; such being those 
most likely to have arisen from inexactness 
of transcription. And many are merely 
that, of two writers, one gives a fuller ac- 
count than the other ; and such difference 
is called contradictioft. But, when we look 
at all which can be produced, they are tri- 
fling in importance, and by no means touch 
the question whether or no the books of 
scripture are really from the divine mind, 
conveying God's message to men. 

Into an examination of alleged discrep- 
ancies it is impossible here to enter: some 
of them wall be found disposed of in other 
articles ; and the reader may be referred 
for fuller explication to other books. See 
Davidson's Sacred Hermeneutics, chap. xii. 
pp. 516-611 ; Home's Introduct., edit. Ayre, 
vol. ii. pp. 432-492. Neither can the contra- 
dictions said to subsist between the sacred 
historians and other writers be dwelt on. 
The weighty general observations of Dr. 
Lee on this topic may, however, be properly 
introduced. ' Should any statement,' he 
says, ' of the Old or of the New Testament 
seem to be at variance with that of an un- 
inspired historian, it is taken for granted, 
without further inquiry, that the sacred 
narrative is false. Every presumption in 
favour of the uninspired w^-iter is brought 
prominently forward ; nor are his state- 
ments, as to matters of fact unnoticed 
by others, thought to require corroboration ; 
while the assertion of a prophet, or of an 
evangelist, if similarly unsupported, is im- 
mediately subjected to an unscrupulous oi 
prejudiced criticism. This is a species ol 
unfairness to which the bible, above all 
other books, affords an opportunity ; for it 
is remarkable with what uniformity the 
sacred writers abstain from directly touch- 
ing upon topics of common history, except 
in cases wliere their narrative absolutely 
requires it' (Insp. of Holy Script., lect. viii. 
pp. 399, 400). Happily from time to time 
secular research disinters corroborative 
proof of scripture authority ; and state- 
ments, which once stood upon its single 
evidence, and were thought to be in con- 
tradiction to other testimony, are now 
amply vindicated. Familiar examples might 
easily be produced. 

That the word of God is to be found in 
scripture, that is, that we are to learn his 
will from it, is admitted by many who yet 
deny that it is an infallible record of truth. 
If this be so, surely man must need some 
other guide to instruct him wdiat he is to 
accept and what he may safely reject in 
the bible. It is idle to suppose that there 
is an adequate power in individual minds 
to decide such a question. For not only 
has human wisdom proved itself unable to 
grasp divine things ; but, as the conclusions 
of different persons are sure to vary, so 
scripture would have to be subjected to ai) 
infinite number of tribunals, the verdict^ 



usstantI 



412 



of which would not agree. How should, m 
such a case, the really divine be ascertamed ? 
Surely the great purpose of revelation would 
be frustrated ; and the communications of 
God to man be of little practical service. 

It must never be forgotten that, besides 
the actual announcement of the divine will, 
God has a moral probationary purpose in 
view All his dealings with mankind are 
modelled for this end. So it was in his 
theocratic government of Israel, so it is m 
the training of each individual man. Here 
is a great reason for the difficulties which 
beset this subject. It requires a teachable 
mind, a will submissive to God's will, a 
trusting heart, the simplicity, to use our 
Lord's illustration, of little children, to ap- 
preciate and really to receive the divine 
word The proud self-confldent spirit will 
stumble where the humble will pass safely. 
It was Christ's acknowledgement that many 
things were hidden from the wise and pru- 
dent which God had revealed unto babes 
(Luke X. 21 ; 1 Cor. i. 26, 27). He, then, that 
puts aside carnal reasoning, and prayerfully 
searches God's word for God's will, shall not 



cpnrphps God s word tor Cioa s win, suau nuu nwus uc» o, i. ^. 



Wovdsy^ovth's Inspiration of Holy Scripture, 
2nd edit. 1851 ; Dr. Goulburn's Inspiration of 
the Eoly Scriptures, 1857 ; Gaussen'a Plenary 
Inspiration of the Eoly Scriptures, transl., 
1862 ; Bp. Edw. Browne's Essay on Inspira- 
tion in Aids to Faith, 1861 ; and Marston's 
convenient Manual of th^ Inspiration oj 
Scripture, 1859. 

INSTANT, INSTANTLY. Some examples 
will illustrate the meaning of these words. 
In Luke ii. 38 'that instant' is that very 
hour. But in vii. 4 by ' they besought him 
instantly' must be understood earnestly: 
so in xxiii. 23 ' they were instant,' i. e. they 
were ureent. The signification is some- 
what different elsewhere: thus 'instantly 
serving God' (Acts xxvi. 7) is expectant- 
ly or fervently ; ' continuing instant m 
prayer ' (Rom. xii. 12), persevering or persis- 
ting : comp. Acts xii. 5, marg. ; ' be instant 
in season' (2 Tim. iv. 2), be active or ready. 
INSTRUMENTS, MUSICAL. See MUSIC. 
INTERCESSION. The act of interposing 
or intreating in behalf of another. Thus 
Jeremiah is forbidden to pray for the rebel- 
lious Jews, i. e. to ' make intercession to 



vii. 16 : comp. xxxvi. 



ne QisaypuiULcu. wxio^"> - 
' has with singular sagacity observed that 
" he who believes the scripture to have pro- 
ceeded from him who is the Author of 
nature, may well expect to find tlie same 
sort of difficulties in it as are found m the 
constitution of nature." And m a like way 
of reflection it may be added that he, who 
denies the scripture to have been from God 
on account of these difficulties, may, for 
the very same reason, deny the world to have 
been formed by him' {Introd. to Analogy, 
pp. 53, 54, edit. 1828). . ^ ^ 

The whole matter may briefly be thus sum- 
med up. Seeing from the nature of the case 
that if there is a divine revelation made at all 
it must come with divine authority; seeing 
that there are promises that God will ex- 
uressly help his servants in communicating 
religious truth ; seeing that the volume m its 
external aspect and its wonderful contents 
varies from every other book ; seeing that 
there are claims in scripture itself to some- 
thing beyond mere human instrumentality, 
we are surely justified in believing that we 
have here the communication of the Creator 
to his creatures, fashioned in such a way as 
mav best bring home necessary truth to the 
huinan heart. Well and wisely has our 
Lord commanded to ' search the scriptures. 
Those who have humbly searched them have 
discovered wisdom more precious than 
rubies: thev have perceived an influence 
far bevond mere moral suasion. By the pe- 
rusal of the scripture, those that once were 
ignorant and perverse have been enlighten- 
ed and become holy. Cordially accepting 
the scripture revelation, they have been 
made sensil)le of the true purpose of their 
being. Implicitly trusting the scripture 
promises, they have met death with joyful 
bone Whence this marvellous power of 
the word? It cannot be merely the pro- 
duction of the human mind : it is it niust 
be from such results, the holy word of God. 

The student may be directed to many 
valuable works on inspiration Some ha^-e 
been already adverted to : others are D 



25). It is not, however, always used m a 
favourable sense. For Elijah is said to have 
made ' intercession to God against Israel 
(Rom.xi. 2). In a special way it is taken 
to describe that part of Christ's office 
which he fulfils in his Father's presence 
for his people (viii. 34; Heb. vii. 25, ix. 24), 
that ' whole mediatorial work,' says Dr. Al- 
ford' which the exalted Saviour perform? 
for his own, with his heavenly Father 
either by reference to his past death ol 
blood, by which he has bought them for 
himself, or by continued intercession foi 
them' (T7ie G,-eekTest., note on Heb. vii. 25V 
A view of this gracious interposition ot 
Christ is full of unspeakable comfort, en- 
couraging the penitent soul 'to come bold- 
ly to the throne of grace, that' it ' may ol> 
tain mercy and find grace to help m tune 
of need ' (Heb. iv. 16). 

INTERPRETATION, It is of the utmost 
importance that the student of the sacred 
book should be furnished with right prin 
ciples for the due understanding of its con- 
tents. The variations and frequent abso- 
lute contradictions between those who 
have taken upon themselves to expound it 
sufficiently prove that there must be radi- 
cal error somewhere, and that consequent- 
ly the system of certain interpreters ii 
thorousrhly unsound. 

Thus some have proceeded on the suppo- 
sition that every possible sense that the 
words can be made to bear may be put upon 
the scripture. Every plain historical state- 
ment is supposed to have a deep meaning : 
narratives are allegorized ; and the very 
names of men and places believed to teach 
mysteries. The sacred book is thus made 
little more than a book of riddles, for the 
amusement and ingenuity of the curious. 
Others, as the Romanists.would receive only 
the interpretation which the church, speak- i 
ing in the decrees of councils, the decisions ! 
of popes, and the consent of fathers, has 
sanctioned. Mystics would interpret ac- 
cording to some inward light. Ratioralists 



ii3 MitU i^notoleiige. [intekpbetatioi^ 



would make everything square witli tlieir 
own notions of probability, and pronounce 
even the sense of scripture as declared by 
our Lord and his apostles but an accommo- 
dation to Jewish prejudice. See, for a 
fuller account of various systems of inter- 
pretation, Davidson's Sacred Hermeneutics, 
chap, vii. ; '&oruQ'& Introduction, e^it.Ayre, 
vol. ii. pp. 242-254. 

In attempting to lay down some just 
principles of biblical interpretation the 
greatest brevity must be here observed. 
But, though it is impossible to compress 
the substance of a volume within the li- 
mits of a short article, it is hoped that a 
right direction may be given to the stu- 
dent's investigations, so that he may be 
prepared to avail himself of other works 
which will be recommended to him, and 
may at least be warned to avoid the glaring 
errors which have been just noted. 

Interpretation has been defined by Er- 
nosti {Principles of Bibl. Interp., edit. Terrot, 
vol. i. p. 6) ' the art of teaching the real 
sentiment contained in any form of words, 
or of effecting that another may derive 
from them the same idea that the writer 
intended to convey.' It is manifest that the 
first object must be to ascertain the mean- 
ing of simple terms ; from that we may 
proceed to examine the meaning of words 
or terms united into sentences or proposi- 
tions, and thus arrive at the real sense 
of the sacred penmen. 

Words are the exponents of thoughts. 
To every word a certain idea or notion 
must correspond ; and this is called the 
sense or meaning of it. It is the literal 
sense, and is so united to a word by custom, 
as that, when that word is heard, the sense 
is at once conceived in the hearer's mind. 
But the same word has not always the 
same meaning; and hence ambiguity will 
arise. For we are manifestly not at liberty 
to give any word any one of its meanings 
we may choose : we are bound to ascertain 
that which rightly belongs to it in the 
place or on the occasion on which it may be 
used. The sense of words has in a consi- 
derable degree been impressed upon them 
by derivation; yet we must not forget that 
the connection between words and ideas is 
moulded by custom. To ascertain, there- 
fore, the signification of terms "we must 
examine what has been called the usns lo- 
quendi, the usage of language. This, in- 
deed, is by no means invariable. It is af- 
fected by the time, the religion of the wri- 
ters, the habits of ordinary life, the politi- 
cal institutions of a country, &c. ; so that- a 
word, which in one place or period conveys 
one idea, conveys in another an idea very 
different. 'Liberty,' for instance, as un- 
derstood by ourselves, has a much more 
extended meaning than it had in the mouth 
of our ancestors. The knowledge of the 
usus loquendi, the basis of sound interpre- 
tation, is naturally more difficult to acquire, 
when we have, as in the case of the scrip- 
tures, to do with works composed in a dead 
language. It can be successfully pursued 
only in a way of historical investigation. 
And the following plain rules for this have 
been given by Dr. Davidson (ubi supr.. 



chap. viii. pp. 227, 228). The usus loqu&ndi 
of a dead language must be ascertained— 

• 1. From the works of those who lived 
when it was current, and to whom it was 
vernacular. Thus, in investigating the 
meaning of a term, we naturally consult 
the writer himself by whom it was used. 
He may give a definition of the word in 
question. Or its connection may probably 
explain it; or, again, parallel passages 
point out its signification with sufficient 
clearness. If we do not find its significa- 
tion in the author himself, we have re- 
course to some other writer who employed 
the same language. 

'2. From the traditional knowledge of the 
71SUS loquendi, retained partly in ancient ver- 
sions, partly in commentaries and lexicons. 

' 3. From writers who employed a cognate 
dialect. 

'These are general principles applicable 
to all languages. They are the true means of 
discovering the legitimate usage of every 
tongue which has ceased to be spoken.' 

These general rules might be amplified 
and illustrated to almost any extent. But it 
must be the aim of the present article, as 
indeed already hinted, not so much to pre- 
sent a mass of details as to indicate how 
those details may be safely reached. The 
student must ever remember that, though 
words may have to be examined separately 
for their meaning, yet it is not their inde- 
pendent meaning which is to be traced, 
but that which belongs to them in the po- 
sition in which they are found. A word 
will often have many and various meanings: 
to gather up these is the province of the 
lexicographer. To select out of possible 
meanings that one which belongs to it in 
relation to those words with which it is in 
connection is the duty of the interpreter. 
And for this he must consult the context. 
Here he may find the definitions which 
a writer sometimes gives of the terms 
he employs : here by the adjuncts of a 
word, or, by the position of comparison, 
parallelism, or contrast in which it stands, 
he may infer the sense in whichdt is intro 
duced in the place where he meets witii it 
The immediate context will perhaps throw 
the greatest light upon its signification ; 
but the remoter context also must'.be exa 
mined. The tone of a paragraph, the sub 
ject of a section, will often point out the 
particular idea which is to be attached to 
a given word. And the way in which the 
writer uses it elsewhere, the way in which 
other writers treating on similar subjects 
use it— in a word, the cautious use of paral- 
lel passages, may lead to a just discrimina- 
tion. A version shows what sense has 
actually been selected for the word. And, 
if he who made the version had a compe- 
tant knowledge of the language from which 
and the language into which he translated, 
and can be seen to have performed his task 
conscientiously and with fidelity, his autho- 
rity must be high : his version serves as an 
adjudged case in the courts according to 
which others are determined. And, if two 
languages have fiowed from the same source, 
and have run, so to speak, side by side 
with the same general complexion, used b-v 



tNTERPRETATIONl CljC EVCaSUri) ' 


kindred peoples, it is manifest that a term 
in the one may well he iUustrated hy an 
allied term in the other. 

Perhaps two or three examples are nece=!- 
sary for the full appreciation of the rules 
which have thus been briefly explained. 
See then, how the author of the epistle to 
the Hebrews defines in xi. 1 that 'faith ' the 
effectual working of which he intends to 
exhibit in the rest of the chapter. See, 
again, how the meaning of denying one s- 
self is fixed by the connection. In Luke 
ix. 23, where it is coupled witli taking np 
the cross, it is to be understood as sacrin- 
cing personal gratifications ; while in 2 Tim. 
ii 13 where it closely follows ' he abidetn 
faith Eul,' beincr spoken of God, it as clearly 
signifies that he cannot be inconsistent 
with himself. So, also,from the parallel form 
of Hebrew sentences,wemay determine the 
word rendered ' deceased ' in our version of 
Isai. xxvi. 14. Some have translated it 
'phvsicians ;' but, as it corresponds with 
'dead' in the preceding clause, it must 
have a similar signification : it is not iden- 
tically the same, but closely allied, having, 
as Dr. Davidson says, from whom the ex- 
ample is taken, ' the accessory idea of debi- 
lity and incorporeity.' Further, the word 
rendered ' daily ' in the Lord's prayer (Matt, 
vi 11 ; Luke xi. 3) occurs nowhere else. 
Here then we are led by the judgment of 
Greek fathers and the early Peshito Sj'riac 
version to that etymological derivation of 
It which gives the sense of 'proper for our 
sustenance:' see Dr. Alford's note on the 
first-named place. Once more, the root of 
Eldah, EldUm, appellations of the Deity, 
would seem to be lost in the Hebrew ; but 
In a cognate dialect, the Arabic, a root 
exists involving the idea of admiration 
and adoration : therefore it has with some 
reason been inferred that God is so called 
as being the admirable and most glorious 
One. Examples might be multiplied to any 
extent ; but these must suffice. 

It is in this %vay that the meaning of 
terms is to be carefully ascertained ; and, 
when direct modes fail, subsidiary pro- 
cesses must be resorted to ; but a fuller ex- 
plication of them cannot be given here. 

Attention having been carefully paid to 
determine the signification of words and 
phrases, we are next in due order to examnie 
the meaning of propositions and sentences, 
that is to say, to investigate the sense of 
the sacred text. A preliminary note may, 
nowever, be properly introduced. There is 
an obvious distinction between the sense 
and the signification of terms. The words of 
a writer in one language may be exactly 
rendered into the corresponding words of 
another ; and yet the sense intended be not 
thereby conveyed. For example, we may 
take the modes of ordinary familiar saluta- 
tion. The phrases so used in France and 
Spain, literalhi translated, w-ould be unintel- 
ligible in England. Henc€ we must seek 
terms in one language equivalent to those 
employed in another. See Morns, On the 
Difference between the Sense and Signification 
of Words and Phrases, translated in Amer 
Bibl. Repos., 1834, vol. iv. pp. 61 &c. 
The investigation of the sense of scripture 


must be pursued on principles similar to 
those adopted in ascertaining tlie meaning 
of terms. The passage must be syste- 
matically examined, and additional light 
be sought from the context, from parallels, 
and other less immediate sources. The 
first step must be to settle the right , 
construction of a sentence. A sentence 
is not a mere mass of words : it possesses 
organization: it has parts and members 
more or less closely united ; the dependence 
of which on each other, and relation of each 
separate one to the whole, is to be deter- 
mined. Hence we must attend to the 
punctuation : we must see whether there 
are ellipses to be supplied, whether or n<j j 
the sentence is interrogative, and must 
make a proper adjustment of the various 
parts Take an example or two. The 
authorized version supplies a word in Prov. i 
XXX 15 But a slight consideration will 
show that there is no ellipse. ' Give, give' 
are the names of the two daughters of the 
horse-leech. Again, the common punctua- 
tion should be abandoned in Rom. viii. 33, 
34. The clauses are interrogative : ' God 
that justifieth ? ' ' Christ that died ? ' So also 
the sense is not so good if ' Father, save me 
from this hour' (John xii. 27) be taken 
affirmatively. Our Lord exclaims 'What 
shall I say ? Father, save me from this hour ?' 
iS'o, I will not shrink from it. It is fair, , 
however, to say that some eminent exposi- 
tors of this text dissent. Then, further, ; 
we must ascertain the proper construction \ 
of a period, its syntactical principles, the 
relation between the subject and the predi- 
cate, with the due dependence of the sub- 
ordinate clauses on the main part. Some 
knowledge of the grammar is of course re- 
quired. Ordinarily the subject and the > 
predicate of a proposition are readily distm- ! 
guished. As general rules, to which, doubt- , 
less, there are exceptions, it may be said 
that the subject for the most part precedes 
the predicate. The first has the article in 
Greek ; not so the other. In Hebrew, if a 
substantive is the predicate, it follows the ' 
subject, which stands after the verb : if an 
adjective is the predicate, it has no article ' 
and comes first. We conclude from these : 
principles that, in 2 Kings viii. 13, it was \ 
the greatness, not the atrocity of the thing 
that startled Hazael. The meaning is, What 
is thy servant, who is but a dog? what 
powder has he to accomplish so great an 
object ? So in 1 Tim. vl. 5 we must translate 
' that godliness is a source of gain,' and in 
2 Tim. ii. 13 ' the solid foundation of God 
continues to stand.' And, just as the signi- 
fication of a word, as before shown, is often 
determined by a parallelism, so the mean- 
ing of sentences may be similarly ascer- 
tained. There are various kinds of paral- 
lelisms : see Parallelism, Poetby. There 
is that of members, where one clause by 
comparison or contrast illustrates the 
other (e.g. John iii. 6^ ; and there are nu- 
merous liistorical and doctrinal parallels, as 
when the same events are narrated in diffe- 
rent places (e.g. 2 Sam. xxi. 18-22 compared 
with 1 Chron. xx. 4-8), or when the same 
point of teaching is insisted on (e.g. Eph. 
1 i. 5, 6 compared with Col. ii. 13"). 



»15 



4bi5 Mihlt BlTDtOlfSjgr* [iKTERPKETATIOi^ 



Into the numljerless ramifications of spe- 
cial rules and illustrations it is impossible 
to go. But perhaps enough has been said 
to exhibit the proper mode of fair interpre- 
tation—that which has been called the li- 
teral and historical, or historico-literal 
mode, 'that method which,' to adopt the 
language of bishop Ellicott (Aids to Faith, 
essay ix. 12, pp. 426, 427), 'not only con- 
cerns itself with the simple and grammati- 
cal meaning of the words, but also with 
that meaning viewed under what may be 
termed, for want of a better word, its his- 
torical relations, viz., as illustrated by facts, 
modified by the context, substantiated by 
the tenor of the holy book, and receiving 
elucidation from its minor specialities and 
details.' We are frequently told that the 
bible must be interpreted like any other 
book ; and the rule is admirable so far as it 
resembles any other book. But to apply no 
other rule than this is to assume that the 
scripture is but of human origin, that it 
contains no prophetic disclosures of things 
not yet come to pass, that it teaches not 
the future by the past, that there is in it 
no system of typical development, no prin- 
ciple of expansion which makes it emphati- 
cally the book of all ages and of all men. To 
treat this — ' a world,' it has been called, ' in 
itself '—as but an ordinary book is palpably 
unfair, until by clear and convincing proof 
it shall have been shown to be no more 
than an ordinary book. Men who so cramp 
'.hem selves must fail in the interpretations 
they attempt. 

Far wiser are the directions which bishop 
Ellicott supplies for right interpretation ; 
and he who has learned justly to follow 
these directions will have attained no mean 
proficiency in the understanding of the 
scripture. ' Interpret,' says the bishop, 
'grammatically': 'interpret historically' : 
' interpret contextually ' : ' interpret mi- 
nutely : 'interpret according to the ana- 
logy of faith.' To the brief illustration of 
these rules some space shall be dedicated ; 
and for matter tending to illustrate them 
deep obligation to the bishop's admirable 
essay must be at once acknowledged. 

1. Little need be said upon the first. It 
is just the embodiment of the principles 
before laid down. Let the signification of 
words in themselves, and the sense of them 
as combined in sentences, be carefully and 
systematically sought in accordance with 
the fundamental rules of language. We 
shall not then be in danger of making pro- 
phets and apostles speak according to our 
own notions, or be induced to substitute 
a human gloss for the veritable language 
of the sacred record. Man's liability to 
such freedom of exposition, unless guarded 
by a strict adherence to grammatical pro- 
priety, is well exposed by bishop Ellicott. 
' To sit calmly in our studies, to give force 
and meaning to the faltering utterances of 
inspired men, to correct the tottering logic 
of an apostle, to clear up the misconcep- 
tions of an evangelist, and to do this with- 
out dust or toil, without expositors and 
without versions, without anxieties about 
the meaning of particles, or humiliations 
at discoveries of lacking scholarship— to do 



I all this,thus easily and serenely,is the temp- 
tation held out; and the weak, the vain, 
the ignorant, and the prejudiced are clearls 
proving unable to resist It. Hence the 
necessity of a return to first principles, 
however homely they appear.' 

2. Equally important is the second direc- 
tion. Late researches have poured a flood 
of light upon the history, the topography, 
the antiquities of eastern lands. Assyrian 
and Babylonian discoveries are giving form 
and precision to prophetic imagery : the 
examination of Palestine and the adjacent 
regions, their natural characteristics, and 
the remains of human works which they 
contain, is corroborating the truthfulness 
of the sacred narratives ; while the histori- 
cal facts from time to time springing forth 
teach us how to connect and explain cir- 
cumstances heretofore deemed inexplica- 
ble. Take a single instance. The explora- 
tions of Bashan, discovering the massive 
ruins of numerous cities yet studding por 
tions of its surface, are an admirable com 
mentary upon Deut. iii. 1-7, apassage in re 
gard to which interpreters heretofore felt 
inclined to explain away the grammatical 
force of the expressions used : see Argob, 
Bashan. All the helps thus supplied must 
be diligently adopted ; and many an inci- 
dent, many a description, many a precept, 
will startup with life-like reality before the 
student's gaze, who uses these keys for un 
lacking the recesses of what had once 
seemed a sealed book. 

3. The third direction has been already in 
some measure illustrated. Half the puzzles 
which have bewildered men in the scrip- 
ture, and more than half the strange and 
erroneous inferences which have been 
drawn, have originated in the determina- 
tion of a meaning apart from the connec 
tion in which it lay (so to speak) imbedded 
The limitations of the context, then, musi 
be exactly observed. The interpretation ol 
a single passage, to be sound, must agree 
with the general scope and meaning of the 
rest, with the circumstances under which 
it was produced, with the purpose of the 
writer. This rule is useful both negatively 
and positively : it will prevent impropei 
applications, and it will decide which ol 
two interpretations— so far as grammar 
goes equally tenable — is to be preferred. An 
example or two of its use shall be produced. 
How often do we find St. Paul's declaration 
'whatsoever is not of faith is sin' (Rom. 
xiv. 23) stretched to every possible case, as 
if it had been a general admonition for the 
guidance of all thought, and feeling, and 
conduct. But look at it in its connection : 
see how it is a part of a particular discus- 
sion, and then, however it may be taken by 
inference to extend to other difficulties 
beyond that immediately in hand, we can- 
not hesitate in deciding that as a plain rule 
the words were never meant ' to be applied 
to all imaginable cases, but to be restricted 
to scruples or cases of conscience that bear 
some analogy to the instances which the 
the apostle is discussing ' So the propheti- 
cal blessing of Asher (Deut. xxxiii. 25) if 
appropriated by men who might shrinli 
from a similar application of that on Dan (22^ 



lfhedeiah] 



416 



4. Ot yast importance, too, is the direc- 
tion to examine scripture with so much 
care as to hring out its full significance. 
There Is no superfluity in the word of God. 
Nothing is put down at random there ; and 
it is the business of the interpreter, while 
he does not introduce more from his own 
fancv into a passage than is actuallj^ in it, 
to discover all the instruction which it was 
really intended to convey. Instances innu- 
niera'hle raieht he produced, in which, hy a 
word, a touch, the turn of a sentence, the 
order of nam.es, some necessary informa- 
tion, some important conclusion, not the 
product of mere imagination, hut the sober 
result of sound reason, is obtained, which 
cursory readers altogether fail in appre- 
ciating. It is by a course of such minute 
investigation that Paley, in his Horce Pau- 
lince, and Blunt, in his Undesigned Coinci- 
dences, have collected such a mass of evi- 
dence to the veracity of the sacred writers. 
Let an illustration or two be added here. 
If has been sometimes wondered why the 
hands of our Lord's attached female at- 
tendants were not employed in preparing 
his precious body for the tomb. A single 
word, 'sitting' (Matt, xxvii. 61), supplies 
the explanation. They were on the spot, 
but they conld not bestir themselves : their 
stupefying grief disabled them : they could 
but sit bv to w^atch the last sad rites per- 
formed. And again, from the order in which 
St. Peter names the countries where those 
he wrote to dwelt (1 Pet. i. 1), we may not 
uncertainly gather his locality when wri- 
ting. That which was natural in the east 
would have been unnatural had he been at 
Rome. . . 

6. There is vet another direction specially 
applicable to the book of revelation. Ordi- 
narilv we should say that a writer was his 
own best expositor; and, seeing that the 
scripture is an organized and harmonious 
whole, we may well add tliat one part 
throws light upon another, even if both 
proceed not from identically the same pep. 
But, when we go, as we are authorized m 
going, still further, and regard the book as 
containing divine communications, from 
which maybe gathered, as there has been 
gathered, a body of doctrine, held always 
in its main points by the church, and com- 
pressed into her creeds and confessions, 
which, though of human compilation, ''^^J 
be proved by most certain warrants of holy 
scripture ;' 'then we are justified in con- 
cluding that no interpretation can stand 
which contradicts the analogy of faith. 
Doctrines indeed may be true, and yet 
may not belong to the analogy of faitn ; 
which is the general rule deduced, not 
from two or three parallel or coincident 
passages, but from the harmony of all parts 
of scripture on the fundamental points of 
faith and practice. But we can never re- 
ceive those which are plainly contradictory 
to it. Take, as an illustrative example of 
its value, such an assertion as thatChristis 
' the first-born of every creature' (Col. i. 15) : 
by itself it is not perfectly clear, whether, 
giving him a pre eminence, it exclude:- him 
from the class of creatures. But compare 
it with the whole tenor of scripture teach- 



ing, place it beside the multifarious testi- 
monies to the proper divinity of Christy 
and it will be seen at once how it maintains 
the dignity of him who of the same essence 
with the Father was begotten before the 
worlds of creation. Any other interpreta- 
tion would be opposed to the analogy of 
faith. 

It is hoped that, brief as these observa- 
tions have necessarily been, they may have 
indicated the safe course of scripture in- 
terpretation. They have, however, touched 
only that histori co-literal interpretation, as 
it has been called, in Avhich we reach the 
plain meaning of the sacred writers, and 
discover what it is that they really intended 
to sav. But beneath the letter there is to 
be discerned a deeper meaning. If we at 
all admit the authority of scripture, we 
cannot deny this. Our Lord often showed 
it in his discourses : the apostles have car- 
ried out the same truth. For God is in the 
habit of teaching not only by words but 
by facts, representing, in the histories of 
the past, things which after a higher signi- 
ficaucv occur again, and making his deal- 
ings of old ensamples and admonitions of 
his dealings with his church for ever. Of 
these deeper meanings-the spirit under 
the letter of scripture— more cannot be 
here said. Many of the topics ccmnected 
therewith are treated of under tlie heads of 
Prophecy, Types, which see. Only let it 
be remembered that these, too, must be re- 
crulated bv certain laws ; and that it is not 
the fancy, it is the sober judgment, which 
must be exercised upon them. 

One word must be said on the temper m 
which men should approach the great bu- 
siness of scripture interpretation. It must 
be in a candid and trustful spirit, not al- 
lowing small difficulties to neutralize ex- 
tended proofs : it must be with a sincere 
desire to discover truth, whatever preju- 
dices may have to be cast aside : it must 
be with earnest prayer for the illumination 
of that Holy Spirit by whose means holj 
men of old were enabled to speak. 

Many books have been produced on the 
interpretation of scripture. For the JTew 
Testament, Dr. Fairbairn's Bermeneutical 
Jl/a7i?£a^, 1858, is valuable: notices of other 
works may be found in Dr. Davidson's 
Sacred Hermeneutics. 

IPHEDEI'AH (whom Jeliovah sets free). 
A Benjamite chieftain (1 Chron. viii. 25). 

IR (a city). A Benjamite (1 Chron. vii. 
12), called also Iri (7). 

I'RA (wakeful).— I. One of David's great 
officers (2 Sam. XX. 26\ He is called a Jair- 
ite, perhaps descended from Jair, which 
^ee No 1, or, as some have imagined (from 
the'reading of thePeshito Syriac version), 
of Jattir, which see. In this case he 
would be identical with No. 3.-2. A Tekoite, 
one of Dayid's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 26; 1 
Chron. xi. 28. xxvii. 9\— 3. An Ithrite, also 
a warrior of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 3S ; 1 Chron. 
xi.40). ^ ^ ^ . 

I'RAD (wild ass). A grandson of Cam 
(Gen. iv. IS). ^ . 

I'RAM (bclovainrf to a cihi). One of the 
dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 4.3, 1 Chron. i, 
54). 



il7 



IR-HA-FE'RES {city of the sun, or city of 
destruction). This word occurs on]y once 
Jsai. zix. 18), where in our version it is 
rendered ' the city of destruction,' and in 
'-he margin ' of Heres,' or ' of the sun.' The 
reading of the original passage is uncertain : 
and, according as hheres or heres is pre- 
ferred (the difference being only a single 
letter), one or other meaning will he adopted 
The prophecy would seem to point to' 
Che time when, by the influx of the Jews 
into Egypt, the knowledge of the true God ' 
n^ould be disseminated there, and a way I 
made for the fuller reception of divine truth 
m the gospel dispensation. Under the 
breek dominion the Jews were permitted 
to build a temple in Egypt, in which the 
services nearly imitated those at Jerusalem. 
Lhe scriptures were translated into Greek • 
and many became thereby instructed in 
God s will. And, though a philosophizing 
spirit prevailed and grew, yet Moses and 
the prophets were read in Egypt, and their 
testimony was ready there to corroborate 
the claims of Messiah. So had the pro- 
phecy Its fulfilment. A writer in Dr. Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, discussing the particular 
interpretation of Ir-ha-heres, and preferring 
the meaning ' city of destruction,' observes 
that, if the prophecy is to be understood 

ILt ^''^.^^^ ™"st suppose 

that Ir-ha-heres was one of the cities partly 
or wholly inhabited by the Jews in Egypt • 
of these Onion was the most importarit' 
and to It the rendering " one shall be called 
a city of destruction" would apply, since it 
was destroyed by Titus, while Alexandria 
Tp 870) ^^'^ the other cities yet stand' (vol 
But possibly ' city of the sun ' is a prefer- 
able interpretation ; and then Heliopolis or 
On might be intended. It was at Leonto- 
po]is, mtheIIeliopolitan nome or district 
that the Jewish temple stood. And this 
riew seems comflrmed by the mention of, 

?M 'tJwt'^''''^'^ ^^^^^ meaning (Jer! 
Sim. 13); the same place being referred to 
ccomp. Judges i. 35). Some #riters, how^ 
ever, would give the whole passage a flgu- ' 
rative interpretation: comp. H?nders?n ' 
'lli^e Book of Isaiah, pp. 176-180. See Ox ' ' 

I'RI {citizen) (l Chron. vii. 7) A Bema 
mite, called also Ir (12) 

jivi\ F> ^^^^^^ (^^^a viii. 33). 

IRI JAH (whom Jehovah looks upon). An 
officer who arrested Jeremiah (Jer. xxxviil 

a ^iJi^n^^^^^ {serpent-city). The name of 
a city of which nothing is known It is 
fonnd among the genealogies of Judah 1 
SjTfShlJh.i^^^^~^^-™^^^ 

diJSES" well-known metal very widely 

wiether ro. '^'^^ expressed 

fchnes . ^^"^^^ O'"^ Testament 

S fufmSXf however of this has 

diWerip^ ?nr. "^"^^^^ Egyptian 
fcuol?7 liol' implements have ac- 

arNfnPvPh. remote antiquity 

?fbit ftt ,fi' ^^'^^ Egyptian paintings ex- 
i-t3it Its use among that people. The work- 



[ISAAC I 



ing of iron, so scripture tells us, was under- 
stood m the earliest ages ; for Tubal-cain is , 
Zn^T!^ an artificer in it before ?he 
flood (Gen._ iv. 22). Allusions are perpetu 
T nis'^fn^V'' scripture to the use of iron. 
terS of ton!? f'^'' purposes, and as the ma: 

I [^Lanf -na?rowi' 

ftL^fA'^\\.?'''^-y^ agr[culiiVaT?n- 
scrumentft (Amos 1. 3 : Gomp. Isai xli 15) Tt 

wJ? ''T'^'^ -^^^ armour and weapons ot 
wa.r (1 Sam, xvii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 7 : Job xx 
124 Rev. IX. 9). War-chariots were plated 
XV ' ]l' ^ron nails (Josh 

xvii. 16, 18; Judges i. 19, iv. 3, 13) And 
there were many other purposes for w^"? 
^^\^smet^Uy3.s employed, as for the frame of 
f^'^^i^f.ead (Deut. iii. ii), fetters (Si cv 
18, _cx IX. 8), bars (Job xl. 18 ; Psal cvi ifi • 
Isai. xlv. 2), gates of prisons (Acts xi 10)' 
and for cauterizing (i Tim. iv. 2). There 
are, moreover various references to iron in 
whert)^"'"''^^^ W^d. xiii. 15, and else 
I The Israelites were told that the land of 
Canaan produced iron (Deut viif9) This 
j IS not the case now ; though it is said tha? 
there are iron-inines in s?me dfstS?ts of 

'Elsen'v'irbl^i"''' Z^'^^- ^^^5. ait 
Jiisen ) . it has been fancied, therefore 
that basalt is meant. An ancient Ton' 
Tvorking has been discovered i^ EiyS 
(Wilkinson, ^nc. vol iii n 9j«"7. t^.^J 

( ThP J r^"® acquainted with cast Son 

ise, and the northern iron, as VeU as"?»^ ' 
III r.Z'f' '"■>-tonace7De"ut.Tv'^)°: | 

s■^,?^;p->•"•^■Jer.,.^e•./^vilf.g;■lf: 

Dan^aJf.f "-^"'^ A city of 

forXs bi?th rrpn name, prescribed be- 



rsAi] 



Che Cira^uriJ ct 



Sarah designated as the ^^o^^er of the co ^ ^^l^eaie^ represented her as his sis- 

venantseed a7) ; and Sarah laughed_ den- of^lii^ 



siVelv afterwards when she heard the reiter- 
ated word (xTiii. 12). The son hv his veiw 
naire therefore, was to warn the parecrs 
against unheiief and characterized the ju- 
bilant satisfaction with which they recen-ed 
at last the fulfllment of the promise (xxi 6) 
I=aac's life was far less stirring than that 
of his father Abraham, or that of his son 
facoh He was a man of mild contempia- 
five character, without much strength of 
mSd' suffering more than, acting eas^y 
nersuaded, vet upon occasion firm. The 
?ncidents related of his history illustrate 

^^■Wlien he was weaned Abraham made a 
feSt ?8 9^ Ishmael had, probably till 
i it^c's birth conceived himself the heir, 
i sTwould naturally become iea ous 
voung brother ; and very likely this ]ea- 
lou«v was fostered and aggravated by Ms 
piSther At the feast, therefore, ' the wild, 
un-overnab' e, and pugnacious character as- 
! cribS to Sfs descendants began to develope 
i ftieli and to appear in lang^aage of proyok- 
' ulTiiilenceToffended at the comparative 
I udiffefence with which he was treated, he 
irdul?ed in mockery, especially against 
I aac whose very name furnished him with 
sa?mcal sneers'- (Kalisch, Co.zm oji Ok? 
Test Gen p. 435). It is to this that St. Taul 
aaude= (Gkl i^^^ And there is no occa- 
t on to imagine, as some t^ave done tliat 
chp nr.o-tle followed here a Jewish tiaai 
Uonf be- simpl. gives the lull sense ol the 
original expression (see Dr. Alfords vaiu 
abll noti on Gal. iv. 29). When a young 
man, possibly about fi^e-and-twenty Isaac 
was taken by his father to mount Moriah, 
afereto be offered as ^ ^^^^^-^f ^x.^: 
xxii 1-19\ For the reasons of thi= extra 
J?d narv incident see Abraham. But the 
Snrel^tiig meekness which Isaac evinced 
sl"oum not%e passed over without notice 



ter • a fault which some have vainly striven 
to palliate. But the Lord is very pitifu. 
and of tender mercy: he delivered Isaac 
from the evil which might have fallen upon 
him and blessed him with so large an in- 
crease of the seed he sowed, and so much 
other wealth, that the Philistines became 
?ealour of him. He left Gerar, therefore 
and, after some opposition on the part of 
Ibimelech and his people, on account of 
certain wells, he fixed his abode at Beer- 
sheba, where the Lord appeared to him with 
words of encouragement, and where ne built 
an altar (xxvi.). In his a?e (not less than 
one hundred and twenty, perhaps one hun- 
dred and thirty-seven) Isaac's eyesight 
had failed, and probably sickness was on 
him, which made him anxious to give a 
=oleran blessing to his favourite son. The 
occasion was to^be marked by a f east ;v;hich 
Esau was to procure. Jacob, bowevf, in^^ 
=ti gated bv his mother, appeared fir^t with 
the sav-urv meat his father loved, and ob- 
tained theblessins. TVhen Isaac discovered 
the fraud, he still firmly held to what he 
had done, blessed Jacob again, and sent 
him awav to provide a wife from among 
his relatives at Padan-aram (xxyii., xx^llL 
1-5) We know little more of Isaac. Hi^ 
latter davs appear to have been spent at 
Hebron, 'where Jacob with his f am ny re- 
turned from Padan-aram visited 
where he died aged one hundred aiid e ghty , 
and was buried in the cave of Machpelah 
bv his two sons (XXXV. 27-29). 

'Isaac stands forth to view especially as 
the affectionate obedient son, the model of 
that loving submission which those who 
become, as inheritors of his father Abra- 
ham's faith, sons and heirs of God ought 
to pav to their heavenly Parent ; the highest 
1 tvpe of which is to be seen in the perfect 
' perfoimiance of his Fathers will by the 



notice, performance oi lus ^^'^'^^ V-oT ^i fi-8 
^e. he. W^e«n„h,s ^.h„ ^ ^i^lS^IS^-^^L^^'^ 



Sarah died, for whom he grieved wi 
the tenderness of an affectionate heart. 
AfteOTdVlbraham selected through t.ie 
Steward of his house a ^if e f or him from 
hit own kindred. His evening meditation 
u thraeTd his reception of Rebekah and 
bis being comforted in her after his mother s 
death a?e verv characteristic (xxiv.) Isaac 
was fortv at'his marriage; and twenty 
years elapsed before his sons Esau and Ja- 
cob were born. In fifteen more years his 
Sth^r Abraham died ; and he united with 
hfs brother Ishmael, now an aged man of 
Picrhtv-nine, in burying him. 

IsSic did not rule well his own house. 
TTi\ sons grew up apparently uncontrolled. 
And thoulh before their birth the younger 
was marked out as the heir of the cove- 
nant \et the father let his partmlity for 
the emer appear ; while the mot her f avoured 

Srother'xxv.). . Isaac ^^^^^^^ 
wf'll Beer-lahai-roi (XXIV. 62, xxa .11), ana, 
on occasion of a famine, would probably 
hSve fol owed his father's example and 
t^Vri -pcrvr^t He was, however, di- 
fSy d ?e5a tt to auit ti,e )»nd of Ca- 
nl"n Moving, therefore, hut a htUe war. 



Ltt. XXVI. ^y, , ouLiii » . 'J^, ' ■ — -- 

is the character in which we best love to 
contemplate Isaac: his figure recurs to us 
a^ bearing the wood with his father up the 
slopes of Moriah. Gentle, pious, concili- 
ating as he was through the rest of his 
davs^ he never rose higher m after-life, he 
hai-dlv fulfilled this promise of his youth. 
Indee'd it is not too much to say with vr. 
Fairbairn that ' in the more advanced stage 
of his historv he fell into a state of general 
feebleness and decay, in which the moral 
but too closely corresponded with the bodily 
decline' {Tvpol of Script., book ii. chap. vi. 
sect 5 vol.^i. p. 534). Yet Isaac was a man 
of fai'th and prayer: and God was not 
ashamed to be called his God (Heb. xi. 16). 
Hi=; historv conveys many instructive les- 
■^ons ; and his memory has always been had 
in honour as one of the great patriarchs 
and pro sen i tors of Israel. 
I'SAI a Chron. X. 34, marg.). Jesse. 
ISAI'AH (salvation of Jcltovah). One ol 
the most eminent of the Hebrew prophets 
Of his personal history very little i? 
known. He was the son of Amoz (Isai 
i 1), whom rabbinical tradition Tf*.t>rc 



il9 



o-e was marned, his wife bein^^ raUpri « thf. 
prophetess ' (viii. 3), not because she exer 

hSe'sK!?^"^»^^"i^^^-'^^^^^^ 

that he o^S^na'riir^^ore^a h i;!5:;?r^a? ' 

nlv^irthiVhP^l'"^^^^ reason?o/he' 
an ascetic. He would 
he eierci7AT'^'^ at Jerusalem, wSe e 
ne exercised his prophetic rainistry during 

2i def lZf.l I^^^^h prophesied 

unaer Lzziah, receiving the divine call in 
the last year of that n>onarch's reign 7vi 
and under the succeeding kings Jotl an ' 
Ahaz. and Hezekiah (i.i). Whether C vi'i 
?sh 'fit ^^^»a««eh's reign is uncertain! Jevv 
ish tradition asserts that he did, and that lie 
was martyred by being sawn asunder ai?d 

f Xfoi"l?i5^s^S»S? 

the^kin?' But^^!;?^"' nmsthave^rvived 
ference T? hi ''"^ ^ necessary in- 

nlz^ XV "'^"^"''^ '» last year'ol 
posiiig the prophet to have had his com" 

s^';gr.u^/ijst^e'SrcSeTS 

old age at Manasseh's accession And 

uvea -Uezekiah, according to some chroiin 
logers sCTenteen years. If Isaiah recorded 
^/nnach^rib-s death, it must hare been fn 
Manasseh's reign. Perhaps more light ml? 
I'^J^r?™. upon the question by furSS 

<2 Chron xl^, were written by Isaiah 
booTsTaV^Y^en'^iscarednS Sfr^S 

^^raf1rpofnt^S»ars££ 
S-olr-S tt°SS Se-^l^otSS 



[iSAlAH 



?oS?d tr'^fs^th'!"^"",^^ that, [f we 

I r,v> conclusions to which 

Lrh-eifs --r [ri?^u?r^! 

Slinst'fher'-"*''*,''"^ been l,™^^^^^^^^^ 
SaVing'^Ven '?„re'';.°/f^*' °* b?o^ 

urfeT SS'r1te'?'rt'iffa1d"'irie«"^', 

guished Tati«,s.''1salSi'' it",'? 
urged, would neVer have passed f rfm'-T 

SSIi-SSliia 

before, .wh°o comd'not'enT iSLTlf the'rf 



isaiah] 



heing many peculiarities of diction, also t-liat 
the tone is not that of Isaiah— the descrip- 
tions of the ' servant' of Jehovah (xli. 8, 9, 
xlii. 1-4, 19, xliv. 1, xlviii. 12, 20, xlix. 7, 
Lii 13, and elsewhere), the derisive con- 
tempt of idolatry (xl. 19, 20, xliv. 9-20, 
xlvi. 5-7), the extraordinary expectations of 
Jewish supremacv, and of the relation which 
the Jews would bear to the Gentiles, being, 
it is declared, unparalleled in the genuine 
productions of Isaiah— and that there is 
an appeal (xl.-xlvii.) to ancient prophecy 
respecting the Babylonish captivity ; none 
such being existent in Isaiah's time. It is, 
besides, said that, had these chapters been 
Icnown to Jeremiah, that prophet, we may 
be sure, would have made some reference 
to them. 

The objections taken from the alleged 
difference of style and tone are of a very 
unsubstantial character. They have weight 
only on the presumption that an individual, 
however long his life, however varied the 
circumstances under which he is at different 
times called to speak, will always fall into 
the same strain of thought, will always ex- 
press himself in the same way. To be sure, 
if there are on other grounds grave doubts 
in regard to the authority of any piece, this 
may be taken as corroborative testimony, 
but in itself, were it even true to the extent 
claimed, it is not to be relied on. Prof. 
Lee has well observed that Cicero, Virgil, 
Shakspeare, Milton, and others might be 
dismembered on the same principles as 
those applied to Isaiah {Six Sermons on the 
Study of Script, pp. 158, &c.) 

But we must take higher ground. The 
original fault which has prompted the de- 
nial of thelsaian authorship is an imperfect 
view of the nature of prophecy. If the He- 
brew seers were but sagacious meu, with a 
quick eye for the turns of the times, and with 
merely a political object, which as active 
perhaps unscrupulous partizans they de- 
termined to promote, we might well allow 
all that has been objected. Obscurity and 
vagueness would characterize their so- 
called predictions ; and their view must be 
limited to the events and the agents then 
upon the stage of the world. But once 
establish the fact that the prophetic gift is 
a realitv, that God does unveil to his ser- 
vants the events that are coming to pass, 
that it is one great test of his supremacy 
that he stauds alone, * declaring the end 
from the beginning, and from ancient times 
the things that are not yet done' (Isai. 
xlvi. 10), and the difficulty vanishes. As St. 
Paul rebuked the sarcastic unbelief of 
Agrippa and Festus, ' Why should it be 
thought a thing incredible with you that 
God should raise the dead?' (Acts xxvi. S), 
so mav we well ask. Why should he in whose 
eternal mind all past and future occurrences 
are fully present, for adequate reasons— and 
the establishment of his kingdom and the 
administration of his church are adequate 
reasons— not make known his will before- 
hand, and trace out from old time the 
lineaments of that magnificent plan, accord- 
ing to which, by an appointed Saviour, he 
restores the ruin which sin and Satan had 
occasioned? Are his people to have no 



strong warrant for their faith ? Is the High 
and Loftv One to be limited to the petty 
grasp of a human understanding? The 
plainest facts attest the contrary. There is 
prophecy fulfilled and f ulflliing before our 
eyes. No prescience of man, no sagacious 
guess, no keenness of natural instinct, 
mysterious as in the response of an ancient 
oracle, or far-reaching as that of a finished 
modern German professor, could have fore- 
shown the present condition of the Jews,^ 
of isineveh, Babylon, Tyre, Egypt, depicted, 
as we may see, in prophecies delivered 
demonstrably while those nations and cities 
were existing and prosperous. The pro- 
phetic vision is a reality, then. And the 
Old Testament is one great prophecy of the 
Ifew, and God's dealings with his church the 
gradual unfolding of that sublime purpose 
according to which the Just was to suffer for 
the unjust. Bv means of the prophets God 
revealed his will for human guidance. 
When temporal deliverance from earthlj 
foes was predicted, there was yet a furthet 
meaning in the prophetic utterances. 
Mightier victories over adversaries more 
implacable were pre-signified : and the im- 
mediate fulfilment was but the proof, or 
it may be the type also, of that more com- 
plete accomplishment of the good pleasun 
of God's goodness in the redemption of the 
world, and the glorious establishment oi 
his holy kingdom. It is quite a mistake, 
therefore, to imagine that Isaiah's later 
prophecies respected merely the return 
from the literal Babylon. Hence Stuart 
observes iCrit. Hist, and Def. of 0. T. Canon, 
sect. iv. p. 103, edit. Davidson), ' It is only 
when chaps, xl.-lxvi. are viewed in the light 
of a great Messianic development— a series 
of predictions respecting the person, the 
work, and the kingdom of Christ— that the 
earnestness, the protracted length, the full- 
ness, the deep feeling, the holy enthusiasm, 
the glowing metaphors and similes, and the 
rich and varied exhibitions of peace and 
prosperity, can well be accounted for. The 
writer. In taking such a stand-point, uses 
the exile and the return from it as the basis 
of his comparisons and analogies. It was a 
rich and deeply-interesting source, from 
which he might draw them. Any other so- 
lution of the whole phenomena is, to my 
mind at least, meagre and unsatisfactory.' 
See Henderson, Book of the Proph. Isaiah, 
Introd. pp. xvii., &c. ; B-orne, Introd., vol. ii. 
edit, Ayre, p. 790 ; and comp. proofs of ac- 
complishment of prophecy in such works as 
those of Ivewton, Keith, &c. 

If principles like these be established, 
a satisfactory reply may readily be given to 
the specific objections before noticed. 
Isaiah, occupying a prophetical not a his- 
torical position, is carried forward into fu- 
ture ages ; and the lamentable condition 
of Judah desolated and captive is before his 
eye. It is not as a historian that he 
writes. Nor are there any such details as 
we discover in the prophets who lived 
really in the period of the exile. Just in 
accordance with prophetic usage there is 
no note of time. The nations referred to 
were not altogether unknown. Babylon 
was brought prominently forward by the 



421 



fasfon fm^Jf ^^^^e oc- 
casion for the predicting of the Babylonian 

to'SZl'LV'i^' ^^^^^ission may be said 
to my te the cheering assurances of deliver- 
tbe Pif.r l^' ^^'^ ^-^^iah stand alone in 
the character of his predictions. Micah, his 
a?^f xfr?/-"^"''^' ^.^"^ered a similar message; 
10 vi 7 i S^ 1.^^^ ^^^^^^ exile (Mic. 1y 
fn't-wI'-^P; ^"^A^"" declarations, and 
Snd r,nt-7n ^'^'^^ ^""^'^^^ ^^^'eady delivered, 
and not to any more ancient utterances re- 
ference was made. As to Cyrus, he is spo/en 
pLLh P''^''^^ though he is 

called by name, yet such designation is not 
unprecedented. Besides, after al],?fisyery 
probable that the word Cyrus was rather ^ 
title of dignity, as Pharaoh in E?ypt than 
a name properly so called. The silence of 
Jeremiah, even if it could be proved that 
he made no use of Isaiaii's prophecies sure 
]y is small evidence that such pronhecies 
were not then existing. But the?eTs great 
reason to believe that later writers were ac- 
quainted with what Isaiah delivered he?e 
and m earlier chapters, against Babylon and 
embodied thoughts and expressions fiom 
him. Some illustrative proof of this is nro 

2o3, 281). If, further, a difference of stvie 

Z^ef^tl^^tu''' chapters as fo'm- 

paied with the earher ones, it is conceived 
that an ample explanation is supplied by the 

cl led ?orn?V''"'^' ^^ ere various! 

called forth by passing events, and were 
consequently more abrupt; while the Tate? 
f^n^'aV discourse more care- 

fully elaborated, hence naturallv exhibiting 
a greater copiousness and flow of lang^^^^^^^^^ 
If there are some Chaldaic words intro- 
duced, they may easily be accounted f or by 
the intercourse in Hezekiah's time with 
Assyria. But some of those objected to 
may be paralleled from parts of liaiah ge- 
neral y acknowledged genuine; as may afso 
the strain of thought and the imager^ e m 
ployed fsee Ktil, tcbisupr.). Bes de« had the 
writer really lived in the time of the ex e 
there would certainly have been more ne- 
cuharities of diction, and a greater divpr.? 
ty of thought and expressioS 

Much more might be said on this topic 
But It IS believed that sufficient reason h£ 
been produced to show that the obiectioS 
against the Isaian authorship of the late? 
chapters are by no means conclusive And 
It may be added, in the words of Hen -sten 
berg, that 'it is a principle of higherirftT 

parTs ot%l'^'' ^'^"^^ aifdfhe'single 
paits of the same, must be regarded as tbP 

lurZtf fo *° ^^^om they ar 

' ^^""-^ not shown, by 

internal and external grounds tbat hi 
Trf ^^^liave been the autZ^ ' Thfs haf 
uot been done in the present case' (jmel 
BiU.Repos., Oct. 1831, p. 723) K.^"Lti. 

dences^^nv^thT "^^^^ vo^^^^re evi- 

uhen A winvS^ genuineness of these pro- 
puecies which must now be looked at It 

prophe?fc " endowed With' the 

propnetic gift or not, will allude to tho 
things around him, will reprove the s^Ss 

nT'liTsS^'^^ genemlon 
»c is not natural, one may almost say it is 



[isaiahI 



, not possible, for a Jewish teacher withoi^t 
divme help too-for the very oMect of 
placing these chapters at a late da e is to 

pronlJ?^i/^/^:f,^^ productToTof no 
prophet-it IS hardly possible that a teacher 
addressing his people in the time of the 

tKoSd^nTi^^'^^^ ^^^^ «f sins wh ch 
tuej could not then commit, and warn them 
against an untheocratic behaviour the on 
pprtunity for which had paS away Now 
observe: the people are cautioSed againsi 
seeking for foreign help (Isai. Ivii sf ien 
^,«,^^^i^o«^itically Observing iast-daTs 
dens ^""^ nevertheless exacting bur- 

?h?ir Profits, and keeping 

tSrsaSfn^.^'^f profaSinf 
tne sabbath (13), for confounding the dis 

Sv rSvfVrfTr'^"^ ^"^ unc?e^an meat^s 
00 ■ to fl '^P There are frequent allusions, 
too to false prophets in Jerusalem : and 
l olatry is ceaselessly denouncedf Aga ii 
the Assyrian oppression is referred to as if 
It were the last then suffered (lii 4) /n 

unabl^onHn^^"^^-^^'^"^^^^^ ^^fi^^^n^ are 
suitable only to a time when the Jewish 

to h1vr?p''^^ "^J'^'"^' not Ukel? 

to have been made by any excent Prni 

foi""t'h?Sn?f -f .^-em?:fn'klea bi: 
f,?c;. captivity, during a period which as 
historically described in the latter chapte?' 

sents'tip?' ^^^'"^^ ^^^^ Chronicles, pre- 
sents the exact counterpart of those refer- 
ences in the prophet' luiidesigZd Sot^cl 
?nr 1^^^*^ ^' P- 239). Much stress need 
Bot be laid upon the curious observation bv 

Sah'l"wirnf.^''^'-' ^- P-238), SatHeze- 
Kiant, wife and Manasseh's mother wi^ 
named Hephzi-bah (2 Kings xxi i) and thai 
the marriage of the land is described am 
Si 4)"mi??J^f^ HepSah'aSl: 
f the ki^^'Vl. ^ .very natural illustration 
It the kings marriage occurred about th(' 
time the prophecy was uttered. 

inere is still more remarkable evidence 
Klemerthas shown how the decree of r^' 
rus (Ezra i. 2-4) actually incorporates woJd . 
and expressions from the later chapters o' 

>Kms pp 134-142). And this gives consi«. 

li^li'T,! f^f^fVi Jo^^e!hu?(TS, 

ao. XI. 1, §§ 1, 2) that Isaiah's prophecies 
were communicated to Cyrus and Tl at hp 
was hence induced to issue his decree for 
the Jews' return and there-building of the^i 

the Jewil'p?f ""V suppose tha 
tne Jewish exiles ventured to palm some 

Lnd mar hii?? ^-^^^ great Conqueror! 
ana made him believe that they were thP 
solemn utterances of ancient prophecy It 
must be noted, further, that there are £anv 
peculiarities of diction found iirall paSs of 
"hap^te?s ' of '''l'''.^' well'afth^e later 
SoS' t jf «f n J" ^'^"^er it most 

probable that the compos tion nroceedpri 

e'.amnlesh'r^ ^l^^'^^raSs and 

bv v^?i-on^v>-^^^'' supplied in abundance 
by Vdiious critics, to whose works the tpt 

t'iTl '1^'''''' ^^leinertU^i 
of'nfhj ff; ' ^engstenberg in Kitto's (h/c 

9 / ^ , Home, ubi supr., p. 795 

And though the later chapters have been 
t.Z^H^''^^ exclusively referred to, yet k 
must be remembered that, as before said. 





various other parts have heen assailed 
with similar objections, and must be de- 
fended on similar grounds. But consider for 
a moment the result, if all or if many of 
these objections could be substantiated. 
What a strange phenomenon would tne 
conglomerate, a congeries of fragmeuts be 
Is such a construction probable ? Well ana 
nertinentlv, therefore, does Stuart engmre, 
' What example is there, among all the pro- 
phets, of a book so patched up by putting 
together six different authors, five ofthem 
without any names ? Who did this ? Where, 
when was it done ? If parts of the book are 
so late as is alleged, why have we no hint 
about its compilation, no certain internal 
evidence of it ? How can we account for it 
that all the minor prophets, even Obadian 
with his one chapter, should be kept sepa- 
rate and distinct, and this even down to 
the end of the prophetic period, and yet 
Isaiah be made up by undistifnginsheQ trag- 
ments and amalgamations? These surely 
are serious difficulties; and they have not 
been satisfactoriiy met ' iuU supr., p. 9/). 

There is another point which must be 
pressed earnestly and reverently. These 
chapters repeatedly cited in the Jyew Testa- 
ment are there ascribed to Isaiah. Thus Isau 
xl. 3 is introduced by the words, This is he 
that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias 
(Matt. iii. 3 : see Luke iii. 4 ; John i. 23). bo 
I«ai. xlii. 1 is introduced by ' That it might be 
fulfilled which was spoken by Esaias the pro- 
phet ' (Matt. xii. 17). Again of Isai. lui. 1 we 
have, ' That the saying of Esaias the prophet 
might be fulfilled which he spake (John 
xii 38); and in the following verses reie- 
rence is made to Isai. vi. m terms which 
show that the two quotations were con- 
sidered as belonging to the same prophet : 
comp. Rom. x. 16. Once more, St. Paul ex- 
pressly attribates Isai. Ixv. 1, 2 to Isaiah 
'Esaias is verv bold and saith' (Rom. x. 20). 
It cannot be denied that our Lord and his 
apostles received the passages so cited as 
really written by Isaiah. Surely a devout 
mind will not lightly set their judgment 
aside. It is beside the mark to say that 
Christ did not come to rectify critical error, 
or that perchance he was ignorant, like re- 
ligious Jews in general, of the true author- 
chip of these portions of the book. For if 
not from Isaiah's pen they are not prophecy. 
What confidence could the church repose 
in a divine Teacber who mistook mere 
human utterance for inspired prediction, 
and could not distinguish between God's 
genuine word and a counterfeit? 

It is not intended to deny that able and 
conscientious men have arrived at a diffe 
rent conclusion, or to refuse to their argu- 
ments their fair weight. But, looking at the 
whole question, and laying together all the 
considerations, of which a mere outline has 
been here presented, it does seem that tht 
difficulties, on the presumption that thest 
prophecies are not genuine, are enormous 
And the objections are not moreformidabh 
than an ingenious man could frame agams 
Che credit of almost every ancient writing 
Some have suggested akind of compromise 
There was, they have guessed, a seconc 
Isaiah, the author of the later chapters— 


nan unknown to history, but who has had 
the advantage of being combined with and 
nistaken for his namesake. Serious dis. 
proof of such a theory is little needed. And 
as little can it be imagined, when every 
other prophetic book is assigned definitely 
to its author, that he who delivered this 
grand revelation, enclosing the most extra- 
ordinary descriptions of the person and 
work of Messiah, and promising the esta- 
blishment of that kingdom into which Gen- 
tiles as well as Jews should be gathered— m 
itself, it may be by the way remarked, a 
sufficient authorization— that he, who by 
universal consent stands foremost for sub 
limity of thought and vastuess of concep- 
tion among the Hebrew seers, should uevei 
have gained a name among his people, and 
have been degraded into a mere appendage 
to a writer a century and a half before 
him Besides, to a careful observer the 
later portions are but the development of 
the earlier. Allusions and references in 
confirmation might easily be pointed out 
Take a sinele instance : the lofty consola- 
tions of Isai. xle only open forth in loudei 
notes the strains which are heard in 
i 16-19 25-27. This fact increases the 
difficulty of supposing an appendix by 
a stranse and later hand. The conclusion- 
then, inaiutained by all external evidence, 
and corroborated in spite of objection by 
internal proof, to which the thougntful 
student who believes that ' holy men of old 
spake as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost ' must come, will surely be that Isaiat 
the son of Ainoz it was to whom it was 
given to promulgate these oracles of God. 

We may be content to let the questioi. 
rest whether Isaiah's own hand arranged 
the book in its present form. The chapters 
do not follow in chronological order. And 
it is not easy to discover any distinct prin- 
ciple which has guided the distribution 
Keil sees in the whole two great groups ol 
prophecies. He supposes chap. i. an address 
to Isaiah's contemporaries, and an lutjo- 
duction to the rest ; and then he includes 
in the first group ii.-xxvii., in the second 
xxviii.-lxvi. The two great events of the 
time were the combination of Syria and 
Ephraim against Judah, and the invasion 
of Sennacherib ; and to these as the special 
objects the mission of the prophet was di- 
rected. The centre and nucleus of the first 
group is chap, vii., of the second chaps, 
xxxvi -xxxix. And to these the rest of the 
predictions are subordinate, either as pre- 
paratory to them, or as taking occasion 
from them to develope the future manifes- 
tation of God's kingdom iEinUiting, § 66). _ 
Such a classification is perhaps too arti- 
ficial ; but objections may be made against 
any others-and they are numerous-which 
are proposed. And, it may be added, it is 
hardly possible to specify with exactness 
' the dates of the particular portions. After 
[ observing, however, that the book seems 
^ naturally to fall into three parts; I. A 
u collection of separate prophecies m regard 
to Israel, Judah, and neighbouring nations 
(i -XXXV ). II. The historical portion (xxxvi.- 
i xxxix ) III. The discourse respecting Mes- 
i siah and his kingdom i,xl.-lxyi.)— the first ol 



i23 



[isaiah 



these having special reference to Assyria, 
linked by the second to the third, which 
points to Babylon and onwards— it may be 
an assistance to the reader if a compen- 
dious view of the dates of the several ora- 
cles, taken from Browne's Ordo Sceclorum 
(part i. chap. iv. append, pp. 249-252), be pre- 
sented to him : I. i. (i.-v.) Prophecies against 
Jerusalem delivered in the reigns of TJzziah 
and Jotham, the section being completed 
by the narrative of the prophet's mission 
(vi.) ; ii. (vii.-xii.) Prophecy of Inimanuel, 
delivered on occasion of the confederacy 
against Jerusalem in the first year of Ahaz ; 
iii. (xiii. 1-xiv. 27) Prophecies against Ba- 
bylon and Assyria; iv. (xiv. 28-xxiii. 18) 
Prophecies immediately relating to the As- 
syrian invasion, including : 1. (xiv. 28-32), 
against Philistia, delivered in the death- 
year of Ahaz, 726 B.C. ; 2. (xv,, xvi.), against 
Moab, relating to the invasion of Shalma- 
neser, 723-721 B.C.; 3. (xvii.), against Damas- 
cus and Ephraim, fulfilled 721 B.C., (xviii.), 
connected with the preceding chapter, and 
relating to Ethiopia ; 4. (xix.), against Egypt, 
about 718 B.C. ; 5. (xxi. l-io), the capture of 
Babylon ; 6. (11, 12), oracle concerning Du- 
mah ; 7. (13-17), that against Arabia; 8. (xxii,), 
vision of the siege of Jerusalem ; 9. (xxiii.), 
against Tyre. In all these subdivisions^ 
Mr. Browne thinks he perceives a connect- 
ing link, there being some relation more or 
less near to Assyria as threatening or con- 
quering each people or country named. 
V. (xxiv.-xxvii.) Desolation of Judah and 
Jerusalem ; after the judgment, Messiah's 
kingdom ; vi. (xxviii.-xxxv.) The same gene- 
ral subject, with particular application to 
the prophet's own times (xxx., xxxi.). The 
latter series was delivered before the catas- 1 
trophe of Samaria; xxviii. prophesying 
the desolation of that kingdom. Proba- : 
bly nos. v. and vi. start from the same point j 
as iv., i. e. the year of the death of Ahaz. 
[I. The historical chapters (xxxvi.-xxxix.). 
[II. (xl.-lxvi.). An interval of many years 
probably separates these from the former. 
It must be added that a careful study of 
tlie history of the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, 
A.haz, Hezekiah, and Manasseh, with that 
of contemporaneous Israelitish kings, is 
necessary for the understanding of Isaiah's 
prophecies. 

Of the character and merits of Isaiah's 
style little need be said: every reader. can 
in some degree appreciate the majesty of 
his sentiments, the propriety and elegance 
of his imagery, the beauty and energy of 
his language; the different excellences 
being so tempered that, as Ewald acknow- 
ledges, ' one cannot say of Isaiah, as of 
other prophets, that he had some special 
peculiarity or favourite mode of colouring. 
. . . As the subject requires, every kind of 
diction and every change of method are 
respectively manifested' {Die Propheten des 
A.B., vol. i. p. 173). 

It may be desirable to say soinewhat of 
the ' servant of the Lord,' of which, in the 
later chapters, the prophet frequently 
speaks. The title is given sometimes to 
specified persons (Isai. xx.3, xxii. 20), but it 
is used in a peculiar sense in xlii. 1-7, xlix. 
1-9, 1. 5-10, lii. 13, liii., with which com- 



pare Zech. iii. 8. Here we find it predicated 
of the character intended that he was 
' called from the womb,' fitted and prepared 
for the office in which he was to glorify 
God (Isai. xlix. 1-3) ; he was endued with the 
Spirit to be the source of blessing and de- 
liverance to the world, to inaugurate a new 
dispensation (xlii. 1-7) : he was to be des- 
pised and to suffer, becoming a sacrifice for 
sin, though not bis own (liii. l-io) : lie was, 
however, to have a splendid recompence 
for his sufferings (11, 12), his exaltation 
being as great as his humiliation had been 
before (lii. 13-15). 

There have been many interpretations at- 
tempted of the prophet's meaning. Laying 
out of view tliose that are manifestly un- 
tenable, we shall see five specially main- 
tained by different writers— viz., that the 
Jewish people is described ; that it is Cyrus ; 
Isaiah himself ; the prophets collectively , 
the Messiah. This last supposition is alone 
satisfactory. Henderson (Isaiah, note on 
xlii. 1) briefly sums up the proof of it :— 
' Pirst, the passage (xlii. l,&c.) is directly ap- 
plied to our Saviour by the inspired evange- 
list Matthew (Matt. xii. 17-21); and part of the 
first verse is verbally adopted in the divine 
testimony to his Messiahship at the Jordan 
(iii. 17), and on the mount of transfigura- 
tion (xvii. 5 ; Mark ix. 7 ; Luke ix. 35). To 
which add the reference made to the sixth 
verse by Simeon in his inspired testimony 
(ii. 32). Secondly, this interpretation is that 
of the Chaldee paraphrast,and is advocated 
by Kimchi and Abarbanel, notwithstand- 
ing the narrowness of their hereditary no- 
tions. The latter writer scruples not to 
assert that all those who do not interpret 
the prophecy of the Messiah have been 
struck with blindness. Thirdly, the totalitv 
of character exhibited in the passage is 
such as to render it inapplicable to any but 
our Lord.* 

But so close is the union between Christ 
and his church, that sometimes what is 
predicated of the one is applied to the 
other; because he is the Head, and h^'s 
people members of one mystical body (Rom 
xii. 5 ; 1 Cor. xii. 12, 13) ; he the chief corner- 
stone, his servants living stones built upon 
him, in whom the v/hole ' building, fitly 
framed together, groweth unto an holy 
temple in the Lord' (Eph. ii. 20-22). So 
that we have here exhibited, as Dr. Alex- 
ander well says (Prophecies of Isaiah, earlier 
and later, chap. xlii. p. 623), ' the Messiah 
and his people, as a complex person, and as 
the messenger or representative of God 
among the nations.' Sometimes therefore 
Christ, sometimes his people are more 
especially pointed to. Thus in Isai. xlii. 
18-25, ' the church or body of Christ, as dis- 
tinguished from its Head, and representing 
him until he came. Is charged with unfaith- 
fulness to their great trust,and this unfaith- 
fulness declared to be the cause of what it 
suffered.' So there is an analogy in Deut. 
xviii. 15-19, where the prophet intended is 
not Christ in an exclusive sense, but rathef 
as the Head of that prophetic body to whom 
his Spirit was imparted. There is some- 
thing, then, of truth in several of the va. 
rious interpretations propounded, but not 



ISCAH 



424 



the whole truth. The offices and excellen- 
ces borrowed in description from inferiors 
and typical personages have their full sig- 
nification in One to whom they point ; who 
' is more than a prophet, for the isles wait on 
his law ; more than a priest, for he offers up 
himself ; more than a king, for through his 
glory he makes kings to tremble. Not mere 
prophet, mere priest, mere king is the ser- 
vant of the Lord, who is none of them ex- 
clusively, but is all together ; and they are 
only three emanations of his individual 
glory' (Delitzsch in Buclelbach und Cruericke's 
Zeitschrift, 1850, p. 54). This is no ideal : the 
notion is fully realized in him, who in the 
fulness of the time personally appeared in 
the world, and gathered around him the 
true Israel, and thus has become indeed 
'the first-born among many brethren' 
(Ptora. viii. 29). See Home, ubi supr., pp. 
805-807. . . , ^ 

The commentaries on the book of 
Isaiah's propliecies are numerous : it must 
be sufficient here to mention the following : 
Vitrinsa, Coynment. in Lib. Proph. Isaice, 
1714; Bishop Lowth, Isaiah, a new transl.,&c., 
1778, &c.yDr. Henderson, The Book of Isaiah, 
with Commentary , 1857, 2nd edit,; Dr. J. A. 
Alexander, The Prophecies of Isaiah, earlier 
and later, 1846, 1847, 1848. _ 

IS'CxiH {she looks abroad, covering ?). The 
daughter of Haran, Abraham's brother, and 
sister of Lot (Gen. x1. 29). Jewish tradition 
identifies her with Sarah. 
ISCAR'IOT. See JUDAS, 3. 
IS'DAEL (1 Esdr. v. 33). Giddel (Ezra 
ii. 56). ^ ^ . ^ 

ISH'BAH (praising). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17). 

ISH'BAK (leaving). One of the sons of 
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2 ; 1 Chron. 
i 32) Various conjectures have been started 
as to the locality of the tribe which may 
be supposed sprung from Ishbak ; but no 
certainty can be as yet arrived at ; only as 
Kalisch suggests, the etymology w^ould 
seem to allude to a wandering people. 

ISH'BI-BE'KOB (his seat is at Nob). One 
of the sons of the Philistine giant, who 
thought to have slain David, but was killed 
by Abishai (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17). 

ISH-BO'SHETH (man of shame, or bashful). 
One of the sons, probably the youngest, of 
king Saul. He is called Esh-baal inl Chron. 
viii. 33, ix. 39 ; the adjunct Baal, a name of 
heathen worship, being here, as in some 
similar cases, interchanged with Bosheth, 
shame. After the death of Saul and three 
of his sons upon Gilboa, when the state 
was in confusion, and many were looking 
to David, Abner carried Isli-bosheth across 
the Jordan, and established him at Ma- 
hanaini. He Avas a man of no energy; but 
Abner's influence was great ; and by degrees 
the greater part of the kingdom was 
brought to acknowledge Ish-bosheth's sove- 
reignty ; only the tribe of Judah adhering 
to David. And from this time of real sub- 
mission to him his reign of two years is to 
be dated (2 Sam. ii. 8-12, 15). There was war, 
however, between the two kingdoms ; and 
at length the ambitious Abner, receiving an 
affront from Ish-bosheth, resolved to ]oin 
David This chief s assassination by Joab 



followed ; and soon after Ish-bosheth was 
murdered by two of his officers, who thought 
to obtain David's favour by it, but were 
by his order immediately executed (iii., iv.). 

ISH'I (saving, salutary).—!. 2. Two de- 
scendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 31, iv. 20). 
—3. The father of four chiefs of Simeon (42). 
—4. A chieftain of Manasseh, east of the 
Jordan (v. 24). 

ISH'I (my husband?). A Hebrew term sym- 
bolically used (Hos. ii. 16) in opposition to 
the Canaanitish or heathen word Baali, the 
signification being the same, but in the last 
case an idolatrous notion was included. 

ISHI'AH (whom Jehovah lends). A chief- 
tain of Issachar (1 Chron. vii. 3). 

ISHI'JAH (:Ld.). One who had married a 
foreign wife (Ezra x. 31). 

ISH'MA (desolation). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 3). 

ISH'MAEL (whom God hears).— \. The 
son of Abraham by the Egyptian Hagar, 
servant of Sarah, whom her mistress, de 
spairing of children herself, gave to hei 
husband (Gen. xvi. 1-3). Before the birth 
of Ishmael Hagar had fled from Sarah's se- 
yerity, but was commanded by an angel to 
return and submit herself, and was assured 
that her son (whose name was prescribed) 
should be the progenitor of a numerous 
seed, that he should be bold and indepen- 
dent—this being the characteristic of his 
race— and should dwell in the presence of 
or before all his brethren, an expression in- 
dicating the localities to be occupied by his 
posterity close to kindred tribes. Hagar 
I returned to Abraham's encampment; and 
Ishmael was born when his father was 
eighty-six (4-16). 

At thirteen years of age Ishmael was cir- 
cumcised; that rite being then undergone 
by Abraham and all his household, as a seal" 
of the covenant thus renewed. Abraham, 
in some doubt, it would seem, whether after 
all this son were not to be the heir of pro- 
mise, praved at the time, ' O that Ishmael 
might live before thee ! ' He was assured, 
however, that, though Ishmael should be 
the father of a great nation, yet the heir of 
promise should be a child to be born ol 
Sarah (xvii.). It Avas a great privilege the 
being members of Abraham's family and in- 
cluded in Abraham s covenant ; but Hagai 
and Ishmael were insensible of it. And, 
when Isaac was weaned, and the feast of 
joy was held, Ishmael, now a grown lad of 
fifteen or sixteen, mocked. The guilt, says 
Kalisch, Avas obvious : ' both had insulted 
those who ought to have been to them ob- 
jects of respect and veneration : Hagar de- 
spised Sarah : Ishmael sneered at Isaac : 
the former boasted of her conception ; the 
latter of his primogeniture : the one forgot 
the dignity of a prophet's wife ; the other 
the higher promises vouchsafed to her son' 
(Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 437). The result 
was that Hagar and Ishmael were expelled 
from the encampment ; and, though Abra- 
ham, whose affection for his son was strong, 
had supplied Hagar with bread and water, 
vet the two were soon destitute hi the wilder- 
ness. Ishmael, still but a boy, was at once 
ready to sink. But again there was a divine 
interposition ; and tne assurance was re 



i2o 



[iSLI 



newed that Islimael should multiDly into a 
nation. He grew and became skilful in ar- 
chery, dwelling in the wilderness of Paran. 
In due time his mother took him a wife from 
her own country, Egypt (Gen. xxi.). Little 
more is recorded of Mm. He joined with 
his brother Isaac in burying their father 
(XXV. 9). He had twelve sons, the heads of 
tribes, and he died ' in the presence of all 
his brethren,' his descendants dwelling 
'from Havilah unto Shur that is before 
Egypt, as thou goest towards Assyria' 
(12-19). For some of the Arabian stories 
respecting Ishmael, seeD'Herbelot, Biblioth. 
Orient., arts. 'Ismael,' 'Ismail ben Ibra- 
him,' 

The descendants of Ishmael were mixed 
4.rabian triljes ; the purer Arabs boasting 
that they were the posterity of Joktan or, 
as they call the name, Kahtan (see Joktan). 
The proper settlements of the Ishmaeiites 
were in the desert Arabia. ' They were 
therefore bounded in the east by Babylonia 
and the Euphrates, extended in the north 
to Syria, spread in the west to Coele-syria 
and Palestine, and in the south indefinitely 
mto the peninsula of Arabia proper. They 
lived, therefore, regularly indeed " to the 
east " of their Abrahamic brethren ; but they 
extended their predatory excursions to the 
borders of all contiguous countries : their 
erratic mode of life gave them the charac- 
ter of ubiquity : they wandered wherever 
their wild spirits incited them ; and thus 
they might be said to be always " before 
their brethren": they restlessly strayed 
through the greater part of Arabia Petrsa, 
and reached not unfrequently even the bor- 
ders of Egypt ' (Kalisch, nbi supr., pp. 379, 
380). The predictions in regard to Ishmael 
have, indeed, been wonderfully fulfilled. 
The wide conquests of the Saracens and the 
mode of hfe of the modern Bedouins alike 
testify to the truth of the prophetic word. 
The Bedouins are literally ' wild-ass-men ' : 
lawless, and despising the agricultural 
population, they live by plunder ; their hand 
being lifted against every man. Nor have 
their habits, their mode of tent and desert 
hfe been changed for centuries : there they 
are, as described by every traveller, the 
living witness to the literal truth of the ora- 
cles of God. 

2. One of the royal family of Judah,who 
treacherously murdered Gedaliah, appointed 
governor after the destruction of Jerusalem 
by the Chaldeans (2 Kings xxv. 23, 25). Ish- 
mael had with several followers joined Ge- 
daliah. His base purposes were not un- 
known ; for he had been tampered with by 
Baalis, king of the Ammonites; and Joha- 
nan warned Gedaliah against him. The go- 
vernor, however, with generous but (as it 
proved) misplaced confidence, refused to 
credit Ishmael's treason. Accordingly Ish- 
mael had full opportunity of perpetrating 
the atrocious act. He associated ten men 
with him, murdered Gedaliah and various 
other Jews, kept the massacre for a while 
secret, imposed on eighty persons who were 
bringing offerings, killed all of them as 
they entered the residence but ten, who 
bought their lives by disclosing where cer- 
tain stores were treasured, and then car- 



ried off the rest of the people with the prin 
cesses to go into the land of Ammon. Jo- 
hanan, however, hastily collected forces, 
pursued Ishmael,overtook him at ' the great 
waters,' probably the pool of Gibeon, and 
rescued the prisoners. Ishmael escaped 
with eight men to the Ammonites (Jer. xL 
7-16, xli.). 

3. One of the descendants of Saul (1 Chron 
viii. 38, ix. 44).— 4. A chief of Judah (2 Chron. 
xix. 11).— 5. One who joined Jehoiada in the 
successful attempt to place Joash on the 
throne of Judah (xxiii. 1).— 6. A priest who 
had taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 22). 

ISH'MAELITES (Judges viii. 24 ; 1 Chron. 
xxvii. 30 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 6). Sometimes the 
actual descendants of Ishmael are meant by 
the term Ishmaeiites ; sometimes the ap- 
pellation would seem to comprehend more 
generally the neighbouring Abrahamic 
tribes. 

ISHMAI'AH (whom Jehovah hears). A 
chief of Zebulun in David's time (1 Chron 
xxvii. 19). 

ISH':\1EELITES (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 27, 28, 
xxxix. 1 ; 1 Chron. ii. 17). SeelSHMAELiTES. 

ISH'MEPv,AI (whom Jehovah keeps). A 
chieftain of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 18). 

ISH'OD (man of glory). A descendant of 
Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 18). 

ISH'PAN {eminent, or perhaps bald:). A 
Benjamite chief (1 Chron. viii. 22). 

ISH'-TOB {men of Toh). The name of a small 
Syrian territory, the forces of Avhich were 
employed by the Ammonites against David 
(2 Sam. X. 6,8). But probably the district 
of TOB, which see, is meant : in the margin 
of our version we have ' the men of Tob.' 

ISH'UAH {level). The second son of Asher 
(Gen. xlvi. 17). The same name is in ou^- 
version spelt Isuah in 1 Chron. vii. 30 : it 
does not appear in jS'umb. xxvi. 44. 

ISH'UAI {id.). One of the sons of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 30), elsewhere called Isui and 
Jesui (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; IS'umb. xxvi. 44). 

ISH'TTI {id.). One of the sons of Saul 
(1 Sam. xiv. 49). He is not elsewhere men- 
tioned: perhaps he was also called Abin- 
adab : see 1 Chron. viii. 33, marg. 

ISLE. The original word thus rendered 
has a wider meaning than our term isle or 
island. lu is properly, according to Gese- 
nius, habitable ground, dry land, as con- 
trasted with water, the sea, rivers; and 
thus it is used in Isai. xlii. 15. Hence it 
signifies sea-coast, either the shore of a 
continent, or actually an island. Examples 
of its implying the coast of any country may 
be found in xx. 6, xxiii. 2, 6 ; Ezek. xxvii. 7\- 
'the isles of Elishah' being the coasts of 
Greece. But it is an island literally in Jer 
ii. 10, xlvii. 4, marg. ; Ezek. xxvii. 6 ; so too 
m Esth. X. 1, where there is an antithesis 
between islands and continent. In the 
plural the word occurs for maritime re- 
gions, especially beyond sea, that expres- 
sion being sometimes added (Jer. xxv. 22) ; 
and so generally remote coasts and islands 
(Isai. xxiv. 15, xl. 15, xli. 1, 5, xlii. 4, 10, 12 
xlix. 1, 11. 5), particularly those of the Me- 
diterranean (Psal Ixxii. 10 ; Dan. xi. 18). And 
these are sometimes specially called 'the 
islands of the sea' (Isai. xi. 11), ' the isles 
of the Gentiles' (Gen. x. 5 ; Zeph, ii. ii). Ijd. 



Ezek. xxvii. 15 tlie Indian ArcMpelago is 

"""iSAIACHrAH (Whom Jehovah upholds) 
An overseer of the offerings under Hezekian 

''?^Ml-E^^-i!a Esdr. ix. 22). ishmael 
(Ezra X m-2. (Judith ii. 23). Ishmael, the 
sou of Ah rah am. , ^ . . ^. 

ISMAI'AH (Whom Jehovah hears) A bi- 
beonite chief who joined David at Ziklag 

fs^AH^perliaps bald). A Ben jamite chief 
(1 Chron. viii. 16). , .^.^^ . 

IS'RAEL {warrior, prince, or soMiei oj 
God). A name specially l5e^t()wed on Jacob 
after his mysterious wresthng witli God 
(Gen. xxxii. 28), and confirmed to him at 
Beth-el (xxxv 10). It was, in consequence, 
the national appellation of liis descendants 
(Exod. i. 1, iii. 16), and, though sometimes 
used in contradistinction to Judah (2 Sara, 
li 10, xix. 43). especially after the recession 
of the ten tribes (1 Kings xii 20, xxu. 2) 
yet it was not entirely lost m the southern 
k?ngdom (2 Chron. xi. 3, xii. 6) ; and it was 
applied to the returned capti^^s after the 
Babylonish exile (Ezra ii. 70, in. l). 

The term is also sometimes }^sed n a 
figurative sense to designate God s faithful 

'Tia'ePgiU'from a family into a notion 
in E^vpt Their early history was a history 
of subjection and sorrow, so fieyous and 
lon^-continued that they ' sighed by rea- 
son of t;' and they cried, and their cry 
came up unto God by reason . of the hond- 
age ' (Exod. ii. 23). Bui it is food' for 
anyone to 'beai- the yoke m his youth 
?lLi iii.27). And the early discipline of 
Israe was intended to prepai;e and At them 
for the high place they were to hold amon^ 
the nations. This point is well illustrated 
bv Garhett, Divine Planof Bevelatio7i,lect.j. 
pp 272-358. They had promises of certain 
deiiverance : they had the assurance that 
their fathers' God would give them an iii- 
herilance, where, secure from molestation, 
they should live and prosper m a mo^t de- 
iglitsome land. A magnificent destmy wa^ 
theirs as they left the house of bondage 
They were enriched with the spoils of their 
late oppressors : the visible symbol of God 
guided them as they passed triumphant y 
throu^^h the Red sea, divided by a notable 
miracle (see Red Sea) ; and they had sta- 
tutes and ordinances dictated to them, 
which if they and their children had re- 
garded, they would have been blessed in 
their fair heritage for ever. i . 

But they were a stiff-necked people ; and 
God's great purpose, which, had they been 
obedient, he would have accomplished m 
one way, had to be carried out ni another. 
In the wilderness they murmured and le- 
belled aeain and again. They were, sen- 
tenced, therefore, to a forty years' sojourn 
n that desert, till the adult population had 
nerished. This severe lesson might haAO 
been expected to tell on them. And, in- 
deed, when they entered Canaan undei 
Joshua, and set up their sacred tabernacle 
and occupied cities which they did not 
build, and achieved victories by divine help 
over nations mightier than themselves, it 



426 



did seem that now they would reali^-e all 
that had been promised. But a fatal sloth 
soon enervated them : they did not push 
their conquests as they ought. And inter- 
course with the idolaters they spared per- 
verted them : they began soon to worship 
their foul gods. So that the history of 
Israel during the years that they were un- 
der the government of judges records re- 
peated backslidings and chastisements^ 
bondage to the neighbouring nations being 
usually the mode of their punishment, ti I 
In tbeir distress they cried to the Lord, 
and were delivered by some chosen mstiu- 
ment for a few years of prosperity, to be 
fncceeded by the same melancholy round 
of sin, and correction, and piteous cry to 
the Lord whom they had dishonoured 

During the administration of the judges 
the Israelites were not knit into one com- 
pact body. The bond of connection be- 
fweL thJ tribes was loose ; and the autho- 
rity of the magistrate who ruled m one dib- 
trictwas often hardly recognized m ano- 
ther. In the expressive language of tbeir 
own chronicles, ' Every man did that which 
was right in his own eyes' (Judges x^ ii. b). 
When at length they demanded a king, it 
cannot be doubted that the result Avas a 
more vigorous concentration of force. H.tn- 
erto all wars had been defensive, or rather 
struggles to escape from the yoke of mva- 
dersf But under Saul the Israelites began to 
be aggressive. They maintained themseh es 
abreast of neighbouring nations, and, ad- 
vancing into their territories, made con- 
quests there. Saul's victories oyer tbe 
Amalekites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, 
the Syrians, and others are specially recor- 
ded (1 Sam. xiV. 47, 48). ^, . -no^-,^ 
Saul's policy made way for that of David 
After a preliminary civil contest, m which 
Israel appears distinguished from and in 
opposition to Judah, the monarchy was le- 
united and consolidated; and then Isiael 
took place as a great power of the world. 
Keighbouring countries were ^subdued, 
Edom, Moab, Ammon, Syria made depen- 
1 dent provinces ; and David's empire-f or 
'such it was-extended from the river of 
Egypt to the Euphrates (2 Sam. \m. l-U). 
This splendid inheritance he transmitted to 
his son Solomon, who ruled with unexam- 
pled magnificence (1 Kings i^- 21, 24, J. 23; 
But the folly of Rehoboam sl^atteied the 
Israelitish kingdom ; and thenceforth Israel 
was the kingdom of (as ;t was ca ed) the 
ten tribes, the fortunes of which must now 
be briefly detailed. . .^^^^ 
There had been for long a rivalry between 
the powerful and haughty Ephraimites and 
the imperial tribe of Judah, indications 
of which were from time to tune visible 
(•Judges viii. 1, xii. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 41-43), 
and; S the territory of Judah lay to the 
i^outh, while that of Ephraim occupied the 
centre of Palestine, it was hardly to be ex- 
pected that the house of Joseph would con- 
1 tentedly submit to the authority of a line 
of rulers of the tribe of Judah. With a 
view of conciliating the Ephraimites proba- 
blv, the solemn inauguration of Rehoboam 
was to be in one of their chief cities 
— Shechem. But they were ready with 



427 



their grievances to be redressed first ; and 
they presented themselves under the omi- 
nous leadership of one of the house of Joseph, 
Jeroboam, whom even Solomon had feared, 
to demand satisfaction. Tlie wisest states- 
manship was needed at such a crisis. And 
it was not merely political discontent which 
manifested itself. It is evident that there 
was religious alienation. Ephraim and the 
other tribes did not choose to be bound to 
worship at Jerusalem. Accordingly, on the 
disruption, Jeroboam, to the high satisfac- 
tion, it would seem, of the mass of the peo- 
ple, appointed new feasts, and home-sanc- 
tuaries, and,as it would probably be thought, 
an unsectarian priesthood and mode of wor- 
ship (1 Kings xii.). Here was the great 
line of demarcation between the two states 
into which the nation was split ; this espe- 
cially the principle of repulsion which for- 
bade any future union. The priests and 
Levites and the more faithful servants of 
Jehovah poured from Israel into Judah (2 
Chron. xi. 13-16) ; while from Judah pro- 
ceeded divine messages condemning the 
apostasy of Israel (1 Kings xui. 1-3) ; and 
it was not till the downfall of Israel as a 
kingdom that there was again any national 
gathering of the tribes at the sacred feasts 
(2 Chron. xxx., xxxiv. 6, 7, 9, xxxv. 1-19). It is 
true that a succession of great prophets 
lived in Israel, that schools of prophets 
were established there, that remarkable 
miracles were performed— the like to which 
were not seen in Judah. But all this was in 
comformity with God's usual dealings. He 
eaw it necessary in his wisdom that, while 
the i^riesthood, and the ceremonies of the 
law, and the temple belonged to Judah, 
there must be special witnesses for him in 
Israel, if at all, amid the overflowing cor- 
ruption, there was to he any remnant 
preserved ' according to the election of 
grace'— the more because of the nineteen, 
or, if Tibni be included, the twenty kings 
of Israel, not one was a godly man ; all did 
that which was evil in the sight of the 
Lord. This, then, must never be lost sight 
of : the animating principle of this kingdom, 
that which bound its parts together, that 
wliich no doubt was lauded as evincing a 
high degree of enlightenment and freedom 
from narrow prejudice, was its irreligion, 
its Baal-worship, its compliance with the 
customs of the nations round about, which 
effectually kept it in a state of antagonism 
to Judah; except when for a time,by a disas- 
trous alliance and intermarriage of the house 
of Ahab with the house of David, solemnly 
rebuked by the Lord's prophets (xix. 1-3, xx. 
35-37), Israel had leavened Judah with its 
own evil. The theocracy ,though with many 
imperfections and backslidings,was yet up- 
held in Judah : it was nationally lost in Is- 
rael.which was thus held up by the prophets 
as a warning to the southern more faithful 
state (Hos. iv. 15). 

The Lord had promised to give his ser- 
vant David a light always before him in 
Jerusalem (l Kings xi. 36). Yet Judah was 
to be the smallest of the two kingdoms. 
Israel is called the ten tribes ; and it would 
seem that at first all the tribes, save Judah 
md Benjamin with the Levites, were in- 



cluded in it. But, as Simeon's inheritance 
lay interspersed within that of Judah, and 
Dan's half-overrun by the Philistines could 
be sheltered only by Judah, so ultimatelj- 
it would seem that the northern kingdom 
comprised Asher, Naphtali, Zebulun, Issa- 
char, Ephraim, western Manasseh, with the 
traus-Jordanic tribes of Reuben, Gad, and 
eastern Manasseh, encroaching probably 
somewhat upon the Benjamitish territory. 
A writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible es- 
timates its area at 9,375 square miles, and 
its population at about three millions and 
a-half (vol. i. p. 897). Of David's empire 
much, as the Syrian districts, had been lost ; 
but for a time Edom was still subject to 
Judah, and Moab to Israel. 

So far as respects fertility and beauty of 
scenery, the kingdom of Israel had greatly 
the advantage of its southern sister. 'Near- 
ly through its whole extent,' says Drew, 
' up from the boundary-line to the entrance 
of Hamath, and from the Sharon plains to 
beyond the mountains of the Hauran, it 
was wealthy, picturesque, fertile, and mag- 
nificent. Nearly all the features which rea- 
lized the glowing descriptions of the pro- 
mised land were comprised in this one of 
the two parts into which it was now di- 
vided' (Script. Lands, chap. vi. pp. 168, 169). 
But Judah was more defensible : east and 
west it could be reached only through 
mountain-passes, and southward it ex- 
tended to the desert. And it was by no 
means weaker than Israel. For in the only 
great battle in which the two contended 
for several generations Judah had most de- 
cisively the victory (2 Chron. xiii. 3-18). 
Probably the more fertile soil of Israel fos- 
tered greater luxury among the people; 
while the easier access to neighlxmring na- 
tions contributed both to the influx already 
noted of heathen practices and the inroads 
of heathen enemies. At first Jeroboam 
made Shechcm his capital (1 Kings xii. 25) : 
afterwards it would seem that Tirzah was 
the metropolis (xiv. 17, xv. 33, xvi, 8, 9, 15, 
17, 18). Omri, at length, seeing the neces- 
sity of some fortress-city for the seat of 
power, fixed upon the hill of Samaria. His 
choice was amply justified. Beautiful for 
situation, Samaria could be well defended. 
It was repeatedly besieged ; but it held out 
against the Assyrian power for three years 
(2 Kings xvii. 5) ; while Jerusalem itself 
was reduced by Nebuchadnezzar in a year 
and a half (xxv. 1-3). 

The dynasties of Israelitish kings were 
frequently broken. Jeroboam was suc- 
ceeded by his son ; and then there was a 
revolution. Baasha, the new king, was 
succeeded by his son; and then there was 
another revolution. Omri, after the de- 
struction of one or two temporary princes, 
transmitted the sceptre to his descendants. 
His son and two grandsons reigned, la- 
mentably distinguished as the maintainers 
of Baal-worsnip. Then Jehu quenched 
their line in blood ; and his posterity sat 
upon the throne to the fourth generation. 
But they were disastrous times. Repeat- 
edly the Syrian power imposed the most 
humbling terms on Israel. There was now 
and then a breathing-time, and victories 



428 



were sained over Syria ; but tlie monarchy tlie spiritual character which one so de- 
wfs sfirely sinking (1 Kings xv. 20, xx.1-4 ; | signated ought to bear (John i. 47). 
2 Kings xiii. 3-7, 22-25, xir. 25-28). Moah 
was lost (i. 1). And, besides the pressure 
from Svria, the great Assyrian monarchy 
besan to make its supremacy felt. There 
wo^uld seem, too, to hare been intervals of 
anarchy. And, when one after another the 
few remaining sovereigns appeared, nearly 
all obtaining the crown by blood, it was 
over a circumscribed territory that they 
reisned; for the northern districts were 
overrun and the people canned into cap- 
tivity (XV. 29), and the trans-Jordanic 
tribe= or those that remained of them, in 
like manner d Chron. r. 26) ; and then at 
la«t under Hosheji, in spite of the help he 



ISS'ACHAR (there is reward, or he l)rings 
reward or wages).— 1. One of the sons of 
Jacob bv Leah (Gen. xxx. 17, 18). We have 
no inf<-rmation whatever of this patriarch's 
personal character or history. At the going 
down into Egypt he is said to have had four 
sons, who multiplied into the four great 
families of the tribe ; the numbers at the 
first census being 54.400, while at the last 
(before the passage of the Jordan) they were 
64,300 (xlvi. 13 ; i\umb. i. 28, 29, xx^-i. 23-25). 
In the camp the position of Issachar was 
next to Judah, on the east of the tabernacle 
(ii. 5. 6). The prophetic blessing of Jacob 
on this tribe corresponds with that of Mo- 



reckoned on fronrEs^^^^^^^ Samaria fell, and \ ses ; the one comparing it to a strong ass 
^t.t^t^,.^p" nf ti ep^^^ transported ' crouching between the folds '(so Kalisch 

S^^l-vrla tl^^^ir'com trr^^^^ renders), pleased with rest and ready tobe- 

S r-Amii r« from the ea^^t Kines xvii. come a tributary servant (Gen. xnx. M, lo) ; 



sequently inhabited the land (see S^viiA- 
RITAXS) ; and, though many individuals 
of the various tribes retuimed after the fall 
of Babvlon with their Jewish brethren, yet 
nationallv Israel no more existed, a just 
punishment having fallen on them for 
their repeated idolatries and sins. Yerily 
the wav of transgressors is hard; and 
judgment must be executed on those who 



connection with Zebulun (Deut. xxxiii. 
18, 19). 

The territory assigned to Issachar was 
just such as to promise domestic ease. Hilly 
towards the east and south, in the central 
part lav that most fertile plain of Esdrae- 
lon almost proverbial for richness and 
beautv. The boundaries we may gather 
from ' Josh. xix. 17-23. The frontier-line 
commenced on the west _of the Jordan, 



localities in which the descendants of Is- 
rael are to be now found ; and there is 
scarcelv a country in the world that some 
theorist has not fixed on for their present 
home Into speculations of this kind the 
present work cannot enter : see Captivity, 
P- 141. 

The following list of the kings of Israel 
may be found useful: between eacli dy- 



passing under Gilboa it swept rouni 
base of the mountains of Ephraim, to Eu 
ganulm : whence it ran norrh-westward to 
the foot of Carmel. crossed the Kishon, and 
went easterlv by Tabor to the Jordan valley 
below the lake of Gennesaret. Sixteen cities 
are said to be'comprised within these limits : 
only fifteen, however, are named in the place 
aboVe cited ; some of them, as Jezreel, Shu- 



^ , n,,^ flvpwn Another li=t '^how- ' nem, and En-gannim, being of special note, 
'S^\^e"^!u^^i:^i^u^''ZerAi;^^l ; Four cities (one M.areh, ^J^^^,J^_ 
Juilah, will be found in the article Kixgs, 



which see. 
Jeroboam I. 
^s'adab. 



Zimri. 

Omri, Tibni. 

Ahab. 
Ahaziah. 
Jehoram. 



Jehu. 
Jehoahaz. 
Jehoash. 
Jeroboam II. 
Zachariah. 

Shallum. 



Menahera. 
Pekahiali. 



Hoshea. 

The length of time which the Israelitish 



ing named in addition to those ijefore enu- 
merated) were allotted from this tribe to 
the Levites of the family of Gershon 
(xxi. 28, 29 ; 1 Chron. vi. 72, 73). Besides, 
tiiere were five towns, Beth-shan, En-dor, 
Ibleam, Megiddo, and Taanach, territorially 
in Issachar, which yet belonged to western 
Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 11 : see however 1 
Chron. vii. 29). 

This tribe materially assisted m the nc- 
torv of Barak over Sisera (Judges v. 15) ; 
but afterwards we hear little of their war- 
like exploits. They multiplied largely ; for 
in David's time the total number fit for 
niilitarv service, taken probably by Joab, 
was 145',600 (1 Chron. vii. 1-5). Of these 36,000 
are said to have been * bands of soldiers for 
war.' It is not quite clear what is intended 
bv this e.cpression. A writer in Dr. Smith's 



exl ibits tlio dates assigned by several of to have been marauding mercenarj- trooi«^ 
t,Te n'/JsVemineut (Co»r,r,, o» A-i„,.s t-•^«i^. 1 This, ho;^^ 



vol. i. pp. 204-203). He himself would fix 
on somewhat upwards of 253 years : Winer 
supposes 255. 

IS'RAELITE. One of the nation of Israel 
(Lev. xxiv. 10 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 25 ; John i. 47 ; 
Rom. ix. 4, xi. 1 ; 2 Cor. xi. 22), and femi- 
nine (Lev. xxiv. 10, 11). The word is some- 
limes used in a higher sense, as indicating 



ral character of the tribe ; and, though th 
word translated 'bands' certainly often 
means such troops, yet it is used tc desig- 
nate angels cJob xxv. 3\ to whom such an 
idea is "by no means applicable. Perhaps 
the ' bands' of Issachar were those of the 
tribe not merely fit for military service but 
actually trained for war. It is chara uteris 



i29 



[iTHiilTB 



ric that, when otoer tribes joined Darld at 
Hebron in large bodies, only 200 of Issachar 
resorted thither. They had their brethren 
at their disposal ; but they were counsellors 
j-ather than warriors, ' men that had under- 
standing ... to know what Israel ought to 
do ' (1 Chroik xii. 32). The descendants of Issa- 
char ' were men,' says Kalisch, ' of prudence 
and wise calculation. Having, therefore, 
gained abundant wealth and resolved to en- 
joy it, they pursued a domestic and foreign 
policy calculated to realize this end. Their 
shrewdness not only enabled them safely to 
keep aloof from all external dangers, and 
.... peacefully to yield themselves to se- 
cure tranquility, but to win the esteem and 
deference of the fraternal tribes by useful 
and valuable councils' (Comm. on Old Test. 
Gen., p. 754). Thus Issachar ' bowed his 
shoulder to bear,' and seems to have placed 
himself under the protection of a more ac 
tive tribe, such as Zebulun, with whom he 
is generally linked, and whose territory 
joined his own. Yet there were some rulers 
of this tribe. Among the judges Tola was 
a man of Issachar, though he dwelt in Eiih- 
i-aim (Judges x. 1, 2). And one of the kings, 
Che ferocious Baasha, was of Issachar also. 
He destroyed the whole family of Jeroboam, 
but walked in his evil ways ; though, there- 
tore, he left his throne to his sonElah.yeta 
disastrous message came to him by the pro- 
phet Jehu ; and in two short years judgment 
was executed upon the house of Baasha, 
and neither kinsman nor friend of his doom- 
ed race was left (1 Kings xv. 27-34, xvi. 1-14). 
.-Somewhat more is recorded of Issachar. 
.Men of that tribe humbled themselves in 
Che days of Hezekiah, and at his invitation 
repaired to Jerusalem to the great passover 
■ 2 Chron. xxx. 10, 11, 18). A few years more, 
ind Issachar was carried captive intoAssyria. 
2. A Levite porter (1 Chron. xxvi. 5). 
ISSHI'AH (whom Jehovah lends).— 1. A 
Levite descended from Moses (1 Chron. 
xxiv. 21). He is called Jesliaiah in xxvi, 25. 
—2. A Kohathite Levite descended from 
rjzziah (xxiv. 25). He is called Jesiah in 
^xiii. 20. 

ISSUE. This appears to mean a milder 
(arm of gonorrhoea (Lev. xv. 2-15, xxii. 4; 
Xumb. V. 2 ; 2 Sam. iii. 29). The severer 
character of the disease is generally said to 
liave manifested itself first in the fifteenth 
century; but it seems likely that its viru- 
lence has varied in different climates. The 
monthly courses of females are also refer- 
red to (Lev. XV. 19-30), both ordinary, and 
protracted (25) to a morbid extent. Cer- 
tain ritual observances were prescribed, 
after the disease had ceased, before the in- 
dividual was purified. See Blood, Issue op. 

ISTALCU'RUS (1 Esdr. viii.40). A strange 
perversion of Zabbud or Zaccur (Ezra 
viii. 14). 

IS'UAH {level). The second son of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 30). See Ishtjah. 

IS'III iid.). The third son of Asher (Gen. 
xlvi. 17). See Jestji, Ishuai. 

ITALIAN BAKD (Acts x.l). A cohort not 
leried in Syria (though probably the body- 
guard of the Roman procurator of that pro- 
vince), but composed of volunteers from 
rta'T. 



IT'ALY. The well-known country be- 
tween the Alps and the -straits of Messina, 
The name was at first applied to the south- 
ern part of the peninsula, but in IN'ew Tes- 
tament times it included all that we under- 
stand by Italy now. Italy is repeatedly 
mentioned by the sacred writers (Acts 
xviii. 2, xxvii. 1 ; Heb. xiii. 24) ; Judea be- 
ing then a dependency of imperial Rome. 
There must, therefore, have been a con- 
tinual intercourse between Palestine and 
Italy; and a large body of Jews was at- 
tracted to the last-named country. 

ITCH (Dent, xxviii. 27). The original 
word embodies the idea of scraping or 
scratching : the disease intended was pro- 
bably therefore some feverish cutaneous 
eruption. 

I'THAI {ivHh the Lord?}. One of David's 
warriors (1 Chron. xi. 31). He is called I^ 
tai in 2 Sam. xxiii. 29. 

I'THAMAR (J) aim-coast). The youngest 
son of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23 ; Isumb. xxvi. 60 ; 
1 Chron. vi. 3), consecrated with his father 
and brethren to the priesthood (Exod. 
xxviii. 1). He had first in charge the reckon- 
ing of the articles made for the taber- 
nacle (xxxviii. 21). On the death of IS'adab 
and Abihu, he and his elder brother Eleazar 
received a strict command to show no out- 
ward signs of mourning, but to perform 
their priestly office (Lev. x. 6, 12, 16 ; Numb, 
iii. 2-4). Ithamar was specially to super- 
intend the Gershonites and Merarites (iy. 
28, 33, vii. 8). Originally the high-priest- 
hood was in the family of Eleazar ; but 
afterwards it passed, we know not why, or 
how, or when, into that of Ithamar ; Eli be- 
ing of his house. In the person of Zadok 
it returned to Eleazar's line; the prophecy 
against Eli being then fulQlled (1 Sam. ii. 
30-36; 1 Kings ii. 35). In Davidls reign, 
when the courses of the priests were arran- 
ged, the descendants of Ithamar were 
found less numerous than those of Eleazar 
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1-6). One of his house is 
mentioned as returning from captivity (Ezra 
viii. 2). 

I'THIEL {God loith me).—l. A Benjamite 
Oseh. xi. 7).— 2. An unknown person to 
whom Agur delivered his discourse (Prov. 
xxx. 1). 

ITH'MAH (orphanhood). A Moabite, one 
of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 46). 

ITH'NAN {bestowed). A city of Judah in 
the extreme south (Josh. xv. 23). Mr. Wil- 
ton would connect Ithnan with Hazor pre- 
ceding it, and supposes that Hazar-ithnan 
was originally a Horite settlement, perhaps 
occupied by Ithran, and this settlement he 
identifies with el-Eliora {Tlie Negeb, pp. 81- 
85), no great distance east of Beer-sheba. 

ITH'RA {excellence). The father of Amasa 
(2 Sam. xvii. 25). See Jether, 3. 

ITH'RAjNT (?■(?.).— 1. One of the descendants 
of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 26).— 2. A 
chieftain of Asher (] Chron. vii. 37). Possi- 
bly he is the same with Jether (38). 

ITH'REAM {abundance of people). One of 
David's sons born at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 5 ; 
1 Chron. iii. 3). 

ITH'RITE. The designation of two of 
David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 38). The 
Ttlirites are said to lie one of the families ot 



ittah-kazinJ 



VLX)t Cr^a^urg of 



430 



Kirjath-jearim a Cliron. ii. 53). They may 
have been the descendants ot some one 
named Jether, or possibly from Jattir. 

IT'TAH-KA'ZIN (time of the judge). A 
border-town of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 13). 

IT'TAI (with the Lord).— I. An officer of 
David, denominated 'the Gittite,' most pro- 
bably because he was a native of Gath, and 
had joined David when with Aehish in that 
city. He faitlifully maintained his alle- 
giance to his Hebrew lord. And, when 
David's dark days were come, and he was 
obliged to flee from Jerusalem in Absalom's 
rebellion, and scarcely more than his house- 
hold troops accompanied him. Ittai was 
there The monarch expressed his gratified 
surprise. But why should the Gittite, who 
had been comparatively a little while in 
Israel, be dragged downi by Tiis misfortunes ? 
He had better return to his place, and 
mercy and truth should be with him. But 
Ittai would not fail David : in life or in death 
he would be faithful to him. And then 
David replied,we may be sure with thankful- 
ness to God, 'Go and pass over.' And Ittai 
marched on with his troop, and ' the little 
ones,' no doubt the families of the band 
l2 Sam. XV. 19-22). We only hear of Ittai 
again as in command of part of the army m 
the battle (xviii. 2, 5, 12).-2. A Benjamite 
warrior (xxiii. 29), called also Ithai (l Chron. 

^^ITUBE'A, or ITUR^^'A. A province 
which appears to have derived its name 
from Jetur, one of the sons of Ishmael, 
whose descendants settled in this locality 
(Gen XXV. 15). But, after the people of 
Israel had received their inheritance, the 
trans-Jordanic tribes attacked the Haga- 
rites ^:as Ishmael's posterity were called), 
on what ground is not stated, clearly, 
however, with the divine sanction, and 
overcame them ; and their country was pos- 
sessed by the half-tribe of Manasseh 
(1 Chron. v. 18-23), But for their own apos- 
tasy the Israelites were afterwards carried 
;nto captivity, and their land became a part 
,)f the Assyrian empire (25, 26). The Ish- 
maelites were not entirely rooted out 
from Iturea; for, when Aristobulus king of 
the Jews re-conquered it in the second cen- 
I ury before Christ, and gave the inhabitants 
the alternative of exile or accepting Ju- 
daism, many preferred the first. Iturea 
was subsequently made a part of the do- 
a inions of Herod the Great,who bequeathed 
it with some adjoining territories to bis son 
I hilip. It is a small province, bounded on 
tiie west by Hermon, on the south by Gau- 
lanitis, on the north by the plain of Damas- 
cus, and on the east by Tra«honitis. It 
consists of table-land, with an undulating 
surface, the northern part covered with 
jugged basaltic rocks, as if molten lava had 
bcien forced up through the ground, had 



spread itself around, and been torn and 
dislocated in cooling. The southern dis 
trict is rich and well-watered. The towm 
and villages this province contains are pooi 
and desolate. Its modern name is Jedar. 

I'VAH (overturning, ruin, or possibly the 
name of a Babylonian god, Iva, representing 
the sky or ether). A city in Babylonia, 
mentioned as having been subdued, in spite 
of its gods, by the Assyrian power (2 Kmga 
xviii. 34, xix. 13 ; Isai. xxxvii. 13\ It ap- 
pears to be the same with Ava, from 
which colonists were brought into Samaria 
(2 Kings xvii. 24). It was very probably the 
modern Hit, lying on the Euphrates, and 
noted for bitumen springs. Perhaps Ivah 
may be the Ahava of Ezra (Ezra vm. 

'^^ivORY. This substance is denoted some- 
times by the single Hebrew word sfte?^. 
tooth, sometimes by a compound word shen- 
habbim, about the exact meaning of which 
there is some doubt. Possibly it is niade 
up of shen, and a foreign word signifying 
elephant. Ivory is the substance of the 
tusks of the elephant a Kings x. 22) ; and 
we find it mentioned as an article of Tynan 
commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 15). It was largely 
used in ornamental work (Rev. xviil. 12). 
Solomon had a throne of ivory overlaid with 
gold (1 Kings x. 18). Ahab is said to have 
made an ivory house (xxii. 39), probably a 
palace, of which the walls were inlaid with 
ivory (corap. Psal. xlv. 8) ; though perhaps 
in this last-named place ivory perfume- 
boxes may be intended. Beds or couches 
were also inlaid with this material (Amos 
vi 4) ; and many specimens yet preserved 
of Assyrian and Egyptian ivory-work suffi- 
ciently show the uses to .which it was 

^"iZ'EBEL a Kings xviii. 4, marg.). Jeze- 
bel 

IZ'EHAR (oil) (Numb. iii. 19). See IzHAB, 
of which name it is another form. 
IZ'EHARITES (Numb. iii. 2?). See Izha 

IZ'HAR (oiT). One of the sons of Kohath, 
and grandson of Levi (Exod. vi. 18, 21 : 
Numb. xvi. 1 ; l Chron. vi. 2, 18, 38, xxiii 
12 18) But in vi. 22 Amminadab is sub 
stituted for Izhar. This may be the error 
of a copyist. , , 

IZ'HARITES. A Levitical family descend 
ed from Izhar (1 Chron. xxiv. 22, xxvi. 

^^JZRAHI'AH (whom Jehovah brings forth). 
A chieftain of Issachar (1 Chron. vii. 3). 

IZ'RAHITE. Shamhuth, one of David., 
military officers, is thus designated (1 Chron. 
xxvii. 8) : perhaps it is for Zerahite, or 
Zarhite, which see. . . v, * 

IZ'RI (the Izrite, or Jezerite). The head of 
a division of singers (1 Chron. xxv. 11). He 
is also called Zeri (3). 



[JABESE 



J. 



JA'AKAN" (he hoists, he shall surround 
like a necklace, i.e. he shall be the glory of 
his parents) (Deut. x. 6). See Beeroth- 
Bene-Jaakan. The name Is the same with 
that given as Jakan In 1 Chron. i. 42. 

JAAKO'BAH (keel-catcher, supplanter). A 
chieftain of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 36). 

JA'ALA, JA'ALAH (a wild she-goat). 
One of Solomon's servants, whose descen- 
dants returned from the captivity (Ezra ii. 
56 ; isTeh. vii. 58). 

JA'ALAM (whom God hides). One of 
Esau's sons, a chief or 'duke' of Edom 
(Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 1 Chron. i. 35). 

JA'ANAI (whom Jehovah answers). A 
chieftain of Gad (1 Chron. v. 12). 

JA'ARE-O'REGIM {forests of the weavers). 
A Beth-lehemite, whose son Elhanan is 
said to have killed the brother of Goliath 
(2 Sam. xxi. 19). But in 1 Chron. xx. 5 he 
is called Jair. Perhaps Oregim, iveavers, 
occurring as it does rightly at the end of 
the verse in the first-named place, may 
have been written twice by mistake, and 
the name be properly Jair. 

JA'ASAIJ (whom Jehovah has made). One 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 37). 

JAASI'EL (whom God has made). The 
son of Abner, a chief of the tribe of Benja- 
min (1 Chron. xxvii. 21). 

JAAZANI'AH (whom Jehovah hears).— I. 
One of the captains who, with Johanan, 
joined Gedaliah at Mizpah (2 Kings xxv. 23 ; 
Jer. xl. 8, where he is called Jezaniah). He 
most probably aided in recovering those 
whom Ishmael carried off after the murder 
of Gedaliah, and with them went down to 
Egypt (Jer. xli. 11-18, xiii. 1). In xliii. 2 he 
is called Azariah.— 2. A Rechabite, probably 
chief of the tribe (xxxv. 3).— 3. One whom 
Ezekiel saw, with seventy elders, worship- 
ping abominable idols (Ezek. viii, 11).— 4. One 
of the princes of the people, against whom 
Ezekiel was- directed to prophesy (xi. 1). 
Possibly he may be identical with no. 3). 

JA'AZER (whom he, i.e. God, helps). A city 
of the Amorites (Numb. xxi. 32), which was 
conguered and assigned to the tribe of Gad 
(xxxii. 35), and afterwards allotted to the 
Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi. 39) : it seems, 
however, in David's reign, to have been oc- 
cupied by Kohathites (1 Chron. xxvi. 31), 
Hebron being a son of Kohath. In later 
times Jaazer had fallen into the hands of 
the Moabites, and is repeatedly mentioned i 
in the prophetic denunciations as-ainst ^ 
Moab (Isai. xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 32), in con- 
nection with the vine of Sibmah. A sea of i 
Jaazer, too, is spoken of: this may be i 
some lake or pool in the neighbourhood ; i 
or it may be the not-distant Dead sea, ' 
Jaazer appears to have been twelve or flf- i 
teen miles from Heshbon ; but its site has ' 
not been fully identified. The name often i 
appears as Jazer, which see. 

JAAZI'AH (whom Jehovah consoles). A i 
Levite of the family of Merari (l Chron. < 
■KXlY. 26, 27). 1 



: JAAZT'EL (whom God consoles). A Le- 
' vite porter, most probably the same with 
■ Aziel, a musician (1 Chron. xv, 18, 20). 

J A'BAJj (a stream). The son of Lamech, 
of the line of Cain, described as ' the father 
of such as dwell in tents and have cattle' 
(Gen. iv. 20). He probably led a nomad or 
migratory life. 

JAB'BOK (a pouring out). A brook or 
river, rising in the eastern uplands of Gi- 
lead, and flowing into the Jordan about 
half-way between the lake of Tiberias am 
the Dead sea. It was after Jacob had passed 
to the south bank of the Jabbok that his 
brother Esau met him ; the mysteriou? 
wrestling with God having just occurrer 
(Gen. xxxii. 22, 23). Jabbok is subsequent!} 
spoken of as the border of the children oi 
Aramon (Numb. xxi. 24 : Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16 
Josh, xii. 2 ; Judges xi. 13, 22). It would 
seem that the territory of Ammon oncv 
extended as far north as this stream, bui 
that Sihon drove them beyond the Anion : 
and then, when Israel conquered Sihon, 
they also took possession of the territory 
between the two rivers ; Jabbok, however, 
still retaining the name of the Ammonite 
border. And the Ammonites had lingered 
in the neighbourhood. For, on Sihon's 
conquest, some of them retreated to the 
mountains where the Jabbok rises, and es- 
tablished themselves in their strong de- 
files : these places Israel did not touch; 
and here was their capital, Rabbath-ammon, 
The Jabbok is now called the Zurka, or 
blue river : it receives several tributaries, 
most or all of them winter-torrents. It 
runs through Gilead in a deep defile : its 
upper banks are clothed with oak-forests, 
and below with oleander and cane. In the 
winter it is a considerable stream. 

JA'BESH (dry). The father of Shallum,one 
of the kings of Israel (2 Kings xv. 10, 13, 14). 

JA'BESH (id.). A town generally called 
Jabesh-gilead, seated on a mountain east 
of the Jordan, The inhabitants seem to 
have been an independent race. They 
would not join in the crusade against Ben- 
jamin ; and for this the whole male popu- 
lation were devoted to destruction (Judges 
xxi. 8-14), Yet Jabesh survived and reco- 
vered its importance. And, when it wa? 
besieged by Nahash, king of Ammon, the 
Israelites rose under Saul to rescue it 
(1 Sam. xi. l-ll). Gratefully did the people 
of Jabesh remember and requite the kind- 
ness Saul had shown them. A bold troop 
stole down by night and took the bodies of 
Saul and his sons from the wall of Beth- 
shan, where, after the fatal field of Gil- 
boa, they were exposed, and buried them, 
and fasted (xxxi. 11-13; 1 Chron, x, 11, 
12)— a service which David thankfully ac- 
knowledged (2 Sam. ii. 4-6), though he after- 
wards removed the bones to the sepul- 
chre of Kish (xxi, 12-14), The ruin ed-Deir, 
on the south of Wady Yabes, is supposed 
to mark the site of Jabesh-gilead, 



JABEZ] 



4 32 



JA'BEZ (he causes pain:). A person named 
araone the posterity of Judali, remarkable 
for liis prayer and for tlie gracious answer 
to it (1 Cliron. ir. 9, 10). 

JA'BEZ CifZ.). A place wbere some fa- 
milies of scribes resided, who appear to 
have been Kenites (1 ChroD ii. 55). Jewish 
tradition supplies some strange conjec- 
tures respecting it, ^ ^ , t a 

J I'BIN (whom he, i.e. God, observes).—!. A 
kin^of Hazor,Avho headed a coniederacy ot 
northern chiefs against Joshna : tHey were 
entirely defeated ; and Joshna, Y f 
back to Hazor, whither perhaps Jabm had 
escaped, destroyed that city, making a spe- 
cial example of it, and slew the king (Josh, 
xi 1-13 xii. 19).— 2. Another king, of Ca- 
naan he is called, into whose ^jinds for 
twenty years the Israelites ^-^^'S delivered 
for their sins. Hazor, it won d seem had 
been re-bnilt, and was the resiaence ot the 
.ecoud Jabin. Sisera was the captain of 
hi^ ho=t, over which a mighty victory wa* 
-ained bv Deborah and Barak ; and Jabm 
wa destroyed (Judges iv. ; Psal. 1™^, 9)- 
Some critics have cbosen to imagine the 
two Jabins but one, defeated bj both 
Joshua and Barak. Most Du^tjy does Winer 
record his indignant protest against ^ich 
a mode of dealing with history (J5^&--KTr5., 

^'jIbSeEL ^God lets JtaZd).-l. A to^ 
on the border of Judah (J osh. xv. ll); /!>; 
ueai's afterwards to have been occupied by 
Philistines, for (under the name of 
JabnfS it was one of tlie places which 
rzziah dismantled (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). It 
wal kiown as Jamnia in ^^^ccabean histoiT 
ri Mace iv. 15\ and was noted as a school 
of learning af^er the fall of Jerusalem. 
Here according to Jewish tradition, Ga- 
mSiel was buried. The modern name is 
Yebna on a hill two miles from the tea 
and eleven south of Jaffa. It contains 
? out 3 00? people, all agricultiirists, with 
? i-e?hiiSfloors ranged all round tlie town. 
-2. A town of Kaphtali (Josh. xix. 33). 
It-'position is uncertain. 

jIb'XEH (he lets build) (2 Chron.xxvi.6). 
^pp the preceding article, no. 1. „ ^ ^ 

JA'CHAN (afflicted). A chieftain of Gad 

^'jTcHm'^iomhe, i.e. God, maJcesfirm). 
-if The fourth son of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 
10 ; Exod. vi. 15; Numb. xxvi. 12 . He n 
also called Jarib (^.C^^^on. iv 24) -2. A 
m-ip^t after the captivity (ix. 10 , Jsen. xi. 
?Jf_3 The l^ead of one of the courses 
of 'priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 17). Perhaps 
aiSfe no. 2 means the representative 

n Kin"-^ vii. 39\ See Boaz, Temple. 
^ T^'PHIxiTES. The family descended 
from J^Jwnrson of Simeon (Numb. xxvi. 

^^JACINTH. One of the precious stones 
jAVyiix i-ii. as forming the 

(Exod. xxviii. 19, XXXIX. 12). It i^ saia vu 



hp a red variety of zircon. There is no re- 
ference to t\,e gem in Rev. ix.l7 :.the word 
S there used simply as descriptive of co- 
onr, a dull dark-reddish or purple hue. 

J\'COB Qieel-catclier, supplantej).—!. ilie 
<=econd of the twin-sons of Isaac and Ke- 
bekah born when their father was sixty 

^T:%°he Sh??r|rew up the difference 

was a plain man dwelling ^ent^ 2.). 
Esau was the chief favourite of hi. father 
but 'Rebekah loved Jacob.' Jacob was 
m iet fearful, and submissive to those who 
had acquired an influence over him, but 
selfish and not scrupulous as to themeans 
bv which he gained anything he desired. 
The first action of his mentioned m scrip- 
ture does not cell well for him. Esau had 
come in faint from hunting; and Jacob 
would ffive him his pottage only on con- 
on that Esau resigned to him the birth- 
right. The reckless hunter, perhaps with- 
out much thought, agreed to tbe bargain , 
and so Jacob purchased that chief=,hip 
of the tribe (29-34), involving temporal 
and spiritual pre-eminence, which ndeed 
it had been said before the children^ 
birth should belong to younger but 
which God could and would have given to 
Jacob of his own gracious Pleasure with- 
out the intervention of any ^^lestionable 
expedient. Jacob's next ^ecoi-ded conduct 
is still more to be censured. At tje insti- 
gation of his mother he obtained hi. fa- 
ther's blessing by deceit: Isaac, however, 
conflnned it to him even after he became 
sensible how he had been imposed on 
rxxvii) But it was necessary now for 
Jacob to flee from his brother Esaus ven- 
geSce : and Rebekah desired him to go to 
Padan-aram,which Isaac, ignoran of Esa^^^ 
threats, sanctioned also, m older that 
Jacob might marry with his own kindred, 
aiid not imitate his brother by taking a 
wife of the daughters of Canaan. On his 
solitary journey Jacob was favoured with 
I divine vision at a place to which he gave 
in consequence the name of Betn-el and 
here, perhaps for the first time, his heart 
waV lifted above mere ^^orldly thoughts 
and he took and acknowledged the Loiu 

^°^i^\?b'siJJe^t-^history at Padan-aram 
mav be read in the later chapters of Ge- 
5e=is-his love for Rachel, his servitude of 
seven years for her hand the cruel decej)- 
lon practised on him, his taking both 
Leah and Rachel for wives tlie birth of 
his eleven sons and one daughter by these 
^Yves and their dotal slaves, his continued 
service with Laban, and the meaiis, e^^ m- 
cin- probablv some of the old craft of hi. 
i'atur?l character, by which l^ej^eca^ne 
rich, till his departure, unknown to Laban 
for the land of Canaan. Laban pursued 
him n anger, but was forbidden by a di- 
V ne warning to do Jacob any harm ; and 
the two parted with a friendly covenant^ 
The time Jacob spent in Padan-aram is g^ 
nerallv estimated at twenty years ; ana then 
must have been seventy-eight when 
he left his father's house. But it has 



133 



been imagined by some critics that in 
XX xt, 38, 41 lie speaks of two different 
terms of twenty years each : if this be so, 
he was fifty-eight when he went to Padan- 
aram and ninety-eight when he left that 
country. After Laban's departure Jacob 
had a fresh fear : his brother Esau might 
avenge himself for the ancient grudge. 
Jacob therefore sends him a humble mes- 
sage, and beseeches the Lord's protection in 
a prayer, almost the first recorded in scrip- 
ture, which may well serve as a model for all 
special supplications. He had a gracious 
answer ; and in a visible manifestation of 
the Deity he was assured that he had power 
with God to prevail; and a new covenant- 
name, Israel {loarrior, or soldier of God), 
was bestowed upon him, to be the appella- 
tion of his seed for ever, the name of bles- 
sing which was to designate God's church 
through countless generations (xxxii.). 
The brothers met in peace; and Jacob re- 
entered Canaan. 

Here peculiar trials awaited him. Benjamin 
was born ; but Rachel died : the ill-conduct 
of his sons alarmed and distressed him : 
Joseph his darling was lost; and the ag«>d 
patriarch was sorely chastened; the trial 
touching him in his tenderestpart. Though, 
as we have seen, naturally selfish, he loved 
warmly where he did love— Rachel, Joseph, 
Benjamin. The first two were taken from 
him; and in the famine, when he must send 
down for food to Egypt, Benjamin was de- 
manded. We cannot wonder that his faith 
well-nigh failed: 'All these things, 'he 
cried, 'are against me.' Yet God was chas- 
tening him in mercy, purging out his dross. 
Jacob had no doubt experienced this when 
in his deep sorrow for Rachel he had 
changed the Infant's name from Ben-oni to 
Benjamin, from a memorial of grief to a 
name of strength, a name of gladness and 
of power (XXXV.). With his sorrows he had 
doubtless their divine consolation. And yet 
more : his long-lost Joseph was discovered 
to be the lord of Egypt; and the patriarch 
and his household went down thither, to 
be kept under God's shelter till his posterity 
grew into a nation. He saw and blessed 
Joseph's sons, and, having predicted the 
fortunes of the tribes, he died in peace at 
one hundred and forcy-seven years of age ; 
his body being carried into Canaan, to hold 
It (with the bones of Abraham and Isaacs in 
pledge, till in the fulness of the time his 
seed should come to possess it for their 
pleasant heritage (xlii., xlv.-L). 

In after-days, and in later books of scrip- 
ture, Jacob's name is mentioned with 
honour, as one that had the promises, the 
selfish supplanter mercifully pardoned and 
sanctified and made a venerated head of 
God's people. 

2. The father of Joseph, the Virgin's hus- 
band (Matt. i. 15, 16). 

JACOB'S WELL, The well by which our 
Lord held his interesting conversation with 
the Samaritan woman. He was passing 
through Samaria on his way to Galilee, and 
being wearied with his journey ' sat thus 
on the well,' that is to say, as a weary man 
would. This well was near to Sychar, in 
the ground which Jacob had purchased of 



[JAEI. 



the sons of Hamor, There Joseph was 
buried ; and the children of Joseph had it 
for their inheritance (Gen.xxxiii. 19 ; Josh, 
xxiv. 32 ; John ir. 5, 6). There is no reason 
to question the identity of the well at pre- 
sent known as Jacob's. It is about two 
miles from Shechem or Nations, dug in a 
firm rock about seventy-five feet deep, and 
nine feet in diameter. But it is now deser- 
ted ; and the surrounding terrace of rude 
masonry has been broken down; so that 
there is nothing striking in the aspect of it. 
See Sychar. 

JACU'BUS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). Akkub (Neh 
viii, 7). 

JA'DA {knowing, wise). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron, ii. 28, 32). 

JA'BAU {loving). One who had married 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 43). 

JAD'DUA (Icnoicn).—!. One who sealed 
the covenant (Neh. x. 21).— 2. A Jewish high 
priest, whose name is given in the genea- 
logy recorded in the book of Nehemiah 
(xii. 11, 22). This genealogy may be suppo- 
sed a later addition to the book ; for the Da- 
rius spoken of as ' the Persian ' is perhaps 
the last Persian monarch of the name, con- 
quered by Alexander the Great : see Da- 
Bius, 2. According to Josephus {Antiq., 
lib, XI. 8, §§ 1-5), Jaddua went to meet 
the conqueror, who visited Jerusalem in 
peace and conferred various privileges on 
the Jews, Thei-e are circumstances, no 
doubt,with which this story is embellished, 
but the main fact is not unlikely to be true 
Jaddua is said to have held the high priest 
hood twenty years, and probably to have 
survived Alexander. 

J A'BON {judge). A person who took part in 
building the wall of Jerusalem {Neh. iii 7) 

JA'EL {mountain-goat). The wife of Heber 
the Kenite, a nomad chief who, having se- 
parated from the body of his tribe, was 
camping near to Kedesh. There was a 
treaty of peace between him and Jabin king 
of Canaan; so that Sisera, when defeated 
and flying from Barak, thought himself 
safe If he could but reach the Kenite en- 
campment. He left his chariot, therefore, 
and, to escape observation, sought the 
friendly shelter on foot. He was welcomed 
by Jael, introduced into her own, that is, the 
women's tent, and, the more effectually to 
hide him, covered over with some article 
of dress or furniture. When he asked, in his 
thirst, for water, she proffered him curded 
milk or buttermilk, a refreshing beverage 
and at least seemed to acquiesce in his re- 
quest that, if any of his pursuers wandered 
near, she would say she had not seen him 
Sisera having tasted food at her hand 
might well feel safe : he dropped to sleep ; 
and then Jael, taking one of the tent-pins 
and a mallet, struck it through his temples 
and pinned him to the earth. She imme- 
diately went to find Barak, and brought 
him to see the Canaanitish general dead 
(Judges IV. 11, 17-22). Nothing can excuse 
tnis decd, unless a special command were 
received from God to destroy the enemy of 
Israel ; and that no such command was re- 
ceived we may conclude from Jael's dissi- 
mulation and the stealthy way in which she 
committed the murder. The expression in 
F F 



jagijr] 



434 



Deborah's song (r. 24-27),^Ylule extolling the 
deliverance obtained and the boldness of 
the Keuite woman, which would doubtless 
long be commemorated, by no means as- 
serts the moral rectitude of the deed per- 
formed. Some have supposed the Jael of 
V. 6 another 'person ; but this is very un- 
likely. ^ ^ 

JA'GUIl (lodging-place). A to-^vn of .Tu- 
dah to the extreme south (Josh. xv. 21). 
Wilton, proposing a different reading of 
this word, and connecting it with the fol- 
lowing name Kinah, calls it Hazar-kinali, 
and supposes it the ruined sice el-Hud- 
hairali, the main encampment of the 
Jehalin, an Arab tribe {The Negeb, pp. 74-76). 

JAH (Psal. IxYiii. 3). A poetic form of 
Jehovah, which see. 

JA'HATH (periiaps union).— I. A descen- 
dant of Judah (iChron.iv. 2).— 2. A Levite 
of the family of Gershon (vi. 20, 43).— 3. 
Another chief of the same family in David's 
time cxxiii. 10, 11).— 4. A Levite of the Ko- 
hathite family (xxiv. 22).— 5. A Levite of 
the family of Merari, in the reign of Josiah 
(2 Chron. xxxiv. 12), 

JA'HAZ (ft place trodden down:). A phvce 
where the decisive battle was fought be- 
tween the Israelites and Sihon, which re- 
sulted in the occupation of the district 
betw^een the Arnon and the Jabbok (Numb, 
xxi. 23, 24 ; Deut. ii. 32 ; Judges xi. 20). It 
w-as allotted to the tribe of lleuben, and 
afterwards assigned to the Levites of the 
family of Merari ; but at a later period it 
seems to have been in the possession of 
Moab (Isai. xr. 4; Jer. xlviii. 34). Jahaz 
lay probably just north of the Arnon ; but 
it has not yet been quite satisfactorily 
identified. It is called also Jahaza(Josli. 
xiii. 18), Jahazah (xxi. 36 ; Jer. xiviu. 21), 
and Jahzah (1 Chrnn. vi. 78\ 
I JA'HAZ A, JA'HAZ AH {id.) (Josh. xiii. 

18, xxi. 36 ; Jer. xlviii. 21). See the pre- 
i ceding article. ^ ^ ^ , , ^ ^ 

JA'KAZl'A'R(v,±GmJeliovaliheholds). One 
I who took part with Ezra in investigating 
' the cases of marriage with foreign wives 

j *^^JAHA'ZIEL (whom God beholds).—!. A 
Benjamite chief, who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 4).— 2. A priest whom 

' David appointed to blow the trumpet before 
the ark (xvi. 6).— 3. A Kohathite Levite 
(xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23).- 4. A Levite of the sons 
of Asanh, inspired to encourage Jehosha- 

' phat when marching against the Moabites 
and Ammonites (2 Chron. xx. 14-17).— 5. One 
whose son was the chief of the sons of 
Shechauiah, who accompanied Ezra from 
Babylon (Ezra viii. 5). , ^. ^ . » 

J\H'DAI (whom Jehovah directs). A 
name in the genealogies of Judah (1 Chron. 
ii 47) 

JAH'DIEL (whom God makes joiiful). A 
chief of Mauasseh beyond the Jordan (1 

^^JAH'DO^l /iis iinion). A Gadite (1 Chron. 
T 14) 

'jAH'LEEL (7«op/»7 in God). One of the 
sons of Zebulun (Gen. xlvi. 14, Numb, 
xxvi 26) 

'j'VH'LEELlTES. A family of Zebulun 
descemJed from Jahleel (Numb. xxvi. 2(5). 



JAH'3IAI (whom Jehovah guards). One of 
Issachar's posterity (1 Chron. vii. 2). 

JAH'ZAH (a place trodden dotvn) (1 Chron. 
^\ 78). See Jahaz. 

JAH'ZEEL (whom God allots). A son of 
Naphtali (Gen. xlvi. 24 ; Numb, xxvi, 48). He 
is called Jahziel in 1 Chron. vii. 13. 

JAH'ZEELITES. A family of Naphtali, 
descended from Jahzeel (Numb. xxvi. 48). 

JAH'ZERAH (whom God leads back). One 
of the priests (1 Chron. ix. 12). He may be 
the person called Ahasai in Neh. xi. 13). 

JAH'ZIEL (whom God allots) (1 Chron. 
vii. 13). See Jahzeel. 

JA'IR (whom God enlightens). —1. The 
grandson of Hezron, of the tribe of Judah, 
and of the daughter of Machir, a distiii- 
guished descendant of Mauasseh (1 Chron. 
ii 21-23). Jair is hence sometimes called 
the son of Alanasseh. He took the district 
of Argob (Trachonitis), and many villages of 
Gilead, which he called Havoth-jair, the 
villages of Jair (Numb, xxxii. 41; Deut. iii. 
14; Josh. xiii. 30).— 2. A Gileadite, who 
judsed Israel twentj^-two years. He had 
thirty sons, who possessed thirty places in 
Gilead, also called Havoth-jair (Judges x, 
3-5). Possibly this judge was a descendant 
of no. 1.— 3. A Benjamit^!, father of Mor- 
decai (Esth. ii. 5). 

JA'IB (whom God awakes). The father of 
Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath's 
brother (1 Chron. xx. 5). This Jair is also 
called Jaare-oregim (2 Sam. xxi. 19). 

JA'IRITE. A descendant of the first Jair, 
1 (2 Sam. XX. 26). 

JAI'BUS (the Greek form of Jair, proba- 
bly the first). The father of a young girl 
whom our Lord restored to life (Matt. Ix 
18-26 ; Mark v. 22-24, 35-43 ; Luke viii. 41, 42. 
49-56). Jairus was ruler of a synagogue. 

JA'IR US (Best of Esth. xi. 2). Jair, Mor- 
decai's father. ^ 

JA'KAN (he tii'ists: sec Jaakan). One 
of the sons of Ezer the Horite U Chron, i. 42). 
He is called Akau in Gen. xxxvi. 27. 

JA'KEH (jnGus). The fatlier of Agnr, 
whose words are recorded in Prov, xxx. 
Nothing is known of him ; and conse- 
ciuently conjecture has been busy. Some 
would alter the text : some would suppose 
a symbolical meaning. But their guesses 
cannot be recorded here. . 

JA'KIM (whom God sets up).—l. A Benja- 
mite (1 Chron. viii. 19).— 2. The head of one 
of the courses of the priests (xxiv. 12).— | 
3. A marginal reading of Matt. i. 11, wnere 
it means Jehoiakim. ^ » 

JA'LON (passing the night, abiding). A 
descendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17). 

JAM'BBES (2 Tim. iii. 8). See Jaijnes 
axd Jambres. 

JAM'BRI(l Mace. ix. 36,37). The name 
of a tribe who had attacked the Jews in the 
Maccabean wars. Nothing is certainly 
known of them. 

JAMES.— 1. The son of Zebedec and Sa- 
lome, one of the twelve apostles. 

Zebedee was a fisherman, plying his traae 
on the sea of Galilee, and was therefore, no 
doubt, a resident in one of the towns or vil- 
lages close upon tlie margin of that lake. 
AccordiiiJ? to an old tradition he lived at 
Japliia, a little to tlie south of Nazareili 



435 



but this place must have been too far from 
Che water : it is therefore more probable 
that Zebedee with his two sons, James and 
John, belonged to Bethsaida, which we 
know was the town of Andrew and Peter 
their partners (John i. 44). Zebedee was a 
man, it appears, of some property ; for be- 
sides his sons he employed hired labourers 
m his fishery (Mark i. 20). John, it is likeJy, 
was one of the two disciples of the Bap- 
tist who were by him pointed to Jesus 
(John i. 35-37) ; but of James we first hear 
during our Lord's Galilean ministry, when 
he was called with his brother to a personal 
attendance upon Christ (Matt. iv. 21, 22 • 
Mark i. 19, 20 ; Luke y. l-ll ; these three ac- 
counts most probably referring to the same 
event : see Wieseler, Chron. Synops., pp 
280, 285, 286). It was not till some time 
after this (nearly a twelvemonth, according 
to the computation of some) that Christ 
formally commenced the framework of his 
church by choosing the twelve apostles, 
among whom were James and John ; and, as 
James is mentioned first, and John desig- 
nated as his brother, it is probable that 
James was the elder of the two (Matt. x. 2 ; 
Mark Hi. 17 ; Luke vi. 14). These brothers 
were, most likely at the same time.surnamed 
Boanerges, ' the sons of thunder,' indicating 
that burning and zealous spirit which we 
and occasionally manifesting itself in their 
anger against the Samaritans, and their 
eagerness for pre-eminence. Peter and 
Andrew, James and John, are always named 
first of the apostles, and seem generally to 
have taken the lead (Mark xiii. 3) ; and 
three of them, Peter, James, and John, 
altme accompanied our Lord on some spe- 
cial occasions (Matt. xvii. l, xxvi 37- 
Mark v. 37). It was on the last journey to 
Jerusalem that Salome, their mother, the 
sons joining in the petition, asked for the 
first place in Messiah's kingdom for James 
and John (Matt. xx. 20, 21 ; Mark x. 35-37). 
It is possible that there was some jealousy 
specially In Salome's mind, of the sons of 
Jonas, the late neighbours and partners of 
her own children. Be this as it may, the 
expression of the wish called out the indig- 
nation of the other ten apostles; and the 
ambitious thought had a mild rebuke from 
the Lord himself. Nothing further is re- 
corded of James, save his presence with 
tlie rest of the apostles, till his martyrdom. 
He 13 after the passion less prominent in 
sacred history than his brother John. That 
he was considered, however, a leader of the 
disciples is evident from his being the first 
whom Herod Agrippa seized. He was slain 
with the sword' (Acts xii. 2), about the 
time of the passover, 44 a.d., the foremost 
of the ' glorious company' to rejoin his be- 
loved Master. 

2. There was another apostle named 
James, called 'the son of Alpheus' (Matt. 
X. 3); and there are difficult questions 
connected with him, whether he was 
the same with ' James the Lord's brother ' 
Whether it was he that appears in the later 
Chapters of the Acts to have been promi- 
nent m the church of Jerusalem, whether 
he wrote the epistle which bears the name 
of James, and whether the so-called ' breth- 



[ JAMES 



ren ' of Jesus were his brethren really, or hia 
cousins. 

It may be convenient to examine the 
last-named question first. It is freely ad- 
mitted that some of the reasons for be- 
lieving that these persons were literally 
our Lord's brethren are of considerable 
weight. Thus it is the natural inference 
we should draw from the scornful words 
of the people of Nazareth (xiii. 55, 56 : 
Mark vi. 3). Further, these ' brethren * ap- 
pear to be usually with Marv, the Lord's 
mother, as if living with her ; they are also 
distinguished from the twelve (Acts i 13 
14) ; and, above all, they are said, after the 
apostles were chosen, not to have believed 
in him (J ohn vii. 5). These facts, however, 
admit of explanation. For we know that 
the word ' brother' is used very commonly 
m scripture in a large signification. And 
Mary the mother of James and Joses (Matt 
xxvii. 56 ; Mark xv. 40), the very names 
which the 'brethren' bore, may well be 
taken as identical with 'Marv the wife of 
Cleophas' (John xix. 25), or Alpheus, who 
was the Virgin's sister. It is not an unna- 
tural supposition that, the father (of whose 
doings we hear nothing) being dead, the 
widowed mother, with her children, formed 
one family with Mary the mother of Jesus 
-also, most probably, now a widow. Still 
further, our Lord upon the cross com- 
mitted his mother to the apostle John 
Avho, *from that hour took her unto his 
own home ' (27). It is almost inconceivable 
that, if she had sons and daughters at 
home, she should be taken from them to 
the house of another, even though that 
other was the beloved disciple of Jesus. It 
IS alleged, indeed, that it was because 
they did not believe. But this is a very un- 
satisfactory reason. At all events they be- 
lieved a few days afterwards (Acts i. 14) 
And perhaps too great stress is laid on this 
For what does the statement of their not 
believing amount to ? Was their unbelief 
so much greater than the wavering which 
John evinced when he sent to put the 
question to Jesus whether he was really the 
Messiah ? or than the unbelief which our 
Lord was continually reproving in his 
apostles (Matt. xvi. 8; Mark vi. 52; John 
xvi. 31, 32) ? It must have been near akin 
to that distorted persuasion of the nature 
of the Lord's kingdom, which made the 
twelve utterly discredit his words when he 
told them of the death he should die, and 
obstinately refuse to receive the testimony 
that he was risen. Consequently they were 
perplexed (as also his mother was) when 
the report came that he was beside himself 
so that they came out to get hold of him to 
satisfy themselves (Mark iii. 21, 31) ; and 
they could not understand why he seemed 
unwilling to go at the feast of tabernacles 
to Jerusalem, wiiere of course they ex- 
pected Messiah's temporal kingdom to be 
established (John vii. 3-10). It might, in- 
deed disqualify those who were so faith- 
less for the apostleship; and some of our 
Lord s brethren seem both here and in Acts 
1. 14 to be distinguished from the apostle? 
But some might believe, and others not : 
and it IS allowed on all hands that all j 



JAMES, THE EPISTLE Of] CI) C Crga^Xlt^ Ot 



436 



of them were not apostles; whereas, if 
words are to be taken in their plain mean- 
ing, one must have been an apostle. For 
Barnabas brought Paul to the apostles (ix. 
27) ; whereas Paul himself declares that the 
only apostles he saw on that visit to Jera- 
salem were Peter and 'James the Lord's 
brother ' (Gal. i. 18, 19). And we can hard y 
imagine that the writer of the Acts would 
have asserted that Paul was brought to the 
apostles if Peter were the only apostle he 
saw. More cannot be said in this place ; but it 
is submitted, with a full appreciation of the 
difficulty of the question, that what has 
been alleged will tend to establish the fa:-t 
that 'James the Lord's brother' was, 
strictly speaking, his cousin, and that he 
was an apostle, and not one so called in a 
secondary sense, but one of the twelve, that 
i« James the son of Alpheus. If, however, 
it be allowed that James the son of Mary, 
James the Lord's brother, James the bro- 
ther of Jude, was identical with Jfimes 
the son of Alpheus, we can have little diffl- 
cultv in admitting further that this is the 
James whom we find prominent at Jeim- 
salem (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, &c., xxi. 18 ; Gal. 
ii 9 12 ; possiblv also l Cor. xv. 7), and who 
was' the author of the canonical epistle. 
See Mill's 2Iyth. Interp. of the Gospels, part 
ii. chap. ii. 3, pp. 219-274. 

What is certainly known of the rest ol 
his life is comprised in the passages ]ust 
referred to. He seems to have been chief 
pastor of the church in the holy city : he 
presided in the council held of apostles and 
elders : to him Paul paid a visit in tovm, as 
acknowledging his place of authority : he 
was held in high esteem by the many thou- 
=auds who believed who were zealous for 
the law— more is not recorded in the scrip- 
ture But tradition tells us more ; and, on 
the whole, there is no reason to discredit it. 
Hegesippus (Euseb., Hist. Eccles., lib. ii. 23) 
and Josephus {Antiq., lib. xx. 8, § 1) relate 
his death. Their accounts do not exactly 
tallv ; but in the main fact of his being mar- 
tyred thev both agree. He observed, we are 
told the azarite rule, and was so assiduous 
in prayer and supplication in the temple 
that he acquired the surname of the J ust. 

Faithful! V confessing Christ, he suffered 
death for his sake shortly before Vespasian 
commenced the siege of the city He is 
caid to have been succeeded m the presi- 
dency of the Hebrew church by Simeon or 
Simon, also a relative of our Lord. 

JAAIES, THE EPISTLE OF. The author 
of this epistle, if not James the son of 
Zebedee, which is very unlikely, must be 
that prominent James who, it has ]ust been 
shown,wasmostprobablytliesonof Alpheus 
and the Lord's brother. He addressed it to 
Hebrew Christians of the dispersion (James 
i 1) to those primarily that were scattered 
throughout Judea (Acts viii. 4), but with a 
further purpose of reaching generally tho^e 
of Abraham's seed who any^yllere liad em- 
braced the faith of Christ. His object wa. 
to fortify the minds of the disciples against 
JSe trials to which for their faith tliey were 
exposed, and to warn them against the siii^ 
of which as Jews they were specially m 
danger. 



Bengel divides this epistle into three 
parts :— I. The inscription (i. 1). ^11. The 
exhortation (i. 2— v. 18), enforcing (l) pa- 
tience against external trials and inward 
temptations (i. 2-15) ; (2), and then, from 
res-ard to the divine goodness (16 18), the 
inrportance of being ' swift to hear, slow to 
speak, slow to wrath' (19-21); the special 
admonitions for each being that hearing 
must be accompanied by doing (22-25), in 
silence (26), with compassion and self- 
denial (27), without regard of persons In 
uublic assemblies (ii. 1-13), so that generally 
faith must not be separated from works 
(14-26) ; that speech must be bridled (iii. 
1-12) ; that wrath, with other swelling pas- 
sions, must be restrained (13— i v. 17) ; (3), 
patience again, which the coming of the 
Judse, with the consequent destruction of 
the wicked (v. 1-6), and the deliverance of 
the just (7-12) should encourage, and which 
prayer will cherish (13-18). III. The con- 
clusion, in which the apostle, having shown 
his care for the spiritual welfare of those 
he addresses, would have them diligent for 
the salvation of others (19, 20). 

The time when this epistle was composed 
is uncertain. Some critics, believing that 
if written after the council of Jerusalem 
there would have been allusion to that, 
place it early, 45 a.d. : others, seeing a re- 
ference to the name of Christian (ii. 7), to 
what Paul had written upon faith, and to 
the near destruction of Jerusalem, think 
its dace later, perhaps 61 or 62 a.d. The last 
supposition seems the more reasonable. 
The place of writing was doubtless Jeru- 
salem. The canonicity of this epistle has 
been doubted. Easebius ranks it among 
the jS^'ew Testament books that were ex- 
cepted against, but testifies that it was 
acknowledged and read as genuine in very 
many churches {Hist. Eccles., lib. ii. 23). it 
formed a part of the ancient Syriac version, 
which omitted some other of the ques- 
tioned epistles, and wasat length generally 
acknowledged. At the time of the Reforma- 
tion doubts were again entertained of it ; 
but they arose mainly from a notion that 
it did not harmonize with the epistles of 
St. Paul. On this topic little can be here 
said. The two apostles had each his own 
^pect of a cardinal truth ; and their ex- 
pressions have reference to the special 
need of those they respectively addressed. 
St. Paul vindicates the power of a living 
faith : St. James shows that if it be not a 
living faith it is worthless. The two are 
not at variance. The style of this epistle 
is earnest ; the Greek comparatively free 
from Hebraisms. 

For commentaries upon it the reader 
must be referred to those including the 
Isew Testament generally, 

JA'MIN {right hand, prosper itiO.—l. A son 
of Simeon (Gen. xhi. 10; Exod. vi. 15; 
Numb. xxvi. 12 ; 1 Chron. iv. 24).— 2. A de- 
scendant of Judah (ii. 27).— 3. One who ex- 
pounded the law in the time of Ezra (i^eh. 
viii. 7). , 

JA'MINITES. A family of Simeon, de- 
scended from Jamin (Numb. xxvi. 12). 

JAM'LECH (Whom God makes king^. A 
chieftain of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 34). 



437 



[JAIIMUTH 



JAM'NIA (1 Mace. iv. 15, v. 58, x. 69, xv. 
40). Most probably Jabneel. 

JAM'NITES (2 Mace. xii. 8, 9, 40). Inha- 
bitants of Jamnia or Jabneel. 

JAN'NA (whom Jehovah bestows). A per- 
son in the line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke 
iii. 24). 

JAN'jSTES AND JAM'BRES. Two persons 
mentioned by St. Paul as having withstood 
Moses (2 Tim. iii. 8). They are generally 
supposed to have been some of the Egyp- 
tian magicians, whose enchantments for a 
while appeared to rival the miracles per- 
formed in the sight of Pharaoh (Exod. vii., 
viii.). The question is, from what source 
did the apostle obtain the names ? Origen 
says that there was an apocryphal book ex- 
tant in his days entitled ' Jannes et Mam- 
bres'(J?i Matt. Comm. Ser., tom. iii. p. 916, 
edit. Bened.). But the more probable view 
is that there were some historical facts 
handed down and known to the Jews, and 
yet not chronicled in the scripture, and 
that St. Paul therefore had in this way, by 
certain tradition, the knowledge of these 
magicians' names. It is a corroboration 
that the names are found in the Targum of 
Jonathan upon Exodus. As to the deriva- 
tion and meaning of the words Jannes and 
Jambres, nothing satisfactory can be said : 
they must have been Egyptian (Jambres 
being also written Mambres). The rev. D. 
I. Heath, having examined the contents of 
some ancient papyri, believed that he dis- 
covered there the names Jannes and Jamr. 
His conclusions have, however, been called 
in question. A summary of them may be 
seen in the Journ. of Sacr. Lit, April 1854, pp. 
254, 255. Certain legendary accounts have 
been given of Jannes and Jambres, which 
do not deserve notice. See BUxtorf, Lex. 
Chald. Talm. et Babb., cols. 945, &c. 

JANO'AH (rest). A place, evidently in the 
north of Palestine, seized by Tiglath-pileser 
(2 Kings XV. 29). It is identified as Yanoah 
to the nortli-east of Acre (Dr. Thomson, 
The Land and the Book, pp. 300, 301). 

JANO'HAH {id.). A border-town of Eph- 
raim (Josh. xvi. 6, 7). It is the modern vil- 
lage Yanun, about eleven or twelve miles 
south-east of Nablous. 

JA'NUM (slumber). A town in the moun- 
'tain-district of Judah (Josh. xv. 53): for 
which we find in the margin 

JA'NUS (fiigM). 

JA'PHETH (widely spreading). One of 
the sons of Noah (Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13 ; 1 
Chron. i. 4). Japhethis generally mentioned 
last of the three; yet lie was not the young- 
est.(Gen. ix. 24), and indeed he is generally 
considered the eldest (x. 21) ; but it is more 
probable that he was younger than Shem, 
and that the verse just referred to should 
be translated, ' Shem .... the elder bro- 
ther of Japheth.' These two obtained a 
blessing from their father for their beha- 
viour when Noali lay uncovered in his 
tent (ix. 18-27). Of Japheth it was predic- 
ted that God_^ would enlarge him, and that 
he should dwell in the tents of Shem— a 
prediction which has been accomplished by 
the wide spread of Japheth's posterity,- oc- 
cupying ' the isles of the Gentiles,' i.e. the 
Qiaritime coasts of Europe and Asia Minor, 



whence they spread over Europe and much 
of Asia (X. 1-5 ; 1 Chron. i. 5-7). See Earth. 

JAPHI'A (splendid).—!. The king of La- 
chish who joined a confederacy against Is- 
rael, and was defeated and slain by Josliua 
(Josh. X. 3-26).— 2. One of the sons of David 
born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 15 ; 1 Chron, 
iii. 7, xiv. 6). 

JAPHI'A (id.). A border-place of Zebu- 
lun (Josh. xix. 12). It is now called Yafa, 
about two miles soutli-west of Nazareth. 
There is a tradition that this was the birtli- 
place of Zebedee and his two sons. 

JAPH'LET (whom God delivers). A de- 
scendant of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 32, 33). 

JAPHLB'TI (the Japhletite). A land-mark 
on the southern frontier of Ephraim (Josh, 
xvi. 3). It probably had its name from some 
individual Japhlet, or some tribe or clan 
of which we have now no knowledge. 

JA'PHO (beauty). A sea-port town in the 
allotment of Dan (Josh. xix. 46). It is bet- 
ter known by the name Joppa, by which it 
is called in 2 Chron. ii. 16 ; Ezra iii. 7 ; Jonah 
i. 3, and in the New Testament. See Joppa. 

JA'RAH (honey). One of Saul's descen- 
dants (1 Chron. ix, 42). He is called Jehoa- 
dah in viii. 36. 

JA'PtEB (an adversary). It is questioned 
whether this (Hos. v. 13, x. 6) is the name 
of a king, or of a country, or whether it is 
used as an appellative. Tlie grammatical 
form of the original forbids the first suppo- 
sition. The second has some reasons in its 
favour; but perhaps, referring it to tlif 
king of Assyria, we may best understand 
the meaning of the prophet if we adopt the 
third and translate ' the hostile king.' See 
Henderson, Minor Prophets, note on Hos. 
V.13. 

JA'RED (descent). One of the ante-dilu- 
vian patriarchs, the father of Enoch (Gen. 
V. 15-20 ; Luke iii. 37). In Gen. v. 15, marg. ; 
1 Chron. i. 2 he is called Jered by our trans- 
lators. 

JAPtESI'AH (whom Jehovah makes fat). A 
Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 27). 

JAR'HA (perhaps an Egyptian name : no 
certain signification of it can be given). An 
Egyptian servant to whom his master She- 
slian gave his daugliter (probably Ahlai) in 
marriage (1 Chron. ii. 31, 34, 35). It is not 
possible to say when this alliance took place. 

JA'HIB (an adversary).—!. One of the 
sons of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 24). He is 
elsewhere (Gen. xlvi. 10) called Jachin.— 2. 
One who accompanied Ezra,and was sent by 
him to invite priests and Levites to go to 
Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 16).— 3. A priest who 
had married a foreign wife (x. 18). He may 
be the same with no. 2. 

JA'RIB (1 Mace. xiv. 29), Identical with 
Joarib (ii. 1), i,e. Jehoiarib (1 Chron, xxiv. 
7). 

JAR'IMOTE (1 Esdr. ix. 28). Jeremoth 
(Ezra X. 27). 

JAR'MUTH (height).—!. An Amorite 
town whose king joined in the confederacy 
against Gibeon, but was defeated and des- 
troyed (Josh. X. 3-5, 22-26, xii. 11). It is said 
to have been in the plain country of Judah, 
to whicli tribe it was allotted (xv. 35). We 
find it inhabited after the return from cap- 
tivity (Nell. xi. 29). Jarniuth is the modern 



1 

— , 




rAT^oAHl m)t EvcmiXU til 438 1 


- 


Tarmfik, situated among the lulls winch 
rise from tlie low Philistine country, about 
eight or nine miles from Beit Jibrm, the 
ancient Eleutheropolis.— 2. A city of Issa- 
char assigned to the Gershonite Levites 
(Josh. xxi. 29). It is perhaps the same with 
Remeth (xix. 21), and Ramoth (1 Chron. vi. 
73) 

JARO'AH Onoon). A Gadite a Chron. 
V 14). 

'jA'SAEL (1 Esdr. ix. 30). Sheal (Ezra 

'jA'SHEN (sleeping) A person of whose 
sons one at least was among DavKU 
warriors (2 Sara, xxiii. 32). The list is 
somewhat different in 1 Chron. xi. 34 : pro- 
bablv there is some transcriber's error. 

JA'SHER {uprightD. 'The book of Ja- 
sher,' understood generally to mean the 
book of the upright,' i.e. annals of upright 
or faithful men, is twice referred to in 
scripture (Josli. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18). No- 
thing is with certainty known of \i. 
Tliere are A'arious conjectures as to its 
name; amons wliich one of the most rea- 
sonable perliaps is that of bishop Lowth 
(Lect. on Sacr. roetry of the Iltbreics, lect. 
xxiii. vol. ii. pp. 152, 153, edit. 1787), who, 
considering it a collection of national 
poems, thousxht it might begin with the 
triumphal ode of Moses (Exod. xv.) ; tlie 
1 initial words of which are ciz ycishlr, tlien 
' 'i-du^ ' and so, nfccr a conmion Hebrew cus- 
tonCmii^ht receive yashir or jaslier as its 
di^tiuctrve name. It is useless to set down 
here other conjectures,or to try to amuse the 
reader with the strange speculations with 
which ingenious men have pleased them- 
selves. Suffice it to say that, while some 
fancy it was the book of Deuteronomy, 
others imai^ine it that of Judges, seme tlie 
collection of the minor propliets, and 
o.hers the book of God's eternal predestina- 
tion. Those who are desirous of seeing 
these and other conjectures may refer to 
Sixtus Sencnsis, Blblintli. Sancta, lib. ii. 
' Justorum Liber,' or to Dr. Smith's Diet, oj 
the Bible, vol. i. pp. 932-934. The only parti- 
culars which can be gatheredwitn anything 
like certainty are ihat it must have been a 
poetical work or collection, and that it is 
now lost. Josephus has been supposed to 
allude to it {Antiq., lib. v.l,§17) ; but this is 
very doubtful. 

There are some rabbinical works stiU ex- 
taut which bear this title ; nnd an impu- 
dent forgery was printed in English, m l/,a 
and 1829, pretending to be the book of Ja- 
sher. It would be a waste of time to refute 
such impostures. See Home's Introd., vol 
iv. pp. 741-747. Neither need Dr. Donald 
sou's strange notions, embodied in his Ja 
shar, be noticed here. 

J ASHOB'EAM (to whom the people turns) 
One of David's chief mighty men, the soi 
of Zabdiel, a Korbite, called also a Hacli 
monite, perhaps a descendant of onenamet 
Hachmoni. He joined David at Zlklag, anc 
attacked on one occasion 300 men whom lit 
Blew, vcrv likely with the aid of the trooi 
he commanded (1 Chron. xi, 11, xii. 6). m 
was captain of the tirst military course, tc 
which the first month was assigned as tin 
month of duty (xxvii. 2). Jashobeam is tht 


same with the officer called Adino the i 
Eznite (2 Sam. xxiii. 8). Different as the | 
words are in our version, a very slight al- i 
teration in the Hebrew letters will make i 
the text there signify ' the Tachmonite, Jo- i 
shebbassebet (or Jashobeam) ' : ' he shook it, , 
even his spear against eight hundred.' Whe- 1 
ther Tachmonite or Hachmonite is the cor- ; 
rect reading is questionable : as to the dif- ; 
ference in numbers, it has been supposed : 
that 300 were slain at the first onset, or by 
Jashobeam himself, and an additional body 
afterwards, or by the help of others. j 
JA'SHUB (he tarns).—!. One of the sons ; 
of Issachar (Numb. xxvi. 24 ; 1 Chron. Yii. 1). j 
He is called Job in Gen. xlvi. 13.— 2. One , j 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 29). i 

JASHU'Bl-LE'HEM {a returner from bat- ! i 
tie, or a returner to Beth-lehem). A person or ; 
a place found among the genealogies of ■ . 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 22). j i 
JA'SHUBITES. A family of Simeon, de- i 
scended from Jashub (Numb. xxvi. 24). 

JASI'EL (Whom God has made). One of 
David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 47). The 
name in the original is the same with that 
rendered Jaasiel. . r,,, i 

JA'SON (one ivho xoill heal). A Thessaio- 
niau Christian who received Paul and 
Silas, and was attacked for this by the mob 
(Acts xvii. 5-9). He is very likely the same ; 
that St. Paul calls his kinsman (Rom. 
xvi. 21). ^ , , •; 

JA'SOX.—l. A Jewish ambassador sent |. 
to Rome (1 Mace. viii. 17). He is probably 
identical with the individual mentioned in i 
xii. 16, xiv. 22.-2. A person of Cyrene,froni i 
whose historical work the second book of 
Maccabees was mainly compiled (2 Mace. ii. 
^g.oo) _3. A hish priest of the Jews, son of , . 
Simon II. and'brother of Onias III., wdio 1 
corruptlv obtained the office from Ancio- i 1 
elms Epiphanes, 175 B.C. His admnustra- } M 
tion was in every respect ungodly. Hewa,s j , ; 
at length supplanted by ^lenelaus ; and, |! 
though, on a report of the death of Autio- 
chus, he attempted to recover his power, 
he was unsuccessful, and died in exile ; 
(2 Mace. iv. 7-v. 10). See Winer, Bibl. EM B. , i 
art. 'Jason, 3.' • i • , ' : ■ 
JASPER. One of the gems in the high ; 
priest's breast-plate (Exod.xxviii. 20,xxxix. | 
13). It is also mentioned as adorning the 
kiiig of Tvre (Ezek. xxviii. 13), and is re- , 
peatedly introduced by St. Jolm (Rev. iv. 3, | 
xxi 11, 18, 19). From the Hebrew term j | 
yas'hpeh, the Greek and Latin words and . 
our own jasper are derived, which is an I 
opaque species of quartz, red, yellow, or \ i 
'^reen, sometimes striped or spotted. It j 
takes a fine polish; and that the Hebrew 
word mav imply. But such a stone as jis- , 
per does not seem to agree with the cha- . . 
racteristics which we must, from the way j 
in which this is mentioned in scripture, sup- , . 
pose that it possessed. Some have there- 
fore imagined that the diamond is intended. ' 
We cau'only conjecture, and cannot in 
the present state of our knowledge spealf i 
with certainty. . , , .-r^ 
^ .7.l.SL"Cr,S(l Esdr. ix. 30). Jashub (Ezra | 

\ '"^jlV.lL (1 Esdr. V. 38). A corrupted form ; 
i of A tor (Ezra ii. 42). 







1' 



439 



[JECHOLIAII 



JATH'NIEL (vvliom God bestoios). One of 
the Levite porters (1 Cliron. xxvi. 2). 

JAT'TIR (pre-eminent). A town ainoiisr 
the mountains of Judah (Josli. xv. 48). It 
was allotted to the priests (xxi, 14 ; 1 
Chron. vi. 57), and was one of the places to 
the Inhabitants of which David sent pre- 
sents (1 Sam. XXX. 27). It has l;ecn iden- 
tified with 'Attir, a place about ten miles 
south of Hebron. 

JA'VAN {clay I). One of the sons of Ja- 
pheth (Gen. x. 2, 4 ; l Chron. i. .5, 7). His 
descendants colonized Greece and other 
maritime countries. 

JA'VAJs (icl.).— l. This name is sometimes 
used more specifically for Ionia (Isai. Ixvi. 
19; Ezek. xxvii. i.3 : see Kalisch, Comm 
on Old Test. Gen., p. 242) ; for the :Macedo- 
nian empire (Dan. viii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2) ; for 
the Gr^eco-Syrian empire (Zech. ix. 13) ; so 
that it comprehends generally the Greek 
race.— 2. A place in the southern part of 
Arabia, which traded with the Phoenicians 
(Ezek. xxvii. 10). It is possible that the 
reference of Joel iii. 6 may be to this Javan, 
which Tuch supposes to have been a Greek 
colony. See Uzal. 

JAVELm (1 Sam. xviii. 11). See Arars. 

JA'ZAE a Mace. v. 8). Most probably 
identical with Jazer, or Jaazer. 

JA'ZER (whom God helps) (Numb, xxxii. 
1, 3 ; Josh. xiii. 25, xxi. 39 ; 2 Sam. xxiv.5 ; 
1 Cliron. vi. 81, xxvi. 31 ; Isai. xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. 
xlviii. 32). See Jaazer. 

JA'ZIZ (whom God moves, i.e. to whom 
he gives life and motioii). An officer, 
called a Hagerite, who had charge of Da- 
vid's ilocks (1 Chron. xxvii. 31). 

JEALOUS, JEALOUSY. The term ' jea- 
lous' is sometimes applied to the Deity, as 
indicating the watchful care with which he 
requires the whole love of his people, 
espoused to himself, that his honour be 
not touched by their infidelity (Exod. xx. 
5, xxxiv. 14 ; Deut. iv. 2.% 24, vi. 14, 15, 
and elsewhere: comp. 1 Cvjr. x. 22; 2 Cor. 
xi. 2). 

In the Mosaic code was a very remark- 
able enactment, called ' the law of jealou- 
sies.' If a man suspected the virtue of his 
tvife, but had no witnesses for proof in the 
ordinary Avay, he might bring her to the 
priest with an offering, a tenth part of an 
ephahof barley-meal, but, it is significantly 
said, with neither oil nor frankincense — 
oil the symbol of the Spirit, incense the 
symbol of acceptable prayer. The woman's 
head was to be uncovered, in a state of hu- 
miliation : the offering, as hers,wastobe in 
her hands, that, as maintaining her inno- 
cence, she might present a meat-offering, 
which betokened good works. Then the 
priest was to cliarge her Avith an oath, 
and make her .drink water (holy water it is 
called) either from the laver, or more pro- 
bably the 'water of separation' (Numb 
xix. 9), in which some dust of the floor of 
the tabernacle was cast. He next took the 
offering from her hand, waved it, and pre- 
sented it upon the altar to the Lord, as re- 
ferring to him the decision. And, if the 
woman were guilty, her belly would rot, 
and her thigh would swell, God's curse 
penetrating to the innermost parts ; but, if 



the curse took no effect, and her offering 
v.'ere accepted, she was free (v. 11-31). The 
whole was a lesson of the jealous care with 
vfhich God watched over any infraction of 
the marriage-vow, and would show that 
covenant-relations with him must be dili- 
gently kept, to escape the curse wliich will 
be inflicted on sin exposed and avenged. 

JEALOUSY, IMAGE OE. (Ezek. viii. 3, 5) 
See Image of Jealousy. 

JEA'llIiM (forests). A mount so called 
was on the border of Judah (Josh. xv\ 10). 
It is said to be Chesalon : perhaps Chesalon 
stood upon the mountain-ridge. The mo- 
dern Kesla does so stand on doubtless wdiat 
was mount Jearim. There are still woods 
in the vicinity; and Kirjath-jearim, Knriet- 
el-Aineb, is n(')t far off. See Chesalon. 

JEA'TEPiAI (whom the Lord sliall cause 
to remain). A Levite of the family of Gcr- 
shon (1 Chron. vi. 21). He is also called 
Ethni (41). 

JEBSllECHI'AH (whom Jehovah Messes). 
The father of the Zechariah taken as a wit- 
ness l)y the prophet Isaiah (Isai. viii. 2). 

JE'BUS (j>lace trodden doicn, thresJiing- 
floor). One of the names of Jerusalem, tlie 
city of the Jelmsites (Judges xix. 10,11; 
1 Cliron. xi. 4, 5). See Jercsale:.!. 

JEBU'SI (Josh, xviii. 16, 28). See Jeru- 

ALEM. 

JEB'USTTES. One of the tribes of 
Canaan, whom tlie Israelites were com- 
manded to exterminate. They w^ere de- 
scended from Canaan, the youngest son of 
Ham (Gen. x. IG), and are mentioned last 
in the various catalogues, possibly because 
they were Imt a small clan, or occupied 
a circumscribed territory (xv. 21 ; Exod. 
iii. 8, 17). Their chief abodes were Jeru- 
salem and the surrounding district, to- 
gether with the mountain-country after- 
wards belonging to Judah, where they were 
in close proximity to the Amorites and the 
Hittites (Numb. xiii. 29). Tliey joined the 
great confederacy against Joshua under 
Jabin (Josh. xi. 3), and were defeated, the 
king of Jerusalem, or Jebus (an Amorite), 
having been previously killed (x. l, 5, 26). 
This city was subsequently burnt by the 
tribe of Judah (Judges i. 8). But it was not 
entirely destroyed, or else it was re-built 
and held by the Jebusites. For we are told 
tl)at the Benjamites, to whom it was as- 
signed (Josh, xviii. 28), could not clear it of 
tlie Jebusite occupants (Judges 1. 21 : comp. 
Josh. XV. G3) ; and indeed it appears after- 
wards to have had exclusively a Jebusite 
population (Judges xix. 10-12). It was not 
till the reign of David that these were alto- 
gether conquered and dispossessed of the 
strong-hold of Zion (2 Sam. v. 6-8 ; 1 Chron. 
xi. 4-6). And even still some of them re< 
m.ained (2 Sam. xxi v. 16, 18 ; 1 Chron. xxi, 
15, 18, 28). Solomon made the remnant 
tributary (1 Kings Ix. 20) ; and some seem 
to have been still recognizable after thu 
captivity (Ezra ix. 1). 

JECAMI'AH (whom Jehovah gathers). A 
person of the royal line of David (1 Chron. 
iii. 18). This name is the same with Jeka- 
miah (ii. 41). 

JECHOLUAH (able through Jehovah). The 
name of the mother of king Azariah or 



j 



IjechoniasI EI)C Erca^itru gC . 


gzzlab (2 Kings xv. 2^. She is called also 
Jecoliati (2 Chron. xxvi. 3). 

JECHOXI'AS (Matt. i. 11, 12). Tlie Greek : 
form of Jecoiiiali or Jehoiachiu. 

J-^CifOiV/'AS.— 1. (1 Esdr. viii. 92). Slie- j 
chaniali (Ezra x. 2).-2. (Bar. i. 3, 9). Jelioia- 

^^JECOLI'AH {able through Jeliovali) (2 
Chron. xxvl. 3). See Jecholiah. 

JECOXI'AH (whom Jehovah has ap- 
pointed) (1 Chron. lii. 16, 17 ; Esth. ii. 6 ; Jer. 
xxi\^ 1, xxvil. 20, xxviii. 4, xxix. 2). See 

JECONI'AS (1 Esdr. i. 9). Conaniah (2 
Chron. XXXV. 9). 

JEDAl'AH (praise Jehovah).—!. A Si- 
raeonite chieftain (1 Chron. Iv. 37).— 2. One 
who assisted in repairing the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. iii. 10). 

JEDAl'AH (Jehovah cares for hini).—!. The 
head of one of the courses of the priests 
(1 Chron. xxiv. 7). Most probably this 
course, or tbe'representative of it (divided 
afterwards into two branches), Is intended 
in ix. 10 ; Ezra ii. 36 ; Neh. vii. 39, xi. 10, 
xii 6, 7, 19, 21.— 2. A person wlio came 
from Babylon, and to whom with others 
certain memorial crowns were given (Zech. 

^^JED'DU (1 Esdr. v. 24). Jedaiah (Ezra 

^^'jEDE'US (1 Esdr. ix. 30). Adaiah (Ezra 

^"jEDI'AEL (Jaiown of God)— I. A son or 
descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. vu. 6, 10, 
11) He uiav possibly be the same with 
ASHBEL, which see.— 2. One of Davids 
warriors (xi. 45). This is perhaps the chief- 
tain of Manasseh who joined David on liis re- 
turn to Ziklas (Xii. 20).— 3. A Levite porter 

^^JEDI'DAH (one beloved) The mo ther of 
kincr Josiah (2 Kings xxii. 1). 

JEDIDI'AH (beloved of J.ehovaJi). A name 
given to Solomon through Nathan the pro- 
phet (2 Sam. xii. 25). There seems to have 
been a play of words in this. David's name 
was from the same root, beloved ; and now 
his child is called beloved of Jehovah. 

JEDU'THUN (praising). A Levite of the 
family of Merari, appointed as one of the 
great leaders of sacred music in Davids 
reign. There is strong reason to believe 
that Jeduthun is identical with Ethan 
(1 Chron. vi. 44, xv. 17, 19). Asaph of the 
Gershonites and Heman of the Kohathites 
were the other two masters to whom with 
Jeduthun the musical service of the sanc- 
tuarv was entrusted. Jeduthun first ap- 
pears as taking part in the solemn proces- 
sion when the ark of God was brought up 
to Jerusalem, and afterwards, as the taber- 
nacle was at Gibeou, he with Heman w as to 
serve under Zadok the priest there (xvi 
37-^'> XXV l-6\ We find subsequently his 
divTs'ion officiating when the temple was 
completed (2 Chron. v. 12), in Hezrkiah s 
reformation (xxix. 14), and also under Jo 
siah (XXXV. 15) ; moreover, after the capti 
vitv a descendant of his house is mentioned 

1 Chron. ix. 16 ; Neh. xi. 17). Three psalms 
have Jeduthun in their titles (xxxix., Ixii. 

Ixxvii.) ; probably they were to be sung bj 

his musical division. 


JEE'LI a Esdr. v. 33). Jaalah (Ezraii. 56). 
JEE'LUS a Esdr. viii. 92). Jehiel (Ezra 
C 2) 

'jEE'ZEE, (a shortened form of Abiezer, 
rather of help). A descendant of Manasseh 
through Gilead (Numb. xxvi. 30). See 
Abiezer, 1. . ' ^ „-u 

JEE'ZEPvITES. A family of Manasseh, 
descendants of Jeezer (Numb. xxvi. 30). 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA (the heap of loit- 
ness). The Arami^an name given by Laban 
to the witness-heap which Jacob called 
Galeed. There appear to have been both a 
pillar and a pile-the pillar set up by Jacob 
and the pile or heap gathered by Labauand 
his sons. There was then a solemn feast, 
and a sacrifice, and a covenant entered into 
that neither the one nor the other should 
pass that pillar and heap to his brotbers 
harm (Gen. xxxi. 43-55). _ 

JEHA.L'ELEEL (who praises God). A de- 
scendant of Judah (1 Chron. i v 16). 

JEHAL'ELEL (id.). A Levite (2 Chron. 

^JEHDEI'AH (whom Jehovah mnJces joiifal). 
— 1. A Levite (1 Chron. xxiv. 20).— 2. An 
officer who had charge of Davids asses 

"^^JEHEZ'EKEL (whom God mahes strong). 

The chief of one of the courses of tae 

priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 16). The name is the 

same as that of Ezekiel. 
JEHEZ'KEL (Ezek. i. 3, marg.). EzekieL 
JEHI'AH (Jehovah lives). One of the 

door-keepers for the ark a Chron. xy. 24). 

This name is possibly for Jehiel or Jeiel : 

'^^JEHI'EL (God lives').-!. A Levite j 
porter, appointed for the musical service 
of the sanctuary (1 Chron. xv. IS, 20, j>)- 
—2 A Gershonite Levite, treasurer of the 
house of the Lord (xxiii. 8, xxix. 8) : see 
JEHIELI.— 3. One of David's ofilcers, proba- 
bly governor of his sons (xxyii. 32).— 4. A 
s.m of Jehoshaphat, put to death by his 
brother Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 2, 4j.-o. A 
Levite of the family of Heman, employed m 
the reforms of Hezekiah (xxix. l^)- -tie 
may be the one mentioned in xxxi. lo.— 
6 A ruler of the house of God in Josiah s 
time (XXXV. 8).-7. Father of one who re- 
tm-ned to Jerusalem with Ezra (Ezra viii.9.. 
—8 Father of a person who proposed to 
Ezra the putting away of foreign wives 
(X. 2).— 9. 10. Two who had married fcieigu 
wives (21, 26). ■, ^ ^ 1 A 
JEHI'EL vperhaps treasured of Oorf).— i. a 
Beniamite who dwelt at Gibeon, ancestor 
of king Saul (1 Chrcui. ix. 35 : comp via. 29). 
—2 One of David's warriors (,xi. 44). _ 

JEHIE'LI (a Jehielite). One of the Levites 
whose sons were over the treasures of the 
Lord's house (1 Chron. xxvi. 21 .22). In 
xxiii. 8, xxix. 8 the name is Jehiel, ^yho 
was probably the head of a branch of the 
family. „ 

JEHIZKI'AH (Jthovah strengthens). One 
of the chiefs of Epliraim, who procured the 
liberation 01 the captnes oi j uuau i-"^ 
veisn of Ahaz (,2 Chron. xxviii. 12). 
JEHO'ADAH (whom Jehovah adorns). 
, One of the descendants of Saul a CJi^on. 
' viii. 36). He is elsewhere called Jaiau 
UX. 42J. 



' A' 



441 



[JEHOIAKIM 



JBHOAD'DAN (id. feni.). The inother of i 
Amaziali king of Judah (2 Kings xiv. 2; 
2 Cliron. XXV. 1). 

JEHO'AHAZ (whom Jehovah holds).— 
1. The son and successor of Jeroboam II. 
king of Israel. He reigned sev^enteen years, 
856-840 B.C. His reign was ungodly and 
inglorious. Haxael oppressed and spoiled 
'the country, till Jehoahaz in his extz'emity 
besought the Lord, who pitied his people, 
and raised up deliverers in the successors 
of Jehoahaz (2 Kings x. 35, xiii. 1-10, 22, 25, 
xiv. 8, 17 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 17, 25).— 2. A son of 
Josiah, placed on the tlu'one of Judah after 
his father's death, 609 B.C. He reigned but 
three months, and did evil in God's sight. 
He was deposed by Pharaoh-nechoh, who, 
having had him conveyed to Iliblah, put 
him in bonds there, and afterwards car- 
ried him into Egypt, where lie died (2 Kings 

xxiii. 30-34; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4"). He was 
called also Shallum (1 Chron. iii. 15 ; Jer. 
xxii. 10-12).— 3. Another name of Ahaziah 
king of Judah (2 Chron. xxi. 17). See Aha- 

UAK, 2. 

JEHO'ASH (whom Jehovah bestoived). — 
1. A king of Judah (2 Kings xi. 21, xii. 1, 2, 
4, 6, 7, 18, xiv. 13) : see Joash, 3.-2. A king 
of Israel (xiii. 10, 25, xiv. 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17): 
see Joash, 4. 

JEHOHA'TSTAN (wliom Jehovah gave). — 
1. One of the Levite porters of the family 
of the Korhites (1 Chron. xxvi. 3).— 2. A 
military chief in the reign of Jehoshaphat 
(2 Chron. xvii.l5). It was perhaps he that was 
father of the Ishraael whom Jehoiada as- 
sociated with him for the purpose of making 
Joash king (xxiii. 1).— 3. One who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife (Ezra x. 28).— 4. A priest 
in the days of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 13).— 5. A 
priest who took part in the dedication of 
the wall of Jerusalem (42). 

JEHOI'ACHIN (whom Jehovah has ap- 
poivted). The son and successor of Jehoi- 
akim king of Judah, 598 B.C. He was 
eigliteen years old when he ascended the 
throne, and he reigned in an ungodly way 
for three months and ten days (2 Kings 

xxiv. 6-9). As he was young, it may be sup- 
posed that he was under the influence of 
the queen-mother (Jer. xiii. 18). The army 
of Nebuchadnezzar was soon before Jeru- 
salem ; and Jehoiachin, his mother, and the 
principal chiefs surrendered, and were 
carried, with a great amount of plunder, to 
Babylon (10-16 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 8-10). In 
the last-cited passage it is said that Jehoia- 
chin was but eight years old at his acces- 
sion ; but this is manifestly a copyist's error. 
A child of eiglit years, however ill-disposed, 
could not so have administered the affairs 
of a kingdom as to have drawn upon him- 
self the fearful sentence recorded by Jere- 
miah (Jer. xxii. 24-30) ; and the supposition 
that his fatlier had associated him with 
himself in the government for ten years has 
no basis of evidence. Jehoiachin was kept 
a captive for thirty-seven years through tlie 
reign of Nebuchadnezzar, but, on Evil- 
merodach's accession to the Chaldean 
throne, he was brought out of prison, 
placed at the liead of the subdued kings in 
Babylon, with appointments and allowances 
befitting his rank (2 Kings xxv. 27-.30; Jer. 



lii. 31-34). Whether he survived Evil-me- 
rodach, who reigned but tw^o years, we 
know not. There are few notices of him 
beside. Ezekiel dates some of his prophe- 
cies from the time of Jehoiachin's cap- 
tivity ; and occasional references are made 
to it (Esth. ii. 6 ; Ezek. i. 2, and elsewhere). 
Jehoiachin is also called Jeconiah (1 Chron. 
iii. 16, 17 ; Esth. ii. 6 ; Jer. xxiv. 1, xxvii. 20, 
xxviii. 4, xxix. 2), Coniah (xxii. 24, 28, 
xxxvii. 1), and Jechonias (Matt. i. 12). It is 
probable that agreeably to Jeremiah's de- 
nunciation Jehoiachin had no children, and 
that Saiathiel, called his son, was the right- 
ful heir to the crown after him, adopted 
from another branch of the family. See 
Genealogy. 

JEHOI'ADA (whom Jehovah Jcnows).—1. 
The father of Benaiah, a well-known officer 
of David and Solomon (2 Sara. viii. 18, and 
elsewhere). If he is to be supposed a priest 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 5 : see Benaiah, 1), it was 
probably he that joined David with the 
Aaronites at Hebron (xii. 27).— 2. A very 
noted high priest. He had married Jeho- 
sheba, or Jehoshabeath, king Ahaziah's sis- 
ter, who, when Athaliah destroyed the royal 
familv, secreted Joash, and kept him for 
six years in a chamber of the temple. In 
the seventh year Jehoiada found himself 
able to produce the young prince. Accord- 
ingly the principal officers of the kingdom 
were informed, and their assistance ob 
tained. And, when all proper dispositions 
had been made, Joash was produced and so- 
lemnly crowned ; Athaliah being justly put 
to deatli for usurpation (2 Kings xi. ; 2 
Chron. xxii. 11, 12, xxiii.). Joash reigned 
well during Jehoiada's life; and the aged 
priest was buried when he died among tlie 
kings in the city of David (2 Kings xii, 
1-16 ; 2 Chron. xxiv. 1-17). Jehoiada is said 
to have been one hundred and thirty 
years old at his death. Possibly this may 
be a transcriber's error. Else he must have 
been born in the reign of Rehoboam; 
and his marriage with Ahaziah's sister, a 
young girl at the time, would appear 
strange. Errors in numbers do sometimes 
occur ; letters, from their similarity likely 
to be mistaken, being used to denote nume- 
rals.— 3. One of David's counsellors after 
Ahithophel (1 Chron. xxvii. 34). But per- 
haps the names Jehoiada and Benaiah are 
here transposed.— 4. A person who helped 
to repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6). 
— 5. The second priest in the reign of Zede- 
kiah, succeeded by Zephaniah (Jer. xxix. 
25-29 : com p. 2 Kings xxv. 18). 

JEHOI'AKIM (whom Jehovah sets up). 
The eldest son of Josiah king of Judah, by 
one of his wives, Zebudah. On the death of 
Josiah the people placed his son Jehoahaz 
upon the throne ; but he was speedily (in 
three months) removed by Pharaoh-nechoh 
king of Egypt, then by his victory over Jo- 
siah in military possession of the kingdom. 
Pharaoh carried Jehoahaz into Egypt, 
and made his elder brother Eliakim king, 
thenceforward better known by the name 
of Jehoiakim, whose reign lasted eleven 
years, 609-598 B.C. (2 Kings xxiii. 31-37). Je- 
hoiakim had profited little by his father's 
instruction and example. He had to rule 



^Ije Erra^urj) of 4i2 



fEHOlAHIB] 

an impnverished people; for Pharaoh Lad : 
imposed a fine of one liundred talents of < 
silver, and a talent of gold ; and Jelioiakini ] 
raised this sum as he could by taxing the i 
land. Probably discontents arose; more i 
especially as Jehoiakim had not been the. 
choice of his subjects. And, though ^-e : 
have no special record of his encouraging : 
idolatry, we may see that he settled down 
into a hard, cruel, faithless, worldly man, 
careless alike of the honour of God and 
of the welfare of his kingdom (Jer. xxii. 

^""iV was not for long that Jehoiakim was 
tributary to Pharaoh. Nebuchadnezzar 
defeated the Egyptian king at Carchemish 
(xlvi. 2), deprived him of all his Syrian 
possessions, and having marched against 
Jerusalem made Jehoiakim his vassal. _ It 
was in this invasion that Daniel was carried 
away captive (Dan. i. 1, 2), and very possibly 
at this time that Jehoiakim was made pri- 
soner with the declared intention of carry- 
ing him away too (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7). The 
intention, however, was not fulfilled ; and 
Jehoiakim was left at Jerusalem as a vassal 
of the king of Babylon. There is some 
difficultv in settling the chronology of this 
part of his reign ; for Jeremiah places the 
battle of Carchemish in the fourth year of 
Jehoiakim (Jer. xlvi. 2), while according to 
Daniel Jerusalem was taken in the third 
year. It m;iy be that the march of Nebu- 
chadnezzar commenced in one year, thongh 
the campaign was not ended till the next. 
Or one prophet may date from the death of 
Josiah, not reckoning the short and trou- 
bled reign of Jehoahaz. But it is more pro* 
bable that the march on Jerusalem was 
prior to the victory of Carchemish : Nebu- 
chadnezzar being then the lieutenant of his 
father, but known to the Jews as the 
teiTible chief of the imperial armies, and 
naturally by them called king. It is absurd 
to object, as some have done, that no Chal- 
dean invasion of Judea could have occurred 
before the fourth year of Jehoiakim,because 
God promised then that, if the Jews were 
obedient, he would do them no hurt (xxv. 
6-91, threatening fresh judgment if they 
still rebelled, or before the fifth year, 
because then a fast was proclaimed (xxxvi. 
9). The fast, it is most likely, was prepara- 
tory to the revolt from the Babylonish 
yoke; and hence the special rage of Je- 
hoiakim at Jeremiah's minatory warnings, 
then publicly announced : seeDAJfiEL, the 

BOOK OF, p. 198. , 1 , 

We mav therefore conclude that probably 
in his third year Jehoiakim became subject 
to Nebuchadnezzar, continued his vassal 
three vears, and then rebelled. The king 
of Babylon was not at once able to chastise 
him ; but various bands of Chaldeans. Sy- 
rians, Moabites, and others plundered his 
land : till at last the great conqueror ap- 
peared himself. Whether Jehoiakim was 
killed in battle, or had previously died, we 
cannot be certain ; but his end was igno- 
minious; and his son was permitted to reign 
but three months (2 Kings xxiv. 1-8; Jer. 
xxii 18,19). Josephus says that Jerusalem 
surrendered on conditions, which were ill- 
o'.served, and Jehoiakim slain (Antiq., lib. 



X. 6, § 3) ; while some have believed that he 
came to a violent end, either by the hands ol 
his own subjects, or in some previous en- 
gagement. The scripture gives no details, 
simply saying that he 'slept with his fa- 
thers', i.e.'died. Jehoiakim's evil character 
is exemplified in his putting TJrijah the pro- 
phet to death (Jer. xxvi. 20-23), as well as in 
his burning the roll of prophecy against : 
him (xxxvi.), above referred to. j 
JEHOI'ARIB (whom Jehovah defends). \ 
The head of the first course of the priests i 
(1 Chron. xxiv. 7), whose descendants ap- \ 
pear to have returned from captivity (ix. 
10): his representatives are mentioned! 
(.Neh. xi. 10, xii. 6, 19) in the contracted form 
Joiarib. To this course the Maccabean ; 
faniilv belonged (1 Mace. ii. 1). ! 

JEHON'ADAB(whom J'e7?orrt7iij??peZ8). A ! 
son or descendant of Bechab the founder ol 
the Bechabites. He met Jehu proceeding 
to Samaria, just after the slaughter of the : 
princes, and, having declared his cordial ; 
concurrence with the new king, was taken 
bv him into his chariot, and attended him 
to the treacherous slaughter of the wor- 
shippers of Baal (2 Kings x. 15-23). We 
asain hear of Jehonadab as imposing on 
his children the rule of abstinence from 
wine, agriculture, and residence in cities 
(Jer. XXXV., where he is called Jonadab); 
Avhich rule was exactly observed till in one 
respect at the Babylonian invasion it was 
necessarily relaxed. See Bechabites. 

JEHON'ATHAN (whom Jehovah gave) —\. 
The superintendant of David's store-houses 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 25).— 2. A Levite sent by 
Jehoshaphat to teach the people (2 Chron. 
xvii. 8).— 3. A priest, the representative of 
the family or course of Siiemaiah (Neh. x. 
18). He is probably the same with the Jo- 
nathan mentioned in 35 ; Jonathan being 
the contracted form of Jehonathan. 

JEHO'BAM (whom Jehovah has exalted). 
A name very frequently found in its con- 
tracted form, Joram. 

1. The eldest son of Jehoshaphat king 
of Judah, who succeeded his father and 
reigned eight years, 892-885 B.C., perhaps 
the first two years in conjunction with his 
father (1 Kings xxii. 50 ; 2 Kings viii.16, 17 ; 
2 Chron. xxi. 1-3). He was a most aban- 
doned prince: he had married the wicked 
Athaliah daughter of Ahaband Jezebel, and 
in their sinful ways he walked. He de- 
stroved his brothers, and, regardless of a 
warning from the prophet Elijah, persisted 
. in crime. Judgments came thick and fast 
upon him. Edom revolted, and Libnah; 
and the Philistines and Arabians attacked 
him, plundered his palace, and carried off or 
destroyed his wives and sons, save Ahaziah 
the youngest. And then God smote him 
with an incurable disease. Two years lie 
lingered in misery, till his bowels fell out, 
and he expired, and was buried without the 
, customary honours (2 Kings viii. 18-24; 2 

■ Chron. xxi., xxii.l). Jehosheba, the prudent 

■ wife of the priest Jelioiada, was his daugh- 
ter (2 Kinsrs xi. 2). There has been a diffi- 

. cultyfeit in regard to the warning to Je- 
horam from the prophet Elijah ; as it i3 
- usu illy suiipost d tli.it Elijah bad hcen trans- 
lated previously. We may welJ therefore 



143 MthU IBliTfltDleXfse. 



believe tliat hy divine monition the great 
prophet was instructed to leave a writing 
to be conveyed at the proper juncture to 
the sinful king. But lord A. C. Hervey 
supposes (see notice below), that Elijah's 
translation did not occur till Jehoraiu's se- 
cond year : conip. Elijah, p. 253. 

2. The son of Ahab king of Israel, hy Je- 
zebel. He succeeded his brother Ahaziah 
on the throne and reigned twelve years, 
896-884 B.C. (i. 17, iii. 1). He discountenanced 
the worship of Baal, hut maintained the 
idolatrous calves which Jeroboam had set 
up (2, 3). At an early period of his reign he 
marched, in conjunction with Jehosliaphat 
king of Judah and the vassal king of Edom, 
against the Moabites, who had rebelled 
against Israel after the death of Ahab. The 
confederates were reduced to straits for 
want of water, and consulted the prophet 
Elisha, who uttered a severe rebuke against 
Jehoram,but, respecting the pious Jehosha- 
phat, gave the counsel which resulted in a 
victory. The war, however, ended abruptly 
with an atrocity committed by the king of 
Moab on (most probably) the king of Edom's 
son (4-27 : comp. Amos ii. 1). Afterwards, 
perhaps in consequence of the putting down 
of Baal-worship, we find more intercourse 
between Elisha and Jehoram : there was 
the miraculous cure of Naaman ; and the 
supernatural information given which ena- 
bled the king several times to elude the 
hostile designs of the Syrians (2 Kings iv. 
13, v., vi. 8-23). But then, when Samaria was 
l)esieged, Jehoram seems to have imagined 
that the judgment was a consequence of 
E:iisha's rebukes ; and, irritated by a fearful 
crime perpetrated under the pressure of 
hunger, he hastily resolved to put Elisha to 
death. It was but a momentary outburst 
of passion; and he himself hurried after 
the executioner, to reverse (,as Ave may sup- 
pose) the order. He had then the cheering 
assurance that in four-and-twenty hours 
there would be plenty in Samaria ; which 
was accomplished by the unexpected flight 
of the panic-struck Syrians (24-33, vii.). In 
the course of Jehorara's reign there was a 
famine for seven years. It is not clear at 
what period we are to place this ; the ' then ' 
of viii. 1 being no note of time : possibly 
it is the same famine mentioned in iv. 38-44. 
At its close we find the king questioning 
Gehazi as to Elisha's wonderful works, and 
restoring her lands to the Shuuaramite 
lady, who was come at that very time to 
pray restitution of her property (viii. 1-6). 

Then occurred the revolution in Syria ; 
and Jehoram seized the opportunity, in 
conjunction with his nephew Ahaziah king 
of Judah, to attack Ramoth-gilead. He was 
wounded in the battle ; and, having return- 
ed to Jezi-eel to be cured, his general Jehu, 
whom he had left to hold Ramoth-gilead, 
conspired against him. It is likely that 
Jehoram had again introduced or sanction- 
ed Baal-worship, which Jehu found in full 
vigour (X. 18-28). And this may have provo- 
ked the awful judgment by which Jehoram 
fell. He could offer no resistance to Jehu: 
he was slain at once In his chariot ; and his 
corpse was thrown Ignominously into the 
plot of ground which his father had un- 



[JEHOSHAPHAT 



justly wrested from Nahoth (viii. 25-29, Ix. 
1-26 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 5-7). Thus was fulfilled 
the word spoken by the proi>het Elijah (1 
Kings xxi. 17-29). 

There is some difficulty in adjusting 
the chronology of Jehoram's reign ; and 
several events usually assigned to it 
may have happened under some other 
monarch ; the king's name not being dis- 
tinctly mentioned. Lord A. C. Hervey 
would remove the clause 'in the second 
year of Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat 
king of Judah' (2 Kings i. 17) to the head of 
chap, ii., and makes some other sugges- 
tions, for which his article in Smith's Diet, 
of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 947-949, may be con- 
suited: see also Browne's Ordo Sceclorum, 
part i. chap. iv. §§ 215-228, pp. 221-239. 

3. A priest employed by Jehoshaphat to 
teach in Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 8). 

JEHOSHAB'EATH (Jehovah is her oath). 
The daughter of Jehoram king of Judah, 
and wife of the priest Jehoiada (2-Chron. 
xxii. 11). She is also (2 Kings xi. 2) called 
Jehosheba, which see. 

JEHO'SHAPHAT (whom Jehovah judges, 

1. e. whose cause he sustains).— 1. A great 
officer, called 'recorder' or annalist, under 
David and Solomon {2 Sam. viii. 16, xx. 
24 ; 1 Kings iv. 3 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 15). 

2. The head of one of Solomon's commis- 
sariat departments in Issachar (1 Kings 
iv. 17). 

3. The son of Asa, who succeeded his 
father on the throne of Judah, at the age 
of thirty-five, and reigned twenty-five years, 
914-890 B.C. (XV. 24, xxii. 42). 

He was a man of piety ; and his reign was 
upon the whole prosperous. At first, the jea- 
lousy of Judah and Israel still subsisting, Je- 
hoshaphat placed his kingdom in a posture 
of defence against that of the ten tribes, 
garrisoning the cities which Asa had con 
quered. He also took away the idolatrous 
high places and groves in Judah, and in 
the third year of his reign sent princes, 
priests, and Levites with the book of the 
law to teach the people. And the blessing 
of God was upon him : lie had riches and 
honour in abundance ; and neighbouring 
tribes respected him and brought him 
presents and tril)ute (2 Chron. xvii.). But 
then came the great error of his life and 
reign. He not only contracted friendship 
and alliance with the weak and wicked 
Ahab, possibly from mutual fear of Syria, 
but sanctioned, it would seem, the marriage 
of his son Jehoram with the atrocious 
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, a marriage 
which inflicted evil for several generations 
upon Judah. Jehoshaphat after this fre- 
quently aided the kings of Israel. He was 
with Ahab in the disastrous battle of 
Ramoth-gilead, and, appearing In the field 
in royal state, nearly lost his life, being 
mistaken for the Israelitish king. His cry 
to the Lord who delivered him ought to be 
noticed (1 Kings xxii. 1-40 ; 2 Chron. xviii.). 
Jehoshaphat had shown, while at Samaria, 
his distrust and dislike of the idolatrous 
priests; but when he returned to Jeru- 
salem he was rebuked by the prophet Johu 
for having at all allied himself with the un- 
godly. He took the rebuke in good part^ 



/EHQSHAPHAT, VALLEY of] Clj^ ^Xt^^MV^ QI 



444 



and set himself a?ain, both personally and 
by deles-ated officers, to carry out religious 
reforms In his own kingdom, and to render 
the administration of justice pure (xix) 
The fatal alliance, however, with Israel still 
hampered him. He joined in a commercial 
project with Ahaziah, and prepared a fleet 
at Ezion-seber. For this he was reproved 
by Eliezer, who predicted the loss of the 
fleet. Jehoshaphat then refused any further 
partnership with Ahaziah in such enter- 
prises (1 Kings xxii. 48, 49; 2 Chron. xx. 
35-37). Afterwards he was attacked by the 
Moabites, Ammonites, and other tribes. In 
the prospect of this great danger he pro- 
claimed a fast, and humbly sought the Lord's 
help,which was promised through Jahaziel, 
aLevite. Accordingly God supernaturally 
interfered. Tbe invaders set upon each 
other, and were destroyed; and Jehoshaphat 
returned to Jerusalem in triumph (1-29) ; 
this deliverance being supposed, not with- 
out probable reason, to be alluded to m 
Psalms xlviii., Ixxxiii. It was perhaps, sub- 
cequentlv to this event that Jehoshaphat, 
with his' vassal the king of Edom,, joined 
Jehoram, king of Israel, in that.expedition 
asainst Moab which was terminated by the 
fearful deed of the Moabitish king (2 Kings 
iii.). 

The last years of Jehoshaphat were peace- 
ful. Probablvhe admitted his son Jehoram 
to partnership with him, whom also, when 
previously he joined Ahah, it is tliouirht 
he had left In authority at home. He had 
many sons, to whom he gave gifts, and 
made them governors of cities ; but to 
Jehoram, the eldest, he left the crown 
(2 Chron. xxi. 1-3). He is called Josaphat m 
Matt. i. 8. T^. • 

4. The father of king Jehu (2 Kings ix 
2, 14).— 5. A priest iu the time of David 
n Chron xv ''4^ 

JEH0'3HAPH.\T,THE TALLETOF. The 
name now- given to the valley of the Kidron. 
! It is broad and shallow where it com- 
1 mences to the north-west : passing east- 
' ward, it has the general platform of tne 
citv to the south. Then, when it meets the 
nt)fth-western corner of Olivet, it turns due 
south, pursuing this direction to Bir Eyub, 
or the well of Job, at the junction witn the 
valley of Hinnom, where it bends again to 
the south-east. From the church of the 
Vircrin it is a narrow ravine, sinking rapidly 
between Ophel and Olivet, till at the Bir 
Eyub it is more than 500 feet below the top 
of Ziou. Into the depth of this melan- 
choly glen, one could hardly look down 
from the roof of the temple above 
without dizziness. 'This rapid slope is 
grey and bare : some scanty tufts of her- 
bai;e scarce find root in its loose ashy soil; 
and towards its base a few flat tombs are 
niched upon any practicable spot, hanging 
like the verv image of oblivion just above 
the channel of the Kidron, loosened from 
their precarious hold by its wintry torrent ' 
(Bartlett, Walks about Jertisalem, p. 111). 
Various sepulchres are found along the 
course of this ravine, among them the so- 
called tomb of Absalom, and close to it the 
reputed tomb of Jehoshaphat, from which 
possil)lv the valley may have taken its name. 



But it is not so called either in scripture or 
bv Josephus ; nor can the use of this ap- 
pellation be traced higher than the fourth 
century after Christ. Both Jews and Mo- 
hammedans believe that it is to be the scene, 
of the last judgment ; and the latter show 
a stone pillar, on which they say Moham- 
med is to sit. This notion is probably de- 
rived from Joel iii. 2, 12; but there Is a 
strong objection against the identification 
of the valley, 'emek, there mentioned, "with 
the ravine, \iahhal, of the Kidron. It has 
otherwise been imagined that Joel alludes 
to 'the valley of Berachah' or 'blessing' 
(2 Chron. xx. 26) ; ' but, as neither of these 
localities,' says Henderson, ' at all comports 
with the magnitude of the subject treated 
of l)v the prophet, we have no alternative 
but that of considering the words, not as 
constituting a proper name, or the name of 
anv specific locality, but as symbolical in 
their import, and designed to characterize 
the theatre of the bloody w^ars that took 
plac(? after the Babylonish captivity, by 
which the hostile nations contiguous to 
Judeahad signal vengeance inflicted upon 
them. They literally signify the valley 
ichere Jehovah judgeth, and mean the 
scene of divine judgments. The term valley 
appears to have been selected on account 
of such locality being mentioned in scrip- 
ture as the usual theatre of military con- 
flict ' (Mvior Proph., p. 118). 

JEHO'SHf^BA (Jehovah is her oath'). The 
wife of Jehoiada the priest. She was the 
daughter of king Jehoram, but in all proba- 
bility not by Athaliah. VThen the royal 
famflv were destroyed by that abandoned 
woman, Jehosheba saved and secured her 
infant nephew Joash, with his nurse, and, 
no doubt by means of her husl)and, kept 
him for six years in the house of the Lord, 
till the seaso-: able time came for Jehoiada 
to produce him, and place him on the 
throne (2 Kings xi. 2, 3). Her name is 
given as Jehoshabeath in 2 Chron. xxii. 11. 
JSTo other princess is mentioned as being 
married to a high priest. 

JEHO'SHUA {Jehovah his help). The full 
form of the name generally found as Joshua 
(^'umb. xiii. 16). See Joshua, 1. 

JEHO'SHUAH {id.). This form, identical 
in the Hebrew with the preceding, occurs 
in some copies of our version (1 Chron. vii. 
27). See Joshua, 1. 

JEHO'VAH {he icill &e, or lecoviel). The 
special and significant name of the Deity 
as developing himself In a covenant-rela- 
tionship with his people. It is derived 
fvom a Hebrew root which means ' to be.' 
The exact form of it however. Is doubtful, 
because the Jews always attach to it the 
vow-els of another word. But it is likely that 
it is a future form, Jahveh, in accordance 
with the declaration to Moses, 'I am that I 
am ' (Exod. iii. 14), or ' I will be that I will 
be,' the coming one. The ground-notion, 
then, is that of manifestation, ot God's &e- 
coviing all that his purposes intend, and 
his promises foreshadow. Essentially he 
chances not, but he manifests himself with 
greater clearness to the perceptions of his 
creatures, as they see him developing his 
glorious attributes in the advancing steps 



U5 MMt mXQMt^Qt. 



of that redemption, that great victory over 
evil, which, announced just after the fall, 
had its successive illustrations in the choice 
of a peculiar people, in the deliverances 
wrought for them, in the types which 
their history furnished, in the prophecies 
entrusted to them, till the coming of that 
Great One, towards whose unrivalled sove- 
reignty all things are still tending. And yet 
more and more is Jehovah, the Redeemer- 
God, accomplishing his will in the sight 
of men, till the crowns of the universe shall 
be placed together, symbol of his single au- 
thority.upon his brow. In Jehovah, then was 
to be understood the idea of development. 
The name was known before : Moriah (Gen. 
xxii, 2) was probably a compound of it ; but 
in its full meaning, in the covenant-re- 
lationship signified by it, the early patri- 
archs knew it not (Exod. vi. 3). 

A diversity of authorship has been 
supposed in the Pentateuch ; and tho&e por- 
tions in which Jehovah, rendered in our ver- 
sion 'the Lord,' is used, have been attribu- 
ted to one writer ; while those in which the 
Deity is termed Elohim, ' God,' are believed 
to proceed from another. Differences of 
style and tone have also been imagined to 
characterize the two. If it be understood 
merely that Moses used existing docu- 
ments, no great objection need be made to ! 
such a theory. But, if, as some critics have 
endeavoured to show, the two writers— the 
Jehovist and the Elohist they have been 
termed— wrote not under divine guidance, 
or according to the exact truth of matters, 
but rather according to the peculiar bent 
of their own minds, the notion must be de- 
cidedly rejected. On a careful examination 
of the sacred text, it would seem that gene- 
rally these two names are adopted according 
as each in its place best expresses that cha- 
racter in which in the recorded history God 
specially revealed himself. When speaking 
or acting as the great and powerful Creator 
and Ruler of the universe, he is properly 
called Elohim ; when appearing as carrying 
out the provisions of his covenant with his 
people, developing his gracious purposes, 
he is rightly designated Jehovah. So that 
there is a propriety in the double use, just 
as there is in the use, according to circum- 
stances, of ' Jesus ' and ' Christ ' in the Kew 
Testament, which now we are accustomed to 
employ indifferently. The topic cannot be 
further discussed here. It is investigated . 
at some length in Home's Ttitrod., edit. 
Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 549-561 : see also, for a sue- : 
cinct notice, Pentateuch. 

JEHO'VAH-JI'REH (Jehovah will see, or > 
provide). The name given to the place ' 
where Abraham erected his altar for the : 
sacrifice of his son, and the Lord provided i 
a ram instead of Isaac; whence came the i 
proverbial expression ' In the mount of the , 
Lord it shall be seen' (Gen, xxii. 14). Ka- ] 
lisch would translate ' On the mount of the ^ 
Lord one shall be seen ' {Comm. on Old Test. \ 
Gen., p. 448), i. e. people appear : it is only, if 1 
sacriflces are offered as God selects and ap- J 
points them,that the presence of the offerer s 
at the temple is acceptable to him. Other in- i 
terpretations have been proposed ; but the ( 
most obvious is probably the most satisfac- i 



[jEHU 



r toiy : God's interposition will be mani- 
, fested : when human help is vain, and no 
I M'ay appears of extrication from diflBculty, 
5 those who trust him shall find that, at the 
I critical moment, the Lord will interfere for 
5 them. Man's extremity is God's opportu- 
: nity : in the mount of the Lord he shall be 
- seen. There is very likely a reference to 
; tlie meaning of Moriah, manifestation of 
■ Jehovah. 

: JEHO'YAH-XTS'SI {Jehovah my banner). 
[ So the altar was called which Moses raised 
• on occasion of the defeat of the Amalek- 
i ites (Exod, xvii. 15), Perhaps the allusion 
, is to the sacred rod which Moses held in 
, his hand during the battle, as a kind of 
. banner, and which, as it was raised or low- 
ered, influenced the result of the fight, 

JEHO'VAH-SHA'LOM {Jehovah is peace). 
The name given by Gideon to the altar ho 
built at Ophrah after the angel of the Lord 
had appeared to him (Judges vi. 24). 

JEHO'VAH - SHAM'MAH {Jehovah is 
there). The name to be given to the city 
prophetically described by Ezekiel (Ezek. 
xlviii. 35, marg.). 

JEHO'YAH-TSID'KENTJ (Jehovah our 
righteousness). A name applied l)y the pro- 
phet Jeremiah to the King who should 
spring from David's line (Jer.xxiii.6, marg,), 
! thus descriljing Messiah's divine character. 
The same appellation is given to the church 
(xxxiii, 16, marg.), who, l;y her union with 
Christ, shares his titles. Some critics, how- 
evei-, propose a different translation : ' This 
is he who shall call to her, Jehovah our 
Righteousness,' 

JEHO'ZABAD (whom Jehovah hesiotvs).— 
1. One of the conspirators who slew Joash 
king of Judah (2 Kings xii. 21 ; 2 Chron. 
xxiv, 26).— 2. One of the Levite porters 
(1 Chron,xxvi.4),— 3, A military commander 
in Jehoshaphat's reign (2 Chron. xvii. 18). 

JEHO'ZADAK (whom Jehovah makes jusfX 
The son of the high priest Seraiah. He was 
carried into captivity to Babylon (1 Chron. 
vi. 14, 15), and was the father of Jeshua, or 
Joshua, who returned with Zerubbabel. He 
is more frequently called Jozadak and Jo- 
sedech. 

JE'HU (Jehovah is he).—l. A prophet, who 
pronounced the divine sentence against 
Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kings xvi, 1-4, 7, 
12), He also rebuked Jehoshaphat king of 
Judah (2 Chron. xix. 1-3), and compiled some 
annals of the last-named monarch (xx, 34). 

2. The sou of Jehoshapha,t, the son of 
Nimshi. He w^as designated as the future 
king of Israel to Elijah in the wilderness 
of Horeb (l Kings xix. 16, 17) ; and his com- 
mission should be to extirpate the idolatrous 
house of Ahab, slaying those whom the 
sword of Hazael would not touch. Though 
so designated, the solemn anointing of 
Jehu to his office was to be not yet. Elijah 
passed first into the eternal world ; audit 
was not till Ahab had ended his weak and 
godless career, and Ahaziahhad committed 
his daring acts of impiety, and Joram had 
for som.e years swayed the sceptre with 
sinful hand, that Elisha, who had succeeded 
to Elijah's office, monished it is likely by 
God that the time of repentance was past, 
and judgment must now be done, sent ? 



jehubbah] 



446 



messenger, one of the sobs ot t^^e rrophets | 
?i RamSch^gilead, which Jehu and the other 
Hebrew commanders were keeping, _ to 
Sioint him king. Jehovah ^va%soTemgn 
iDaramount ; and he had a right to choo.e 
Who should reign under him (2 Kmg^ ix 
1-10) When Jehu's companions were made 
aware of the real nature of the young pro- 
phet's message, they entered heartily into 
the conspiracy, and proclaimed Jehu king. 
W?tl Tit^Ye delay he set out for Jezreel 
.s'here Joram had gone to ^Jf Jed of h s 
wounds. From the towers of the citj he is 
espied hasting with his company across the 
ptaini and, Aen two messengers hroiight 
back no answer, Joram and his nephew 
1 SiSi of Juda'h, who had come to visit 

him, both went out to meet J?^^- , Jf',;,^ ! 
' ^-ere slain, and the prophecy against Ahab. 
house fulfilled literally when Jora'n ^ dead 
body was cast into the plot of giouud 
Sfi'ch Sad been illegally -'^l^^ted J^^^^^^ 
Naboth, and when Jezebel, ^^^o.^'^^^^^^^^'", 5,, 
thp avenger as he entered Jezreel, ^^ab 
crLltld beneath his chariot-wheels, and 
her carcase devoured by tjie hungrj dog. 

that prowled about the city (jl--^;^- /^^^^^ 
accomplished God's command : he de.troi ed 

all the rest of Ahab's family C^- ^^^^ 
P gathered the worshippers of Baal bj a 
i IrrS-em and slew them in Baal's temple 
' ai4) Sut W deeds were done from 
hfs 'own lust of reigning ; and, though he 
oas ted of his zeal for God, it was siinplj 
beatufe that zeal he perceived was mailing 
fm a kiu'^ And so, though God set hi* 
lea upon tlie judgment of Ahab's house by 
f->™\sin- Jehu that for four generations 
is"eed shcfuld reign, yet, because J elm 
ad Erratifled therein his own ambition, God 
declfr el also that judgment should come 
on his ungodly posterity (Hos. i. 4) Jehu 
vpi^ned twenty-e ght years, S84-8ob b.o., 
sSu keeping up the calf -worship of Jero- 
boam His kingdom was harassed by Ha- 
za?l king of Syria (2 Kings x. 29-36) ; and 
n.e Adrian power was beginning also to 
n akt?ti?res.'refelt. Jehu's jmme asrhe 
son, i.e. one of the successors, of Ou i.nas 
been read on the black obelisk ui the Bti 

'^3^ A 'descendant of Judah (1 Chron. li. 38). 
4. i Shneonite Chief (iv. 35),-5 A Benja- 
mite, one of those who joined Da\id at 

^^JEHUB'BAH (he ivill U hidden). A chief- 
tihi nf A=;her (1 Chron. vii. 3-1). i 
'TeHL-CAL ipotent). . An e^^l^^ent person 
in Jerusalem in the reign of Zedekiah (Jet 
xxxvii. 3). He is also called J ucal (xxxvia. 

'^jE'HUD (j^raised^, a city allot te^^^^^^^ 
tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. ^^'v " ^^Jl^^^^f 
Yehudiveh, about seven uules ea.t f Jaft,^. 

JEHU'DI (a Jew). A person ^^ ho ^^a. it 
for the roll of Jeremiah's P^J^f ^l^''^^!-'^ 
read it to king Jehoiakim (Jei. x.x.vm.U, 

"^If'^HUDIMAH {the Jeicess). This is pcr- 
h-aw Ot a pn>per name, but used to di.nn- 
eu fch one wife of Mered from_ the other 
I'ho was an Egyptian (1 C m.n. iv. 18). bhe 
ia thf> <ame with Hodiah (19). 
''jEhS'SH (to whom God hastens, a col- 



iPctor'f) A descendant of king Saul (1 
Chron. viii. 39). The word is the same wiih 
that rendered Jeush. . . j. i a 

t JEI'EL (perhaps treasured of God).-- i.a 
Reubenite chief (1 Chron. v. 7).-2. A Levite 
porter appointed for the musical serxice 
of the sanctuary (xv. 18, 21, xvi. 5).— 3. a 
Lev te of the sons of Asaph (2 Chron. xx. 
14?_4 4. scribe in the time of Uzziah (xxvi. 
n ^s" A Levite who took part in Heze- 
kiah's reformation (xxix. 13).-6. A chief 
Levite in Josiah's time (xxxy. 9).-7. One 
who accompanied Ezra on his ]ourn^^ fron^ 
Babvlon to Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 13).— 8. A 
pS-son who had married a foreign wife 

'^jfKAB'ZEEL (which God Q^fJ^^rs) A 
city in the extreme south of Judah (^ eh 
xi.^25). It is the fuller form of Kah^^el 
(Josh. XV. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxui. 20). See Kab- 

^YeK \^I'E am (who gathers the people). A 
Levite in David's time (1 Chron. xxiii. 19, 

'"^"jEKAAII'AH {v^hom Jehovah gath^-s). A 
descendant of Judalid Chron. ii. 41). called 

JEKUTmEL Ip^e^i' toimrds, or i^nist in, 
God). One of Judah's descendants (1 Chron. 

^^'teMI'AI \ (dove, or perhaps beautiful as 
t/iedav). The eldest of Job's daughters 
bora after his restoration to prosperity (Job 

^ JEAli'^I (1 Sam. ix. 1, marg.). The t^x- 

tuafrendering is no doubt right: see Ge- 

• ^^J^'m'XIAX (Judith ii. 28). Perhaps Jam 
>'l^l^%ilofGoa^. The.eldestg^af 
ciinipon (Gen xlvi. 10 ; Exod. vi.lo). but in 
lumrix^i. 12 ; 1 Chron. iv. 24 the name is 

1 ^l^EPH'THiE' Heb. xi. 32). The Greek form 

^ ''Sira'THiH (Whom God sets /ree)- An 
IsSis^i hero ind judge, t^e son of Gilead 
hVa concubine. Discountenanced and dn- 
' yen out by his brethren, he establ shed him- 
i lelf in a district called Tob, and gathered 
?oun^toaband, who, probably by marau- 
' d ?- expeditions, acquired a formidable 1^- 
nown • so that, when the Ammonites had 
o-ccTpied some of the trans-Jordanic tern- 
i ^o'rTand had even Pf ^ the J^^^^^ 
' attacked the western tribes ( Judge, x. 8 9, 

(?ilSidite's with their conduct towards him 
b t Jonsented to lead them on condition o 
bein- appointed their governor. He then 
.eu^envovs to the Ammonitish king, ma n 
rM iin- Israel's riaht to the territory north 
0 ' he^4rnon, seeing that it had been con^ 
ouerodfroni the actual possessoi. and h^d. 

een occupied for 300 years ^he negot^^^ 
tion came to nothing ; and then Jephtha i, 
1 having collected troops from Manasseh and 
Gilead utterly defeated the Ammonites. But 
m- S to 1 is march he had vowed to devote 
nd ^a( rm?e to the Lord whatever might 
J^^^^liSme hini<.i his return 111 



first welcome aim ^''^^''^^^ ' V/woq only 



147 



[JEREMIAH 



Atter dismaj' ; and he did with her according 
to his vow (xi.). 

Scarcely any scripture topic has been 
more keenly discussed than the question, 
What did Jephthah do? Did he actually 
sacrifice his daughter? or did he merely 
devote her to perpetual celibacy? and 
learned men vv-iil never agree in the solu- 
tion. It is clear that there are formidable 
difficulties in the way of believing that an 
Israelite instructed in the law and history 
of his country could offer human sacrifice ; 
especially as Jephthah is mentioned with 
commendation among the worthies of the 
race (1 Sam. xii. 11 ; Heb. xi, 32). But 
yet he could not have expected that any 
animal would come ouc to meet him : he 
must therefore have contemplated human 
sacrifice. His daughter, it is evident, was 
not aware of his vow; but the intended 
sacrifice of an animal would no doubt have 
been at once proclaimed. There was per- 
haps little intercourse between the tribes 
east and w^est of the Jordan at the period. 
Besides, Jephthah, a kind of brigand-chief, 
though he knew much of the history of 
Israel, might know little of the law ; and 
human sacrifices were practised by neigh- 
bouring nations. Further, we have no in- 
stance of females being devoted to celi- 
bacy ; and, if this girl were so devoted, she 
needed not to ask delay in order to bewail 
her lot. All these reasons, briefly given, 
and more might be added, incline to the 
fearful alternative that Jephthah did sa- 
crifice his daughter. But the opinion is 
expressed with diffidence ; and many will 
dissent from it (see K.itta,I)aili/ Bible lUus- 
trations, twenty-fifth week, second day ; Wi 
, ner, BiU. RWB., art, •' Jephta ' ; Smith's Diet. 
j of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 963, 964), It may bead- 
I ded that there is no ground for imagining 
that the high priest sanctioned the act, as 
the Jews believe. 

One more fact in Jephthah's history is to 
be noticed. The Ephraimites, angry that 
they had not been summoned, crossed the 
Jordan and threatened to destroy Jephthah 
and his property. He therefore gathered 
his army, attacked and entirely defeated 
them, detecting the fugitives by their dia- 
lect, as they tried to re-cross the river. Forty- 
two thousand Ephraimites fell, Jephthah 
retained his power in the trans-Jordanic 
region six years, till his death (Judges xii. 
1-7), 

JEPHUN'NE (Ecclus. xlvi, 7). Jephun- 
neh, 

JEPHUX'NEH (ynay Tie be regarded tuith fa- 
vour, ova beholder).—!. The father of Caleb 
the spy (Numb, xiii, 6). He is called a Kene- 
zite (Josh. xiv. 14, and elsewhere),— 2. A 
chieftain of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 38). 

JE'RAH (the moon). A son of Joktan, or 
name of a tribe descended from him, in 
southern Arabia (Gen, x. 26 ; 1 Chron, i, 20). 
There is a difficulty in identifying the loca- 
lity of this tribe ; and various conjectures 
have been made respecting them. There 
is, it seems, a fortress still bearing the 
name Terakh at the extremity of the Ye- 
inen. Or their settlements may have been 
in the neighbourhood of Hadramaut (Ha- 
zar-maveth) ; as there are there a ' moon- 



mountain,' and a 'moon-coast.' But no- 
thing certain can be stated. 

JERAH'MEEL (07i whom God has mercy). 
— 1, The son of Hezron, Judah's grandson (1 
Chron, ii. 9, 25, 26, 27, 33,42\— 2. A Levite of 
the family of Merari (xxiv. 29),— 3. A person, 
son of Hammelech (or of the king), who 
-was with others comm.anded to arrest Ba- 
ruch and Jeremiah (Jer, xxxvi. 26). 

JERAH'MEELITES, A tribe or clan 
descended from Jerahmeel, 1 t^l Sam, xxvii. 
10, XXX. 29). They occupied the southern 
district of Judah. 
JER'ECHUSa Esdr. v. 22). Jericho. 
JE'PtED {descent).— I. (1 Chron. i. 2), See 
Jared,— 2, A descendant of Judah, and fa- 
ther or founder of Gedor. He appears to 
have been the son of Mered by his Jewish 
wife (iv. 18; ; but the text is not very 
clear. 

JER'EMAI {dwelling in heights). One %vho 
had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 33). 

JEREMI'AH (whom Jehovah sets up).—l. 
The father of Hamutal, wife of Josiah. lie 
is described as of Libnah (2 Kings xxiii. 31, 
xxiv, ]8).— 2, A chief of Manasseh (l Chron. 
V. 24).— 3. A Benjamite who joined David 
(xii, 4),— 4. 5, Two Gadite chiefs (10, 13). 

6. A celebrated prophet and priest (2 
Chron, xxxv. 25), the son of Hilkiah of 
Anathoth, a Benjamite city allotted to the 
priests, about three miles from Jerusalem. 
It is not probable that this Hilkiah was the 
high priest in Josiah's reign, because we 
may conclude (1 Kings ii. 26 ; 1 Chron. xxiv. 
3) that the priests at Anathoth were descen- 
dants of Ithamar; whereas Hilkiah the 
high priest was of the family of Eleazar 
(Vi.4-13\ 

Jeremiah's lot was cast in troublous 
times. The long wicked reign of Manasseh 
had thoroughly demoralized the people of 
Judah. And, though ere his death that 
monarch had repented and striven to repair 
the evil he had caused, yet Amon his sou re- 
turned to idolatry. It was in a darkened 
sky, therefore, that the star of the youthful 
Josiah gleamed corth ; and all his efforts at 
reformation when he grew towards man's 
estate were powerless to arrest the growing 
wickedness of the people, or to avert the 
judgments which were coming on them (2 
Kings xxii. 16, 17, xiii. 26, 27). Amid the 
fierce struggles for empire then going on 
in Asia, the small kingdom of Judah could 
not hope to be independent ; and the Lord 
had destined the rising Babylonian power 
to be the instrument of inflicting deserved 
punishment upon Judea. Had the Jews 
humbled themselves and meekly submitted 
to the chastisement, though they might not 
have escaped the Bal)ylonian yoke, they 
would have found it light. But they resis- 
ted and rebelled against God's purposes,and 
looked round for some alliance which, as 
they thought, would protect them. It had 
often been a favourite policy to seek help 
from Egypt (Isai. xxx. 1, 2, xxxi. l-3,xx:xvi. 
6) ; and accordingly it would seem that 
there was a powerful Egyptian party in Je- 
rusalem, and a belief that thus they should 
be strong enough to resist the Chaldeans, 
and yet continue in the sins which had pro- 
voked the Lord to threaten tlie judgment of 



;:ere]miah] 



448 



invasion. It is likely, too, tliat in resisting | 
the Chaldeans the Jews were violating 
treaty engagements. Already the Assyrian 
power had overshadowed Israel ; so that 
their kings were little more than vassals ; 
and. as Babvlon had now succeeded to tne 
Assyrian supremacy, there was some kind 
of allegiance due from the pruices of Judah 
to the sovereign of Babylon. It must have 
been on some such principles that Josiaii 
acted when he resisted the march of Pharaoh 
against Carchemish. ■, • , i ^« 

Bearing in mind the facts which have 
just been adverted to, we shall easily see 
how perilous was the position to which 
Jeremiah was called. God would raise up a 
rirophetwho should announce the coming 
iudgments-judgments which even repen- 
tance would only partially avert Hereto- 
fore the divine messengers, when they 
called to humiliation for sin, were era- 
powered to promise full deliverance. The 
Lord (Isaiah declared) would defend Jeru- 
salem ; and the hosts of the great king 
should melt away like snow before the sun 
from the impregnable walls of Zion. Here- 
tofore the city of David towered m inde- 
pendent glory : the spoiler that touched it 
touched the apple of God's eye. But siu 
persisted in had destroyed that security : 
obstinate rebellion had ruined the hope of 
successful resistance. Those whose eyes 
God had opened saw that now all that couia 
be done was to make the best terms pos- 
sible with a foreign lord. The longing eye 
might still look forward to the distant 
splendour of Messiah's reign ; but f oi the 
present there was only submission, vassal- 
age Former prophets had sounded the 
trumpet, and stirred up the Israelites: they 
had cheered them when desponding to 
fight valiantly for the cities of their bod. 
Now there was a mournful change, ine 
lu'ophetic voice was sad. It was_ to dis- 
courage instead of to incite to resistance : 
its office was to counsel prostration ^efore 
a heathen power. The awful Tords of.Moses 
had indeed come to pass (Deut.xxvni.) : the 
bitter cup must now be drained : the only 
hope was meekly and reverently to take it 
at the Lord's hand. We have here the clue 
to much that would otherwise surpnse us 
in Jeremiah's histoiT and Jeremiah s writ- 
ings We have here the key to the mourn- 
f ulness of his tone, to the disappointments, 
persecutions, griefs, that weighed him 
down. We might have imagined that a 
hard, an iron man, would have been se- 
lected for the office he was to fill, that an- 
orher Tishbite would be sent down irom 
Gilead with the fatal message. But God s 
thoughts are higher than our thoughts. He 
chooses his instruments after no maxims of 
worldly wisdom. It was a youth who was 
to bear the tidings, one of a tender spirit, 
one ready to shrink from the burden, and 
to have the bitter disappointment, so far as 
that evil generation was concerned, of pro- 
phesying in vain. , ^ . , 
It was in the thirteenth year of Josiah 
(Jer i 2) that the word of the Lord first 
came to Jeremiah. He was then, it would 
seem, residing at Anathoth, and, as already 
sai l very young. For, although the word 



used (6) is not determinate, yet, as we know 
that Jeremiah prophesied at least forty 
vears, to the taking of Jerusalem, and pos- 
siblv longer, it must have been m early life 
that the commission was entrusted to hira. 
And this, with his residence at Anathoth, 
will explain why, when the book of the 
law was found five years after, .qounsel was 
sought of Huldah (.2 Kings xxii. 14) rather 
than of him. The burden of the prophet^ 
message was soon perceived. He wab to 
testify that recourse to Egypt was finf ul and 
in vain (comp. Ezek. xvii.), and that their 
own sins were bringing destruction upon 
Uie people (Jer. ii. 17). And he announced 
the coming woe : a mighty nation from the 
north was the destined avenger (i 15, y Id, 
vi 22) This was openly declared m_ Jeru- 
salem, and through the various cities of 
Judah (xi. 6). And the prophet's ordinary 
habits would show the fearful character of 
the crisis. He was, at least for a time, to 
emer neither the house of feasting nor 
that of mourning, to take no wife bu^^^^^^^^ 
solitary man to be a sign to the tli\of ged 
and busy city that she should ere long be 
lone and desolate (xvi. 2, 5, 8). 

The message was most unwelcome. His 
townsmen conspired against his lite^xi. ly, 
21) ; and it is probable that after thi^ he 
took up his residence in Jerusalem The 
iudgments were now beginning. Josiah 
fell in battle ; and Jeremiah composed la- 
mentations for him. Jehoahaz succeeded 
and was soon removed by the Egyptian 
king, who placed Jehoiakim upon the 
throAe. Jehoiachin, Zedekiah, reigned m 
turn ; and again and again did the Chal- 
deans spoil Jerusalem, and carry away the 
chief of the nation captive ; while m vam 
did Jeremiah urge submission. _ He wa* 
denounced as a t^itor. The priests and 
the false prophets demanded his lite (xxvi. 
n) ; and it was only by the interfei;ence o^ 
Ahikara that he was delivered. Jehoiakim 
himself once endeavoured to apprehend 
him (xxxvi. 26) ; and, when under the last 
weak king.seeing ttefruUlessness of hi. 
postulations, he was takmg au oppoituui ty 
of leaving Jerusalem to go into the ten i- 
tory of Benjamin, probably to his ancient 
home, he wis seized, accused of deserting 
to the enemy, cast into a dungeon, and his 
life aeain demanded, as weakening, they 
said, the hands of the men of war (xxxvii., 
xxxviii.). When the city was taken, Jere- 
miah received kind treatment from the 
Chaldean chiefs : he then joined bedaliali, 
the son of his friend Ahikam, and, after his 
murder, was carried by the remaining cap- 
tains, whom he warned in vam, into Egypt 
fxxxix-xliiU, where, according to one ..radi- 
timi, he was stoned by his own people while 
according to another, he afterwards went 
?o Babylon, and died there. Other legen- 
dary stories there are about him which need 
not be here repeated. We learn much of 
this prophet's own mind froin his ^:ritings. 
He has recorded his communings with God, 
his grief at the ruin of his nation, and for 
the cruelty with which he was treated. He 
describes his misgivings lest l^e was nm- 
apprehending God's message, and the buni- 
ing fire of the word within him (xx. i-9). 



and sometimes he breaks forth into pas- 
sionate exclamations, lamenting that ever 
he came out of his mother's womb ' to see 
labour and sorrow' (18). Intermingled 
with his predictions is his own experience, 
very instructive for the church in every 
'Tge. 

7. A priest, or representative of a course 
of priests, who sealed the covenant (Neh. 
X. 2). The priest mentioned in xi. 2 was 
eitlier the same, or the person who gave 
name to the course. At a later period Ha- 
naniah was the head of it (xii. 12).— 8. One 
of the Pi,echabites (Jer. xxxv. 3). 

JEREMI'AH, THE BOOK OF. 628-586 B.C. 
The arrangement of this book is on the 
face of it so chronologically inexact that 
some critics have imagined that the chap- 
ters have been altered from their original 
order. 

Attempts have therefore been made to 
assign their proper historical place to the 
various portions. Thus, Jer. i. is evidently 
at the beginning of Jeremiah's ministry, in 
the thirteenth year of Josiah ; the latter 
part of the inscription (3) being of course 
added afterwards. Then we may also con- 
sider ii. 1— iii. 5 as of early date. The Scy- 
thian invasion of Media, Asia Minor, &c., 
must have occurred in Josiah's reign: it 
was checked by Psammetichus, king of 
Egypt; and, though Jeremiah does not ap- 
pear to refer to it. yet it must have created 
alarm in Judah ; and Egypt would be looked 
to for protection. This section was evidently 
delivered while the eyes of the Jews were 
directed towards Egypt. The next portion, 
iii. 6— vi. 30, is expressly stated to belong to 
tlie days of Josiah. The nation from far 
(V. 15, vi. 22) is not the Scythians but the 
Chaldeans. Chaps, vii., viii., ix., are also 
generally assigned to Josiah's reign. There 
is some difficulty in deciding ; for it seems 
unlikely that that pious king would have 
permitted the idol practices ' in the streets 
of Jerusalem' (vii. 17, 18). Some critics, as 
Hengstenberg and Keil, regard these chap- 
ters as a kind of resume ot Jeremiah's early 
ministry, in which he has collected the sub- 
stance of what he said at different times. 
But they are not (as they would in that 
case be) a continuous whole ; and the fresh 
titles and directions (iii. 6, vii. 1) are a great 
objection to such a theory. We may fur- 
ther suppose xi. 1-17 to have been uttered 
just when the book of the law was found in 
thetemple,in the eighteenth year of Josiah. 

The earlier ministry of the prophet had 
lasted twenty-three years, from the thir- 
teenth of J osiah to the fourth of Jehoiakim ; 
and the portions of the book above mention- 
ed seem to be all that we can with anv degree 
of certainty ascribe to this period. In the 
last-named year we find many oracles deli- 
vered. These are xxv., to .vhich may be ap- 
pended xlvi. 2-12, also xxvi., xxxv., evi- 
dently when the Chaldeans were first 
approaching (comp. Dan. i. 1), xxxvi., xlv., 
and probably the sections xvi. 1— xvii. 18, and 
xvii. 19-27. We may perhaps refer xiv., xv., 
delivered in the time of famine, to this 
reign, and xviii. To this last chapter the 
account of the murderous purpose of the 
r-rophet's townsmen at Anathoth, together 



[JERESIIAK 



with the resulting complaint and predic- 
tions (xi. 18— xii. 17) may be supposed a 
supplement. 

To the short reign of Jehoiachin, so soon 
deposed and carried with many other cap- 
tires to Babylon, the section x. 17-25 may 
be assigned, and possibly xiii., relating a 
symbolical act, of which it is difficult to 
say whether it was literally performed. 

Zedekiah was now placed upon the throne. 
To the beginning of his reign we may as- 
cribe chap. xxiv. ; and, as about the same 
time an embassy was sent to Babylon, the 
prophet directed to the captives there the 
letter which we find in chap. xxix. And we 
may not improbably suppose that the sec- 
tion X. 1-16 was addressed to the exiles at 
the same time. It was very suitable for 
those who were living among the heathen ; 
and then the curious fact of verse 11 being 
written in Chaldee will be accounted for. 
Next in chronological order very possibly 
come xxvii., xxviii. ; ' Jehoiakim ' in xxvii. 1 
being obviously a transcriber's mistake for 
'Zedekiah.' And, according to li. 59, the 
prophecy against Babylon (1., li.) was deli- 
vered in the fourth of Zedekiah. We may 
place next xxii. 1— xxiii. 8, a reference to 
the fate of the king's three predecessors, 
and a v/arning to him, concluding with a 
remarkable prophecy of Messiah. The ora- 
cle against false prophets succeeds (xxiii. 
9-40). Chaps, xix., xx. may be assigned to 
the time of Zedekiah's rebellion before the 
avenging Chaldean armies appeared ; xxxiv. 
1-7, when they had entered Judea, and re- 
duced all the fortresses except Lachish and 
Azekah, which they were attacking ; xxi., a 
little later, while yet the Jews were not 
cooped up within their walls. In their dis- 
tress the people had agreed to grant liberty 
to their slaves ; but,when the Chaldeans re- 
tired on the approach of the Egyptians 
(xxxvii. 5), they revoked the grant of free- 
dom. To this juncture must be referred 
xxxiv. 8-22 and xxxvii. 3-10. Jeremiah 
wished to retire into Benjamin, but was 
stopped and placed in custody, first in 
Jonathan the scribe's house, and after- 
wards, with less rigour, in 'the court of the 
prison ' (11-21). While here the transaction 
related in xxxii. took place ; and in this 
dark time there were cheering utterances 
of future joy. In xxxiii., when several 
houses were demolished for purposes of 
the siege, and in xxx., xxxi., comprehend- 
ing Israel hs well as Judah. Chap, xxxviii. 
must be assigned to the closing scene : the 
bread in the city was well-nigh spent ; and 
in desperation the princes cast Jeremiah 
into a foul pit, from which he was raised 
by Ebed-melech, to whom the message 
(xxxix. 15-18) was communicated, no doubt 
immediately after. The sections xxxix. 
1-14, xl. 1— xliii. 7 narrate the capture of the 
city and other events till the going-down 
of the remnant into Egypt ; where the pre- 
diction of xliii. 8-13 was delivered, and xliv. 
perhaps somewhat later : xlvi. 13— xlix. 39 
are oracles against various heathen nations, 
of which that against Elam (xlix. 34-39) is 
dated at the beginning of Zedekiah's reign : 
it is not improbable that the rest Avere deli- 
vered contemporaneously with that against 
G G 



JEREMIAS] 



4:50 



Epypt Cxlvi. 2-12), before noted as m the 
fourth of Jehoiakim, and the closing sec- 
tion- and lii. is an historical appendix, 
nearly identical with 2 Kings xxiY. 18-xxv. 

^%he chronological distribution which has 
here been followed is almost entirely that 
of Bleek {Einleitung in das A. T., pp. 469, 
&c.) ; and, though there must be some un- 
certainty in regard to several portions, yet 
it appears for the most part to be based 
(where the notes of time are not given m 
the text) on very probable grounds. But it 
must not be imagined, because these pro- 
phecies are not now ranged in chronnlogicai 
order, that they have been carelessly dis- 
placed, and thrown together at random. We 
can discover traces of a classification ac- 
cording to their subjects, and we can see 
reasons, from some incidental notices, why 
the collection was made as we have it. Keil 
{Einleitung-, § 75) finds a general distribu- 
tion into two parts; and Bleek s view, 
though he makes three parts, is not very 
difEerent. ^. , 

The two parts are :— I. Domestic prophe- 
cies and histories (i.— xlv.), including 
1 Longer discourses (i.— xxiv.) ; 2. Special 
predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem 
and the captivity, placed together on ac- 
count of the subject being the same, intro- 
duced by an announcement of the ]uag- 
ment of many nations (xxv.— xxix.) ; 3. Fre- 
dictions of future blessing, united becaiise 
of their similarity (xxx.-xxxiu.) ; 4. Shorter 
utterances on special occasions, with an 
account of the occasions (xxxiv.— xxxix.) ; 
5. Historical narrative, with the special 
message to Baruch (xl.-xlv.). II. P^'ophe- 
cles against foreign nations (xlvi.— U.) , iii. 

"TVrRl?"'." tife Princeton iU.S.) Tie^lm 
(reprinted in Brit, and For. Euangehcal 
view, April 1860, pp. 396-413) proposes an in- ! 
penious plan of distribution. Leaving out , 
the appendix, lii., he finds three parts :- | 
I Prediction of the judgment on Judah, 
'and the future restoration (i.— xxxui.), 
comprising— _ , , „ ' 

1. Denunciation of the people as a 
v/hole (i.— XX.). . . a 

2, Denunciation of their civil and 
spiritual leaders (xxi.—xxiu,). 

3 The design and duration of the 
'judgment (xxiv.— xxix.). 

4 The blessings which would succeed 
it (XXX.— xxxiii.). 

IT. The history of the judgment (xxxiv.— 
xlv.), containing— ^ . , 

1. Evidences of ripeness for judgment 
' (xxxiv.— xxxviii.). . 
2 The destruction of the city (xxxi x.). 
s! The fortunes of the surviving rem- 
nant (xl.-xlv.). 
III. Predictions against foreign nations 

There'is e'v'ery reason to believe that the 
collection of these prophecies was made by 
Jeremiah himself, or at least by his amanu- 
ensis Baruch. According to what we read 
in xxvi xl\^, he was instructed to have 
written "in a roll the threatenings against 
Israel and Judah and other nations. These 
were probably not dictated from memory. 



but read to Baruch from earlier memoranda^ 
When the roll so produced was destroyed 
by Jehoiakim, it was re-written with addi- 
tions, but containing of course only those 
which had been delivered down to that 
time. At a later period the prophet received 
another command (xxx. 2) to collect his ut- 
terances. And it is very probable that 
while in Egypt, with these two collections 
before him, he embodied them into the 
book we have. There is no trace (except- 
ing the appendix, lii.) of a later date. And 
though some critics have chosen to except 
against portions as being from a different 
hind, careful examination (a detail of which 
the size of the present volume forbids) 
' shows that the arguments they have al- 
i leged are not of weight. • „ „^ 

There is indeed one puzzling circura- 
' stance connected with the book of Jere- 
■ niiah, respecting which a few words must 
be said. The Septuagint version is gene- 
rally good and faithful ; but there are ex- 
traordinary variations from the Hebiw 
I text. Thus, many omissions occur m the 
' LXX., e.g. X. 6-8, xxvii. 19-22, xxix. 16-20, 
Txxiii 14-26, &c. There are also some ad- 
ditions, and numerous differences. There is, 
further, a remarkable transposition of chap- 
ters ; as may be seen in the following 

i'^"^^rxX. Hebrew. 
XXV .34-39 corresponds with xlix. 34 

in XlVl. 2-. 



xxvi. 1-11 
12-26 

xxvii. , xxviii. 
xxix. 1-7 

7-22 
XXX. 1-5 

6-11 

12-16 
xxxi. 
xxxii. 
xxxiii.-li. 
lii. 



xlvi. 2-12 
13-28. 

1., li. 

xlvii.1-7. 
xlix. 7-22. 
1-6. 
28 33. 
23-27. 
xlviii. 
XXV. 15-39. 
xxvi.-xlv. 
lii. 



Several hvpotheses have been devised to 
explain this diversity. Keil argues strongly 
m favour of the Masoretic text {EinleiUmg, 
§ 77) ; while Bleek believes that the LXJL. 
better represents the text as it came from 
the prophet, and that the book as placed in 
the Hebrew canon in the time of Xehemiah 
had various alterations and additions maae 
^Einleitung, pp. 490, &c.). Perhaps, though 
in some ckses the LXX. may present a 
better reading, Keil is substantially right. 
For the full discussion of the subject stu- 
dents must be directed to the works just 
named, and those to which they refer. 

The style of this book is elegant, and the 
sentiments pathetic and tender And^ 
while for the most part it contains de- 
nunciations of judgment, there are couso- 
latory promises, and predictions of the 
Messiah and the blessings of the new co- 
venant. See Jer. xxiii. 5, 6, xxxi. 31-3/. _ 

Among the commentaries on Jeremiah 
mav be named those of Bhiyney, 1784; Lm- 
bre'it, 1842 ; Henderson, ISoL 

JEREMI'AS (Matt. xvi. 14). A Gieek 
form of Jeremiah ; used likewise in the 
Apocrypha, as in Ecclus. xlix. 6. ^ , , , 

JEREMI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Probably 
Jeremai (Ezra x. 33). 



451 



[jEROBOAM 



JER'EMOTH (heights).—!. A Benjamite 
chief (1 Chron. viii. 14).— 2. A Levite of the 
family of Merari (xxiii. 23), called also 
(xxiv. 30) Jerimoth.— 3. The head of one of 
the divisions of singers (xxv. 22) ; he also is 
named (4) Jerimoth.— 4. 5. Two persons 
who had married foreign wives (Ezra x. 
26, 27). 

JER'EMY (Matt. ii. 17, xxvii. 9). Another 
form of Jeremiah, This, too, is found in tlie 
Apocrypha, as in 1 Esdr. i. 28. 

JERI'AH (founded or constituted of Je- 
hovah). A Kohathite Levite (1 Chron. 
xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23). He is called Jerijah in 
xxvi. 31. 

JER,'IBAI (for whom Jehovah pleads). 
One of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 46). 

JER'ICHO (pZace of fragrance). A city of 
Palestine first mentioned in the Pentateuch 
as defining the position of the Israelites, 
who, when encamped in the plains of Moab, 
were over-against it (Numb. xxii. 1, xxvi. 3) 
It was a rich and strongly-fortified place. 
The walls must have been thick, for Ra- 
hab's house was on the wall (Josh. ii. 15) ; 
and the spoil was large which was taken 
into the Lord's treasury (vi. 24) ; the abund- 
ance of it being further proved by the 
possibility of a single man like Achan being 
able to appropriate property of so much 
value (vii. 21). Some territory, too, belonged 
to this city ; for its border is said to have 
reached to Gilgal (iv. 19). 

Jericho, opposite to which the Israelites 
crossed the Jordan, was the first town they 
attacked ; and orders were given utterly to 
destroy it ; partly, perhaps, by this first ter- 
rible example to strike fear into the rest 
of the Canaanites, and partly because, if oc- 
cupied by an enemy, it might have been 
dangerous to Israel. Accordingly, after it 
was taken and destroyed, the walls having 
supernaturally fallen down, Joshua pro- 
nounced a curse against any one who should 
subsequently re-build it. Rahab alone, who 
had sheltered the Hebrew spies previously 
despatched to view the place^ was, with her 
family, spared (ii., vi.) The site, just upon 
the border of Ephraim, was assigned to 
Benjamin (xvi. 7, xviii. 21). And possibly 
there might be an unwalled town there. 
For, if Jericho be the * city of palm-trees ' 
(Deut. :x:xxiv. 3 ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 15), then, 
as such a city is mentioned later i^Judges i. 
16, iii. 13), and as David appointed Jericho 
for the place of retirement to his ambassa- 
dors whom the Amznonites had maltreated 
(2 Sam. X. 5), it does not seem an un- 
reasonable supposition that Joshua's curse 
was directed against the re-fortifying 
rather than the re-building of Jericho. 
Hiel's conduct is, if this be so, more easily 
understood. Still, whether he acted care- 
lessly or defiantly, the curse w^as fulfilled 
in judgment on his family (1 Kings xvi. 34). 
The re -building or fortifying was in Ahab's 
reign ; and Jericho ihust then have belonged 
to the nortliern kingdom. It flourished ; a 
school of the prophets was establislied in 
it ; and Elisha miraculously healed its 
waters — the only thing wanting for its 
prosperity (2 Kings ii.). We hear little 
more of the place in the Old Testament his- 
tory. It was to * the plains of Jericho ' (the 



sunken valley, the Ghor) that Zedekiah fled 
and was taken there (Jer. xxxix. 5, lii. 8) ; 
and some of the inhabitants returned from 
Babylon (Ezra ii. 34 ; Neh. iii. 2, vii. 36). 
Jericho was again fortified in the Macca- 
bean times (1 Mace. ix. 50). It was subse- 
quently enlarged and adorned by Herod the 
Great, and again by Archelaus, who planted 
palm-trees in the plain ; and it was rich and 
fiourishing in our Lord's time, the country 
around it fertile, and its trade considerable, 
as may be gathered from a chief publican 
or tax-collector being stationed tliere (Luke 
xix. 2). Christ visited Jericlio on his last 
journey to Jerusalem, and healed there two, 
perhaps three, blind men (Matt. xx. 29-34 ; 
Mark x, 46-52 ; Luke xviii. 35-43) : see 
Davidson, Sacr. Jlerm., chap. xii. pp. 558, 
559 ; Horne, Introduct., vol. ii. edit. Ay re, pp 
473, 474 : there he tarried with and brought 
salvation to the house of Zaccheus (Luke 
xix. 2-10) ; and on the road between Jericho 
and Jerusalem he laid the scene of the 
parable of the good Samaritan (x. 30-37). 

The history of Jericho in later times can- 
not be here given : it is enough to say that 
It was an almost-uninterrupted decline, till 
it is become a miserable village called Riha, 
in which the sheikh's house, a square castle- 
like building, is the only one of any pre- 
tension. The palm-trees have entirely dis 
appeared; and tlie plain is intensely hot, 
fig-trees, maize, and cucumbers still being 
cultivated there, and bright wild flowers 
growing luxuriantly. The original Jericho 
probably stood close by the fountain of 
Elisha, doubtless the present 'J.m es-Saltan: 
that city which our Lord visited was some 
distance away at the opening of the Wadj 
Kelt. A graphic sketch of the present ap- 
pearance is given by Dr. Thomson (The Land 
and the Book, pp. 613, 617). 

JEPv-I'EL (founded of God). A descendant 
of Issachar (1 Chron. vii. 2). 

JERl'JAH (founded or constituted of Je 
hovah) (1 Chron. xxvi. 31). See Jeriah. 

JER'IMOTH (heights).—!. 2. Two Benja- 
mites, one of the family of Bela, the other 
of that of Becher (1 Chron. vii. 7, 8,).— 3. A 
Benjamite, perhaps identical with one of 
the preceding, who joined David at Ziklag 
(xii. 5).— 4. A Merarite Levite (xxiv. 30) : 
see Jeremoth, 2.-5. The head of one of the 
divisions of singers (xxv. 4) : see Jere- 
MOTH, 3.-6. Ruler of Naphtaii in David's 
reign (xxvii. 19).— 7. A son of David, whose 
daughter was one of Rehoboam's wives 
(2 Chron. xi. 18). His name does not appear 
in the lists of David's sons (2 Sam. iii. 2-5 ; 
1 Chron. iii. 1-9, xiv. 4-7) ; but other sons by 
concubines are referred to. — 8. One of the 
overseers of offerings and tithes in the 
reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 13). 

JERI'OTH (curtains). The wife of Caleb, 
the son of Hezron, Judah's grandson 
(1 Chron. ii. 18). According to the V^ulgate 
she was his daughter. 

JEROBO'AM (whose people is many). 
— 1. The successful leader of the revolt 
against Rehoboam, and first king of the ten 
tribes (975-954 B.C.). He is called 'an Ephra- 
thite' (see Ephrathite) of Zereda: his 
father's name was Nebat, who seems to 
have died early ; for Jeroboam is said to 



jeroboamJ 



452 



hare been the son of a widow called Zeruah. 
The young man was capable and indus- 
crious ; and Solomon employed him in his 
works, and made him superintendent of the 
duties which fell, in regard to those works, 
upon the house of Joseph. He was so em- 
ployed when the prophet Ahijah gave him 
to understand, by a symbolical action, that 
for Solomon's sin the kingdom should be 
divided, and ten parts placed under Jero- 
boam's rule. And, if he would be faithful 
to the Lord's service, the kingly dignity 
should be made hereditary in his family, as 
in David's. A bright prospect thus opened 
before him : had he, like David, patiently 
waited the Lord's time, and obediently trod 
the path of holy service, his name, instead 
of being (as it is) a name of awful warning, 
misht have survived of happy memory, 
enshrined among the worthies of Israel. 
Apparently Jeroboam, Intoxicated with the 
greed of power, raised some insurrection, 
and, utterly unsuccessful, had to flee from 
Solomon's vengeance into Egypt. There he 
remained under Shishak's protection till 
Solomon's decease (1 Kings xi. 26-40). 

Rehoboam succeeded to the throne, and 
was to go to Shechem for a solemn inaugu- 
ration. But the tribes had groaned under 
the burdens of Solomon, and were deter- 
mined to obtain remission of them from the 
new king. And there was doubtless the an- 
cient jealousv fermenting between the two 
chief tribes of Judah and Ephraim, It was 
thought a politic measure to send for Jero- 
boam from Egypt, and place him at the 
head of the remonstrance to be made to 
Rehoboam, Rehoboam's folly alienated the 
people; and the schism was complete. 
Judah with Benjamin, in some degree 
afterwards augmented, remained to the 
house of David ; while the ten tribesformed 
a new state, of which very naturally, espe- 
cially when his bold conduct at Shechem 
was generally known, Jeroboam was made 
the sovereign (xii. 1-20). Again, then, was 
Jeroboam put upon his trial ; the path of 
security* and peace being opened before him. 
For the prophet Shemaiah forbade Reho- 
boam to attempt to subjugate the revolted 
tribes: they were left therefore quietly to 
pursue their course. Jeroboam's first step 
was not unwise. He fortified Shechem, his 
residence, and also Penuel, a town beyond 
the Jordan. But then his carnal reasoning 
sus:gestedthat,if he permitted the people to 
go^up to Jerusalem to worship, they would 
return to Rehoboam's allegiance. Had he 
trusted the Lord's promise, all would have 
been well. But no : he must execute his 
own wicked device : he erected calves of 
gold at Dan and Beth-el, the two extremities 
of his dominions, as if they might lawfully 
be visible svmbols of Jehovah : he pre- 
scribed festivals himself, and, as the priests 
and Levites abhorred the sacrilegious ser- 
vice, he made priests of his own, eveiT one 
who desired the office, and would sacrifice 
certain victims by way of consecration 
(2 Chron. xiii. 9); and thus, introducing 
Idolatrous worship, he acquired the fright- 
ful title, to cling to his name for ever, of 
the man * that made Israel to sin ' (1 Kings 
xii. 23-33), 



Two solemn warnings were given to the 
wretched king. Aprophet came from Judah, 
and denounced the worship at Beth-eL 
Jeroboam, who stood ready to burn incense 
on the altar, hastily stretched forth his 
hand and commanded the prophet to be 
seized. But instantly the sacrilegious hand 
was withered ; and he was fain to entreat 
the prayers of the man he had tried to out- 
rage, for the recovery of his hand. If the 
portent caused a temporary check, Jero- 
boam returned speedily to his evil course, 
till the sin grew great and foul enough to 
cut off his house, and destroy it from the 
face of the earth (xiii. 1-7, 33,34). Once again, 
a son, dearly loved, was stricken with sick- 
ness ; and sorrow filled the father's heart. 
Alas! it was but the ' sorrow of the world,' 
working only death. He bethought him 
then of his earlier and brighter days, and of 
the hopes that kindled in his heart when 
Ahijah had met him long ago in the field 
and told him he should be a king. He will 
consult that aged seer. Perchance some 
relief may be found, some gleam of better 
fortune. But he dares not go himself. His 
ill-omened name must not be announced at 
Shiloh : he will send his wife : ' Get thee to 
Shiloh ; behold there is Ahijah the prophet, 
which told me that I should be king ... he 
shall tell thee what shall become of the 
child.' Even she, however, must disguise 
herself. But what is whispered in corners 
will be proclaimed on the house-top. Ahijah 
was blind ; the instant, however, he heard 
the sound of her footsteps while yet she was 
at the door, he cried, ' Come in, thou wife of 
Jeroboam: I am sent to thee with heavy 
tidings.' The child, he added, should die, 
and evil hunt the house of Jeroboam to de- 
struction. The mother saw her son alive 
no more : as soon as she came to the 
threshold of the palace-door at Tirzah, he 
died, mercifully taken (for in him alone 
of the family was grace) from the evil to 
come. And Israel mourned for him (xiv. 
1-18). Of course Rehoboam had always 
maintained a hostile attitude ; but we do 
not read of any actual battle between Israel 
and Judah till Abijah or Abijam had suc- 
ceeded to the throne in Jerusalem. Vast 
armies were then drawn cut, Jeroboam's by 
far the largest ; but he was utterly defeated ; 
and various towns were taken from him, 
and he never recovered strength ; 'and the 
Lord struck him ; and he died.' He had worn 
for two-and-twenty years his uneasy crown. 
His son Jfadab reigned after him for two 
years ; and then Baasha executed judgment, 
and, according to the prophetic word, * left 
not to Jeroboam any that breathed . 
because of the sins of Jeroboam which he 
sinned, and which he made Israel sin ' (19, 
20, XV. 25-30 ; 2 Chron. xiii. 1-20). 

2. Jeroboam II., great-grandson of Jehu, 
succeeded his father Joash as king of Israel, 
and reigned forty-one years, 825-784 B.C. 
The records we have of his reign are very 
scanty, but they are very remarkable. 
Israel had suffered much from Syria ; and 
perhaps the overshadowing influence of As- 
syria was already felt. It is true that Joash, 
Jeroboam's father, had gained some vie- 
tories : still the nation was afflicted ; and 



453 



there seemed little prospect of the return 
to prosperity. But the prophet Jonah was 
instructed to promise Letter times. Jero- 
boam, indeed, was not a godly man : he 
retained the idolatrous worship which 
Jeroboam I. had introduced. Still the Lord 
pitied his people. He had not yet pro- 
nounced final sentence on tiiem. And he 
gave wonderful success to the Israeli tish 
arms. The full extent of ancient sove- 
reignty was recovered, from the enter-ing 
of Hamath in the north with all the pos- 
sessions of the trans-Jordanic tribes, down 
to the eastern border of the Dead sea, and 
the river Arnon. The king did not indeed 
(as some have imagined) subdue Moab 
and Ammon; but he did take Hamath, 
which had belonged to Judah under Solo- 
mon, and occupy Damascus ; no king of the 
northern state having ever been so vic- 
torious as he (2 Kings xiii. 13, xiv. 23-29). 
But the heart of Israel was lifted up. Pride, 
! and luxury, and corruption, prevailed 
(Amos ii. 6-8, iii. 14, 15, v. 11, 12, vi. 4-6, 13); 
i and therefore the terrible destruction of the 
j Assyrians was threatened (14, vii.). The ful- 
filment of the threatening was not far dis- 
I tant. Jeroboam died ; and his son Zachariah 
I succeeded, though not perhaps immediately: 
i see Zachariah. One usurper after another 
. seized the crown for a short period ; and 
then came Pul, and Tiglath-pileser, and 
I afterwards Shalmaneser ; and the land was 
I desolate (2 Kings xv. 8-31, xvii.). 
' JERO'HAM (who J2nds mercy).~\. The 
father of Elkanah, and grandfather of the 
prophet Samuel (1 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Chron. vi. 
27, 34).— 2. A Benjamite chief (viii. 27).— 
3. Another Benjamite (ix. 8).— 4. A priest 
(12) ; probably the same with the one men- 
tioned in Neh.xi. 12.— 5. The father of some 
warriors who joined David at Ziklag (1 
Chron. xii. 7).— 6. The father of the ruler of 
Dan in David's time (xxvii. 22).— 7. The fa- 
ther of one of the captains whom Jehoiada 
associated with himself for placing Joash 
on the throne of Judah (2 Chron. xxiii. l). 

JERTJB'BAAL (with whom Baal contends, 
or, let Baal ■plead). A name given to Gideon 
on account of his having destroyed the al- 
tar of Baal (Judges vi. 32, vii. 1, viii. 29, 35, 
ix. 1, 2, 5, 16, 19, 24, 28, 57 ; 1 Sam. xii. 11). See 

GiDEOX. 

JERUB'BESHETH (with whom the idol 
contends). A name of Gideon, changed from 
Jerubbaal ; Baal being an idoi-god or shame- 
ful thing (2 Sam. xi.2l). The same change is 
observable in other names : comp. Esh-baal 
with Ish-bosheth. 

JEBU'EL {founded of God). The place 
where Jelioshaphat was forewarned that he 
should meet the hostile Moabites and Am- 
monites (2 Chron. xx. 16\ It must have 
been near the southern extremity of the 
Dead sea, 

_ JERU'SALEM {foundation of peace, or 
inheritance of peace, otherwise vision of 
peace). The earliest mention of this city by 
this name in scripture occurs in Josh, x 1 
But It IS probably intended ])y the designa- 
tion Salem,whereMelchizedek reigned(Gen 
XIV. 18). For we find Jerusalem expressly 
called Salem in Psal. Ixxivi. 2 ; and Josephus 
asserts the identity {Antiq., lib. i. 10, § 2 ; lib 



[JER-CSALEM 



Vii. 3, § 2). Besides, the name of a latPi 
king very nearly lesembled that of Mel- 
chizedek (Josh. x. l) ; and this, though 
of no great weight, is still some presump- 
tion that the place where each ruled was 
the same. It may be added that Psal. ex. 
seems to connect Melchizedek with Zion. 
The city had also the appellation Jebus or 
Jebusi, as occupied by the Jebusites, one of 
the nations.found in Canaan when the Is- 
raelites crossed the Jordan (comp. Ezek. 
xvi. 3). It is then mentioned as just upon 
the frontier-line of Judah and Benjamin 
(Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 16), being itself actually 
within the Benjamite border (28). 

Little is told us of its earlv history. But we 
may well believe that close by, on one of the 
eminences, Moriah, subsequently included 
within the city, Abraham's offering wa§ 
made, a place thus hallowed for all suc- 
ceeding generations (Gen. xxii. I-I8). The 
king of Jerusalem, already referred to, 
Adoni-zedek, was slain by Joshua (Josh. x. 
5, 16, 26) ; and the place was afterwards 
sacked by the tribe of Judah (Judges i. 8) ; 
but the original inhabitants retained pos- 
session of the citadel or strong-hold of 
Zion, which neither Judah nor Benjamin 
could wrest from them (Josh. xv. 63 ; Judges 
i. 21). And it would seem that, though 
some Israelites might locate themselves 
there, it was regarded as a ' city of a stran- 
ger,' where a Hebrew was not very willing 
to pass even a single night (xix. 10-13). 

It is not till the establishment of the Is- 
raelitish monarchy that we. hear of Jerusa- 
lem again. Saul.warrior as he was. and a Ben- 
jamite who might have been supposed eager 
to secure the full inheritance of his tribe did 
not attack it. But, when David had united 
the whole nation, one of his first expedi- 
tions was against Jerusalem. The Jebus- 
ites.conflding in their hitherto-imnregnable 
fortress, derided his attempts, and either 
placed literally the weakest of their popula- 
tion, the lame and the blind, upon their 
ramparts in bitter scorn, or, possibly, set in 
array the Images of their gods, who had 
eyes but could not see, feet but could not 
walk, as a sufficient defence against the 
Israelitish king. David thereupon promised 
the chieftainship of his forces to the man 
who would storm the citadel. And accor- 
dingly his nephew Joab led the forlorn 
hope and gained the prize. Zion was taken; 
and David established himself there; so 
that it was subsequently distinguished as 
• the city of David.' He built a wall, too, 
round the city, connecting the lower town 
(which Joab repaired) with the forti-ess, 
and constituted Jerusalem,we cannot doubt 
by divine intimation, the capital of his con- 
solidated monarchy (2 Sam. v. 6-10 ; 1 Chron 
XI. 4-9). This achievement produced a deep 
impression upon the neighbouring powers. 
The Philistines made two expeditions in 
the vam hope of wresting David's conquest 
from him. They were defeated under the 
walls of Jerusalem; while Hiram, king of 
Tyre, sent an embassy, and supplied artifi- 
cers and materials for the works in which 
the Israelitish sovereign w^as engaged (2 
Sam. V. 11, 17-25 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 8-17),ce^nent- 
mg an alliance which lasted into Solomon's 



jehusalemJ 



454 



time. DaTid now tlionght fit to assume 
more of tlie state of an oriental monarch. 
He increased liis liavem, and liad several 
more children hy his numerous wives and 
concuhines, of whom many sons are ex- 
pressly said to have heen born in Jerusalem 
(2 Sam. y. 13-16 ; 1 Chron. iii. 5-9\ And then 
he resolved to remove the ark of God thither, 
which since its captivity among the PhiUs- 
tines had heen separated from the taber- 
nacle, and had had no fitting place of abode. 
The king's first attempt, was frustratea by 
an awful catastrophe ; but afterwards, car- 
ried as it ouarht to be by the priests and 
Levites, the sacred ark was brought with 
great rejoicings into the city, where David 
prepared a tabernacle for it (2 Sam. vi. ; 1 
Chron. xiii., xv.). Thus Jerusalem or Zion 
became more peculiarly 'the city of the 
Great King.' ' Beautiful for situation' was 
it ; and bright in happy anticipation was 
now its early promise. 

In Zion appears to have heen the sepul- 
chre of the house of David ; but we do not 
read of anv other works constructed by this 
monarch in the city, except the king's gar- 
dens which he is said by Josephus to have 
made on the slopes where the valleys of 
Hinnom and the Kidron meet {Antiq., lib. 
vii 14, § 4 ; lib. ix. 10, § 4). Solomon it was 
who especiallv adorned and enriched his 
capital Besides his works in the immediate 
neighbourhood we read of his fortifications 
-the wall of David was apparently rude and 
simple— his palace,'which must have been of 
va=it size to accommodate the women of his 
harem, his aaueduct for supplying the city 
with Avater. the palace he prepared for Pha- 
raoh's daughter, which was not on Zion, his 
stabler and above all his magnificent temple 
(1 Kings iii.l, vii.l, 8, ix. 1, 10, 15, 24 ; 2 Chron 
{ 14 vlii 11). The wealth thus accumulated 
in Jerusalem must have been enormous ; 
and luxurv must have reigned there. Gold 
was plentiful ; and silver was hardly valued, 
so vast was its abundance (1 Kings x. 24-2, ; 
2 Chron ix. 11, 27). It would seem that So- 
lomon had always something on hand, some 
addition of superb structures. He made 
large levies of workmen, over whom he 
placed Jeroboam in a post of trust (1 Kings 
xi 27, 28), until his subjects grew weary of 
the requisitions made upon them (xii. 4,14). 

Jerusalem continued in its splendour but 
afew years. Eehoboam,who by his folly had 
caused the ten tribes to revolt, by his sin 
provoked the Lord's sorer judgments. In 
consequence Shishak, king of Egypt, inva- 
ded the land and entered Jerusalem appa- 
rently without resistance. He did not, so 
far as we read, injure the town, but he 
carried off an enormous mass of plunder 
(xiv. 22-28; 2 Chron. xii. 1-12), and reduced 
Rehoboam to a position of vassalage. 

It would of course be very much out of 
place to interweave the history of the 
southern kingdom into this brief chronicle 
of the metropolis : only those events in the 
reisns of the various princes can be noted 
which specially concerned the city. Jeho- 
«haphat established there a supreme court, 
empowered,we may conclude, to hear appeals 
from provincial cities (xix. 8-11). In the 
eavs of his wicked son Jehoram, Jerusalem 



was again plundered by the Philistines and | 
Arabians (xxi. 16, 17) ; and in Amaziah's ; 
reign a still more serious disaster befel it ] 
The king of Israel defeated and took pri 
soner the king of Judah at Beth-shemesh ; : 
he then marched to Jerusalem, broke down 
400 cubits of the wall, from the gate of 
Ephraim to the corner-gate, and carried 1 
off a great deal of spoil (2 Kings xiv. 
11-14 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 21-24). TJzziah, the next 
sovereign, repaired the breach: he erected 
towers and strengthened generally the 
fortifications, fuimishing the place with 
warlike engines for defence (xxvi. 9, 15). 
Jotham his son built a gate to the temple, 
repaired the walls, and added to their 
strength (2 Kings xv. 35 ; 2 Chron. xxvn. 
31 In Hezekiah's reign the city was again 
threatened with siege. The king, there- 
fore, took care to divert the water-courses 
(2 Kings XX. 20 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 4, 30) : see 
Conduit : he strengthened the ramparts, 
and built additional towers, and a fresh 
wall ; also he constructed works in the cita- 
del and provided abundance of weapons 
(5 ; Isai. xxii. 9-11). But the Lord was the 
efEectual shield of his people ; and under his 
protection the daughter of Jerusalem could 
afford to shake her head at the most formi- 
dable foe. The Assyrian invading host were 
supernaturally destroyed (2 Kings xix. 32- 
35\ Manasseh in the beginning of his 
reisn filled the city with idols and their 
shrines ; but after his captivity he removed 
them, and added to the walls and fortifica- 
tions (2 Chron. xxxiii. 1-16). But now the 
ruin of Zion, so favoured once, so dear stilt, 
the joy of the earth, the place of the Lord's 
abode— her sad ruin was approaching. The 
king of Egypt probably, the king of Babylon 
certainly, entered Jerusalem in the reigns- 
of Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, and Jehoiachin, 
setting up and pulling down vassal kings, 
and carrving off much treasure and many 
captives (,2 Kinsrs xxiii. 31-xxiv. 16 ; 2 Chron 
xxxvi. 1-10). Then came the reign of the 
weak 'and unprincipled Zedekiah. He re- 
volted aeainst his liege-lord ; and ere long 
the avenging armies of Kebuchadnezzar be- 
leaguered the city. Fearful was the dissen- 
sion and distress which soon reigned there. 
There was the hope at one time that help 
would come from Egypt ; and indeed Pha- 
raoh's annv did march forward ; and the 
sie"-e was raised for a brief intervaL Then 
tho^se that despaired of their country endea- 
voured to escape (Jer. xxxvii. 5-15). But 
speedily the Chaldeans returned. In vam 
did Jeremiah mournfully entreat the king 
to yield : faction was strong ; and an obsti- 
nate resistance was made. Famine soon 
prevailed : defence became hopeless ; and ai 
len£?th a breach was made in the walls, and 
in the dead of night the besieging troop? 
poured in, and their ofiiccrs took post in 
the middle court of the temple. Theawfu! 
news soon reached the wretched king, who 
fled with a few followers, but was pursued 
and captured near Jericho and carried to 
Nebuchadnezzar at Biblah to suffer a cruel 
punishment. There was massacre and plun- 
der in the city, and then a month of ternblt 
suspense, tilfthe Babylonian captain of the 
guard came with orders from his master- 



455 



2Stlilc HiifitDleUcie. 



[JERUSALEM 



and then the temple and the royal palace 
and all the considerahle houses were burnt 
with fire, the walls were demolished, and 
Jerusalem was a desolation. The throes of 
this last agony had continued for eighteen 
months. It was in the ninth year of Zede- 
kiah, on the tenth day of the tenth month, 
that the siege was first formed, and on_ the 
ninth day of the fourth month in Zedekiah s 
eleventh year that the city was taken. On 
the seventh of the fifth month the captain 
of the guard arrived ; and on the tenth the 
city was destroyed (2 Kings xxv. 1-10 j 2 
Chron. xxxvi. 11-19 ; Jer. xxxil. 24, xxxviii,, 
xxxix. 1-8, lii. 1-14 : comp, Joseph., Antiq.., 
lib. X.' 8, § 2). Vast numbers of the people 
were carried Into captivity (Jer. lii. 15, 28-30) : 
others went into Egypt (xliii. 4-7); and 
there was none to pity the fallen capital 
(Lam. i. 1-3, 7, 12-17). , ^ ^ . . 

It was not till Babylon had been itself 
humbled and taken by Cyrus that J erusalem 
revived. The Persian conqueror gave leave 
(536 B.C.) for the Jews to return to their 
own country. A large caravan accordingly 
proceeded to Judea under Zerub babel and 
the high priest Joshua, and on the first day 
of the seventh month they set up in a 
solemn assembly at Jerusalem the altar of 
burnt-oflering. And in the second year 
after their return, on the first of the second 
month, they laid the foundation of a new 
temple. It was a day of gladness and yet 
of bitter sorrow— of glad hope that the 
presence of the Lord might again be there, 
of grief when the old men among them, 
who remembered Solomon's glorious stnic- 
ture, surveyed the ruins around, and 
thought how little their feeble means could 
do to raise a temple like the one destroyed 
(Ezra iii.). And soon there was the busy 
malice of adversaries at work ; and it was 
not till the reign of Darius Hystaspis that 
the building was effectually carried on, nor 
till the twenty-flrst year after the decree of 
Cyrus that the new house was dedicated 
(vi.). All the while, and for much longer, 
Jerusalem lay without walls and gates, till, 
about 446 B.C., Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, obtained leave to 
go to the city of his fathers. Sad was the 
spectacle as he viewed it— ramparts broken 
down, and the marks of fire yet upon the 
gates (Neh. ii.). By his exertions, however, 
under the king's commission, in spite of 
opposition, the walls were re-built, and 
there v/as a solemn day of rejoicing kept 
after the completion of the work (iii., iv., 
vi., xii. 27-43). Still there were many va- 
cant spaces in the city, and the population 
was small : it was agreed, therefore, that 
one tenth part of the whole people should 
dwell in the capital (vii. 4, xi. 1, 2). Thus 
was the holy city re-established. 

We here lose the guidance of scripture ; 
and succeeding notices must be very brief. 
It is said to have been visited by Alexander 
the Great : see Alexander, 1. It was ta- 
ken by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, called 
Boter, king of Egypt, about 320 B.C. Under 
the high priest Simon the Just, about 
300 B.C., much was done for the repair and 
embellishment of the temple, and in 
Btrengthening tlie ramparts of the city 



(Ecclus. 1. 1-4). According to a description 
of Jerusalem in the name of Aristeas, in 
the third century before Christ, but to 
which generally little credit is to be given, 
the temple is said to be enclosed with 
three lofty walls seventy cubits high, and 
the city to have occupied the summit and 
eastern slopes of Zion. The streets were 
curved like those of a theatre, and had 
raised pavements ; the shops or bazaars 
were furnished with abundant provisions 
and merchandise (De Leg. Div. Transl. Hist, 
ap. Joseph. Op., Havercamp, torn, ii., pp. 
111-114). But, though thus flourishing, the 
city was subjected from time to time to 
various calamities. Ptolemy Philopator en- 
tered it, and would have penetrated into 
the holy place, but was withstood by the 
high priest, Antiochus the Great took it, 
203 B.C. : it was re-taken by Scopas, the 
Alexandrian general, four years after, but 
soon re-occupied by Antiochus. For an 
account of Heliodorus's marauding visit 
see 2 Mace. iii. And then Jerusalem fell 
under the power of Antiochus Epiphanes ; 
for a notice of whose excesses see Ajv- 
TiocHus, 3 : then it was besieged by Eu- 
pator : see Antiochus, 4. It was held with 
varied fortune by the Maccabean princes, 
by whom much was done to strengthen it. 
A fortress called the Baris was built con- 
tiguous to the north-west wall of the 
temple enclosure ; and the palace of the 
Asmoneans was south-west of the temple 
on Zion. Ere long the Roman eagles ap- 
peared before Jerusalem. Pompey took it 
63 B..C., entered the holy of holies, but did 
not plunder the temple. Nine years later, 
however, Crassus carried off vast treasure 
Then^af ter the disputes between Antigonus, 
Hyrcanus, Phasaelus, and Herod, the Par- 
thians got possession of the city 40 b.c. 
Herod, however, obtained the title of king 
of Judea from Rome, and witli a Roman 
force besieged, and ultimately, in conjunc- 
tion with Sosius, governorof Syria, stormed 
Jerusalem. 

Herod did much during his reign to em- 
bellish the city. He built a new palace 
which he fortified strongly, and connected 
with three towers which he raised on the 
town-wall— Hippicus, Phasaelus, and Ma- 
riamne— with another called Psephinus as 
an outwork. The palace thus became the 
citadel of the upper city. Herod also 
erected a theatre, to the intense dissatis- 
faction of the orthodox Jews. But his 
greatest work was the re-building of tlie 
temple. He announced his purpose of 
doing this at the passover of 19 B.C. Two 
vears were occupied in preparations ; and, 
in a year and a half afterwards, the sanc- 
tuary and most holy place with the porch 
were completed amid great rejoicings. But 
it was long before all the courts and 
cloisters were finished. 

Of the history of Jerusalem in our Lord's 
time nothing need be said. Herod Agrippa I. 
resided frequently there, and, as a suburb 
had grown up on the high ground north of 
the temple, called Bezetha, he enclosed this 
and the adjacent district with a new wall, 
stopped once by the emperor Claudius, but 
afterwards completed. But unquiet times 



4 



I jxeusalezj:] 



456 



were approaching The Redeemer had wept 
over the doomed city, and had declared 
that not one 5tn;ie would be left upon an- 
other. Instead of huinhling themselves 
hefore God for their sins, faction was ar- 
rayed against faction, and tumults fre- 
quently^occurred, till at length a direct 
defiance was offered to the Roman power, 
and the insurgents under Eleazar became 
masters of the city and temple, Cestius 
Gallus, the prefect, in consciuence marched 
upon Jerusalem. He was unsuccessful in 
his attacks, and drew off, receiving a se- 
rious defeat in November, 66 a.d. Of course 
the Roman supremacy must be asserted. 
But there was delay : Vespasian, now in 
command, occupied himself in Galilee, and, 
on his reducing Giscala, John, a leader 
there, escaped thence to Jerusalem, to take 
a prominent part in the defence of the 
capiial. A'espasian had become emperor ; 
and his sou Titus headed the forces which 
formed the siege of Jerusalem in the be- 
ginning of 70 A.D. The city was crowded 
with strangers who had gone up to the 
passover : and two hostile parties formed, 
if it maybe so called, the garrison. Eleazar 
and John of Giscala held the temple and 
Antonia; while Simon Ben Gioras occupied 
Phasaelus, the upper and lower city, and 
Akra : there was also a body of Idumeans. 
The outer wall was first gained by the be- 
siegers, and then the second wall. Both the 
city and the temple were next attacked ; but 
the Romans made at first little way. Then, 
as the southern and western parts had not 
been invested, and the inhabitants could 
go out, and supplies be brought in, Titus 
determined to surround the whole of Jeru- 
salem with a Avail: it was thirty-nine fur- 
longs (nearly five miles) in extent, and Avas 
completed in three days. I\ow the people 
were penned up, in awful fulfilment of 
Christ's words (Luke xix. 43,4^) as sheep for 



were delivered : at length, on the tenth 
day of the fifth month, the anniversary of 
the burning of the temple by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, contrary to Titus's command the 
temple was fired, and but the bare walls of 
the sanctuary remained. Still the upper 
city held out ; and Titus, standing on the 
bridge that joined it to the temple, offered 
term's. It was in vain ; and in other des- 
perate assaults the last defences were over- 
come, and the leaders Simon and John ulti- 
mately taken ; and all was demolished save 
the west Avail of the upper city and Herod's 
three towers, left as memorials of what 
Jerusalem had been ; and so thoroughly 
Avas the site levelled and dug up that Jo- 
sephus declares none would have imagined 
that it had ever been inhabited (^eZZ. tTud., 
lib. vii. 1, § 1). 

The number of persons Avho perished in 
this siege Avas enormous. Josephus reckons 
tAvo millions and a half assembled at the 
passover Avhen Cestius Avas governor, and 
declares that 1,200,000 Avere shut in the city 
by the army of Titus ; of Avhom 1,100,000 
were destroyed. Doubtless these numbers 
are exaggerated ; and Mr. Fergusson, in 
Smith's Diet, of the Bil>le,\o\. i. pp.1025, 
1026, clenies that the city could ever have 
contained more than 50,000 ordinary in- 
habitants, and supposes that, at the festi- 
vals, these might be increased to C0,000 or 
70,000. Br. Thomson, Avell CLualified to ]udge, 
deems this estimate far too Ioav. He be- 
lieves that 100,000 could find hrmies even 
now within the circuit of modern Jeru- 
salem, and that, allowing for the greater 
extent of the ancient toAA'n, twice as many 
may have dAvelt comfortably there. He 
also reminds us that, at their sacred solem- 
nities, the Jews Avere able to camp out, and 
that doubtless multitudes located them- 
selves in the gardens and on the slopes 
around. Vast, iherefure, must have been, 




Medal of Vespasian, commemorating the capture of Jerusalem. 



tne slaushter. And there were dismal 
omens of coming ruin. A man traversed 
the streets, crying MVoe, Avoe to Jerti- 
Faleml' and the priests in the temple are 
said to have heard a deep voice, ' Let us 
depart I '—as if the divine jM-esence Avere 
quitting its hallowed abode. Fre>n assaults 



after SA'ery allowance, the multitudes as 
sembled at the fatal siege ; and dreadful 
Avas the slaughter. It Avas a fearful retri- 
bution, Avhen thus their acciunulated siiis, 
croAvned by that Avorst deed, the slaughter 
of their King, Avere visited tipon the nation. 
Pruui], too, Avas the triumphal procession 




.UJ 

.Mou 

, HO 
V THl 

idoD.-. ] 



which swept through the streets of Rome, 
when the treasures of the temple and the 
sacred vessels were borne as trophies by 
! the victor, the iron entering indeed now 
iijto the souls of the vanquished. The re- 
presentation of these trophies m.ayhe seen 
on the yet-existing arch of Titus : and a 
medal is preserved which commemorates 
the subjugation of the sons of Jacob. 

The cup'of retribution was even yet not 
full. There was a Roman garrison on the 
spot ; and some inhabitants recurned; and 
a kind of town gradually gathered round. 
At length the emperor Adrian placed a mili- 
tary colony there. But the Jews rose in 
violent rebellion under Bar-chochebas, pos- 
sessed themselves of the restored Jeru- 
salem ; and it required all the might of the 
empire again to subdue it, 135 a.d. Then 
Adrian carried out his design. The site 
was occupied by a colony of soldiers : 
foreigners alone might dwell in it ; and 
' Jews were forbidden to approach : temples 
to the heathen deities were erected ; and 
I the name was changed to ^lia Capitolina. 

When the empire became Christian, the 
! ancient designation revived; though the 
i name iElia was not obsolete for many 
I centuries. Helena, mother of Constantine 
[ I the Great, made a pilgrimage thither, and 
! tried to identify the holy places. Churches 
I were erected ; and Jerusalem was a Christian 
city. Julian, in his hatred of the gospel, al- 
lowed the Jews to re-build the temple. But 
the design was frustrated. The work was, 
there can be no question, interrupted by 
fire, which was attributed to supernatural 
c;iuses. For a long while afterwards Jeru- 
salem appears to have been unmolested. 
; But the Persian Chosrocs II. took it in 614 
! A.D. It was re-occupied by the emperor 
j Heraclius in 628; but surrendered to the 
khalif Omar in 637. Then it became one of 
the sacred cities of the Mohammedans.' 
Little more remains to be said. It passed 
I from one conqueror to another, till July 15, 
1099, it was stormed by the crusaders under 
Godfrey of Bouillon, who was elected king. 
In 1187 it was taken by Saladin, Again and 
again assaulted and captured, it passed in 
1517 into the possession of the Ottoman 
monarch Selim I.: his son Solyman built 
the present walls. Mohannned All of Egypt 
occupied it in 1832 ; but in 1840 it was re- 
stored to the Turkish sceptre. And so the 
holy city is still ' trodden down of the Gen- 
tiles ; ' for ' the times of the Gentiles ' are not 
yet ♦ fulfilled ' (Luke xxi. 24). 

Jerusalem stands in a central position, 
but off the great road between Egypt and 
Syria. It is about thirty-six miles south of 
Samaria, and twenty north of Hebron, 
eighteen west of the Jordan, and thirty-two 
I east of the Mediterranean. It is in latitude 
' 31° 46' 35" N., in longitude 35° 18' 30" E. 
I * In several respects,' says Dr. Stanley, its 
; situation is ' singular amongst the cities of 
Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable, oc- 
[ casioned, not from its being on the summit 
1 of one of the numerous hills of Judea, like 
I most of tlie towns and villages, but because 
it is on the edge of one of the highest table- 
I lands of the country. Hebron, indeed, is 
' higher still by some hundred feet ; and 



[JERUSALEAI 

I from the south accordingly (even from 
Beth-lehem) the approach to Jerusalem is 
by a slight descent. But from every other 
side the ascent is pcTpetual ; and to the 
ti-avelLer, approaching Jerusalem from the 
west or east, it must always have presented 
the appearance beyond any other capital of 
the then-known world— I may add beyond 
any important city that has ever existed 
on the earth— of a moun tain-city, breathing, 
as compared with the sultry plains of 
the Jordan or of the coast, a mountain-air, 
enthroned, as compared with Jericho or 
Damascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a mountain- 
fastness ' {Sinai and Palestine, pp. 170, 171). 

From the plain of Esdraelon, southward, 
runs a broad mountain-ridge, forming a 
precipitous wall to the east, but sinking 
gradually towards the western sea-coast. 
This ridge is rocky and uneven, cut up by 
deep ravines, generally running east or 
west. Some distance south of the open 
plain round Gibeon two such valleys begin ; 
and on the tongue of elevated lalnd between 
them stands Jerusalem. One valley, to the 
north-east, runs nearly due south— it is the 
valley of the Kidron or Jehoshaphat, the 
other to the west— the valley of Hinnom, 
runs a while south, then bending to the 
east, it joins that of the Kidron, the further 
course of which is to the Dead sea. The 
city therefore is separated on the east, 
south, and western sides by deep and pi-e- 
cipitous ravines, as it were the ditches 
which encircle some great natural fortress. 
There is another ravine running from the 
upper level, north and south, through the 
city itself, dividing it into two unequal 
portions. This, or part of it, was called the 
Tyropoeon. On the west of this was the upper 
city, or mount Zion, on the east was mount 
Moriah,also Akra or the lower city, less ele- 
vated than the western part. From this 
central valley a branch about half-way up 
extended westward ; and there was another 
depression, north of Moriah, between it 
and Bezctha the new city, enclosed (as 
above noted) after our Lord's time by Herod 
Agrippa. It was among the advantages of 
the position of Jerusalem that, defended as 
already noted to the east, south, and west, 
by deep ravines, it had room for enlarge- 
ment on the north and north-west. 

It may be desirable to give the heights 
of diifererjt points in and near the city 
above the level of the Mediterranean : they 



are those assigned by Van de Yelde : 

feet 

NW. corner of the city (Kasr Jahid) . 2610 
Mount Zion {Ccenaculum) . . . 2537 
Mount Moriah (Ilaram e.^h-Sherif) . 2429 
Bridge over the Kidron, near Geth- 

seraane 2281 

Pool of Siloam 2114 

Bir Eyuh, at the confluence of Hinnom 

and Kidnm 1996 

Mount of Olives, church of Ascension 
on summit . . ... 2724 



We may perhaps form some idea of the 
ancient city from the modern aspect of Je- 
rusalem. Many of the great features of the 
scenery- must be the same. Doubtless there 
was then life, stirring life; whereas now 
there is desolation and death. Heretofore 



jerusaxem] 



45b 



there were round the city inviting gardens 
and orchards, especially to the north, and 
in the valley of. Hinnom. And there were 
pleasant slopes instead of the huge mounds 
of rubbish from the deinolition of buildings, 
of which travellers speak as having been 
shot over the precipices, and lying still sott 
and loose, giving a dull monotonous hue to 
the general view, while the houses look 
dingy and dilapidated. Still the houses of 
the ancient city were most probably of the 
same character as those at present existing, 
with flat roofs and few windows ; and pro- 
bably the streets were as narrow ; and the 
shops or bazaars presented, it is likely, a 
snnilar appearance. And those of one trade 
may have congregated together. Thus we 
read of a ' bakers' street ' (Jer. xxxviii. 21). 
The line of waUs and towers must ni some 
places occupy the former sites, though 
both to the north, and in the upper city to 
the south and south-east, the extent is very 
much contracted, much being now bare 
that once was covered with liouses. Ihere 
were anciently many gates. The following 
list of those mentioned in scripture and by 
Jo=:ephus, is taken from Dr. Smith's Diet, 
of the Bible, vol. i. pp. 986, 987, some errors 
being corrected : . 

'1 Gate of Ephraim (2 Cliron. xxy. 23, 
Neh. viii. 16, xii. 39). This is probably the 
same as the , ^^^^n 

2 Gate of Benjamin (Jer. xx. 2, xxxyii. 
13 ; Zech. xiv. 10). If so it was 400 cubits 
distant from the ... 

3 Corner-gate (2 Chron. xxv. 2o, xxvi. 9 , 
Jer. xxxi. 38 ; Zech. xiv. 10). 

4. Gate of Joshua, governor of the city 
r2 Kings xxiii. 8). 

5. Gate between the two walls (2 Kings 
xxv.-i ; Jer. xxxix. 4). ... 

6. Horse-gate (2 Chron. xxiu. 15 ; ^eh. iii. 
28 ; Jer. xxxi. 40). . • ^ 

7 Ravine-sate, i.e. opening on ravine ot 
Hinnom (2 Chron. xxvi. 9 ; Keh. ii. 13, 15, 

8.'^Fish-2-ate (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14 ; Xeh. iii. 
3 ; Zeph. iTlO). 
9 Dung-gate (Xeh. ii. 13, in. 13). 
lb. Sheep-gate (Keh. iii. 1, 32, xii. 39). 

11. East-gate (Neh. iii. 29). 

12. Miphkad (Neh. iii. 31). .. ^ 

13. Fountain-gate— Siloam ? (Iseh. xu. ^j/ ). 

14. Water-gate (Neh. xii. 37). 

15. Old-gate (Xeh. xii. 39). 

16. Prison-gate (Neh. xii. 39). 

17. Gate Harsith (perhaps the sun) : A.\ . 
east gate (Jer. xix. 2). 

18. First-gate (Zech. xiv. 10). 
19 Gate Gennath, gardens (Joseph., Bell. 

7ad', lib. V. 4, § 2). 

20. Essenes'-gate {ibid^. 

To these should be added the following 
gates of the temple : ^ , , 

Gate Sur (2 Kings xi. 6). Called also 

Gate of foundation (2 Chron. xxin. 5). 

Gate of the guard, or behind the guard 
(2 Kings xi. 6, 19). Called the 

High-gate (2 Kings x v. 35 , 2 Chron. xxni. 

20, xxvii. 3). . 

Gate-Shallecheth (1 Chron. xxvi. 16\ 

Of course with so many gates there must 
li;n'e been corresponding roads into the 
fountry. Solomon is said to have carefully 



paved them with black stone (Joseph., 
tiq., lib. viii. 7, § 4). But probably even then 
there were not above two or three of what 
we mav call principal roads to the capital. 
That from Beth-lehem to Gibeah did not, 
at least when the Jebusites occupied the 
fortre=^« pass throusrh Jerusalem (Judges 
xix 10-13). And, in later times, travellers 
from or to the north and east seem to have 
taken the road by Jericho (2 Chron. xxviu. 
15 ; Luke xviii. 31, 35). There was, however, 
a great western road to the Philistine plain 
and sea-coast by Beth-horon. At the gates 
were onen spaces, often called streets m our 
ver^^ion (e.g. 2 Chron. xxix. 4, xxxu. 6 ; Ezra 
X 9; is'eh. viii. 1, 3, 16), where large as- 
semblies could gather. For the supply of 
water there were pools, conduits, d:c. : see 
I POOL. We also find burial-places mentioned. 
Those of the kings were in the city ot 
David (2 Chron. xii. 16, xiv. 1, and else- 
where^ But some of the sovereigns were 
BOt buried in the royal sepulchre (e.g. xxviii. 
27) Many tombs were in the valley of 
Hinnom, or that of the Kidron, hewn, as so 
many are still seen, in the rock. 

Doubtless Jerusalem, as it stood m its 
entirety, with its hills around, with its cis- 
terns and springs, with its gardens and its 
sumptuous buildings, was a noble city and 
it might have continued the _']oy of the 
earth ' had its people been faithful to the 
covenant of their God. From a hill-fortress it 
had grown into a metropolis. It was wealtny 
and populous (see above, p. 456) : it was 
peaceful, for the God of Israel dwelt there ; 
and splendid were the ceremonies with 
which his worship was celebrated by the 
multitudinous r^ests who ministered m 
the sanctuary. Well might all nations flow 
to the 'mountain of the Lords house 
'established in the top of the mountains' 

^^It^'is no easv matter to identify modern 
remains with' ancient sites, ^^p-^ much 
has been written on the subject ; and veiy 
widely do learned explorers difter. _ OI 
course only a brief notice can be_ given 
here of some of the more saUent points. 

The two to which the attention would 
naturally be most directed are the temple, 
and the place where our Loi;d suffered, nigh 
to which he was buried. With regard to 
the first-named, there can be no ai^estion 
that the ancient temple occupied a pai t at 
least of the ground now covered by the en- 
closure of the Harara, in which ai-e twonoted 
Mohammedan mosques, those of Omar and 
el-'Vk'ia The admeasurement of this aiea, 
a^ given bv Catherwood (Bartlett's "^ alks 
llofttJerus'alevi, p. 161), is on the east 1 520 
feet, on the south 940, on the west 1,61/, 
and on the north 1,020. The mosqiio ol 
Omar, standing on a platf(U-m wliicn is 
raised 15 or 16 feet above the area and is 
450 feet from east to west, and 5d0 f ron 
north to south, is octagonal in form, eac^^ 
side measuring 67 feet. It has a (^^oulle 
dome of elegant Proportions, coa ered with 
lead and surmounted l)y a gilt crescent. 
Corridors run round this building, which la 
hitrhlv decorated ; the lower portion of th 
w Uls' being composed of N^ariotis-coloured 
marbles, and the windows, of which thei 



I 



II 

i 



I 

\ 



459 



[JERUSALEM! 



are fifty-six. hemg filled with beautiful 
stained giass. Under the dome is a re- 
markable limestone rock of irregular shape : 
it fills a great part of the area, and is sur- 
rounded by a gilt iron railing. It is the 
natural summit of mount Moriah, and bears 
in a few places the marks of the chisel. 
At the south-east corner of this rock is an 
excavated chamber of considerable size, 
reverenced, according to tradition, as the 
praying-place of Abraham, David, Solomon, 
and Jesus. South of the mosque of Omar 
is el-Aksa, to which other mosques are at- 
tached. Besides these mosques, there are 
in the Haram various praying-places, foun- 
tains overshadowed with cypress and plane- 
trees, archways, lodgings for pilgrims, &c. 
Now Josephus describes the temple— that 
built by Herod— as an exact square, a sta- 
dium, or about 600 feet on each side (Antiq., 
lib. XV. 11, § 3). And it is remarkable that, 
at the south-western part of the Haram 
enclosure, there is such a square, measur- 
ing 602 feet, apparently marked out by spe- 
cial solidity, and just reaching from the 
southern wall to the platform on which the 
mosque of Omar stands. It is not an im- 
probable conclusion that this square was 
Che site of the temple ; more especially as it 
is contiguous to the remains of the bridge 
which connected the temple with Zion ; and 
in the western wall, the wailing-place of 
the Jews, the stones are peculiarly mas- 
sive, seeming as if they had never been 
disturbed. This conclusion, however, which 
would place the temple where el-Aksa now 
stands, is by no means generally admitted. 
It is thought by some that it was farther 
north, where the mosque of Omar is ; and 
some imagine that the altar of burnt- 
oflering stood upon the rock already men- 
tioned. 

If the exact position of the glorious 
'house' be uncertain, it is at least nearly 
ascertained : it must have stood some- 
where in the Haram area. It is far more 
difficult to fix upon the spots where the 
Lord was crucified and buried. There are 
three principal theories, each of which has 
its devoted adherents—that the tradition- 
ary sepulchre Is really the place of burial ; 
that this place was within the Haram area ; 
that it is now impracticable with any degree 
of probability to identify the site. 

It must be premised that it is im- 
possible to describe here the church ordi- 
narily called tliat of the Holy Sepulchre. 
Suffice it to say that the great feature of it 
is the dome, beneath which is the actual 
tomb, of which the upper part is masonry, 
the lower formed by the native rock. All 
around are spots said to be hallowed, by the 
appearance of the angel who rolled away 
the stone, by the unction of the body, by 
the rendinar of the rock at the earthquake, 
&c. 

The whole question of the locality has 
been well examined by a writer in the 
Museum of Classical Antiquities, No. viii. 
and supplement, April and May 1853. From 
tills paper shall be taken the following 
compendious view of the objections against 
the site commonly believed to be that of 
Uie holy sepulchre— ' its being in the centre 
L 



of the modern city, its requiring the posi- 
tion of the western wall of Akra to be such 
as to greatly restrict the area of the an- 
cient city; its requiring such wall to be 
built on greatly-disadvantageous ground, 
across the lower slope of a hill; its being 
in such immediate neighbourhood of the 
pool of Hezekiah, which we know to have 
been within the city, that the wall could 
not have enclosed one without taking in 
the other; its being considerably to the 
east of the position which must have been 
occupied by the gate Gennath ; its too 
great proximity to what its advocates show 
as the line of the second wall; its locating 
the place of crucifixion and the place of 
burial at too close vicinity to each other ; 
the probability of mistake, owing to the 
acknowledged error of several traditional 
sites, the absence of proof of many others, 
and the certain falsehood of all the rest' 
(pp. 393, 394). There are also historical ob- 
jections, taken from the fact that the place 
of the tomb was unknown for more than 
two centuries, and that there were such 
lying wonders at the pretended discovery 
of it by the empress Helena, as to make it 
most probable that she was deceived by 
Macarius, then bishop of Jerusalem. Doubt- 
less the advocates of the received site pro- 
duce many plausible arguments for their 
belief, and have their answers to the objec- 
tions ready. And it is fair to say that some 
of the latest and most diligent investi- 
gators support this Adew. Pierotti, for ex- 
ample, in his Jerusalem Explored, 1864, 
maintains it (vol. i. chap. iv. pp. 102-134). 
But it must be allowed that there is much 
that is suspicious In the theory, and that 
some of its pretensions must be given up, 
as where the pillar of flagellation is shown 
almost close to the place of cruciflxion and 
burial. 

Another theory has been advocated by Mr. 
Fergusson. His arguments may be found 
succinctly stated in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible, vol. i. pp. 1028-1034. He maintains 
that the so-called mosque of Omar, termed 
otherwise the Dome of the Rock, is not 
really a mosque ; that it was erected prior to 
the Mohammedan occupation of Jerusalem; 
that it is in fact of the age of Constantine, 
and was built over the then-identified place 
of the sepulchre. He also supposes that, 
when the Christians were deprived by Mo- 
hammedan conquerors of the possession of 
this spot, they built another church on the 
site now generally considered the true place 
of our Lord's death and burial. There is 
something certainly to be said for this 
theory ; and its establishment would explain 
some difficulties. But it involves two ques- 
tionable assumptions. Granting that it was 
here that the original church of the Sepul- 
chre was built, it yet remains to be proved 
that the right spot w^as then fixedupon. And, 
further, evidence is produced by the writer 
before referred to (Mus. of Class. Antiq., pp. 
387-390), that the church of the Sepulchre 
was seven times destroyed by fire, and that 
the Dome of the Rock was erected ])y Mo- 
hammedans. If this evidence be accepted, 
Mr. Fergusson's strongest argument for the 
identity of the present structure with tha* 



jekusaxem] 



460 



Duilt in ConsTantine's days Is untenable. 
There is certainly great antecedent impro- 
bability in the idea that our Lord suffe ed 
close under the walls of the temple That 
the way from the place of ;)udgment to the 
place of execution was somewhat long is 
evident from the fact that on the road it 
was necessary to find someone to help Je^us 
in carrying his cross. But the distance on 
Mr Fergusson's supposition is under eighty 
yards. Besides it was just this district 
which ten or twelve years after the cru- 
cifixion formed part of the enclosure com- 
prised with in Agrippa's wall, Bezetha, or the 
Sew city. The wall was built round a place 
already inhabited. It is reasonable to be- 
lieve, then, that, so far from the quarter 
just outside the temple northward being 
waste, it was at our Lord's death a populous 
suburb. Various other objections, which 
cannot be detailed here, are forcibly urged 
by a writer in the Imp. Bible Diet., vol. i. pp. 

^ A Remarkable theory has been propounded 
by the writer in the If u... of Class ^iff'l'f- 
450-464. He conceives that Golgotha was 
=.ituate in the valley of Hinnom, and that 
the tomb of Joseph of Ariniatheawas amon g 
the neighbouring rocks. The southern val- 
ley doubtless was a place f^^^^^^^J^^^^^f ^^^^^iffii 
den purposes ; and even now it is described 
af ' a pleasant shaded Talley'.(Bonar and 
M'Cheyne, Narrative of Mission), and as 
'planted with olive and other fruit-trees 
and in some places tilled ... the southern 
hill steep rocky, and full of tombs (Robin- | 
Bibl Bes vol. i. p. 274, 2nd edit.). In this 
SlSourrood might well be the place of 
?ublTc execution, a place become loatbsome 
and accursed as idolatrous rites had been 
Celebrated in it. The writer further ima- 
gines that he discovers in the prophets cei-- 
S?n intimations as if the ^/eat sacrifice 
would be consummated there (e.g. Isai. xxx. 
33): and he adduces certain ancient tehti- 
Inonfes connecting Golgotha with this spot 
a 'spot of infamy' he says. Avhic^ only 
made the cross more glorious What so 
probable,' he proceeds ' as ^l^^t such a 
Quarter of the city, so abhorred "le good 
Dn account of its past idolatry, .so liated by 
the evil on account of its tj^pifymg tje^place 
of future punishment, so desecrated by all 
men from its being made the receptacle of 
the filth and offal of the city, should be se- 
lected as the place of " outer darkness as 
the nlace of punishment for capital offen- 
ces? What so natural as that he, who took 
upon him the nature of man who was born 
in a maneer, who had not where to ay his 
head who was made a curse for us, who was 
Semned to the death of a iiialefactor 
who had his grave with the wicked, should 
complete the^vork he l^ad takcm upon him 
by suffering in this place of infamy ? What 
il consistent as that the spot so long pollu- 
ted by tieu"ost horrible of idolatries should 
be " ordiined" in the Pre-determined coun- 
sel of God as the place most suited for d - 
vVne satisfaction, that this » valley of dead 
bones," this valley of the gmve should b^ 
rome the place of victory? (pp. 462,463). If 
compare the scriptural roquirements of 
tho spot as pointed out in the article on 



CAiVAjiY, it will be seen that they very weU 
correspond with the view here advocated. 

But no definite conclusion can be yet 
ventured on. All that can be said is, that 
the traditional identification in the present 
church of the Holy Sepulchre is encumbered 
with difficulties, that the theory of the 
Dome of the Rock being the sacred spot 
has grave objections, that the view last 
mentioned, argued on Pla^^p^e grounds, 
cannot claim to be established. Jerusalem 
has not yet been fully explored. Possibly 
future research may bring to light some- 
thing which may go farther than we can yet 
advance in settling the position of that 
cross whereon the Lamb of G<>d shed hi^ 
blood, and of that tomb from which he rose 
triumphant. Asurvey, it may herenoted 
has lately been undertaken by abodj of the 
Roval Engineers under the direction of 
Cant Wilson, with the sanction of home 
authorities ; and much may be expected 
from it. Already it is reported that an 
arch of the causeway which led from the city 
to the temple has been discovered. Iti= ina 
good state of preservation, composed oi large 
ftones like those at the wailing-place, and 
its span is between forty and fifty feet The 
area of the Haram, too, is ascertained to bt 
perfectly honeycombed with passages and 

^^'Sf to^the identification of other localities 
but a cursory view of them can be here 
taken. Let us suppose ourselves traversing 
I the walls of Jerusalem, and noting some 
objects which we pass or to which oui at- 
tention may be pointed. These walls, be t 
sa id rise from 30 to 40 feet, and are 
about 15 feet in breadth. Steps at intervals 
?ead up to the breastwork. They are studded 
with battlements and pierced wltli ?^tes 
five is the present number, besides othel^ 
waned up-and loop-holes. In some place, 
there are enormous stone^ m low r 
course^, the materials probablj ot the an 
cS defences. From the walls tbe interior 
of the city is seen, irregular and decay ed, 
with narrow and uneven streets. Com- 
mencing with the north-east angle the eye 
ran-es over Bethesda to the enclosure of the 
H^rum, while on the left hand the valley oi 
Se Sdron runs gradually descendmg the 
whole length, and more, of, ^^^^ .^^"^f^'i 
wall Acro'^s it is a dark plot of olives 
Jeen Gethsemane, beyond which rise threr 
Ss or rounded hill-tops: the centre is 
Ohvet the southernmost the mount oi 
Corruption Proceeding at the foot of th. 
pistern wall, which also bounds the Hanim 
?hPre is the rockv Jewish burial-ground,with 
AbJalim's tomb in the deep valley be ow 
outside the south wall of tlie a.ram is Ophe^^^^ 
and opposite, beyond the Kidron, is the \ u 
fa?e of Siloam. The wall tlien crosses the 
Tfropoeon, supposed by some to be really 
Hinnom Just where it 301ns the Kidron 
val ev s'the pool of Siloam, communicating 
vftb\he foVntain of the Virgin higher up 
while some distance ^^^^^ . * ^^"rfi'f.fp 
I From the TyropcBon the ^;^l\^!V^i"«^^rou'' 
1 of Zion, on the level top of which is a grou. 
of buildings, where the cemeteries of tin 
^rnlenians^u•e scattered ^-^f , ^ 
; tionary tomb of David. And heie is m 



\ Coenaculum, said to be the large upper room 
where the last supper was eaten. Much of 
; Zion is now outside the wall, which ancient- 
ly ran no doubt close T)y the ravine of Hin- 
nom, in whicli are the lower and upper 
pools of Gihon. From the upper pool 
' started,' says Pierotti, ' the deep canal by 
which Hezekiah brought the waters of Gi- 
hon within the western part of the city, 
when he closed up the fountains on the ap- 
proach of Sennacherib's army. The subter- 
ranean conduit still exists, though it is now 
exposed and devastated in places, and is 
used to convey the rain-water from the upper 
pool to that of Amygdalon within the city; 
for which reason the latter is still called the 
pool of Hezekiah ' {itbl supr., chap. vii. p. 241). 
On the opposite side of the ravine of Hin- 
j nom rises the hill of Evil Counsel, where 
j according to legend was a house of Caia- 
l[ phas : there are some ruins on this hill. 
I Some writers have doubted whether this 
south-western height be really Zion ; and 
Mr. Fergusson would identify Zion with the 
! site of the temple ; but, besides other ob- 
; jections to this theory, there is the fact 
* that Solomon removed the ark from the city 
of David, when he transferred it to the tem- 
ple (1 Kings viii. 1, 6). Turning northwards 
the wall reaches the citadel near the Jaffa 
gate ; and at the north-east extremity of 
this is a massive tower, its lower portion 
especially of antique character. This has 
been supposed the tower of Hippicus, one of 
those erected by HGTod, and preserved at the 
destruction of the city. Near it is the Eng- 
! lish church, a cruciform Gothic building, 
\ and then northward the pool of Hezekiah, 
I and close by the church of the Holy Sepul- 
i chre, with the Latin and Greek convents. 
I The wall then sweeps north-westward to 
the point where we commenced ; and beyond 
it northward is the camping-ground of in- 
vaders from Sennacherib to Titus. The 
whole circuit is computed at something un- 
der two-and a-half English miles. 

The positions of several remarkable spots 
have thus been roughly indicated. It has 
been already observed that several of them 
are questioned ; and there are others about 
which critics are by no means agreed ; as, for 
example, the tower of Hippicus, the pools of 
Gihon, and even that of Siloara ; though it 
must^he said with regard to the last-named 
that doubts are surely unreasonable. The 
identification, too, has been perplexed with 
legendary stories. 

Of the great features of Jerusalem we can 
recognize enough for satisfaction. Here 
are the slopes and here the valleys of which 
scripture tells : here is the city, which 
sages, and monarchs, and prophets of old 
time inhabited. Within the small circuit on 
which you look, Jesus taught, and suffered, 
and rose again. But, when you want to fix 
exactly upon the spot Avhere this or that 
great event occurred, you are at fault: you 
have the broad outlines of the picture, you 
cannot discern the minuter touches. To re- 
construct the ancient city is perhaps impos- 
sible. But the overthrow and dislocation 
: must be allowed to be no small corrobora- 
tion of that sacred book from which Jerusa- 
I lem and Zion derive all their interest. And, 



[JEEUSAXEK 



as Dr. Thomson reminds us, when contera- 
l)lating the ruins of the city of David, 
' there is another Zion,whose towers are still 
more glorious, and shall never be over- 
thrown. " God is known in her palaces for a 
refuge" (Psal. xlviii. 3). And " this God is 
our God for ever and ever." How often is 
this name synonymous with the church of 
the living God; and no other spot but one 
can divide with it the affection of his people: 
no other name but one can awaken such joy- 
ful hopes in the Christian's heart. The tem- 
poralZion is now in the dust; but the true 
Zion is rising and shaking herself from it, 
and putting on her beautiful garments to 
welcome her King when he comes to reign 
over the wholeearth ' {TlieLand and theBook, 
p. 631). 

It may be well expected that Jerusalem 
shall literally become again a glorious city. 
Her children, it is to be believed, shall again 
people her ; for the time of her long desola- 
tion shall be ended. It will be when they 
look with faith on him whom their fathers 
have here pierced. Into the secrets of fu- 
turity, however, we must not pry ; but we 
may certainly say, ' Pray for the peace of 
Jerusalem : they shall prosper that love 
thee' (Psal. cxxxii. 6). 

The present population of Jerusalem is 
variously estimated. Pierotti, the latest 
authority, supposes that there are 5,068 
Christians, 7,556 Mohammedans, 7,706 Jews ; 
in all 20,330. But, though there are so many 
of the children of Jacob, they are strangers 
in the city : they do not possess any of the 
soil. One privilege indeed they are said to 
have. "When the sultan dies, they can de- 
mand the keys of the city. They then per- 
form some ceremonies, and, after a few 
hours, restore the keys to the pacha. 

There is little inviting in the present 
state of Jerusalem apart from its associa- 
tions. The commerce is small ; and pro- 
gress through the streets dangerous. 
' Heaps of ruins and filth are seen in the 
public places ; and no one frequents them 
■for business : beggars crave an alms : lepers 
exhibit their sores : vagrant curs snarl over 
their booty. Camels crouched down await 
their burdens, and fill the air with a dis- 
gusting odour, caused by the ointment with 
which they are smeared to cure skin- 
diseases. Disgust, fear, hypocrisy, slavish- 
ness, and distrust are the common expres- 
sions in the faces of the men, showing the 
different races of which they are composed, 
opposed to one another in religion and for- 
tunes, victors and vanquished, jealous and 
distrustful one of the other. The women 
are generally covered with a white cloth, 
looking like ghosts, or, if uncovered,would 
look better veiled. If, wearied Avith the 
dulness within, we go outside the walls, we 
find a few olive-trees on the north-west, a 
few young plantations on the west, and the 
rest barren and desolate. Everywhere deep 
valleys or steep hills, stony and rocky 
roads, impracticable for carriages, difficult 
for horses, and painful for foot-travellers. 
Wherever we go, memorials of the dead are 
before our eyes ; for the cemeteries are the 
places of general resort. Escaping, however, 
from the city, from its ])ad smells and 



,ERU SALEM, NEW] 



462 



loathsome arid iiiiportunate beggars, we can 
asceud the hills and contemplate a5pauo- 
rama, where every stone is a witness of 
God's revelation, and every ruiu a monu- 
ment of his wrath ' (Pierotti, uU supr., chap. 

^'^The'^works which have heen published on 
Jerusalem are very numerous. Several 
have heen referred to in this article : those 
of 'Williams, Barclay, Lewin, Buchanan 
(fee supplv abundant information. 

JERU'SALEM, NEW. The term Jeru- 
salem is sometimes used in a figurative or 
^vmbolical sense. St. Paul so employs it 
when he contrasts 'the Jerusalem which 
now is' with 'the Jerusalem which is 
above' (Gal. iv. 25, 26), the church of the 
covenant of bondage with that free and 
blessed church, the spiritual mother of all 
believers. And, similarly, we find ' the 
heavenly Jerusalem' noted elsewhere (Heb. 
xii. 22) as 'the city of the living God,' che 
happv home of ransomed multitudes. Fur- 
ther,' the prophet Ezekiel had described a 
glorious and perfect city, when, according 
to liis metaphorical language, the tribes 
shcnld be re-distributed and re-settled in 
their o^ti land. Twelve gates it was to 
have, being four-square ; and the name of it 
should be ' The Lord is there' (Ezek. xlvui 
30-45). St. John borrows the imagery of 
Ezekiel, and describes the New Jerusalem, 
the name of which should be Avritteu on the 
Christian conqueror (Ptev. iii. 12), as of un- 
equalled maguificence, ' descending out of 
heaven from God,' with twelve foundations 
of precious stones, and twelve gates of 
pearl, her streets of rich gold, the ^hole 
glowing with clear light, resplendent, not 
with sun or moon, but with the glory of 
God and of the Lamb. Nothing that defiled 
must enter there ; but the gates stand ever 
open ; and ample are the large dimensions 
(xxi. 10-27). This city is called 'the bride, 
tiie Lamb's wife' (9), the abode of the 
gathered company of such as are redeemed 
from among men. 

* Thev stand, those halls of Sion, 
All jubilant with song. 
And bright with many an angel 

And all the martyr throng. 
The Prince is ever in them : 

The daylight is serene : 
The pastures of the blessed 
Are deck'd in glorious sheen.* 
Bv some interpreters the New Jerusalem 
is regarded as a happy city to be founded 
upon earth in the days of millennial blessed- 
ness, bv others it is deemed a representa- 
tion of the glory of heaven. For a dis- 
cussion of this question, commentaries 
and expositions of prophecy must be con- 
sulted. 

JERU'SHA, or JERTJ'SHAH (iwssessed, 
i e. by a husband). The mother of king 
Jotham (2 Kings xv. 33 ; 2 Cliron. xxvii. I). 

JESAI'AH (savmg, salutary).—!. A de- 
scendant of David (1 Chron. iii. 21).— 2. A 
Beiijainite (Neh. xi. 7). 

JESHAI'AH (help of Jeliovah : this name 
is identical with Isaiah).— 1. A son of Je- 
duthun, chief of a division of singers 
(1 Chron. XXV. 3, 15).— 2. AKohathiteLevite, 
rlrisf-ended from Moses (xxvi. 25): see 



IssHiAH, 1.-3. One who returned from 
Babylon with Ezra (Ezra viii. 7).— 4. A Le- 
vice of the family of Merari (19). 

JESHA'NAH (old). One of the places 
taken by Abijah from Jeroboam I. (1 Chron. 
xiii. 19). _ 

JESHARE'LAH CrigM towards God). The 
head of one of the divisions of singers 
(1 Chron. xxv. 14). He is called also Asa- 
r clfiVi ( 2} 

JESHEB'EAB (seat of one's fatlief). Chief 
of the fourteenth coui'se of priests (1 Chron. 
xxiv. 13\ 

JESH'ER (itpriglitTiess). One oi the sons 
of Caleb the son of Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 18). 

JESHI'MON (the imste). Some tract of 
country which Pisgah and Peor are said to 
face (Numb. xxi. 20, xxiii. 28). Again, the hill 
of Hachilah is described as being to the south 
of (1 Sam. xxiii. 19) and before (xxvi. 1, 3) 
Jeshimon. Also when David and his men 
were in the wilderness of Maon they were in 
' the plain,' i.e. the Ghor, the sunken district 
of the Dead sea, ' south of Jeshimon ' (xxiii. 
24) Probably it was some high waste land 
to the east of the Dead sea, in view of the 
hill-country on the west. 

JESHI'SHAI (an old man). A Gadite 
(1 Chron. v. 14). 

JESHOHAl'AH (whom Jehovah loics 
doicn). A descendant of Simeon (1 Chroii. 

JE'SHTJA (JeTioraTi t/ie salrafio??).— 1. The 
head of one of the courses of the priests 
(1 Chron. xxiv. 11, where he is called 
Jeshuah ; Ezra ii. 36 ; Neh. vii. 39).— 2. A Le- 
vite in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 
15).— 3. A high priest after the captivity. 
He returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem, 
and took a leading part in the restoration 
of the sacred rites, and the building of tne 
second temple (Ezra ii. 2, iii. 2, 8, 9, iv. 3, 
V 2, X. 18 ; Neh. vii. 7, xii. 1, 7, 10, 26). He 
is represented, especially by the prophet 
Zechariah, as an eminent type of Christ 
(Hag^ i ii. ; Zech. iii., vi. 9-15, where he is 
called Joshua).— 4. Ahead of the family of Pa- 
hath-moab (Ezra ii. 6 ; Neh. vu. 11).— 5. The 
progenitor of a Levitical house (Ezra ii. 40; 
Neb vii. 43). It was perhaps the represen- 
tative of this house that signed the cove- 
nant (X. 9).— 6. A Levite (Ezra vm. 33).— 
7 The father of one who helped to repair 
tiie wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 19).— 8. A 
Levite who took part in the solemn reading 
of the law (viii. 7, ix. 4, 5, xii. 8, 24, M'here 
probably we should read Jeshua and Kad- 
niiel). He may be the same with No. 6; 
and, indeed, it is not easy accurately to dis- 
tinguish several so desiguated, or to know 
whether a family or an individual is meant. 
—9. The great Joshua (viii. 17). 

J E'SHUA {id.). A town, as it would seem, 
in the south of Judah, inhabited after the 
return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 26). 

JE'SHUAH (id.) (1 Chron. xxiv. 11). See 
Jeshua, l. , , 

JESHU'REN (supremehi Jwppv, or dearly- 
beloved). A symbt)lical name for Israel 
(Deut. xxxii. 15, xxxiii. 5, 26). It is Jesurun 
in Isai. xliv. 2. The reference of Deut. 
xxxiii. 5 is not as sometimes supposed to 
Moses, but to the Lord, who was Issraels 
true and rightful King. 



J E RUS ALEM. 

T CORyEB. OF THE SOrjTH ^\'^hh AND THE MOUNT OE OLIVKS l!'U.OM S.^V^. 



[jESUS 



1 JESI'AH (whom Jehovah lends).— 1. A | 
I warrior, apparently a Korbite, wlio joined 
i David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 6).— 2. A Le- 
' i vite of the family of Kohath (xxiii. 20) : he 
j 's the same with Isshiah (xxiv. 25). 
I JESI'MIEL (whom God has set up). One 
! of Simeon's descendants (1 Chron. iv. 36). 

JES'SE (firm, strong). A descendant of 
i the tribe of Judah, resident at Beth-lehem, 
I most noted as the father of king David, and 
I consequently an ancestor of Messiah (Ruth 
j iv. 17-22 ; Matt. i. 5, 6 ; Luke iii. 31, 32). 

Jesse had eight sons, David being the 
j youngest, the child it would seem of his 
I declining age ; for it is said that he Avas 
! counted as an old man in the days of Saul 
' (1 Sam. xvii. 12), The names, however, of 
I only seven of his sons are recorded (1 Chron. 
! ii. 13-16), unless it be supposed that Elihu 
! (xxvii. 18) is not the same with Eliab. Jesse 
ij had also, it appears, two daughters. His 
I wife's name is not mentioned. Some, how- 
ever, imagine that Nahash (2 Sam. xvii. 25) 
j was Jesse's wife ; while others have amused 
: themselves with fancying that Jesse had 
married the wife or concubine of Nahash 
king of the Ammonites, a conjecture which, 
I if It has no decisive proof against it, may 
i certainly he said to have no tolerable argu- 
•• ment for it : see Nahash. Of Jesse's per- 
sonal character and history little is recorded. 
He was probably a man of some wealth. He 
received Samuel respectfully (1 Sam. xvi. 
5-13). He sent a present to Saul by David (20). 
' He was, as an affectionate father, anxious 
! to know of his sons' welfare, who were with 
the army (xvii. 17, 18). And, when David 
^ was pursued by Saul, he and his wife were 
carefully placed with the king of Moab 
(xxii. 3, 4). We hear no more. But it is 
j, noteworthy that Jesse's name is repeatedly 
mentioned in reference to Messiah. Thus 
I we have the ' rod from the stem of Jesse ' 
I (Isal. xi. 1), and ' the root of Jesse ' (10). 
j JES'SVE (1 Esdr. v. 26). Jeshua (Ezra 
I ii. 40). 

I JE'SU (1 Esdr. viii. 63). 
I JES'UI {even, level). A son of Asher 
I (Numb. xxvi. 44). He is also called Isui 
1 (Gen. xlvi. 17), and Ishuai (1 Chron. vii. 30). 
I JES'UITES. Afamily of Asher, descended 
I from Jesui (Numb. xxvi. 44). 

JESU'E.UjSr {supremely happy) (Isai. xliv. 
2.) See Jeshurun. 

JE'SUS {Saviour).— I. The name by v>niich, 
when the Son of God was born into the 
world, he was known among men. This 
j name was given him according to a di- 
j vine message to his mother before his 
conception, and also to Joseph her husband 
(Matt. i. 21, 25 ; Luke i. 31). It is proposed 
in the present article to give a compen- 
dious history of the life of the Lord Jesus. 
But it must be premised that, if the evange- 
listic narrative is accepted as credible^ Jesus 
must be more than man ; and for some 
proofs of its credibility see Scripture. It 
! is only by supposing that the sacred his- 
torians have put a false colouring upon his 
j words and actions, it is only by imputing 
i pious fraud that modern sceptics have been 
I able to represent Jesus as they are fond of 
I representing him, a Avell-meaning and su- 
perior Jewish teacher, who found himself 



compelled sometimes to change his plans, 
and, after struggling vainly with the preju- 
dices of his countrymen, failed and perished 
in his praiseworthy attempts at reforma- 
tion. The simple majesty of the inspired 
narrative Is in itself an answer to such 
speculations ; and the exalted grandeur of 
the life and actions of Jesus stamp the di- 
vinity of his Person. "VVe have no need of 
formal proof that the material sun Is the 
central light of our system : we need as 
little to assure us that Jesus is the Divine 
Light of the world (John v. 12). 

Mary the Virgin dwelt at Nazareth. She 
was of lowly position in society, and was 
betrothed to a carpenter named Joseph. 
One day, prior to the actual marriage, she 
was startled by the appearance of a strange 
visitor, who apprised her of the coming 
birth of the Holy Child. It was the angel 
Gabriel : the Holy Ghost, he said, should 
come upon her, and the power of the 
Highest overshadow her, so that the off- 
spring of her womb should be called and be 
the Son of God. And, to assure her of the 
truth of his message, the angel added that 
her cousin Elisabeth, so long barren, had 
already conceived a son. Mary upon this 
meekly acquiesced in the privilege vouch- 
safed her, and hastened into the hill-country 
of Judah, to the town — variously supposed 
Hebron, Juttah, and a village not far from 
Jerusalem, now called 'Ain Karim—\vhere 
Elisabeth and Zacharias her husband dwelt. 
Possibly she stayed there till after the birth 
of John, subsequently named the Baptizei 
or Baptist (Luke i. 26-80). 

Mary's marriage with Joseph took place ; 
and while they were living at Nazareth a 
decree of the Roman emperor Augustus 
obliged them to repair to Beth-lehem— for 
Joseph, and we may conclude Mary also, 
were of David's lineage— there to be en- 
rolled in the ancient seat of their family. 
Thus it was at Beth-lehem, in accordance 
with prophecy (Mic. v. 2), that Jesus was 
born. The town was crowded : the Inn 
offered no accommodation to the humble 
pair ; so, when Jesus enter^^d this world as 
a babe, he was laid in a manger (Matt. i. 
18-25, ii. 1 ; Luke ii. 1-7). No place upon 
earth was prepared to welcome earth's 
rightful Lord. The very spot of the birth 
is, according to tradition, still pointed out 
and hallowed : see Beth-lehem. Of course 
the miraculous conception is denied or ex- 
plained away by modern enlightened phi- 
losophers, who discover no more in Jesus 
than the child of a Jewish artizan (See 
some good observaticms in Mill's Ilytb. 
Interp. of Gospels, part ii. chap. i. 1, pp. 91-96. 
chap. iii. 1, pp. 276-280). The date of the birth 
is variously placed. Wieseler gives a table 
of the conjectures of different learned men, 
assigning it from 7 B.e. to 1 e.g. {Chron. 
Synops.der vicr Evavg., pp. 485,486). His 
own judgment wruld fi-x on February, 4 
B.o. ; and with thi-s bp. Ellicott is disposed 
to coincide {Hist. Lect., lect. ii. p. 63, note). 
Mr. Browne prefers Dec. 8, 5 B.C., as an ap 
proximate date {Ordo Sa^cL, part i. chap. i. 
sect. i. p. 36 : comp. append, pp. 37-39). Be the 
exact time Avhat it may, it was a day of spe- 
cial gladness to the universe, tlie dnwnini? 



I 

L 



JESUS] 



484 



of a new creation, tlie source of life to £ 
dead world, when tbe Godhead was inys^ 
teriouslv united to human flesh. The 
heayenlV host rejoiced; and ^lieir spngof 
praise was heard hy mortal ears, not indeed 
of the powerful and wealthy, who were too 
much engrossed with the pursuit of things 
that perish in the using, but of humhle 
shepherds, whose thoughts, peradventure, 
as tliose of David on those yery i^^^s long 
before, were rising by what they saw of the 
starry firmament to the Creator of it. 
Strains of wondrous sweetness floated 
round them ; and a strange glory illumi- 
nated the scene. They were at first afraid 
but were reassured by the words of the 
angelic message ; and then they hurried to 
pay their homage to the infant King, whom 
they found lying in the manger. Doubtless 
the story of the shepherds must have 
awakened curiosity in the neighbourhood, 
but probably it did not pass far : it was a 
wonder soon forgotten; and few, it would 
seem, save Mary, pondered tliese thmgs m 
their hearts. On the eighth day the chila 
was circumcised; and the name Jesus was 
solemnly given him. And then wlien three- 
and-thirty days more had passed he was 
taken to Jerusalem to the temple where 
the offerings must be ^^'-^^e-and those 
made evinced the poverty of the famj y- 
for Marv's purification. Two aged /aints 
were present, Simeon and Anna ; and their 
hearts rejoiced ; and they spoke prophetic 
words of Jesus being the Christ (Luke ii. 

^" w'e may certainly suppose that the holy 
family returned to Beth-lehem : it was but 
a moderate walk. They were there at the 
visit of the eastern sages, which must 
surely have been after (how long we can- 
not tell) the presentation in the temple. The 
enauiries of these excited the attention and 
Sety of the king, Herod, and of the in- 
habitants of Jerusalem. And, after thoy had 
gone and ofEered their rich gifts, and were 
returning by divine monition to their own 
land without further communication with 
Herod, the king, urged by his guilty fears 
Sid^ealous of a rival to his throne ordered 
the slaughter of the young children who 
were at Betli-lehem. But Jesus was pre- 
served. According to an angelic message 
he was taken into Egypt ; so that tl^ere was 
a fulfilment of Hos. xi. ]-not that that ut- 
terance was, strictlyspeaking prophetical , 
but as it recorded what occurred to Israel, 
God's son, and as Christ was the antitypical 
or true Israel, so what was done m the t^pe 
must be done again in the antitype. How 
long the residence in Egjjt continued ^^ e 
know not : it was till Herod's death ; and e 
are not certain how long Herod survived 
the birth of Jesus, perhaps not many 
months : seeWieseler, Chron. Sijyiops., part i. 
3 pp.150-159. When Herod was no more, 
Joseph returned with Mary and Jesus to 
Palestine and was probably intending to 
fettle at Beth-lehein ; but he feared Arche- 
laus, Herod's son, who succeeded him, and, 
still guided by divine command went to 
Nazareth, a city despised ; its inhabitants 
bein£? subjects of ridicule and reproach even 
?o the Vst of the Galileans (John i. 4G). 



Seiice 'Jesus tlie Nazarene' was a name of 
scorn; and the ancient prophecies were 
fulfilled which described Messiah as con- 
temned and vilified (Matt, ii.) : see Horne s 
Introd., edit. Ayre, vol. ii. p. 115, note. One 
more circumstance of the childhood of 
Jesus is recorded, perhaps, like some of the 
preceding, told by Mary herself to the evan- 
pelist. At twelve years of age he was taken 
bv Joseph and Mary to the passover at J eru- 
salem And when they returned he tarried 
behind and was found with the doctors m 
the temple. Hillel, and Sharamai, and rabban 
Simeon,Hillel's son, and Jonathan (supposed 
to be the paraphrast), men highly venerated 
by the Jews, were then alive: perhaps 
they were among the doctors. The words of 
Je^us to his mother on the occasion had a 
deep significance, which she did not then 
fully understand, but which she carefully 
treasured in her mind. And Jesus grew, his 
human faculties gradually expanding, and 
becoming more conscious of the mystic 
union of God with man in his person (Luke 
ii 40-52), and increasingly manifesting the 
divine wisdom with which he was ever 
fully endowed. 

There was then an interval. It seems to 
have been passed in private life. Possibly 
Jesus laboured as Joseph dia (Mark vi. 6) : 
no doubt he was wise and loving m all the 
domestic relations of societj-. For he was 
holy and free from sin. And words of 
power must have been continually dropping 
from his lips ; and his deeds were an un- 
erring pattern to those around. But there is 
a veil over this portion of his history ; and 
we cannot raise it : only we may conclude 
that this youth so pure, this man so faultless, 
was among his relatives and acquaintance a 
verij man. They did not as yet suspect 
from what they saw in him that he was God 
incarnate. 

At length the hour of his public career 
arrived. John his cousin, though perhaps 
not personally acquainted with him, had 
preached repentance and the approaching 
kingdom of (::od to the people, and had 
made bv his stirring words a deep impres- 
sion. Multitudes he baptized with the bap- 
tism of repentance. And among the crowds 
that resorted to him came Jesus, then about 
1 thirtv vears of age (it is thought the season 
was winter), and, after some hesitation on 
' John's part, for that it seemed incongruous 
that the greater should receive such a rite 
at the hands of the lesser, was baptized too. 
He submitted to every ritual observance, 
fulfilling therein all righteousness ; but it, 
was not to repentance that he was baptized: 
repentance he needed not. At his baptism an 
awful si£?n was displayed, whether to others 
than to John we cannot tell. From the opened 
heaven the Spirit descended like a dove and 
lighted upon Jesus, while the Father's voice 
pronounced the words, 'This is my beloved 
Son, in whom I am well-pleased' (Matt, in.; 
Mark i. 4-11 ; Luke iii. 1-22 ; John i. 26-34). 
Then came the mysterious temptation. 
Jesus was led away by the Spirit into the 
wilderness, and there encountered aad 
foiled the tempter, becoming by his own 
personal conflict the better able to syinpa 
thize with and succour his people in then 



465 



[JESUti 



temptations (Matt. iv. Ml ; Mark -12, 13 , 
Luke iv. 1-11 ; Heb. ii. 17, 18, iv. 15, 16). In- 
to the secrets of tliat solemn season we 
cannot pry : suffice it to say that the temp- 
tation was real, the victory complete : see 
Tempt ATiox 

After the l:emptation Jesus returned into 
Galilee, for how long a time we know not : 
some, as Wieseler (uM supr., p. 2o8), would 
extend it to m.onths ; others, as bishop 
EUicott (lect lii. p. 114), allow only a few 
davs: perhaps the shorter space is the 
more probable. But, be the niterval long 
or short, it was just, so to speak, the silent 
pause preparatory to the mighty struggle. 
For no more was Jesus to rest m private : 
he must now commence his Pi^i^^c mission, 
now lift up his voice as the world's Teacher, 
till he laid down his life as the world s \ ic- 
tim. Meeting again his fore-runner, he re- 
ceived the noticeable testimony from him 
' Behold the Lamb of God, which taketli 
away the sin of the world ' (John i. 29). The 
next' day it was repeated ; and two of the 
Baptist's disciples, Andrew, and perhaps 
John the son of Zebedee, at once attached 
themselves to Jesus. Andrew soon brought 
his brother Simon; and, Jesus having in- 
vited Philip, this last prevailed on Natoanael 
to accompany him to him whom he be- 
lieved to be the Great One of whom Moses 
and the prophets had written (35-51). 

Here, then, was the beginning of the 
kingdom of God : here was the small nu- 
cleus, five disciples, round which so many 
would cluster till the little band became an 
exceeding great multitude whom no man 
could number. With these five Jesus re- 
turned to Galilee. He had left that dis- 
trict a while before, probably alone: he 
returned the Teacher of whom his newly- 
attached followers would have much to tell, 
—how the celebrated Baptist had designated 
him, how he had shown himself acquainted 
with Nathanael's most secret acts. Doubt- 
less they would speak of these things to 
the Virgin, who had left her liome at Na- 
zareth to attend a wedding at Cana, where 
Jesus and his company were gladly wel- 
comed. It was what she heard, probably, 
that induced the Virgin to mention the 
want of wine to her Son. But his reply let 
lier see, as Dr. EUicott says, 'that earthly 
relations must now give place to heavenly, 
and that the times and seasons in which 
the Eternal Son is to display his true nature 
are not to be hastened even by the long- 
ings of maternal love' (pp. 120,121). Yet 
he performed a miracle, revealing his glo- 
rious power, and confirming the faith of 
his disciples' (John ii. 1-11). Thence he 
went for a short time to Capernaum (12), 
and afterwards proceeded to Jerusalem to 
keep the passover-feast. 

Of the early Judean ministry of Jesus 
St. John alone lias given an account. He 
drove out the money-changers from the 
temple, a significant act, which he justified, 
when asked for his authority, by a predic- 
tion misunderstood at the time, and raked 
up afterwards by the Jews at his trial as a 
charge against him, but found by his dis- 
ciples to he corroborative proof of his mis- 
sion. He also wrought some miracles (12-25), 



and held his wonderful conversation witli 
Nicodeinus, and then, leaving the capital, 
he went into some part of the Judean coun- 
try possibly near the Jordan. John Baptist 
was still at large, and continued baptizing. 
Jesus also, or rather his disciples, baptized 
too ; and his fame began to transcend that 
of John, to the discomfort of some ot 
John's followers. But John solemnly bore 
again his witness to Jesus : ' He must in- 
crease ; but I must decrease' (iii., iv. 1). This 
ministry in Judea lasted several months in 
all For it began before the passover, m 
the spring, and, when it was ending, and 
Jesus was returning into Galilee, it was 
within four months of the following year's 
harvest (35), that is to say, in winter. At 
this season Jesus was crossing Samaria, 
where occurred his interesting conversa- 
tion with the woman at Jacob's well, and a 
consequent two days' sojourn in the coun- 
try (1-43). He then repaired to Cana, and 
cured the Capernaite nobleman's son, and 
was well received by the Galileans, who had 
seen what he did at Jerusalem during the 
last passover (45-54). Here he taught for 
some brief space in the synagogues (Matt, 
iv. 17 ; Mark i. 15 ; Luke iv. 15), preaching 
repentance. 

Afterwards there was a feast of the 
Jews; and Jesus again visited the metro- 
polis (V. 1). It is a matter of great dit- 
flculty to determine what feast this was: 
there are critics who have respectively sup- 
posed it nearly every Jewish festival. And 
yet the accurate decision is of importance; 
because the total length of our Lord's min- 
istry is affected thereby. It is quite im- 
possible to argue the question here:. it 
must be enough to state one or tw^o of the 
principal opinions, and to direct the reader 
to sources where he may obtain full infor 
mation. It seems likelythat this festival was 
in the suring, more especially if Robinson 
{Rarmony of the QospelsM 36, 37) be right m 
assigning the plucking of the ears of corn 
(iMatt. xii. 1 ; Mark ii. 23 ; Luke vi. 1) to the 
return into Galilee soon after this feast. 
But, if in spring, it must have been the pass- 
over, or the feast of Purim. There are diffi- 
culties in the way of each supposition. The 
article is wanting ; and it is hard to believe 
that St. John would have characterized 
the passcrrtir as 'a feast.' But then as to 
Purim, the Jews did not usually resort 
to Jerusalem at that time; and Jesus 
would by going then have chosen to cele- 
brate the inferior feast with more observ- 
ance than the greater. Bishop EUicott, how- 
ever, after carefully weighing all the argu- 
ments, decides for Purim {ubi supr., pp. 135- 
139). Dr. Alford enumerates the different 
opinions, and, though with some leaning to 
Purim, leaves the matter undecided (note 
on John v. 1). Dr. Robinson declares for 
the passover {Harmony, part iv., notes on 
§§ 36, 37). The reader may consult the 
works here mentioned ; and he will find in 
them reference to many others. Whatever 
the feast might be, we are told that at that 
time Jesus healed the impotent man at tlie 
pool of Bethesda, on the sabbath-day, foi 
which he was persecuted by the Jews as 
though he were guilty of profaning th*^ 



rEsusl 



466 



sacred day (Jolin v.). And witli this tlie 
Judean ministry terminated. 

It is ^vell known tliat there is consider- 
able difficulty in arranging clironologically 
the events recorded by the evangelists of 
the life of Jesus, because the order in which 
they occur in the four frequently varies. 
Accordingly expositors widely differ ; and 
several of the circumstances yet to be al- 
luded to are thought by some to be prior m 
time to some of those already noted. Bishop 
Ellicott's judgment will for the most part 
be followed here. And he arranges the re- 
mainder of the life of Jesus, prior to the 
last scenes, in three divisions— the ministry 
in eastern Galilee, the ministry in northern 
Galilee, the journeyings toward Jerusalem 
—occupying a period somewhat upwards of 
a twelvemonth. It is scarce necessary to 
repeat that the first three Gospels, after 
giving an account of the birth, baptism, 
and temptation, confine themselves almost 
exclusively to the transactions of this 
period. 

Departing from Jerusalem after the cure 
of the impotent man, as above noted, Jesus 
proceeded to Nazareth, where his family 
still resided. On the sabbath after his ar- 
rival he attended the service at the syna- 
gogue, and as a member of that synagogue 
he stood up to read the lesson from the 
prophets. It was a prediction in regard to 
himself ; and so he expounded it. At first 
his exposition was seriously listened to ; 
but, when he intermingled warnings with 
it, the wretched congregation were mad- 
dened at words they should have welcomed. 
They seized him, and were about to cast him 
from a precipitous height, which may still 
be probably identified, when by his divme 
power he extricated himself and passed 
away (Luke iv. lG-30). Alas for Nazareth I 
the Sun of Righteousness, in whose healing 
beams they might have had salvation, was 
gone from them to shine in other regions. 
Jesus found a temporary home at Caper- 
naum, henceforth ' his city.' There he per- 
formed many miracles, teaching in their 
synagogue ; and there his presence was 
welcome; multitudes flocking to him, and 
begging him, when about to visit other 
places, not to depart from them. The cast- 
ing out of the devil in the synagogue, the 
healing of Peter's mother-in-law, and the 
curing of all the sick and possessed m the 
evening, are thought to have been the work 
of one eventful day (Mark i. 21-34 ; Luke iv. 
31-41). At this time, too (prior, it may be 
thought, to the sabbath) he specially called 
Peter and Andrew, James and John, to be 
his constant attendants. And they left for 
ever (with perhaps one brief exception) 
their worldly calling : they were nov.- to be 
exclusively ' fishers of men ' (Mark i. lG-20). 
Then with his little company Jesus went 
from place to place in Galilee; and among 
other deeds he performed would seem to be 
the curing of a loper (Matt. viii. 2-4 ; Mark 
1 40-45 ; Luke v. 12-15). Hitherto, so far as 
we know, no leper had been healed : human 
skill had ever been powerless against this 
frightful malady. Strong, therefore, must 
have been the faith of the leprous man that 
knelt before J-jsus. He felt sure he could. 



but would he ? there was the agonizing 
doubt: 'Lord, if thou wilt, thou canst'- 
would he not rather shrink from such a 
loathsome object? But it was with kind 
eye the great Teacher looked on him : Jesus 
was ' moved with compassion,' and did not 
disdain with his pure hand to touch the 
suppliant: ' I will : be thou clean.' O the 
unutterable joy of that moment ! The cor- 
rupt disfigurement of the body passed 
awav : the skin resumed its natural hue : 
the fresh blood coursed healthily through 
the veins : no wonder that, in spite of the 
chars-e he received, the man, as he went for 
his official cleansing to the priest, told out 
his marvellous story, and extoUed the power 
of him that had relieved him : no wonder, 
too, that the country rose at the recital, 
and so thronged Jesus that he could not 
enter the towns, and had to retire into the 
waste. We may pause one moment to ask 
if such accounts could have been published 
as we have them a few years after m the 
life-time of multitudes who must have had 
perfect knowledge of what occurred, if they 
were not true ? 

The circuit lasted probably but a few 
days ; and Jesus returned again to Caper- 
naum, where his presence was soon known, 
and the people gathered round him. But 
enemies had now arrived. These were not 
only Galilean Pharisees, but men from 
Judea and Jerusalem. Captious objections 
were made asrainst him, because he healed a 
man, telling him his sins were forgiven; 
and because he called Matthew from the 
receipt of custom, and accepted an invita- 
tion to his house where publicans were 
suests ; and because his disciples did not 
fast like the Pharisees; and because they 
plucked the ears of corn on the sabbath, 
and a man was actually healed on the sab- 
bath-dav. And so were the people stirred 
up by these emissaries, that they began 
wickedly (Pharisees and Herodians m ill- 
omened alliance) to concert plans against 
his life (Mark ii., iii. 1-6 ; Luke v. 17-39, vi. 
1-11) Jesus then withdrew to the sea. And 
he deemed it the fitting time to select 
twelve as his apostles and special friends 
and witnesses. Then, too, it would seem, 
he delivered his sermon on the mount, on 
the hill now called Sattin, a discourse 
given at fuller length by St. Matthew, and 
in shorter compendium by St. Luke (Matt, 
v., vi., vii. ; Mark iii. 13-19 ; Luke vi. 12-49). 

Other events must be briefly noted. There 
was the healing of the centurion's servant 
on his return to Capernaum, the raising of 
the widow's son at Naiii. the anointing of 
Je=;us' feet in the house of Simon, probably 
the messace of enquiry by John Baptist's 
disciples, tlie crowded assemblage whei] he 
wa'* acain at Capernaum, when his relatives 
interfered to check him, the charge that 
his wondrous power was derive-d from Beel- 
zebub, the scries of parables, the crossing 
of the lake to the Gergesene district, with 
the healiuii of the demoniacs, and the de- 
<?ire of the frightened people there that he 
would leave them. Then came the return to 
the western side of the lake, the raising of 
Jairus' daughter, and perhaps once more a 
visit to the synagogue at Nazareth, wne?«, 



467 



[jESUS 



If there was not roused the same demoniac 
spirit a,3 before, he was receiv^ed with 
scorn: 'Is not this the carpenter?' Next 
there was the seuding forth of the apostles ; 
and after their return the account of the 
Baptist's murder arrived, and Jesus retired 
to the solitudes, soon peopled with im- 
mense crowds that followed him, live thou- 
sand of whom he fed near Bethsaida-Julias 
(Matt.viii. 5— xiv. 21; Marie iii. 20— vi. 44; 
Luke vii. 1— ix, 17 ; John vi. 1-14). 

A series of other and more extended 
journejungs was about to succeed. Bishop 
Eliicott well notes ' the progressive nature 
... of our Lord's ministerial labours, and 
the prophetic indications, as It were, which 
it supplies of the future universal diffusion 
of the gospel. At first we have seen that 
our blessed Master was mercifully pleased 
to confine his teaching and his deeds of 
love and mercy mainly to that province 
which could now alone be reckoned as the 
land of the old theocracy. In Judeahewas 
pleased to dwell continuously more than 
eight months : in Judeahe gathered round 
him disciples more numerous than those of 
John ; and from Judea he departed only 
when the malignity of scribe and Pharisee 
rendered that favoured land no longer a 
safe resting-place for its Redeemer and its 
God. Then, and not till then, followed the 
ministry in the eastern, and, as it would 
seem, more Judaized portion of Galilee. In 
due and mysterious order succeeded those 
missionary labours in frontier-lands, where 
the Gentile element was mainly, if not in 
some cases exclusively, prevalent. This 
gradual enlargement of the field of holy 
labour does indeed seem both striking and 
suggestive {ubi supr., lect. v. pp. 202, 203). 

The ministry in eastern Galilee which 
has just been noticed occupied but a few 
weeks : that which succeeds, in the northern 
district, embracing a wider circuit, extends 
over several months. The incidents of it, 
however, ai'e not related with so much par- 
ticularity by the evangelists. Indeed the 
only portion of St. Luke wliich belongs to 
this period is but ix. 18-50, with perhaps the 
addition of a verse or two elsewhere. It is 
to St. Mark therefore, and moi'e especially 
to St. Matthew, that we have to look for in- 
formation. And it may be observed that 
the miracles performed do not appear so 
numerous. Jesus was rather employed in 
teaching, a difference in his mode of acting 
to be reasonably ascribed to the different 
character of the people amongst whom he 
walked. The incidents must be stated here 
with the utmost brevity. 

Returning from the place where the five 
thousand had been fed, Jesus delivered a dis- 
course in thesynagogueat Capernaum which 
so offended many of the hearers, that some 
even of those who called themselves his 
disciples forsook him (Matt. xiv. 22-36 ; 
Mark vi, 45-56 ; John vi. 15-71). Some mira- 
cles of healing were performed; but the 
scribes and Pharisees from Jerusalem were 
again there, besetting Jesus with heartless 
cavils, which were severely rebuked (Matt, 
XV. 1-20 ; Mark vii. 1-23). He then visited 
the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, nnd performed 
t'he ever-memorable miracle of healing the 



Syro-phoenician woman's daughter (Matt. 
XV. 21-28 ; Mark vii. 24-30). His further 
journeyings may be thus noted. Returning 
from the Phoenician border (whether he had 
passed it is uncertain) he again traversed 
Decapolis, and came to the farther shore of 
the sea of Galilee. Here he healed many 
sick persons, and fed four thousand with 
seven loaves and a few fishes. Crossing the 
lake to Dalmanutha he was encountered by 
Sadducees with Pharisees. He soon left 
these cavillers and went to Bethsaida- 
Julias, and thence to the district of Csesarea 
Phi!ii)pi. In this neighbourhood was the 
solemn confession made by Peter, as the 
spokesman of the twelve, that Jesus was the 
Sou of God : the Lord's warning them of 
his approaching rejection at Jerusalem and 
death there followed ; and about a M-eek 
later was the transfiguration, most probably 
on one of the spurs of Hermon. On his 
descent from the mountain Jesus healed q 
demoniac boy, and would seem afterwards 
to have soon returned to Capernaum, where 
he paid tribute, and probably remained a 
while in privacy (Matt. xv. 28— xviii. 35; 
Mark vii. 31— ix. 50). 

It is observable that in these journeys 
Jesus passed through regions with a mixed 
population. And, as he carried his presence 
and teaching into half-heathen lands, so he 
gave blessed proof that his mission was 
not exclusively to his own countrymen, 
and that a time would come when the 
gospel would be proclaimed to every nation. 
But now the period was approaching when 
his work would be consummated. His 
missionary journeys over, he must labour 
again in Jerusalem and Judea, face afresh 
the malice of the rulers, and ultimately shed 
his blood. We have now, therefore, to con- 
sider the journeyings towards Jerusalem, 
St, Matthew and St, Mark supply little ma- 
terial for the part of the history we now 
approach. But St. Luke gives large account 
and the notices of St, John contribute to fix 
the particular times of various events. 

The feast of tabernacles, in the autumn, 
was drawing on ; and much curiosity was 
expressed as to whether Jesus would or 
would not attend at Jerusalem. His rela- 
tives exhorted him not to confine himsell 
and his works to remote Galilee, but to an- 
nounce himself before the assembled nation 
in the metropolis. Their censure proceeded 
from vanity and unbelief combined. They 
doubted his pretensions ; but yet, if they 
were well-founded, they wished for the full 
credit of them, Jesus, however, seems to 
have delayed in setting out. And it was 
not perhaps till the feast was already begun 
that he reached Jerusalem, having passed 
through Samaria where, because of the evi- 
dent purport of his journej-, he was ill- 
received. At Jerusalem he did not at fii-st 
show himself; and enquiries were made 
after him. It was about the middle of the 
festival that he appeared in the temple and 
taught publicly ; and to this teaching we 
may perhaps ascribe those discourses which 
seem to have produced so deep an impres- 
sion on the multitudes, on the officers, on 
the very hostile party themselves, inp.dfl 
more by weight of words than by mi^aifi"^ 



JESXTS] 



468 



long deeds ; for the healing of tlie blind 
beggar is tlie only supernatural exercise of 
power recorded (Luke ix. 51-62 ; J olm vn. 
2-x. 21). Perhaps after this festival J esus, 
quitting Jerusalem, remained m Judea: 
perhaps it was at that time that he sent out 
his seventy disciples, and then that the 
other incidents occurred which are noted by 
St. Luke (Luke x. 1— xiii. 21). At the feast 
of the dedication he again repaired to J eru- 
salem, and while teaching in Solomon s 
porch openly asserted his divinity. _ His 
stay was prolkhly not long. The enmity of 
the Jews was excited to the highest pitch j 
and Jesus retired from them to the secluded 
region hevondthe Jordan where John had 
at first baptized ; but even there many re- 
sorted to him (John x. 22-42). _ 

He was in Perea, visiting and teaching m 
many towns and villages, advancing, how- 
ever, gradually nearer to Jerusalem, when 
some Pharisees came with an alarm (as if 
greatlv concerned for his safety) that 
Herod would kill him. He did not immedi- 
ately quit that part of the country, though 
his stay was probably not many days longer; 
and we may not unreasonably believe that 
the events and parables recorded by St. Luke 
(Luke xiii. 22— xvil. 10) are to be placed m this 
time It was while still beyond the Jordan 
that the message reached him of Lazarus's 
sickness. And then followed the journey 
*-o Bethanv and the wondrous miracle there. 
This stuiig the rulers to madness: the 
council assembled ; and from that time they 
were maturing their wicked purpose of 
putting him to death. Bat they found no 
immediate opportunity. Jesus, though so , 
near as Bethany, probably did not then ; 
enter Jerusalem, but retired for a while j 
to Ephraim, waiting for the now fast-ap- : 
preaching passover (John xi. 1-54). _ | 
Then commenced the last solemn journey 
to Jerusalem. Jesus first directed his ' 
course northward, passing through Samaria . 
and some part of Galilee, across the Jordan 
through Perea, and then, re-crossmg tlie 
river, he directed his course by Jencho. 
Various miracles were performed, and vari- 
ous parables spoken during the circuit ; tne 
incidents of which are narrated by all the 
synoptical Gospels (^latt. xix., xx. ; :klark x. ; 
Luke xvii. 11— xix. 28). Wonderful is the 
thought of that determined zeal witb 
which he pressed forward to the place 
where, as he knew, the most grievous suf- , 
ferings awaited him,heading the procession, [ 
and warning his disciples of what was; 
a])out to be done; while they, still not, 
able to conceive the reality of his words, ■ 
were demanding place and pre-eminence m, 
as they thought, the worldly kingdoni he 
was about to establish. And so six days 
before the passover Jesus reached the 
loving and beloved home of Bethany (John 

^'inall the preceding history there is per- 
fect harmonv and tbe stamp of credibilitj'. 
The same purpose is evident from the be- 
ginning, frequently announced, steadily 
pursued, carried out in the same temper 
with neither mistake nor change. And 

)b-erve how the different liistories fit in. 

To a cursory reader the evangelists may 



seem all to be going over the same ground 
—one but the repetition of what the others 
had said. But on a more minute investiga- 
tion we find that circumstances are given 
by one additional to what another had told 
in brief words. Incidents omitted here ap- 
; pear there in their places ; and the narra- 
; tive so made out of different threads is of a 
' piece and consistent ; or, if there be ob- 
i scurity anywhere, it is because we know 
i not all that might be told, 
i But the great drama hastens on ; and the 
last scenes must be briefly presented. It 
was probably late on Friday when Jesus 
reached Bethany. The next day the family 
■ made him a feast. Lazarus was at the 
, table : Martha served ; and Mary with her 
loving heart anointed his feet with costly 
' perfume. Matthew and Mark seem to place 
this feast later, 'after the triumphal entry 
into Jerusalem, not,' as bishop EUicott says, 
' as having happened then, but as standing 
in suitable connection with the mention of 
the betraval of Judas ; the workings of 
whose evil heart, as we know from St. John, 
were fullv displayed on the occasion of 
this supper ' (w&i supr., p. 284: comp. Home's 
Introd., edit. Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 474, 475). The 
news of his arrival was known : and that 
night many persons came from the neigh- 
bouring city, residents and those that were 
flocking up for the passover, to see both 
Jesus, and also Lazarus, .who died a few 
weeks before and was now alive. On the 
morrow, Sunday, Jesus would enter Jerusa- 
lem ' Prophecy,' says bishop EUicott, 
' must have its full and exact fulfilment : 
the King must approach the city of the King 
with some meek symbols of kingly majesty. 
With haste, it would seem, two disciples 
are dispatched to the village over-against 
them to bring to him who had need of it 
the colt " whereon yet never man sat" : with 
haste the zealous followers cast upon it 
their garments, and, all unconscious of the 
significant nature of their act, place thereon 
their Master, the coming King. Strange it 
would have been, if feelings such as now 
were eagerly stirring in every heart had 
not found vent in words. Strange indeed, 
if with the hill of Zion now breaking upon 
their view, the long prophetic past had not 
seemed to mingle with the present and 
evoke those shouts of mysterious welcome 
and praise which, first beginning with the 
disciples and those immediately round our 
Lord, soon were heard from eveiT mouth 
of that glorifying multitude. And not from 
them alone. Numberless others there were 
fast streaming up Olivet, a palm-branch in 
every hand, to greet the raiser of Lazarus, 
and the conqueror of death ; and now all 
loin Garments are torn off and cast down 
before the Holy One: green boughs bestrew 
the way : Zion's King rides onward m meek 
majesty, a thousand voices before and a 
thousand vioces behind rising up to heaven 
withhosannas and with mingled words of 
masnifTintr acclamation ; some of which 
onc^e had been sung to the psalmist s harp, 
and S(mie heard even from angelic tongues 
(pp 286-288). And J esus as he beheld it wept 
over the doomed city. He entered it; and 
the whole population was moved; bo ltk&\ 



469 



[jESUS 



tlie Pharisees bitterly acknowledged : 'The 
world is gone after him.' He proceeded, as 
was meet, to the temple and surveyed it. 
But hours had passed : it was now evening ; 
and he returned with the twelve to Bethany 
(Matt. xxi. 1-11, xxvi. 6-13 ; Mark xi. 1-11, 
xiv. 3-9 ; Luke xix. 28-44 ; John xii. 1-19). 

The next day, Monday, Jesus went pro- 
bably at an early hour to Jerusalem, On 
his way he sought fruit on the fig-tree 
which, having a show of leaves, though it 
was not yet the ordinary time of flgs, ought 
also to have had fruit. There were no flgs ; 
and he pronounced a curse upon it. He 
then entered the temple and cleansed it 
from the traffickers who profaned its courts. 
And it would seem that the children re- 
peated the cries of gratulation which at- 
tended the triumphal entry of the preced- 
ing day, provoking the angry question of 
the Pharisees, Did he hear? could he approve 
such acclamations? Many sick, too, were 
healed before he again retired to Bethany 
(Matt. xxi. 12-22 ; Mark xi. 12-19). On Tues- 
day Jesus once more visited Jerusalem, and 
was teaching in the temple. But through 
the day repeated efforts were made to 
harass and ensnare him. A deputation came 
from the sanhedrim to demand his autho- 
rity for what he did. Then appeared the 
Pharisees and Herodians to ask him if it 
was lawful to pay tribute to the Roman 
Osesar; and next the Sadduces, to puzzle him 
if they could with a question about the re- 
surrection ; and then a Pharisee lawyer en- 
quired which was the greatest command- 
ment of the law. With consummate wisdom 
Jesus foiled every successive questioner, 
and uttered his solemn condemnation of the 
people and the city which rejected him. His 
disciples made him observe the great build- 
ings of the temple ; but he delivered the 
mournful prediction of its utter ruin, and, 
having spoken some warning parables, he 
again returned to Bethany. His public 
teaching was now finished: no more was 
Jerusalem to listen to that gracious voice 
which would have allured her children to 
his great salvation (Matt. xxi. 23— xxvi. 2 ; 
Mark xi. 20-xiii. 37 ; Luke xx., xxi ; John xii. 
20-50) : the gracious opportunity was past. 
Wednesday would seem to have been spent 
in retirement. But the Jews were busy 
with their plottings, and concluded their 
treacherous bargain with Judas (Matt. xxvi. 
3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, 10, 11 ; Lukexxii. 
1-6.). 

Of the events of Thursday and Friday 
only the briefest summary can be given 
here. There was the preparation, and the 
last supper, the humility of Jesus when his 
disciples had contended who should be 
greatest, the departure of the traitor, the 
institution of the eucharist, the heavenly 
discourses, the warning to Peter, the even- 
ing walk to Gethsemane, the agony there, 
the seizure, and examinations bef ore Annas 
and Caiaphas, the appearance in the morn- 
ing before Pilate, perplexing the worldly 
governor, who had never encountered such 
a prisoner, the mocking by Herod, the de- 
mand of the people for his crucifixion, the 
buffeting, the scourging, and the cross- 
no sorrow ever was there like unto his sor- 



row. Then there was the prayer for hia 
murderers, the Roman soldiers that struck 
in the torturing nails, and the darkness, and 
the earthquake, and the royal pardon of 
the penitent thief, and those deeds and 
words of wonder till he gave up the 
ghost, amid the crash of rending rocks, 
which made even the Roman centurion ex- 
claim : 'Truly this was the Son of God!' 
Then they took the body down ; and it was 
buried ; and a seal was set upon the sepul- 
chre, and a watch planted there (Matt, 
xxvi. 17 — xxvii. 66 ; Mark xiv. 12— xv. 47 ; 
Luke xxii. 7— xxiii. 56 ; John xiii. 1— xix. 42). 
So lived and so died Jesus of Nazareth. 
The exact date of his death is as much 
disputed as that of his birth ; and the space 
of time within which it is placed by various 
critics ranges from 29 to 35 a.d. : see table 
in Wieseler's Cliron. Synops., pp. 485, 486. 
Wieseler himself decides for April 7, 30 a.d.; 
and bishop EUicott acquiesces. Browne 
iOrd. Seed, p. 55) fixes on March 18, 29 A.D. ; 
and with this date some of the most im- 
portant elements of the calculation seem 
best to agree. The duration of the min- 
istry of Jesus it is equally difficult to de- 
termine. Bishop EUicott, who has been 
much followed in this article, allows two 
years and three months (ttbi supr., p. 149) : 
archbishop Thomson, understanding the 
passover by the 'feast' of John v. 1, ex- 
tends it over three years (Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible, vol. i. p. 1051) ; while Browne, after 
an ingenious discussion, concludes that it 
was one single year (uM supr., p. 91) ; but 
then he has to give up John vi. 4. 

The death has been spoken of ; but the 
life of Jesus is not ended. It was not pos- 
sible that He should be holden the prisoner 
of death. So, on the third day, the Sunday 
morning, there was a great earthquake ; 
and a mighty angel descended to uncloae 
the sepulchre ; and Jesus lived again; and 
he shall die no more. In truth that was a 
day of wonders; and very slowly, though 
he again and again showed himself to them, 
were the sorrowful disciples brought to be- 
lieve that he was risen. The narratives 
of the evangelists, though particular, are 
brief (Matt, xxviii. ; Mark xvi. ; Luke xxiv. ; 
John XX.) ; and, as no one relates all that 
happened, there is some difficulty in fitting 
in the different circumstances. Perhaps 
the order may have been nearly as follows. 
When the party of womenwere on their way, 
Mary Magdalene pressed on in advance, 
for she reached the tomb before the twi- 
light ended, while the others came up just 
as the sun was rising. Mary saw the stone 
rolled away, and ran off to apprise Peter 
and John. Meanwhile the other women 
arrived, entered the tomb, and were de- 
sired by the angels to go tell the disciples 
And, as they went, Jesus himself met them, 
and reiterated the command. There are 
differences noted as to the number and 
exact position of angels seen ; but we are 
not to imagine these heavenly beings sta- 
tioned motionless; and the women, too, 
were coming and going. Speedily Peter 
and John ran from the city, and perceived 
that the tomb was empty, and went amazed 
away. Mary, however, lingered weepiug, 





find then occurred tliat toucliing incident, 
when, having first seen Jesus without 
Knowing him, she was startled Into recog- 
nition hy the well-remembered voice, and 
she saw as in a moment the vastness of the 
victorv gained over death. For full ex- 
amination, see Rohinson's Earmonij, edit. 
Boston, 1853, part ix. pp. 228-235 ; Birks 
EorcB Evangel, hook iii. chap. in. PP. 423-4d4. 

Jesus took again his own hody ; and still 
the marks of suffering were on it. But it 
seems to have undergone some marvellous 
change, and to he possessed of properties it 
had not hefore. He repeatedly appeared to 
his disciples— ahp.Thomson enumerates {uM 
supr., p. 1071) ten such appearances— to the 

1 women, to Mary Magdalene, to Peter, to the 
two at Emmaus, to the apostles at Jeru- 

i salera on the resurrection-day, a week after 
to the apostles again, then in Galilee to 
eeven (John xxi.), to the eleven, and pos- 
sibly to five hundred with them (1 Cor. xv. 
5 6) to James, to all the apostles at the 
ascension— but he did not liA^e with them 
as he had done ; though by these frequent 
appearances he sufficiently proved the iden- 
tity of his person and the truth of his re- 
surrection. Forty days he still so lingered 
upon earth, and was then carried to the 
right hand of God (Acts i. l-H), where 
afterwards Stephen and Paul beheld him m 
glorv (vii. 56 ; 1 Cor. xv. 8). John, too, stili 
later in vision saw his august appearance 
(Rev. i. 13-16). ^ „ o Woe 
And now was his career a failure ? Was 
this wonderful being merely man ? Surely 
to such questions there can be but one re- 

' ply It is this Jesus who is Lord and Christ; 

i at whose name all creation bows (Phil. ii. 
9, 10) : precious is his blood-sheddmg, and 
dear his service for ever, ^ ^ • 

Several books have been refeiTed to m 
the preceding brief sketch of the history 
of Jesus ; and it would be easy to make out 
an extended list of works treating of him, 
his life and actions. Let it suffice here to 
point the reader to bishop Jeremj^ Taylor s 
excellent Life of Christ, to be louud m 
his coUected works, and also m a separate 

^°JE'SUS— 2. The Greek form of Joshua 
■ Acts vii. 45 ; Heb. iv. 8 : comp. marg.). This 
form is used in the Apocrypha (Ecclus. xlvi. 

1 and elsewhere).— 3. One whom St. Paul 
calls a feUow-worker that was a comfort to 
him He was surnaraed Justus (Col. iv. 11). 

JESUS.-l. The high priest Joshua, son 
Df Jozadak (lEsdr. v. 5, 8 24, 48 56 68 -0 
vi 2, ix. 19 : Ecclus. xlix. 12).— 2 (1 Esdr. a . 
58 ix.48). Possibly two persons. Jeshua 
^Ezraiii. 9 ; Neh. ix. 5).-3.4. The author of 
the book of Ecclesiasticus and his grandson. 
See ErcLESiyiSTicus. ^ • to 

JE'THER {exceUence).—! (Exod. iv. 18, 
marg) : see Jethro.-2. The eldest son of 
Gideon (J udges viii. 20).-3. One who married 
Abi'^ail David's sister, and was tlie father of 
Amasa,' whom Joab murdered (1 Kings ii. 
5 32 : i Cliron. il. 17). In the last-named 
place Jether is called an Ishmeelite; but ni 

2 Sam. xvii. 25 he Is called Ithra, an Is- 
raelite. Perhaps Ishmeelite is more likely 
tone correct.-4. One of Judah's posterity 
[1 Chron. ii. 32).— 5. Another descendant ot 


Judah (ir. 17). 6. A chief of Asher (vii. 38), i 
perhaps the same as Ithran (37) . j 

JE'THETH (a nail, or tent-imi). One of j 
the 'dukes' of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40;: 
1 Chron. i. 51). ^ i 

JETH'LAH (Jiiqn, may lie exalt him). One ; 
of the cities allotted to the tribe of Dan 
(Josh. xix. 42). i 

JETH'RO {his excellence). A priest or \ 
prince of Midian, Avho received Moses when i 
he fled from Egypt, and gnve him one of \ 
his seven daughters, Zipporah, to wife, j 
When Moses was commissioned to return \ 
to Egypt and demand the deliverance of 
Israel" from Pharaoh, he took his wife and 
sons with him, but afterwards sent them 
back to Jethro. After the passage of the 
Red sea Jethro visited the Hebrew camp, 
bringing with him the family of Moses. He 
was '^raost cordially received : he joined in 
offering sacrifice to Jehovah: lie suggested 
to Moses some administrative regulations, 
which were approved ; and he was invited 
to accompany Israel to Canaan. He or his 
descendants appear to have subsequently 
complied with the invitation (Exod. in. 1, 
iv. 18, xviii.). Some difficulty has been felt, 
as if three different names were given to 
the same individual— Hobab, Jethro, and 
Reuel or Raguel. Hoabb and Jethro are 
indeed identical : see Hobab. But the pro- 
bability is that Hobab was a personal name, 
Jethro a title of dignity, and that Hobab or 
Jethro was the son of Reuel. It is only ne- 
cessary to give the words 'father' and 
'daughter' (ii. 16-22), as is frequently 
the case in the sacred writings, the more 
extended sense of ' grandfather ' and 
' grand-daughter.' See Raguel. 

JE'TUR {.an enclosure, nomadic cajiip). 
One of the sons of Ishraael (Gen. xxv. 15; 1 
Chron. i. 31, v. 19). The tribe descended 
from him settled in the province afterwards 
called ITUREA, which see. 

JEU'EL {treasured of God). One of the 
descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ix. 6). 

JEU'EL (1 Esdr. viii. 39). Jeiel (Ezra 

^ JE'USH (to whom God hastens).—!. One of 
the sons of Esauby Ahoubamah (Gen.xxxvi. 
5 14 18 ; 1 Chron. i. 35).— 2. A Benjamite 
chief (vii. 10).— 3. A Gershonite Levite 
(xxiii. 10. 11).- 4. One of the sons of Reho- 
boam'(2 Chron. xxiii. 19). . , • 

J E'UZ {counseimg). A Benjamite chief (1 
Chron. viii. 10). , * 4., 

JEW. JEWS. Properly the people of the 
southern state after the division of the 
kingdom. But we do not find the term 
generally so applied till after the captivity 
of the ten tribes : indeed there appears to 
be but a sinerle previous example, and that in 
a book compiled after the destruction of 
Jerusalem (2 Kings xvi. 6). When the : 
northern kingdom was dissolved, the name 
was given more frequently to the remaining 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, including the 
Levites (XXV. 25 : Jcr. xxxii. 12, -^xxiv. 9, 

„„„„i;; TQ xl 12 Xli 3. XllV. 1, 111. 28). 
aXX\ 111. iy, -^^y -Ml. •J, ' '3 

During the captivity and afterwards, the 
ten tribes having as a people faded out of 
'^itrht, the whole remnant of the seed of Ja- 
cob composed mainly of those belonging to 
the kingdom of J udali, augmented, however, 



1 



i71 



[jEZEBEl 



oy some few from other tribes (Luke ii. 36), 
bore the name of Jews (Ezra iv. 12, v. 1, 5, yi. 
7 8, 14 ; Neb. i. 2, ii. 16, iv. 1, v. 1, 8, 17 ; Estb. 
iii.4, 6, 10, 13 ; Dan. iii. 8, 12, and elsewbere). 
In tbe first tbree Gospels the term rarely oc- 
cm-s (Matt, xxviii. 15 ; Mark vii. 3 ; Luke vii. 
3 xxiii. 51), except in tbe derisive title 
'king of tbe Jews ' (e.g. Matt, xxvii. 11) ; but 
tbe use of it by St. John is peculiar. Of 
course be sometimes applies it with a na- 
tional reference (e.g. Jobn ii. 6, 13, iii. 1, iv. 
9), but very frequently as' designating tbe 
Tews in tbeir peculiar aspect as a hostile 
".ommunity to our Lord, and as standing in 
narked contrast to tbe impressible multi- 
iude ' (i. 19, ii. 18, and elsewhere): see EUicott, 
Eist.Lect, pp. 115, 141, notes. In tbe epis- 
tles we sometimes find tbe word employed 
nationally (2 Cor. xi. £4), sometimes with 
reference to religion (Rom. i. 16, ii. 28, 29), 
sometimes distributively, Jews and Gen- 
ciles (Greeks) constituting the population 
of the world (iii. 9). And it is observable 
that it is more comprehensive than ' He- 
orews ' (Acts vi.) ; for Hellenists (Grecians) 
might be Jews; nor is it quite synonymous 
with ' Israelites,' which term seems, some- 
times at least, to express more decidedly 
covenant-hopes, and relationship (John i. 
47 ; 2 Cor. xi. 22). By foreigners tbe appel- 
lation Judeans or Jews was usually given to 
tbe nation; and so tbe classical authors 
Bpeak : this, too, has subsisted 'to our own 
days. See Judah, Judea. 

It may be proper to give here a brief 
sketch of the history of the Jews after the 
close of the Babylonish captivity, through 
the period in which the sacred history does 
not chronicle tbeir deeds and fortunes. 

Tbe captivity bad widely dispersed them. 
Besides those carried to Babylon, many 
went into Egypt and made themselves a 
uomo there. There subsequently, at Leon- 
topolis, a temple was built; and, though 
tbeir connection with their brethren in 
Palestine was not altogether broken, yet in 
this Egyptian temple the ritual of the law 
was observed. Throughout other countries 
bodies of tbe Jews were settled in the va- 
rious provinces— perhaps even beyond the 
limits— of the Persian empire. The restored 
in Judea were of course vassals of the same 
crown. But this monarchy was subverted 
by Alexander the Great, who is said to have 
bestowed privileges on the Jews. On his 
earlv death 323 B.C., four kingdoms, Mace- 
donia, Thrace, Syria, and Egypt were formed 
of bis dominions. Between the two last- 
named Judea lay, and was for a long while 
under the power of one or other of them,and 
frequently the battle-field of tbeir armies. It 
formed cart of tbe kingdom of Egypt under 
Ptolemy Soter, and was favourably treated 
by Ptolemy Philadelphus, in whose reign 
most probably the Septuagint version of the 
Old Testament was commenced. Oppressed 
by Ptolemy Philopator tbe Jews revolted, 
and placed themselves under Antiocbus tbe 
Great, king of Syria. By Antiocbus Epi- 
phanes they were cru^^ly persecuted : their 
religion was proscribed, and their temple 
profaned. Then that determined patriotic 
spirit was roused which, under the leader- 
^hip of tbe Maccabean family, high priests 



as well as princes, achieved at last their in 
dependence. The regal title was taken bj 
Aristobulus, of this family, son of Hyr 
canus, 107 B.C., and transmitted to his suc- 
cessors : &QQ Maccabees. But the Roman 
power was now extending itself in the east 
Syria was made a Roman province by Pom- 
pay, who took Jerusalem 63 b.c. ; and from 
that time tbe Jews were more or less di 
rectly dependent on the authority of Rome 
The sovereignty was indeed granted to 
members of tbe Herodian family : see He- 
iiOD : of whom Herod the Great, and, after 
an interval, Herod Agrippa I. bad the lar- 
gest dominion. But ultimately the Jews 
were governed by Roman procurators, till 
tbe disastrous war in which their capital, 
their ritual, their polity were destroyed 
by Vespasian and Titus : see Jerusalem. 
They still exist, a separate nation, the living 
evidence of prophecy ; and though without 
a country they exercise no unimportant 
influence on tbe affairs of the world. And 
the time may come when they may again 
assume their place, and re-occupy tbeir land, 
a faithful people under the renewed protec- 
tion of the God of tbeir fathers. 

A notice of Jewish post-biblical history, 
exhibiting tbe preparation made therein for 
the promulgation of the gospel dispensa- 
tion, and marking the progress of Jewish 
thought and organization, will be found in 
Westcott's Introd. to the Gospels, chap, i., in 
which the reader is directed to various 
works on Jewish history. There is also 
given in a note a synopsis of Jewish litera- 
ture from tbe third century before Christ 
to the fifth century after Christ. In later 
times learned Jews have appeared, such as 
Abarbanel, Aben-ezra, Kimchi, and a host 
of others. 
JEWEL. See Stones, Precious. 
JEWESS (Acts xvi. 1, xxiA\ 24). A woman 
of Hebrew birth. 

JEWISH (Tit. i. 14). An epithet with an 
unfavourable meaning applied to rabbinical 
fables. 

JEWRY (Dan. v. 13 ; Luke xxiii. 5 : Jobn 
vii. 1). A name of Judea, which see. 

JEZANI'AH (whom Jehovah hears) (Jer 
xl. 8, xlii. 1). In xliii. 2 be is called Azariah 
See Jaazaniah, l. 

JEZ'EBEL {chaste, no habitation^). The 
daughter of Eth-baal, king of theZidonisns 
(1 Kings xvi. 31), who was priest of Astarte 
under his predecessor on the throne, whom 
he murdered. She was married to Ahab king 
of Israel, who, weak and irresolute, yielded 
himself entirely to the guidance of his un 
scrupulous wife. Jezebel, therefore, occu 
pies a more prominent position than any 
other queen of an Israelitish king. The 
wives of the reigning monarch are usually 
in the shade : the king's mother is first in 
influence. But Jezebel bad at once the reins 
of power in her hand. She cut off the 
prophets of tbe Lord (xviii. 13) : she intro 
duced the public worship of Baal (xvi. 32, 
33), and maintained 450 prophets of Baal 
and 400 prophets of Astarte at her own table 
(xviii. 19). When on the great day of Carmel 
Ahab dared not resist tbe righteous ven- 
geance which, according to the law, Elijalh 
executed on these false prophets, Jezebel 



Aid not yield. Perhaps unable at the mo- 
ment to seize Elijah, for the general voice 
of the people proclaimed that Jehovah was 
God, she sent him a defiant message, swear- 
ing hy her gods that by the morrow she 
would take his life for the lives of her pro- 
phets (xix. 1, 2). The firmness of the Tish- 
hite failed ; and he fled from Israel through 
Judah into the far wilderness. The evil 
power of Jezebel was ere long evinced again. 
Ahab coveted the possession of Naboth, 
which lay hard by the royal domain. Na- 
l)oth would not part with his inheritance; 
and Ahab dared not seize it ; and so, like a 
spoiled child, he lay upon his bed and would 
not eat. Jezebel had no scruples. She up- 
braided her husband for his pusillanimity, 
wrote at once to the elders of Jezreel, or- 
dered them by letters,which she sealed with 
tlie king's signet, to hold a mock court on 
Naboth and condemn him ; and, when they 
reported to her that the deed was done, she 
roused her husband to go and take posses- 
sion. But he met in Naboth's vineyard the 
awful form of Elijah, who pronounced the 
tremendous sentence of God on Ahab and 
on Jezebel (xxi.). Ahab humbled himself; 
but Jezebel did not. During the reigns of 
her sons, Jezebel, though queen-mother, 
sinks out of sight. In Jehoram's reign her 
influence was evidently gone. For he, care- 
less and ungodly as he was, yet put away 
the image of Baal (2 Kings iii. 2). But, 
when Jehu was come to take vengeance on 
the house of Ahab, Jezebel was again the im- 
perious queen of other days. She dressed 
herself with regal splendour; and, as the 
chariot of Jehu rolled up to the gate of Jez- 
reel, she fl:ung at him a bitter taunt. Retri- 
bution was instant. She was dashed by her 
own chamberlains from the window,crushed 
under the horses' feet ; and the dogs ate Je- 
zebel in the portion of Jezreel (ix. 30-37). 

Her name was afterwards symbolically 
used (Rev. ii. 23) ; and it is to this day a word 
of ignominy. . 

JEZE'LUS.—! (1 Esdr. vin. 32). Jahaziel 
(Ezra viii. 5).— 2 (1 Esdr. viii. 35). Jehiel 
(Ezra viii. 9). ^ x a, 

JE'ZER {frame, imagination'). One of the 
sons of Naphtali (Gen. xlvi. 24 ; Numb. xxvi. 
49 ; iChron. An'i.l3). 

JE'ZERITES. A family of Naphtali de- 
scended from Jezer (Numb. xxvi. 49). 

JEZI'AII (whom Jehovah sprinkles). One 
who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 25). 

JEZI'BTj (assembly of God). A Benjamite 
chief who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 

^ JEZLI'AH (whom God draws out). A 
Benjamite, one of those who dwelt in Jeru- 
salem (1 Chron. viii. 18). 

JEZO'AR (lohitenessl). One of the de- 
scendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 7). Probably 
the name is really Zohar with the conjunc- 
tion. ^ , , , . 

JEZRAHI'AII (whom Jehovah brings 
forth). The overseer of the singers at the 
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 

JEZ'REEL (God has planted or scattered). 
1. A name in the genealogy of Judah, pro- 



472 



The symbolical name given to a child (Ho? 
i. 4 : comp. ii. 23). Whish (Paraphr. onMinoi 
Proph., pp. 2, S) Illustrates the prophetV 
meaning by translating ' Call his name GodV 
Broad-cast ; for yet a little while, and I will 
cast abroad the nation.' ' And I will for mj 
own sake sow them broad-cast in the land, 
as seed is sown for a harvest.' 

JEZ'REEL {id.).—l. A city in the hiJl- 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 56). It wa.- 
probably of this Jezreel that Ahinoara, one 
of David's wives, was a native (1 Sam, xxv. 
43, xxvii. 3, XXX. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 2, iii. 2 ; 1 Chron. 
iii. 1). 

2. A border-city of Issachar (Josh. xix. IS), 
situated in the opening of the central arm 
which branches out of the great plain of 
Esdraelon, and runs east and south-east 
towards the Jordan. 

Being seated on a hill it must have had a 
commanding position. According to Dr. 
Thomson, the road along which Jehu came, 
making a circuit, as it must have done to 
avoid the mill-ponds supplied by the great 
fountain (Judges vii. 1 ; 1 Sam. xxix. 1), i- 
visible for full six miles from Jezreel (2 
Kings Ix. 17). In the earlier times the 
Canaanites retained possession of Jezreel ; 
and theManassites, to whom certain town>^ 
in that region, though locally in Issachar, 
were assigned, were unable to drive them 
out (Josh. xvi. 16). In subsequent history 
various important events occurred in the 
vicinity. Here Gideon encamped, and Saul 
also before his last fatal battle with tlic 
Philistines ; and there can be little doubt 
that the fountain mentioned on each ot 
those occasions was that still existing un- 
der the name of 'AinJaind (the fountain oi 
Goliath). It was in Ahab's time that the 
city attained its greatest pre-eminence. That 
monarch had a palace here, which he and 
his son Joram generally inhabited. This 
palace was probably in the eastern quarter 
of the town ; for it was just as Jehu entered 
the gate that Jezebel looked out upon him 
(2 Kings ix. 31). And the vineyard of Na- 
both must have been outside the walls to 
the east, near the fountain, since it was into 
that portion that Joram's body was cast 
before Jehu entered the city (24-26). 

Dr. Thomson thus describes the modern 
aspect of this celebrated place, now known 
as Zefin: 'East of it rises the high moun- 
tain called Jebel Jalud, and also Jebel Nuris, 
from a village of that name. Below it the 
valley of Jezreel sweeps round southward 
to the Jordan. On the north Jebel ed-Duliy 
(Little Hermon) swells up like another Ta- 
bor ; and to the west and south is the mag- 
nificent Esdraelon, surrounded by the 
mountains of Galilee, " the excellency of 
Carmel," and thefat hills of Samaria. There 
is little to claim attention in the village 
itself. A few stones built here and there in 
the rude huts, seem to claim the honours of 
antiquity ; and these large sarcophagi are 
certainly relics of old Jezreel. The city 
could never have been large or splendid. 
The greater part was probably mere mud 
hovels ; and yet there must have been some 
well-built palaces. . . . This apology for - 



hflb"lvVf a'inan (1 Chron. iv. 3) ; unless some castle may now stand upon the spot of thai 
words arromUted o^ to be miderstood.-2. 1 watch-tower, from which the rebel Jehu wa,- 



473 



[JOACHI^VI 



first seen driving fnriouslj' up the ralley 
. . . The neighbourhood is celebrated for 
its wheat ' {The Land and the Book, pp. 459- 
461). 

JEZ'REEL, THE VALLEY OF (Josh. xvii. 
16 ; Judges vi. 33 ; Hos. i. 5). Properly the 
central arm, stretching from the great plain 
between Little Hermon and Gilboa towards 
the east : see Esdraelon. This valley is 
probably to be understood in several places 
Avhere Jezreel alone is mentioned (e. g. 
2 Sara. ii. 9, iv. 4 ; Hos. ii. 22). 

JEZ'PlEELITE, JKZ'REELTTESS. An 
inhabitant or native of Jezreel (1 Kings 
xxi. 1, 4, 6, 7, 15, 16 ; 2 Kings ix.' 21, 25 ; also 
1 Sam.xxvii. 3, xxx. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 2, iii. 2; 
1 Chron. iii. 1). 

JIB'SAM (2)leasavt). A descendant of 
Issachar (1 Chron. vii. 2). 

JID'LAPH (weeping). A son of Nahor, 
Abraham's brother (Gen. xxii. 22). 

JIM'I«fA or JIM'KAH (good fortune). The 
eldest son of Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; Numb. 
xxvL 44). He is also called Imna (1 Chron. 
vii. 30). 

JIM'NITES. a family of Asher, de- 
scended from Jimna (jSTumb. xxvi. 44). 

JIPH'TAH (Whom Jehovah sets free). A 
city in the low country of Judah (Josh. 
XV. 43). 

JIPH'THAH-EL (which God opens). A 
valley, the boundary of the territories of 
Zebulun and Asher (Josh. xix. 14, 27). It is 
most probable that Jotapata, noted in the 
war with Vespasian, stood here, on the site 
of tlie modern Jefat. 

JO'AB (Whose /ai/ier is Jehovah). — 1. The 
eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's 
sister. His father's name is not mentioned : 
we only know that his sepulchre was in 
Beth-lehem (2 Sam. ii. 32). It is not clear 
whether Joab was one of David's com- 
panions when in hiding through fear of 
Saul : his brotlier Abishai certainly was 
(1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9). But, after David's acces- 
sion to the throne of Judah, the tliree 
brotliers appear as lieading the troops of 
Judah in an engagement with Abner, com- 
mander of Ish-bosheth's forces. Asahel, 
the youngest, was killed by Abner in self- 
defence ; and this laid the foundation of 
that enmity in Joab's mind against Abner 
which could be satiated only with his blood 
(2 Sam. ii. 12-32). After a time the oppor- 
tunity presented itself. Abner made over- 
tures to David, which the king favourably 
received, and means were taken to brirg the 
rest of the tribes of Israel under his scep- 
tre. Joab, who had been absent while Abner 
was at Hebron, pretended on his return 
that tlie visit was made with a treacherous 
object, and, sending after Abner, he met 
and assassinated him; Abishai, it would 
seem, being privy to his purpose. Besides 
revenge for Asahel's death, Joab was ac- 
tuated by ambition. If Abner brought 
over Israel to David, he would necessarily 
1)6 captain of the host ; and Joab could 
brook no superior. David denounced the 
murder, but thought himself too weak to 
punish it (iii. 6-39). 

Joab's authority was confirmed by his bold 
success in the capture of Zion(v. 6-9 ; 1 Chron. 
4-8). He was now the undisputed com- 



mander-in-chief, in influence and power 
second to David only. Of course he had 
titles (2 Sam. xi. 11 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 34), and 
of course, while m the field in the king's 
absence, he acted independently (2 Sam. 
ii. 28, xii. 26, xviii. 16; 1 Kings xi. 16, 2i). 
He had a staff (2 Sam. xviii. 15, xxiii. 37), 
estates, perhaps near Baal-hazor (xiii. 23, 
xiv. 30), and a house in the wilderness 
(1 Kings ii. 34). Joab took a leading part 
in the great wars of David's reign, especially 
distinguishing himself against the Am- 
monites and Syrians (2 Sam. x. 6 14). Prof. 
Blunt {Undesigned Coincidences, part ii. 
11), and after him Dr. Stanley (Smith, 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. i. p. 1083), have ima- 
gined that Joab's chief power over David 
was acquired by his possession of the ter- 
rible secret of the monarch's adultery and 
murder of Uriah. But these able critics 
have forgotten that the most remarkable 
examples of Joab's unscrupulous boldness 
were either before that great sin or after 
it ceased to be a secret. From Uriah's death 
to Absalom's rebellion probably the matter 
was known to but few. And in that in- 
terval Joab was so little confident of his 
own influence with the king that he did not 
venture to propose Absalom's recall without 
having recourse to stratagem (2 Sam. xiv.). 
When David was dethroned, and his concu- 
bines dishonoured, in accordance with jS'a-- 
than's sentence (xii. 7-12, xvi. 21, 22), we 
cannot believe that there was a man in 
Israel who did not know the worst. Joab 
was faithful to David in that rebellion, but 
disobeyed his command to spare Absalom 
(xviii.), and reproved liis master in very 
uncourtly terms for his too great grief (xix. 
1-7). David's feelings were, however, tho- 
roughly aroused : he superseded Joab, and 
appointed another nephew, Amasa (who 
had been Absalom's general) commander- 
in-chief (13). This appointment was evi- 
dently unpopular ; and Joab took advantage 
of the unwillingness of the soldiery to serve 
under Amasa, and assassinated him as he 
had done Abner. Having then been suc- 
cessful against Sheba, he resumed his for- 
mer post (XX.). We afterwards find him 
remonstrating against the census, but com- 
pelled to carry out the king's commands 
(xxiv. 2-9). At the end of David's reign he 
supported Adonijah's claim to the throne 
(1 Kings i. 7) : his evil deeds were rehearsed 
by David to Solomon (ii. 5, 6) ; and, on a 
fresh indication of Adonijah's discontent, 
he was put to death by Solomon (28-34;. His 
character, ambitious, daring, unscrupulous, 
yet with an occasional show of piety (2 Sam. 
X. 12) is sufficiently exhibited l:)y his career. 
Possibly it is from him that Ataroth Beth- 
Joab, or the house of Joab, had its name 
(1 Chron. ii. 55). 

2. A name in the genealogies of Judah 
(iv. 14).— 3. One whose descendants returned 
after the captivity (Ezra ii. 6, viii. 9 ; I^^eh. 
vii. 11). Perhaps the person mentioned in 
Ezra viii. 9 was not Identical with the indi- 
vidual noted in the other texts. 

JOA'CHAZ (1 Esdr. i. 34). Jehoiakim. 

JO'ACITJM.—l (Bar. i. 3). Jehoiakim.— 
2 (7). Probably Joiakim, the high priest 
(JSleh. xii. 10). But, if so, there is an ana- 



474^ 



Ehrouism, and additional proof is afEorded 
of theuntrustwortliiness of the apocryplial 
book of Baruch. . , . 

JO'ACI^.—l a Esdr. i. 37-39). Jelioiakira. 
—2 (43\ Jehoiaclim.— 3 (v. 5). Probably 
Joiakim the son of Jeshua : comp. Xeh. 
xii. 10— 4 (Judith iv. 6, 8, 14, A high 

priest in whose time Judith is said to have 
liyed— 5 (Hist. Sus.). The husband of Su- 
sanna. 

JOAJDA'XrS (1 Esdr. i s. 1 9 ). 
JO'lH ovhose urother, i.e. helper, ?s Je- 
]iovah\-l. The sou of Asaph, recorder or 
chronicler to Hezekiah ^2 Kings xtui. 18, 
26, 37 ; Isai. xxxvi. 3, 11, 22).— 2. A Levite 
of the family of Gershon (1 Chrou. yi.21), 
probably the same with Ethan c42\— 3. A 
Korhite, son of Obed-edom, one of the por- 
ters (xxvi. 4).— 4. A Gershonite Levite, who 
with his sou, assisted in the reforms of 
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12\— 5. The son of 
Joahaz, recorder to Josiah (xxxir. S). 

JOA'HAZ (whom Jehovah holds or sus- 
tains'). The father of Joab, recorder to 
kins- Josiah (2 Cliron. xxxiv. 8>. 

JOA'XAX a Esdr. ix. 1). Johanan (Ezra 
X. 6). , . , 

J012s'XA (whom Jehovah has graciously 
(y^^.f,,^ _1. One of our Lord's ancestors 
(Luke iii. 27'. Lord A. Hervey would iden- 
tifv him with Hananiah (1 Chron. iii. 19).— 
" 'The wife of Chuza, steward to Herod 
lutipas oiip of the women who ministered 
to our Lord 'Luke viii. 3, xxiv. 10). 

JOAX'XAX (1 Mace. ii. 2). The eldest son 
of the Maccabeau family, surnamed Caddis. 
He is elsewhere called John (ix. 36, 38), and 
Joseph (2 Mace. viii. 22\ ^ , . ., _ 

JO'AEIB a Mace. ii. 1). Jehoiarib a 
Chron. xxiv. 7). , ^ ^ o « 

JO'lSH (whom Jehovah lestov:ed1 the 
contracted form of Jehoash, tlie two being 
indiflerentlvused).— 1. The father of Gideon, • 
of the tribe ox Manasseh. He had an altar \ 
to Baal and a 'grove': and some have | 
thought that he was Baal's priest. If so, \ 
he ^v;^3 awakened to a sense of the lalse 
god's inability to defend himself, 
sons darine act, as he sarcastically cahed 
upon the idol to avense his own ciuarrel 
(Jud-es vi. 11, 25-32, vii. 14, viii. 13 29, 32) 
2 Probablv one of the sons of Ahao (1 
Kingsxxii'26; 2 Chron.xviii.25)._ 

3 The son of Ahaziah, king of Judah,by 
Zibiah of Beer-sheba. He appears to have 
been the sole male descendant of the 
roval house, when he was rescued by Je- 
ho'sheba, his aunt, from his grandmother 
Athaliah's murderous cruelty, and concealed 
six vears (2 Kings si. 1-3; 2 Chron. xxi. 4, 
17, xxii. 1, 8, 10-12). In the seventh year he 
was produced bv Jehoiada the priest, and 
solemnlv inaugurated king in the temple ; 
•^thaliah beuis: summarily put to death 
(9 Kin^s xi. 4"21; 2 Chron. xxiii.). Joash 
was ^even vears old Avhen placed upon the 
throne and he reigned forty years, 878-838 
DC So lone as Jehoiada lived, beyond the 
tweutv-third year of the king, Joash who 
looked up to him with respect, reigned well. 
The hitrh places Avere not, indeed, taken 
away: but the temple was repaired; and, 
•rfenerallv speaking, the country was pros- 
perous. 'But, when Jehoiada was no more. 



the kins, easily influenced "by counsellors 
for good or evil, was induced by the apos- 
tate nobles to restore the idol-worship oi 
Baal and Ashtaroth. Prophets were sent 
to warn him ; but he would not listen ; and 
he even commanded Zechariah the priest, 
son of his ancient benefactor Jehoiada, to 
be stoned in the very court of the Lord s 
hou=e because he uttered a faithful warn- 
in^ aL^ainst sins that were unblushmgly 
committed. This flUed up the measure of 
the unhappy king's misdeeds. Judgment 
was now to be executed on him. The 
Svrians invaded Judah : the large army ot 
Joash was defeated by a much smaller force 
of Svrians; and Jerusalem itself -^ould 
have 'fallen, had not Joash bought^off the 
invaders bv vast suras of money. But the 
ctate was' thorouirhly disorganized: the 
king was suffering tmder a severe di^epe ; 
and his own servants, Jozachar or Zabad, 
and Jehozabad, conspired against him and 
^lew him. Thus the blood of Zechariah 
was avensred (2 Kings xii. ; 2 Chron xxiv.). 

4 The s^on of Jehoahaz, and grandson of 
Jeliu. He succeeded his father on the 
throne of Israel, and reigned sixteen years, 
S40-8--'5 B c. (comp. Browne, Ordo Saclorum, 
§ ''•^s) The kingdom at his accession was 
I brought verv low ; but, though Joash con- 
! tinned the sinful worship of the calves at 
' Beth-el and Dan, God mercifully pitied hia 
■ peoT)le, and gave them deliverance. Joash 
i was successful against both Syria and Ju- 
' dah He appears to have treated Easha 
with great respect, and visited him upon 
his death-bed, deploring his removal as a 
national calamity. The dying prophet- 
placed bow and arrows in the monarcna 
hand and bade him shoot. Thrice he shot, 
and staved. The action was symbohcal ; 
and Elisha was displeased that J oash stayed 
<so ^oon. Three victories, however, he as- 
sured him he should gain. And, accoramgly, 
Joa=h three times defeated Ben-hadad, wno 
^^ucceeded his father Hazael, and recovered 
the territorv that belonged to Israel (2 Kings 
xiii 10-19, 22-25). Again, a large body of 
I^raelitish troops had been hired by Ania- 
ziah, king of Judah, but were dismissedby 
him Discontented and angry, they leii 
upon some of the cities of Judah. Amaziah, 
having returned victorious from Edoni, 
declared war against Joash In revenge for 
this outrage ; and, in spite of Joash s con- 
temptuous message, advising hini to be 
quiet, persisted in fighting a battle. The 
kins of Israel was victorious : he tooK 
\maziah prisoner, entered Jerusalem and 
broke down the wall, and seized a large 
^noil Yet he did not dethrone Amaziah, 
or trv to annex Judah to his own kingdom, 
but upon his success returned to Samaria, 
and died perhaps not long after (xiv. 8-16 ; 
2 Chron. xxv. 5-24). , , , 

5 V de-cendant of Judah of the family 
of "Shclah (1 Chron. iv. 22). - 6. -\Beii- 
jamite chief who joined David at Zikiag 

''^JO'A^SH (to whom Jehovah hastens, i.e 
with help).— 1. A descendant of Beujamm, 
and son of Becher (1 Chron. vii. 8).— 2. The 
superintendent of David's oil-cellars (xxvu 
28). 



i75 



[job, the book o* 



. 9). 



The Greek form 
Jozaliad 



JO'ATHAM (Matt, i, 
Of Jotham. 

JOAZAB'jDVS (1 Esdr. ix. 
(Neh. viii. 7). „ ,r , •. ^ 

JOB (desire 1 perhaps an error for JashuD) 
(Gen, xlvi. 13). SeeJASHcrs. 

JOB (one persecuted). An eminent patri- 
arch, who resided in the land of Uz. See uz. 
He was a prosperous man : his family cou- 
elsted of seven sons and three daughters ; 
and he possessed abundant wealth. He was a 
man, too,who feared God ; and his reputation 
was high through the east. Satan obtained 
permission to try him ; and first his sub- 
stance was destroyed, and his children 
perished : afterwards he himself was afflict- 
ed with a grievous malady (Job i., ii.)- But 
he held fast his integrity, rebutting the 
unkind accusations of his friends, though 
unable to comprehend why he was thus dealt 
with. And at length tbe Lord appeared, 
restored him to more than his original 
wealth, surrounded him again with friends, 
and raised him up another family, seven 
more sons and three fair daughters, Jemima, 
Kezia, and Keren-liappuch, ladies far re- 
nowned for their beauty (xlii.). 

Some critics have chosen to douht Jobs 
existence. Those, however, who are more 
reasonable, if they do not admit all that is 
recorded of him in the book bearing his 
name, are ready to believe that there was 
such a man, and that the outline at least of 
the history is true. Ewald has tried to sepa- 
rate what he supposes the real basis from 
einl)eilishment and colouring ; and he speci- 
fies four particulars as facts, that there was 
a man so called ; that he had friends with the 
names which we find attributed to them ; 
that Job and they lived in the region men- 
tioned ; and that Job was afflicted with ele- 
phantiasis {Das Bitch Ijob erkUirt, 1854, pp. 
19-23) But, if this were the whole ground- 
work of fact, we could by no means explain 
the mention of Job by Ezekiel and St. James 
(Ezek. xiv. 14, 16, 18, 20 ; James v. 11). It 
had been far better, had this meagre sketch 
been all the truth, to select other men as 
patterns, men whose history was unques- 
tionable and more largely developed. But 
it is just for what are called the embellish- 
ments that the prophet and the apostle 
place Job before their readers. It is not a 
man whose memory could be but a fancy 
portrait, that would be put forward as one 
whom God delighted to honour, and whose 
faith and patience believers in Christ were 
to follow. The reference would be nugatory, 
had not Job really held on through a long 
course of unexampled afflictions, maintain- 
ing though with human infirmity, his hope 
in God, and ultimately commanded to inter- 
cede for those friends with whose arguings 
the Lord was provoked. The words of St. 
James's notice are very striking. It is ' the 
patience of Job ' of which he speaks, and 
' the end of the Lord' which he commemo- 
rates, that crowning result in which God 
doubled to his servant his original plenty. 
We must acknowledge in all this more than 
the bare fact of Job's existence : seQ Home's 
Introd., vol. ii. edit. Ayre, pp. 669 672). 

Little can be said of the time when Job 
lived, save that it must have been at a very 



early period. Superficial and fanciful argu- 
ments, however, need not be urged in proof 
of this. His not referring in his conversa- 
tions to various important events is no 
certain evidence that they had not then oc- 
curred. But his great age— for he survived 
his trial one hundred and forty years (Job 
xlii. 16)— longer than that of any of the 
patriarchs after the date of Abraham's im- 
mediate posterity, and the general air of an- 
tiquity pervading the manners described or 
referred to, are strong proofs that Job lived 
in remote times. He was the priest of his 
family (i. 5) : his riches are reckoned by his 
cattle (3, xlii. 12 : comp. Gen. xii. 16, xxvi. 14, 
XXX. 43). Writing also is spoken of as by 
sculpture (Job xix. 24). Other similar par- 
ticulars might be noted ; but the conclusion 
must still be very vague, and no exact date 
can be assigned. 

JOB, THE BOOK OF. This hook derives 
its name from the patriarch whose pros- 
perity, affiictions,and recovery, it delineates. 
It is a noble poem, complete in all its parts ; 
as will be seen from the following brief 
analysis. It may be distributed into six 
sections. 

I. The introduction (i., ii.), in which we 
have an account of the way in which his 
troubles came upon him, his deportment 
under them, with the arrival of his three 
friends Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, to 
condole with him. 

II. The first discussion or controversy 
with them, in which, after Job had com- 
plained, each speaks once, and is answered 
by Job (iii.-xiv.). First Job passionately 
bewails his condition (iii.). Eliphaz then 
reproves his friend's impatience, and ex- 
presses his belief that, as misery implies 
guilt. Job's distress must have been occa- 
sioned by sin (iv.,v.). Job next justifies his 
complaint, charges his friends with unkind- 
ness, and expostulates with the Deity for 
laying so heavy a hand upon him (vi., vii.). 
Hereupon Bildad >vith some harshness de- 
clares that certainly, if Job were blameless, 
God would vindicate him by restoring him 
to prosperity (viii.). Job retorts by denying 
that his affliction is any proof of guilt, and 
passionately desires death (ix., x.). Zophar 
then coarsely exhorts him to repent (xi.) ; 
and Job in reply sarcastically reflects on the 
pretentions of his three friends to Avisdom, 
and appeals to the Deity in whom he still 
places his hope (xii.-xiv.). 

III. The second discussion Is similar in 
form (xv.-xxi.). Eliphaz, in admirable ima- 
geiT, reiterates his censure on Job for 
his self-justification (xv.). Job again com- 
plains of the unkind treatment he has met 
with, afresh protests his innocency, and de- 
scribes the grave as his last resource (xvi., 
xvii.). Bildad rejoins by a striking picture 
of the retribution of the Avicked, which he 
applies to Job (xviii.). Job in his reply de- 
scribes again his sufferings, appeals to his 
friends for pity, and, having professed his 
steady faith in God,assures them that if they 
persist in their invectives God will chastise 
them (xix.). Zophar then warns him that 
the triumphing of the wicked is short, and 
his destruction sure to come (xx.) ; and Job 
answers hy showing the fallacy of Zophar* 



JOB, THE BOOK OF] 



476 



feasoniDg, wMch is not borne out by expe- 
rience (xxi.). 

IV. Tbe third discussion has no speech 
of Zopbar (xxii.-xxxi.). Elipbaz vindi- 
cates God's dealings, and urges Job afresh 
to repentance (xxii.). Job replies that he 
wishes he could plead his cause before God, 
and maintains that in this life the wicked 
frequently escape punishment (xxiii., xxiv.). 
Upon this Bildad says shortly that no man 
can be just ])efore God (xxv.) ; while Job, 
as none of his friends had more to say, 
again reproves them, shows how hard it is 
to discover true v/isdom, elaborately vindi- 
cates his course of life, and describes once 
more his miseries, with an appeal to God 
for a hearing (xxvi.-xxxi.). 

V. The speech of Elihu succeeds, who 
blames all the disputants, censures Job for 
persistently declaring his innocence, shows 
how for wise ends God afflicts, and that 
man's dutv is submission to that Glorious 
One whose power Is uncontrolled (xxxii.- 
xxxvii.). , ^ , 

VI. The awful interference of Jehovah 
himself is now described. The Lord here 
illustrates his own omnipotence and righte- 
ousness, and exposes the ignorance of 
man, and his inability to comprehend the 
Creator's ways (xxxviii.-xli.). Hereupon 
Job humbly submits : the friends are cen- 
sured ; and Job's restored prosperity is de- 
picted (xlii.). The conclusion, like the 
troduction, is in prose. 

In all these discussions the character of 
each interlocutor is excellently brought out 
— Eliphaz discerning, grave, and dignified, 
reluctantly led to condemn his friend ; Bil- 
dad, with less delicacy, swayed by Eliphaz's 
example, and repeating himself; Zopbar 
rude and pertinacious ; Elihu /.calous for 
God's honour, which he thinks Job has 
impugned, but which yet his opponents 
have^'not known how properly to maintain. 
The whole is consistent and complete. The 
action, so to speak, of the poem is continu- 
ally rising, till the climax of the divine 
speech of Jehovah. But certain critics, 
taking no account of the eastern mode of 
composition, so difEerent from ours, have 
thought fit to represent some parts as 
additions or interpolations. Thus they ob- 
ject to the introduction and conclusion, 
mainly because they are in prose ; and to the 
speech of Elihu, because he is not mentioned 
at either the beginning or the end of the 
book, because his appearance is said to 
break the connection, and because some 
shades of peculiarity are found or fancied 
in his diction. Other more trivial reasons 
are alleged : and other portions of the book 
are also said to be interpolated. It is im- 
possible to enter here into any full discus- 
sion of these matters : it must be sufficient 
to say that there is an evident fitness in the 
historical introduction and conclusion 
being in prose, and tliat the appearance of 
Elihu, so far from breaking the connection 
between the parts, rather strengthens it. 
He corrects some of Job's assertions, but is 
unable to give a full explanation of the 
divine purposes. It was necessary to show 
1k)\v the highest intellect and the warmest 
zeal fall short before the majesty of the 



counsels of God. It is this conclusion t 
which the whole mind of scripture is di 
rected : 'Where is the wise? where is the 
scribe ? where is the disputer of this world ? 
hath not God made foolish the wisdom of 
this world ? ' a Cor. i. 20). Proceeding after 
the fashion of the critics who attempt to 
dismember the book of Job, we might pull 
in pieces every composition that exists : see 
the subject satisfactorily argued by Keil, 
EinleiUmg, § 125 : comp. Home, ubi supr., 
pp. 677, 678). 

Various conjectures have been propound- 
ed as to the authorship of this work. It 
must be fully understood that, though Job 
himself lived In a very early age, it by no 
means necessarily follows that the book 
was written by a conten:porary. So the book 
of Genesis from Moses's pen narrates events 
that happened long before. The guesses 
that have been gravely produced and de- 
fended by scholars of name are instruc- 
tive, as exposing the uncritical helplessness 
of those wise men who in these our times 
have undertaken to correct Moses, and to 
teach the world how proi^hets and apostles 
ought to have written. It is with compara- 
tive sobriety that some propose Job, Elihu, 
Moses, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Ezra, as 
author ; and Dr. Hengstenberg may properly 
fix its limits between the ages of Samuel and 
Isaiah, within Avhich he thinks the workmu?t 
be dated. But, when others have no diffi- 
culty in coming to an exact conclusion, and 
require us to believe that the author was an 
Idumean, a Hebrew who lived in Iduraea, 
an Egyptian, a Nahorite, and one sage, 
minutely informed of every particular, 
places him in the south of Judea, near a 
caravan-road, and says he was a citizen of 
Tekoah, it is difficult toref rain from wishing 
criticism a little more under the control of 
common sense: see Home, iiU snpr., pp. 
681, 682 ; Bleek, EinleUimg, pp. 658-661, On 
this point we must be content to remain in 
ignorance. The knowledge of the author 
affects not the place of the book in the 
sacred canon. Some well-meaning writers 
are eayer to maintain that it was from a 
Hebrew pen ; otherwise they suppose the 
Jews would never have acknowledged its 
inspiration. It is enough to ask. Do such 
writers imagine that it was left to Jewish 
prejudice to stamp this or that book as in- 
spired or not? The guiding Spirit, as- 
suredly, even if he had ceased to raise ui 
prophets properly so called, yet continued 
to the ancient church that marvellous dis- 
cernment by which they were able to sepa- 
rate between the mere works of men and 
those which God intended for the perpetual 
instruction and edification of his people. 
The book of Job was demonstrably in the 
canon sanctioned by our Lord's usage ; and 
we mav be content. 

The question whether this book is altoge 
ther real history, or rather the elaboration 
of a great truth from historical materials, 
requires some notice. Several of the most 
conscientious scholars have held the last- 
named view. They consider the dialogue 
between God and Satan (Job i.6-12, ii. l-6> 
as evidently figurative : they do not sup- 
pose that the artificial and highly-flnisheil 



477 



"MibU llnoluTctiar* [job, the book of 



BDeeches of Job and his friends could have 
been uttered at once in tbe course of ordi- 
nary conversation : they think the audible 
interposition of the Deity not accordant 
with his usual modes of dealing with his 
creatures. It must be confessed that, pro- 
vided its composition under divine gui- 
dance be allowed, the literal truth of the 
narrative is a subordinate question. Our 
Lord himself has used parables, and intro- 
duced unreal persons into his discourses. 
There is nothing, therefore, to shock the 
reverent mind in the notion of fictitious 
narrative being adopted as the vehicle of 
momentous instruction. But the circum- 
stances dwelt on in the preceding article 
go to show that Job really lived and acted 
as is here told. Moreover, the extreme 
circumstantiality of the details, the de- 
scription of the patriarch himself, his family, 
his property, his country, his friends, with 
their names and special designations, the 
genealogy of Elihu, the exact account of 
the feasting of Job's sons, the particular 
mention of the plunderers— these and other 
similar points mark a history rather than a 
parable (see Dr. Lee's Book of Job transl, 
1837. Introd. pp. 8, 9). No such minute 
details are found in any scripture parable ; 
it seems, therefore, a necessary inference 
that these details are not the play of fancy, 
but all historically true. Doubtless we are 
not to believe that God holds court (if the 
expression may be used) on certain days, 
when evil angels as well as fallen spirits 
have access to him. But, in speaking of the 
Deity, words in their proper sense applicable 
only to men must be employed. We may 
not hence entertain gross notions of him ; 
but it is hard to see how in any other way 
we could be taught the perfect control in 
which he holds all the beings and things of 
the universe. There are some sensible re- 
marks on this topic in Caryl on Job, 1669, 
Annot. on i. 6, vol. 1. pp. 78, 79. And 
objections of the kind made to the book 
of Job would apply equally to other parts 
of scripture. Compare, for example, the ad- 
dress of Micaiah to Ahab (1 Kings xxii. 19- 
23), in which he tells how a lying spirit 
proposed to deceive the false prophets. Then 
we have the still small voice, after the wind 
and the earthquake and the fire, sounding in 
Elijah's ear (xix. 11-18). We are not to 
limit the Holy One to place or time, or to 
prescribe how he should make his commu- 
cations to men. Dr. Kitto, again, has very 
well observed in reference to the elaborate 
character of the speeches : ' Nothing is more 
remarkable among the Semitic nations of 
western Asia, even at this day, than the 
readiness of their resources, the prevalence 
of the poetical imagination and form of 
expression, and the facility with which the 
nature of this group of languages allows all 
high and animated discourse to fall into 
rhythmical forms of expression ; while the 
language even of common life and thought 
is replete with poetical sentiments and 
ideas' {JDaily Bible Illust., sec. ser., first 
week, third day). 
[ This book gives an interesting view of 
religious belief in patriarchal times. It is 
true that some critics imagine they detect 



signs of a knowledge more advanced than 
we have reason to suppose revelation had 
taught in very early ages. If this notion 
be well-founded, it may be some reason for 
considering the book, and perhaps the time 
when Job lived, not so very remote as other 
evidence would seem to show. Still it can 
hardly be denied that, while great truths 
are distinctly held, the interlocutors of this 
poem were not advanced beyond the ele- 
mentary understanding of God's plans and 
purposes, and that one great object of the 
work is to show how man in his ignorance 
must wait for the fuller manifestation 
which only the gospel has effected. The 
chief principles of religion which we find 
recognized are that there is a God, and 
that he is a rewarder of those that dili- 
gently seek him (Heb. xi. 6). These truths 
are variously illustrated : the creation of the 
world by God's power (Job x. 8, xxxviii.-xli.), 
the administration of it by his providence 
(V. 8-27, ix. 4-13), the existence of angels 
that do his will, though some of those 
mighty spirits are fallen (i. 6-12, ii, 1-6, iv. 18, 
XV. 14-16, xxxviii. 7), the polluted state of 
man (xiv.4, xxv. 4-6, the need of a propitia- 
tion by sacrifice (i, 5, xlii. 8, 9), the future day 
of retribution (xx. 4-29, xxvii. 8)— all these 
doctrines are set forth with more or less 
clearness. And, if the passage (xix. 25-27) 
may be interpreted, as many critics believe 
it may, of the expected Redeemer, we have 
in it not only a Messianic promise, but also 
an anticipation of the resurrection of the 
flesh. It is fair, however, to say that some 
would refer this expression of hope mere- 
ly to deliverance from temporal distress. 
Throughout the book, further, there is a 
high-toned morality, obedience to God re- 
garded as an imperative duty (xiii. 15), and 
brotherly-kindness inculcated by example 
(xxix., xxxi.) : see the dissertation on the 
theology of Job's days in Carey's Book of 
Job, pp. 21-30. And yet there is great dim- 
ness in the views exhibited. The afflictions 
that befel Job are a problem which neither 
he nor his friends can solve. And, when 
the Deity appears, he does not reveal 
clearly, as he does in later times, how his 
chastening was in wise love, a training 
for eternal life : he rather, by the ex- 
hibition of his majesty, enforces submis- 
sion and humble acknowledgment. There 
was light enough to guide men in practical 
godliness, and promise enough to call out 
faith. But the promise was not fully real- 
ized (Heb. xi. 39, 40) ; and it was not till the 
glorious gospel appeared that life and im- 
mortality were actually brought to light 
(2 Tim. i. 10). It is very questionable whe- 
ther Job, as distinctly as Abraham, saw and 
rejcjiced in the prospect of Messiah's day 
(John viii. 56). 

The exact design and object of this book 
has not always been clearly apprehended. 
Dr. Hengstenberg considers that the ques- 
tion is ' how the afflictions of the righteous 
and the prosperity of the wicked can be 
consistent with God's justice. But it should 
be observed,' he proceeds, * that the direct 
problem exclusively refers to the first point, 
the second being only incidentally dis- 
cussed on occasion of the leading theme. 



ioBAB] ^t)^ Crea^urs tit 478 


If tliis is overlooked, the author would ap- 
pear to have solved only one half of his 
problem : the case from which the whole 
discussion proceeds has reference .merely 
to the leading problem '(C*/cZo2?.o/5i&Lizt, 
art. ' Job, the Book of '). But lie regards it 
as an error to refer the whole solution to 
the doctrine of retribution after death, 
(iod's moral govei-nment is always m exer- 
cise : not inactive at present, to wake up 
hereafter. It is to be shown not merely 
that the ultimate result of a good man s 
afflictions is happy, but that, while these 
afflictions are needful, there is present con- 
solation under them as they work their due 
effect. In the earlier dispensation, such 
consolations depended more on external 
circumstances : in the New Testament they 
have more of a spiritual cast. Dr. Kitto, 
in a sensible paper {Daily Bible Illust sec. 
ser first week, first day), takes substan- 
tially the same view, and observes that 
♦ the book is, in fact, engaged with the 
great problem regarding the distribution 
of good and evil in the world, especially as 
viewed in connection with the doctrine of 
a righteous retribution in the present life. 
It sets forth the struggle betv^/een faith m 
the perfect government of God, and the 
various doubts excited by what it sees and 
knows of the prosperity of the many among 
those who are despisers of God. Ihe sub- 
iect thus appears to be one that comes home 
to men's business and bosoms. Even under 
the light of Christianity, there are perhaps 
few who have not at particular seasons 
felt the strife between faith in the perfect 
government of the world and the various 
feelings excited in the mind by what they 
have experienced of human suffering. The 
event showed that Job's friends had 3udged 
him too soon : had he been a righteous man, 
his troubles, they thought, would end. They 
did end; and very consolatory must have 
been the story to those who in times im- 
mediately subsequent to its composition 
pondered this book. It has not lost its 
effect for us. We, as the apostle James acl- 
monishes, must see ' the end of the Lord 
and hold on in faith and patience accord- 

^^Lit'tle need be said as to the nature of 
the poetry of this book. Some will have it 
an epic, some a dramatic poeni; while 
others class it with lyric compositions. It 
matters not what name be given it : it is 
poetry of the highest order. There is a 
wonderful glow of fancy and Po^'er of de- 
scription ; so that even if it had no 
merit it must be regarded as one of the 
most admirable productions of the pen. 
The language, it may be added, has much 
In it of an archaic cast. o^^or^ 
Perhaps it may be worth while to advert 
to an argument sometimes taicen from the 
book of Job against the doctrine of inspi- 
ration. It is alleged that the false assump- 
tions of the interlocutors never could ha\ e 
been dictated by an infallible Intelligence 
Of course not. There are many speeches 
of evil men and of the evil spirit scrip- 
ture God never dictated them. But lie 
md see it good in his wisdom that they 
Bhonll be chronicled in the holy book for 


warning and instruction ; and it was under 
the guidance of his Spirit that they were 
so preserved. Rightly viewed, such speeches 
afford not the shadow of an argument 
against inspiration. See the matter well 
discussed in Lee's Inspiration of H. Script, 
lect. i. note, pp. 28, 29, 2nd edit. 

The commentaries on Job are numerous: 
it must be sufficient here to specify that by 
the late Prof. S. Lee, and the very sensible 
one of Carey, frequently referred to m this 
work. , ^, 

JO'BAB (a desert).-!. One of the sons 
of Joktan (Gen. x. 29 ; 1 Chron. i. 23). The 
locality of his descendants has not been 
satisfactorily ascertained.— 2. One of the 
kings who reigned in Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 
33 34 ; 1 Chron. i. 34, 35). Attempts have 
been made to identify him with the patri- 
arch Job.— 3. A king of Madon, who joined 
in the northern confederacy against Joshua 
(Josh. xi. 1).— 4, 5. Two Benjamite chiefs 
(1 Chron. viii. 9, 18). . 

JO'CHEBED (whose glory ?s Jehovaiv 
The wife of Amram and mother of Mo- 
ses (Exod. vi. 20 ; Numb. xxvi. 59). The 
exact relationship of Jochebed to Amram 
has been questioned, i.e. whether she was 
a daughter or more distant descendant 
of Levi. Certainly the wording of the 
text favours the supposition of her being 
daughter of Levi, and therefore sister ot 
Kohath, Amram's father. But, as she was 
born in Egypt, she was probably by a dif- 
ferent wife. All the particulars we have of 
her life are comprised in Exod. ii. 1-10. _ 

JO'DA (1 Esdr. v. 58). Judah, or Hodaviah 
(Ezra iii. 9 : conip. ii. 40). 

JO'ED (his witness ts JeTiovali). A de- 
scendant of Benjamin (Neh. xi. 7). 

JO'EL (Jehovah is his GocT).—!. The elaest 
sou of the prophet Samuel (1 Sara. vin.2; 
1 Chron. vi. 33, xv. 17\ In xi 28 he is m 
our translation called Vashni ; but this, as 
Bathe Ion? ago noted, arises from an error 
of transcription. The word Joel has slipped 
out of the text, and Yashni, which signifies 
' the second,' has been mistaken for a pro- 
per name. The passage, therefore, ought 
to stand : 'The first-born Joel, and the se- 
cond Abiah.' The Syriac version, and some 
other authorities, give it rightly.— 2. a 
chief of the Simeonites (iv 3o).-3. A ae- 
scendant of Reuben (v. 4, 8).-^. A Gadite 
chief (12) .-5. A Kohathite (vi. 36) : he is 
possibly the same with Shaul (24).-6. A 
descendant of Issachar (vii. 3).-7. One of 
David's heroes (xi. 38). He seems to be the 
person elsewhere called Igal (2 Sam. xxm. 
361 —8 A Chief of the Gershonites (1 Chron. 
xv" 7 il).— 9. A Gershonite, descended from 
Laad'an ; one of the officers appointed to 
the charge of the treasure of the house of 
the Lord (xxiii. 8, xxvi. 22). Perhaps^ he 
was identical with No. 8.-10. A chief of 
Manasseh west of Jordan (xxvii.201.--ll. A 
Kohathite in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 
xxix. 12).— 12. A person who after the cap- 
iiViV^*' iiciri i-inri-ipfi a foreisrii wife (Ezra x. 
43) —13 A Benjamite overseer of some who 
dwelt at Jerusalem (Neh. xi. 9). 

14. The sou of Pethuel, one of the so- 
called minor prophets (Joel i. 1). i^'^- 
thing certain is known of the historj or 



n 



479 



this inspired man: it may, however, he 
fairly supposed that he lived in Jiulah. Se- 
veral expressions in his book confirm this, 
referring to the temple-worship ; and his 
utterances are mainly directed to Judah, 
where the temple was (i. 9, 13, 14, 16, ii. 1, 
15, 17, iii. 1, 5, 6, 16, 17, 20, 21). It is not 
easy to decide upon the time when Joel 
prophesied ; and we can only follow the in- 
dications we find scattered through his 
writings. Now Tyre is threatened; and 
acts of hostility had actually heen com- 
mitted hy the Tyrians (iii. 4-6). But such 
hostility would most lil^ely occur after the 
death of Athaliah, the daughter of a Tyrian 
princess. Perhaps, then, Joel should not be 
placed earlier than the reign of Joash. 
Again, Edom is threatened (iii. 19-21) ; re- 
ference being possibly made to the revolt 
of the Edomites from Jehoram (2 Kings 
viii. 20). And it may be that Amaziah's 
conquest was the fulfilment of Joel's pre- 
diction (2 Kings xiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 11, 
12). If this be so, Joel pi'ophesied not later 
than the first half of Amaziah's reign. It 
is admitted that Jeremiah uses nearly the 
same expressions with Joel against Edom 
(Jer. xlix. 17) ; but a later judgment must 
be there intended ; and Jeremiah frequently 
adopts the language of the earlier prophets. 
Once more, as, after the death of Jehoiada, 
the temple-service was neglected (2 Chron. 
xxiv. 17, 18), while this prophet speaks of 
the regular observance of divine worship, 
it is not unlikely that he should be placed 
in the earlier and better part of the reign 
of Joash. Many critics, it must not be de- 
nied, think it more probable that he lived 
in the reign of TJzziah, and was contempo- 
rarv with Amos. 

JOEL, THE BOOK OF. 877-847 B.C. This 
book, in our ordinary bibles, stands in the 
second place of the minor prophets. It has 
been divided into two parts : I. (i.— ii 17) con- 
taining the description of a sore and fearful 
judgment desolating the land, with a call 
to humiliation and repentance on account 
of it. II. (ii. 18— iii. 21), exhibiting the gra- 
cious answer of the Lord, in which he not 
only promises deliverance from the pre- 
sent calamity, but announces the happy fu- 
ture, when in Messiah's days there should 
be an out-pouring of the Holy Spirit, when 
Judah and Jerusalem should have the su- 
premacy over their foes, and the victorious 
church dwell in peace and prosperity for 
ever. The apostles notice the fulfilment of 
some of Joel's predictions : comp. Joel ii. 
28-32 with Acts ii. 16-21 ; Rom. x. 13. 

It has been questioned whether the de- 
scription of the calamity (Joel i., ii.) is his- 
torical or prophetic, i. e. whether the land 
was really at the time suffering, or whether 
it was a future judgment that was de- 
nounced. Perhaps we may more reasonably 
beheve that the land was then visited, and 
that Joel was commissioned on the occa- 
sion of this visitation to utter his message 
of warning and promise. But, if this be so, 
then another question on which critics are 
not agreed will be readily solved. If the 
judgment was then upon the people, it must 
have been of literal locusts, and not the 
storm of war described in figurative lan- 



[JOHANAK 

guage. There is still, however, some diffi- 
culty; for (ii. 20) the plague is said to be 
from the north ; and locusts, it seems, do 
not ordinarily come into Judea from the 
north. But why, locusts being literally 
meant, should not the description have also 
a svmbolical and deeper meaning, to fore- 
shadow those destroying hosts whom the 
sins of Judah would eventually provoke, 
and who would pour upon them from the 
north, the way by which the Chaldeans 
came, as well as any other quarter, and at 
least as effectually reduce the land that had 
been a garden into a desolate Avilderness ? 
Browne {Ordo Scecloruvi, append, p. 692) sees 
in the four-fold ' palmer-worm ' and ' locust' 
and 'canker-worm' and 'caterpillar' 'a 
quaternion of heathen foes sent to ravage 
the Lord's inheritance.' 

The style of Joel is highly poetical : it is 
elegant and perspicuous, and at the same 
time nervous, animated, and sublime. 

Commentaries on Joel are included iv 
those embracing generally the minor pro 
phets. 

JOE'LAH (whom Jehovah helps). A Ben 
jamite chief who joined David at Ziklag 
(1 Chron. xii, 7). 

JO'EZER (whose kelp is Jehovah'). A 
Benjamite apparently, but distinguished aa 
a Korhite, who joined David at Ziklag 
(1 Chron. xii. 6). Possibly he was a Korhite, 
dwelling in one of the Levitical cities of 
Benjamin? 

JOG'BEHAH ^elevated). A city belonging 
to the tribe of Gad, to the east of the 
Jordan (Numb, xxxii. 35). Gideon surprised 
Zeba and Zalmunna at Karkor near this 
place (Judges viii. 10, 11). 

JOG'LI (exiled:). The father of Bukki, a 
chief of Dan (Numb, xxxiv. 22). 

JO'H A (whom Jehovah revives). — 1. A Ben- 
jamite a Chron. viii. 16).— 2. One of David's 
warriors, called the Tizite (xi. 45). 

JOHA'NAN (whom Jehovah bestows).— 
1. One of the captains who, after the taking 
of Jerusalem, joined Gedaliah, the governor 
Nebuchadnezzar had appointed. He warned 
that officer of the treacherous designs of 
Ishmael ; but his warning was slighted, and 
Gedaliah murdered. He pursued the as- 
sassins, rescued those they had taken 
prisoners ; but, fearing the anger of the 
Babylonish king, he with the rest went into 
Egypt, in spite of the divine prohibition 
conveyed to them by Jeremiah. We have 
no further account of him (2 Kings xxv. 
23-26 ; Jer. xl. 7-16., xii., xlii., xliii.).— 2. One 
of the sons of Josiah (1 Chron. iii. 15). — 3. A 
descendant of the house of David (24).— 4. 
One in the line of high priests (vi. 9, 10).— 
5. 6. Two warriors, one a Benjamite, the 
other a Gadite, who joined David when in 
hold (xii. 4, 12).— 7. The father of a chief of 
Ephraim, in the reign of Pekah (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 12).— 8. One of those who returned 
with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii. 12).— 
9. The son of Eliashib (most probably the 
high priest) to whose chamber Ezra went 
to mourn for the transgression of the 
people (x. 6).— 10. The son of Tobiah the 
Ammonite, who had married the daughter 
of MeshuUam, the son of Berechiah (Neh. 
I vi. 18).— 11. The father of Jaddua, in the 



'OHA.2mES 



480 



line of priests, called also Jonathan (xii. 
v .. 12. One termed the son of Eliashib 
(,23) ; identical with either no. 9, or 2so. 10. 

JOHAN'NES a Esdr. ix. 29). Jehohanan 
(Ezra X. 28). 

JOHN (identical with Johanan).— 1. The 
eminent forerunner of Messiah, usually de- 
nominated ' the Baptist,' more properly the 
Baptizer (Matt. iii. 1). 

He was of a priestly family, the son of 
Zacharias, of the course of Abia or Abijah, 
his mother Elisabeth being also of the 
daughters of Aaron. This couple were 
of blameless deportment, and were well 
stricken in years before they had any 
child, though it was their prayer that 
they might be so blessed. At length, on 
occasion of Zacharias, according to the 
function of his priesthood, burning incense 
in the temple, he was startled by the ap- 
pearance of the angel Gabriel, who an- 
nounced to him that his supplication was 
heard, that he should have a son, who was 
to be'a Nazarite from his birth, and who 
should, in the spirit and power of Elijah the 
prophet, prepare the way for the manif esta- 
\ lion of the Lord. Zacharias was incredulous, 
i Kud as a warning and a sign was thereupon 
rendered dumb. When his appointed time 
! of ministration was ended, he returned to 
I liis own residence in the hill-country of 
J udah— Hebron or Juttah it has been va- 
riously supposed to be — where his wife, 
I having conceived, was visited six months 
! afterwards by her cousin Mary, the Virgin, 
i On the salutation of the two holy women, 
words of joy were uttered which have ever 
I since been treasured among the glorious 
: songs of the church. In due time Elisa- 
i beth's child was born ; and, when he was to 
be named at the circumcision, and relatives 
would have called him after his father, his 
mother insisted that his name should be 
John, for so had the angel commanded. 
The father, appealed to, confirmed it in 
writing; and then, the accomplishment of 
the prediction being come, he was relieved 
from his dumbness, and he, too, uttered a 
noble song of praise. Such were the re- 
markable circumstances attending the birth 
of John Baptist : of his youth and early 
manhood we know no more than that he 
' grew and waxed strong in spirit, and was 
in th e deserts till the day of his showing unto 
Israel' (Luke i. 5-80). Of course rational- 
istic interpreters object to this history. 
Their objections need not be canvassed 
here; they are sufficiently disposed of by 
Dr. Mill iMyth. Interp. of the Gospels, part ii. 
chap. i. pp. 91, &c.). 

"What the life of John was as spent in the 
deserts we have no means of knowing. It 
has been said that he was a hermit, prac- 
tising the most rigorous asceticism. No 
doubt this is an exaggeration ; for we find 
him when he commenced his ministry well 
acquainted with the general current of 
affairs, with the habits, the duties, the 
pursuits of various classes of men, nay, 
with what might l)e called the politics of 
the time. Such knowledge could not have 
been acquired by a perfect recluse. John was 
seif-deuying and temperate, observant of 
religious fasts, clothed in tlie garments 



probably of the ancient prophets, and satis- 
fied Avith plain fare. More the scripture 
does not tell us. 

At length the day of his public service 
came, for which his previous life nad quali 
fied him, and on which no doubt he had 
often meditated. It would seem that he 
was summoned by some special monition 
(John i. 33). He performed no miracles 
(X. 41) ; but his preaching was with a power 
and practical energy that stirred up the 
wliole country to resort to him. He fear- 
lessly rebuked vice : he proclaimed the ne- 
cessity of repentance, and practised baptism 
as a symbol thereof : see Baptism : he pro- ^ 
claimed, too, the approach of a greater One, 
of whom he was but the humble servant, 
and who would baptize with the Holy 
Ghost and with fire (Matt. iii. 1-12 ; Mark i. 
4-8 ; Luke iii. 1-18). The fame of this stern 
preacher reached even the higher authori- 
ties of the nation ; and they sent to question 
him. Was he the Messiah ? was he Elijah 1 
or who was he ? In reply he told them that 
his office was preparatory : he was ' the 
voice,' as the prophet had expressed it, ' of 
one crying in the wilderness. Make straight 
the wav of the Lord,' and he pointed them 
to him" (John i. 19-28). Had the enquirers 
been honest and conscientious, they would 
not only have yielded ' fruits meet for re- 
pentance,' but would have accepted his tes- 
timony of Messiah. 

John, however, besides the general im- 
pression made upon the people, had at- 
tached to himself certain special disciples, 
who were trained in self-denial and fasting 
(IMatt. ix. 14) ; but even this was made a 
ground of reproach by that evil generation 
(xi. 18). He did not continue always in 
one place. He seems to have journeyed 
up the Jordan, baptizing in places conr 
venient for tnose who resorted to him. Two 
such places are mentioned, Bethabara, or 
more properly Bethany, and ^non near to 
Salim (John i. 28, iii. 23). To his astonish- 
ment Jesus presented himself for baptism. 
John could not understand why he, the 
sinless one, should desire the rite which in 
order to repentance was intended for sin- 
ners ; but he was silenced by the reply, 
' Suffer it to be so now ; for thus it becom- 
eth us to fulfil all righteousness.' And then 
a marvel was witnessed— the sensible de- 
scent of the Holy Spirit on him whom God 
the Father's voice audibly proclaimed to be 
his incarnate Son (Matt. iii. 13-17 ; Mark i. 
9-11 ; Luke iii. 21, 22). 

A difficulty has been felt, because John 
expressly declared that he did not know 
the great Personage whose coming he an- 
nounced till he saw this sign (John i. 31-34). 
The cousins had rarely if ever met ; their 
respective dwellings being at opposite ex- 
tremities of Palestine. Perhaps when 
Jesus first presented himself John had 
some inward monition that he was the 
expected Great One ; but till the superna- 
tural event occurred he knew him not so as 
to feel authorized to bear a public testi- 
mony to him. Such is in substance the ex- 
planation given byDr. Mill {iidisiipr.vw 139- 
14G: comp. Ellicott, iecf., pp. 107-109.) 
But surely there is a higher sense. Even 11 



481 



John never met liis kinsman, he must have 
known the circumstances of his own hirth, 
and have been informed that the child horn 
six months after was designated as the in- 
dividual to whom he was to hear testimony. 
When previously to Jesus' approach he 
spoke of the Person so much greater than 
himself, he could not in reason be supposed 
ignorant of all that pointed out Jesus as 
the Holy One. But he was ignorant of Mes- 
siah's divine nature : he believed him but 
a man; and it was not till the marvellous 
sign appeared that he learned he was the 
Son of God, 'I saw,' he himself says, 'and 
bare record that this Is the Son of God.' 
Fe then comprehended in the way Peter did 
when he made his famous confession GMatt. 
xvi. 16) that great mystery ; and he began 
immediately to announce him as' the Lamb 
of God which taketh away the sin of the 
world,' and to direct his own disciples to 
him (John i. 29, 35-37). This was what he 
did not know before. And in accordance 
with the revelation made to him we find 
his remarkable testimony to the Christ as 
coming from heaven, and as being the 
object of faith to men, through whom they 
should obtain 'eternal life' av^ 25-36). For 
those critics are not to be listened to who 
would attribute these closing words to the 
evangelise, not to the Baptist. And, as he 
saw so much, we can understand why our 
Lord pronounced John more favoured than 
all that had preceded him, tliough, as an- 
nouncing the gospel kingdom and not 
actually within it witnessing its establish- 
ment, the least of those so blessed was 
more privileged than he (Matt. xi. 11). He 
was Elijah, not in that gross literal sense 
in which the Jews imagined Elijah would 
appear, but with the same spirit, and bold- 
ness, and faithful service for which the 
Tishbite was distinguished (14). 

Little more remains to be said. For his 
righteous rebuke of Herod Antipas, who had 
.married his brother Philip's wife, he was 
cast into prison, in the fortress of Macha^rus, 
to the east of the Dead sea. The fame of 
Jesus reached liimln his confinement ; and 
be sent some of his disciples to question 
him. This was not, as ii has been thought, 
because his own mind wavered, but In 
order to direct those disciples as others be- 
fore to Jesus. Our Lord wrought miracles 
before their eyes as the best mode of con- 
vincing them, and then took occasion to 
pronounce the high eulogium upon John 
before referred to. He was no reed shaken 
with the wind : he was no sycophant to 
flatter for luxury wicked princes : he was 
indeed the predicted messenger of the new 
covenant (2-10). Ere long we have the re- 
cord of his death, the victim of a foul 
woman's vengeance. His disciples buried 
him, and— best of consolations— went and 
told Jesus (xiv. 3-12). The memory of his 
crime long hauited the tetrarch's guilty 
conscience; and hearing of Jesus he ima- 
gined in his terror that it was John risen 
from the dead d, 2). 

It is not needful to describe the Baptist's 
character : his words and deeds sufficiently 
declare what manner of man lie was. 

2. Oi;e of the sons of Zebcdec and Salome 



(iv. 21, xxvii. 56 ; Mark xy. 40). Perhaps 
this family were residents of Bethsaida, 
the city of Andrew and Peter. Certainly 
they must have lived in the neighbourhood; 
for they pursued the occupation of fisher- 
men, in partnership with the brothers just 
named, on the lake of Gennesaret. John 
had a brother James, whether older or 
younger the scripture does not state; it is 
usually imagined, however, that John was 
the younger. Zebedee must have been a 
man'of some property ; for we find that he 
had hired servants to carry on his business 
(i. 20), that Salome ministered to the Lord of 
her substance (xv. 40, 41), and that John 
(for it can hardly be doubted that he spoke 
of himself in John xviii. 15, 16) had some 
personal acguaintance with the high priest 
Caiaphas. 

John was probably one of those disciples 
of the Baptist who, liearing his remarkable 
testimony to Jesus, followed the new 
teacher to his residence and abode with 
him the rest of the day (i. 35-39). Then was 
made on the mind of the susceptible son of 
Zebedee an impression never to be effaced. 
He doubtless accompanied Jesus to Galilee, 
and was one of the party present at the mar- 
riage at Cana (ii. 2). And, when Jesus 
again visited Judea, the little band who 
had attached themselves to him attended 
his steps, and passed with him on his return 
in the way from Jerusalem through Samaria 
(iv. 3, 4). It is difficult to trace chronologi- 
cally the course of events ; but most pro- 
bably, when, after his Judean ministry, our 
Lord was again in Galilee, rejected at 
Isazareth and removing to Capernaum, 
John and his brother, like Peter and An- 
drew, resumed their ordinary occupation. 
And it was when so engaged that they re- 
ceived the special call (Matt. iv. 18-22 ; Mark 
i. 16-20 ; Luke v. l-ll) to be continually with 
Jesus, which was supplemented by their 
appointment as apostles (Matt. x. 2 ; Mark 
iii. 16, 17 ; Luke vi. 13, 14). Afterwards we 
find John one of the especially-favoured 
three who witnessed the Lord's shining 
glory and his agonizing grief, and before 
whom, apart from the rest, his most won- 
derful works were performed (Matt. xvii. 1- 
9, xxvi. 36-45 ; Mark v. 35-43, ix. 2-10, xiv 
32-42 ; Luke viii. 49-56, ix. 28-36). John it 
was who was sent with Peter to prepare 
the last supper (xxii. 8), and John, the dis- 
ciple whom Jesus loved, reclined next him 
at the meal, and at Peter's hasty nod put 
the question, most likely in a whisper, 
'Lord, who is it that shall betray thee?' 
(John xiii. 23-26). 

"We get from several incidental notices a 
clear perception of John's character. Ten- 
derly attached to the person of his Master, 
he was of aspiring and impetuous temper. 
More refined perhaps in his conceptions 
than some of the other disciples, he yet did 
not fully apprehend the extent and gran- 
deur of Messiah's kingdom. Anxious for 
the Lord's honour, he would have had it 
vindicated by supernatural judgments, and 
limited with formal restrictions. Christ had 
marked this temper when, at the call to the 
apostleship, he had designated James and 
John ' the sons of thunder,' and had some- 



JOHN, TEE GOSPEL Of] €:r£a5UVi3 flf 



45'2 



times to -moderate their ambition Tdy a re- 
buke, while their brethren occasionally re- 
sented their forwardness (Matt. xx. 20-24; 
Mark X. 35-41 ; Luke ix. 49, 54-56). Of Zebe- 
dee their father we hear uothmg after they 
become apostles; but of their mother 
Salome that she encouraged their aspi- 
rations. A lesson is read us how the 
Hnest qualities in fallen man prompt 
many a worldly and sinful thought; and 
how on the other hand, directed and con- 
trolled hy diyine grace, they shine with in- 
creased lustre. John was an apt scholar : 
he drank in of his Master's spirit ; and we 
^ee in his writings how his more ardent 
imaginations were softened and interpene- 
trated by divine love. He had a capacity 
for the loftv and the sublime ; and he found 
food for his high-reaching desires m con- 
templating the majesty, the holiness, the 
unutterable mercy of the exalted Saviour. 

A few more particulars are recorded of 
this apostle in scripture. He stood Ijy tiie 
Lord's cross ; and to him was committed 
the care of the Virgin: he was to ^e a son 
to her, and to comfort her m that bitter 
grief, in which, as she had long before been 
told, the sword would pierce her soul (Luke 
ii 35). In all probability he removed her at 
once to his residence ; but he must himself 
have retuimcxi to the awful scene, as he 
witnessed the piercing of the Redeemer s 
side after he had expired (John xix 2d-27, 
32-35). On the news of the resurrection he 
ran with Peter to the tomb, outstripped 
him looked in, but with reverent amaze- 
ment did not enter till ^eter had gone m. 
Then went John in too and bel]e^ed (xx. 
2 8) He was present on the memorable 
mornins when Jesus appeared by the side 
of the^'lake Geunesaret. His quick eye 
first recognized the Lord ; though Peter, 
with characteristic Yehemence, Plunged 
into the water to reach him first. And 
then it was that the mysterious words were 
uttered which led so many of the disciples 
to believe that John should never die (xxi ). 
After the ascension he was frequently 
Piter's companion (Acts iii., iv. 1-23), with 
whom he was sent by the apostles to ba- 

"'john probltiy did not quit Palestine so 
long as the Virgin mother lived. He did 
uotTit seems, always reside m the capital . 
it is rather likely that he took her to his Gali- 
lean home. For he was not at Jerusalem 
when Saul was brought to the apostle:, 
ix 26-28 ; Gal. i. 18, 19) ; and when he was 
there subsequently it would seem to have 
been on occasion of the meeting of the 
council (Acts XV. 6; Gal ii.9). 

That John subsequently went into Asia 
and dwelt at Ephesus (most likely not 
till after the death of Paul) we can hardly 
doubt ; but many legendary stones are 
told of him which rest on vcit uucertaui 
grounds. Admitting the genuineness of 
fl^e epistles which bear his name, and that 
he was author of the Apocalypse, a e 
assured that he exercised pastoral supei n- 
tptidonce over tlic Asiatic churches, that 
S ^^vas banisl'od to Patmos, and that he 
iiad to contend against arrogant and erro- 
neous teachers in the church. We may 



safely conclude, too, that he died, m ex- 
treme old age. a natural death, and that 
Ignatius and Polycai'p were among his per- 
sonal disciples. But the story of his being 
thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil at 
Rome at the Latin gate, from which he 
came forth unharmed, and others of a simi- 
lar kind (see Gicseler, Eircliengesch., cap. in. 
§ 34 vol i. p. 139) are worthy of little credit. 
Some of them, however, one could wish to 
believe ; as that the apostle sought a rob- 
ber chief, formerly his scholar, and melted 
him into repentance; and that, when 
through infirmity he could say nothing 
more, he used to reiterate m Christian 
assemblies the touching words, Little 
children, love one another.' There is a 
strange tradition also that he wore on his 
forehead a golden plate with the sacred 
name upon it. We may perhaps infer from 
scripture that John was not mamed ; but 
no doubt the accounts of his ascetic mode 
of life are exaggerated. , ■ . rKnt<^ 

3 One of the high priest's kindred (Acts 
iv 6). Some have deemed him identical 
with a noted Jewish doctor, Johauan Ben 
Zaccai.— 4. A name of the evangelist Mark 
(xii. 25, xiii. 5, 13, xv. 37). See Makk. _ 

JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF. This which 
occupies the fourth place among the Gos- 
pels in our bibles, was, we cannot doubt, 
chronologically the last of them. 

Some attempts have been made by mo- 
dern critics to prove that this work was not 
from the pen of the apostle John. They 
have chosen to suppose that there was an 
irreconcilable difference between the Gen- 
tile and the Jewish types of Christianity, 
represented by Paul and Peter respectively; 
and certain books of the New Testament 
they think were written to bridge over this 
difference. The fourth Gospel they consi- 
der one of them ; and they have invented 
in their wisdom the hypothesis that about 
the middle of the second century, a Gentile 
Christian composed it under the name of 
the apostle, to recommend love as higher 
than faith, and to show how the Jewish 
system was fulfilled in Christ, the true pas- 
chal lamb. The church, according to their 
notion, was easily deceived, and hailed 
the production as the genuine work of 
St John. But surely most men will 
think that it is the critics who are cre- 
dulous, and easily deceived. For, to glance 
at the external evidence, not only have 
we the testimony of Jerome and Euse- 
bius in the fourth century after Christ 
but in the beginning of the third and end 
of the second we find the leading wri- 
ters in various parts of the Christian 
world recording their lielief of the au- 
thenticitv of St. John's Gospel. Of these 
Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and 
Iremeus may be specified. The last- 
named writer, in whose life-time the lorgery 
if real must have been committed, was 
acquainted with the state of the church in 
the east and the west : he had known Poly- 
carp, St. John's disciple, and may there- 
fore be taken as a most competent witness. 
Now he declares that in his time the fourth 
Gospel was universally received, and has an 
argument about the four Gospels— just s« 



483 



^ihlt HUTatOlCtfg?. [JOHN, THE GOSPEL OP 



many and no more— being the necessary 
pillars of the truth. How is this compatible ■ 
with the theory that the work had just ( 
been fraudulently concocted ? There are yet < 
earlier testimonies. Justin Martyr, born in : 
St. John's life-time (about 89 a.d.) quotes i 
this Gospel. Further, it is found in the 
Peshito Syriac version, and in the Mura- ' 
torian canon ; and additional proof may be 
obtained even from the early heretics. : 
More it is impossible to say on this part of 
the question here; but It may fairly be 
asked 'if it was possible for a history of 
Christ, falsely pretending to be from the 
pen of the apostle John, to be brought for- 
ward twenty, thirty, or forty years after 
his death, be introduced into all the 
churches east and west, taking its place 
everywhere in the public services of Sun- 
day ? Was there no one to ask where this 
new Gospel cfime from, and where it had 
lain concealed? Was there no one of the 
many who had personally known John to 
expose the gigantic imposture, or even to 
raise a note of surprise at the unexpected 
appearance of so important a document of 
which they had never heard before? How 
was the populous church at Ephesus 
brought to accept this work on the very 
spot where John had lived and died?' 
(Prof. Fisher, in BiUioth. Sacr., April 1864, 
p. 250). 

We may reasonably conclude from a con- 
sideration of the external evidence that 
fraud was a moral impossibility. This con- 
clusion is strengthened by a view of the 
internal evidence. For there are repeatedly 
assertions made that John was the au- 
thor (John xix. 35, xxi. 24) ; and, even if 
we admit, as has been imagined, that the 
last chapter is a later appendix, the testi- 
mony is not thereby weakened. There is 
also the graphic minuteness of detail, with 
the many touches clearly indicative of an 
eye-witness, of which xiii. 22 may be taken 
as an example. The structure of this Gos- 
pel, too, is far different from what we 
should suppose a forger would have de- 
vised. The variations from the other 
Gospels bespeak an independent witness : 
a forger would have servilely followed 
them ; and the wonderful discourses re- 
corded of our Lord, the loftiness of his 
character portrayed, the emphatic main- 
taining of his Deity, are all such as the be- 
loved disciple, looking back under the light 
of Christ's glorification to the days and 
months of his familiar earthly converse 
with him, may well be supposed to have 
most diligently pondered, and to have been 
most anxious to record for the church's 
guidance and consolation ; while a forger 
would have been utterly incompetent for 
such a delineation ; and his attempt would 
have proved a glaring failure. Indeed, 
looking only at this book as a composition, 
and discovering the master's hand that 
penned it, we may well ask, if St. John was 
not the author, who was that greater than 
St. John who has produced such a marvel- 
lous work, and yet has left no name or trace 
of his existence? Besides, from its tone 
and character it is Incredible that it should 
have been composed in the second century. 



Let any one who doubts this read along 
with it the apostolic and immediately-suo 
ceeding fathers, and see the mighty differ 
ence between them and this writer. It is 
indeed alleged that the very sublimity of 
this Gospel places it at a distance from the 
three preceding ones, so that, if they be ac- 
cepted, it could not proceed from one of 
the same company of Christ's immediate 
followers. To argue this question at length 
would be impracticable here : it must suf- 
fice to say that it has been most satisfac- 
torily handled, and the objection proved 
to be without weight. For full information 
the reader may be referred to Dr. Alford's 
Prolegomena to St. John's Gospel, sectt. ii, 
vi., and the books there named; to West- 
cott's Introd. to Gospels, chap. v. pp. 262-286 ; 
and, further, to the very able article already 
cited on the Genuinevess oftheFoiLTth Gospel, 
in Biblioth. Sacr. pp. 225-284. 

The date of this Gospel has been variously 
assigned ; and it is questioned whether it 
was written at Ephesus or at Patmos. The 
former supposition is the more probable. 
Dr. Alford places its composition loosely 
between the years 70 and 85 a.d. : others 
bring it down as late as 96 or 97. 

The Gospel of St. John may be considered 
in some measure supplementary to the 
other three. Some critics, indeed, are dis- 
posed to deny that this evangelist was ac- 
quainted with the works of the rest. But 
there is a great antecedent improbability 
in this. Surely we must suppose them 
welcomed by the church. They would soon 
circulate through Palestine and Asia Minor. 
It would be strange indeed if, after the 
lapse of several years, they never reached 
the hands of St. John, resident in one of 
these countries. And, though some of the 
events narrated by the other evangelists 
are given also by John, yet there are omis- 
sions in his work— a notice of the transfigu- 
ration for instance- for which it is hard to 
account if he was not aware that this had 
been already chronicled (comp. Roberts, 
Discussions on the Gospels, part ii. chap. iii. 
pp. 375-380.) But his Gospel is not a mere 
supplement. It was called forth on suffi- 
cient occasion. It had a great object, the 
revealing to the church of the Lord Jesus 
Christ, in his most deep and solemn teach- 
ing, and in the mystery of his person. 
Errors, too, were creeping in, and found 
encouragement among the motley popula- 
tion of Ephesus, where doctrinal truth had 
to contend with Jewish prejudice and hea- 
then philosophy and luxurious Idolatry. 
Cerinthus was one of the heretics who was 
corrupting the faith. He was a Jew, im- 
bued with Alexandrian philosophy, and he 
devised a monstrous combination of Chris- 
tianity with Jewish and Gnostic ideas. He 
taught that the Most High God dwelt In a 
remote heaven with certain spirits or geons, 
and that he was unknown before our Lord's 
appearance ; that he generated an Only- 
begotten, who begat an inferior, the Word ; 
• that there were two high aeons. Life and 
I Light, to whom Christ was inferior ; that 
■ from the invisible aeons lower orders of 
, spirits proceeded ; that one of these, Demt- 
. urgus, ignorant of the true God, created 



roHN, THE EPISTLES Of] CrgaS'liV j) tit 



484 



the visible worM out of eternal matte., 
3nd was the God of the Israelites ; his laws 
being intended to be of perpetual obliga- 
tion ; that Jesus was but a man on whom 
the aeon Christ descended at his baptism, 
endowing him with supernatural powers; 
that the {Bon Light had similarly entered 
John the Baptist ; that it was Jesus who at 
the instigation of the Jewish Deity, whom 
he opposed, alone died ; the JBon Christ as- 
cending up on high ; but that he will return, 
be re-united to Jesus, and reign in Palestine 
a thousand years, bestowing on his disci- 
ples exquisite sensual delights. Some have 
imagined that Cerinthus borrowed his 
terms from this Gospel. Whether this were 
so or whether John intended to refute the 
heretic, he manifestly has refuted the errors 
of Cerinthus and of Gnosticism in its widest 
sense, * in its Ebionitish form, as denying 
the divinity and pre-existence of Christ, 
and in its Docetic, as denying the reality 
of his assumption of the human nature 
(Alford, PrcZe^., sect. iii.). 

This Gospel vras written m Greek of con- 
siderable purity : its style is characterized 
by unafEected simplicity and tenderness : 
the peculiarities of its composition are well 
pointed out by Westcott (itM siipr., pp. 241- 
252). It exhibits a regular plan, so that 
Westcott says that 'the treatment of the 
subject satisfies the conditions of variety, 
progress, and completeness, which, when 
combined with the essential nature of the 
subject itself, make up the notion of a true 
epic ' (p. 253). T, „ 

Various distributions of the matter have 
been proposed. Mr. Westcott gives an ela- 
borate plan (pp. 258-260). Bengel has a very 
good one. Dr. Alford adopts that of Lut- 
hardt : while a writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible, vol. 1. p. 1113, prefers that of 
Lanipe ; of which the following is a very con- 
flensed sketch : 

A. The nrologue (i. 1-18). 

B. The history (1.19-xx. 29), including _ 
(a). Various events in connection with 

various journeys. 

1. (i. 19-ii. 12). 

2. (ii. 13- iv.). 

3. (v.). 

4. (vi.). 

5. (vii.-x. 21). 

6. (X. 22-42). 

7. (xi. 1-54). 

8. (xi. 55-xii.). 
(h). History of Christ's death (xiii.-xx. 

29), comprising 

1. Preparation for the passion (xiii.- 
xvii.). 

2. The circumstances of the passion 
and death (xviii., xix.). 

3 The resurrection, and the proofs 
of it (XX. 1-29). 
C The conclusion (xx. 30-xxi.). 

1. Scope of foregoing history (xx. 

30, 31). ^ ^ 

2 Confirmation by additional facts, 
and the testimony of the elders 
of the church xxi. 1-24). 

3. Beason of the termination of the 
history (xxi. 25). 

It must be added that the closing chnptor 
ATiTis probably added as a kind of appendix 



' at a later date, and we may well believe by 
the apostle himself. Also there is a section 
I (vii. 53-viii. U) which has occasioned much 
•' discussion. It is not easy to decide on it. 
i It is found, but not in exactly the same 
: words, in some good manuscripts and im- 
portant early versions. Bishop EUicott ex- 
presses his belief that it is not from St. 
John's pen : he would rather ascribe it to 
St. Luke, and observes that it cannot be 
too strongly impressed on the general 
reader that no reasonable critic throws 
doubt on the incident, but only on its 
present place in the sacred narrative' {Hist. 
Led., pp. 253, 310). ^ ^ 

Among the commentaries on St. John 
may be named the Commentarius exegetico- 
analvticm in Joan., 1735, of Lampe, and that 
in tiie Kritisch-exeget. Commentar iiber das 
N T., 1844-1852, 2nd edit., of Mayer. 

JOHN, THE EPISTLES OP. There are 
three epistles ascribed to St. John. 

There can be no reasonable doubt that the 
first epistle proceeded from the beloved dis- 
cU^le. There is abundant external evidence. 
Thus, a passage in it (1 John iv. 3) is cited 
by Polycarp, St. John's disciple ; and, in- 
deed, the universal voice of antiquity 
agrees in maintaining its canonicity. The 
internal evidence is equally conclusive ; 
so that in confidently ascribing this work 
to the author of the fourth Gospel, Dr. 
Alford says, 'To maintain a diversity of 
authorship would betray the very perverse- 
ness and exaggeration of that school of 
criticism which refuses to believe, be the 
evidence never so strong' {Proleg., sect. i.). 

Some have imagined this not properly an 
epistle, but rather a treatise supplementary 
to the Gospel ; the answer to which is that 
the Gospel is obviously complete, and need- 
ed no such appendix. There has also been a 
notion that it was directed to the Parthians. 
This, however, is groundless : it is a letter 
addressed generally to a cycle of churches 
mainly consisting of Gentile converts, 
among whom the apostle had laboured, and 
with whose spiritual condition he was inti- 
mately acquainted. It was designed to 
certify them of the reality of the things 
they believed, to guard them against erro- 
neous and licentious tenets, and to animate 
them to communion with God and to a holy 
life. It is characterized by artless and loving 
simplicity, blended with singular modesty 
and candour, together with a wondertul 
sublimity of thought. It is the production 
of an aged man, and, as pre-supposmg an 
acquaintance with Christian doctrine, was 
probably written after the Gospel. Nothing 
more precise can be said as to the date. 

Various arrangements of the subject- 
matter have been proposed. Thus the 
epistle has been distributed into six_ sec- 
tions. I. An assertion of the true divinity 
and humanity of Christ, 'urging the union 
of faith and holiness of life as necessary to 
the enjoyment of communion with God 
(i 1-7) II. The announcement that all have 
sinned, with an explanation of Christ's pro- 
pitiation for sin. Hence the marks of true 
faith are exhibited, obedience to God s com- 
mandments, and love to the brethren ; the 
love of the world being inconsistent witjj 



485 



[J0IAKI3! 



the love of God (8-ii.l7). III. Assertion, 
in opposition to false teachers, that Jesus 
is the same with Christ (18-29). IV. The 
privileges of true believers, their conse- 
quent happiness and duties, and the marks 
by which they are known to he the sons ot 
God (iii.). V. Criteria by which to distin- 
guish antichrist and false Christians civ.). 
VI. Exhibition of the connection bet^\'^en 
faith in Christ, regeneration, love to God 
and his children, obedience to his com- 
mandments, and victory over the worid ; 
with a declaration that Jesus Christ is truly 
the Son of God, able to save, and to hear 
and answer prayer (v. 1-16). The concluding 
summary shows how inconsistent a smtui 
life is with true Christianity, asserting the 
divinity of Christ, and cautioning against 
idolatry (17-21). ^ ^ -n-. 

Another division has been made by Dus- 
terdieck, which is substantially adopted by 
Dr Alford. Besides the introduction (i. 1-4) 
he distinguishes into two great parts, each 
pervaded by a master-thought, and both 
tending to illustrate the leading subject of 
the whole, viz. fellowship with God the 
Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ, T- 0- 5- 
ii. 28) ; the theme being ' God is light ; li. 
(29-v. 5) ; the theme being ' God is righte- 
ous.' The conclusion begins with v. 6. It 
is in two portions (6-12, 13-21), both serv- 
ing to bring the whole to its full com.pletion, 
and (SO to speak) to set it at rest. ' J esus is 
the Son of God.' . ^ . ^, 

It is necessary to add a brief notice of the 
disputed clause, ' in heaven, the Father, the 
Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these three 
are one. And there are three that bear 
witness in earth ' (v. 7, 8). The proofs relied 
on in favour of it are that it has (1) external 
evidence ; for it is found in the old Latin 
version, and in most MSS. of the Vulgate, 
in the confession of faith and liturgy of the 
Greek church, in the primitive liturgy of 
the Latin church, and in citations by Latin 
fathers; also (2) internal evidence, for the 
connection requires it, also the grammatical 
structure of the Greek, especially the right 
doctrine of the Greek article ; it is said, 
further, that the mode of thinking it ex- 
hibits is peculiar to St. John, and that its 
omission, if genuine, could be more easily 
accounted for than its insertion, if spurious. 
On the other hand (1) it is not found m a 
single genuine Greek manuscript earlier 
than the fifteenth century, nor is it ad- 
mitted into the best critical editions of the 
New Testament : it occurs in no other an- 
cient version than the Latin, and not in the 
best MSS. of that : it is cited by no Greek 
father, even when it would have seemed 
most natural to cite it ; and, as to the Latin 
fathers, the earliest real citation (though 
this is not without suspicion) is that by 
Vigilius in the fifth century ; and, where it 
appears in the liturgies, it is a late interpo- 
lation. (2) Again, it is argued that the 
words are alien from the context, and m 
themselves incoherent, betraying therefore 
another hand. Internal evidence, even if it 
were thought favourable to the clause, 
must here give way. Internal evidence 
may show that a passage is spurious, when 
external evidence is In its favour, but no 



amount of internal evidence can prove a 
passage genuine Vv^hen external evidence is 
plain against it. That is the case here ; and, 
accordingly, scholars have with almost one 
consent pronounced against the clause in 
question. But it is well to mark that its 
rejection neither does nor can diminish the 
force of evidence which other undisputed 
passages of holy writ afiord for the doctrine 
of the Trinity. ^ ^ x. 

The second and third epistles of St. John 
may be considered together. They are 
clearly from the same pen. Eusebius classed 
them among the disputed books ; he, hov/- 
ever, himself received them. They were 
probably not included in the Peshito Syriac 
version. Yet many of the very early Chris- 
tian writers cite or allude to them : we may 
therefore say that there is evidence suffi- 
cient to prove their authority, and that the 
reason of their being at first questioned 
was the fact that they were addressed to 
private individuals— less likely, therefore, 
to attract notice than if they had been sent 
to a community or church. There is no 
force in the argument, that the writer, by 
calling himself ' the elder,' meant to show 
that he was not the apostle John (comp. 
Philem. 9 ; 1 Pet. v. 1). . . 

As to the date or place of writing, it is 
useless to say more than that probably 
they were composed when St. John was re- 
siding at Ephesus, towards the close of his 
life. 

The second epistle is addressed to a lady, 
' the elect lady ' in our translation. Possibly 
one or other of the words used may be a 
proper name, and the lady in question be 
either ' the elect Kyria' or ' the lady Electa.' 
She is commended for her piety, and warned 
against the delusions of false teachers ; the 
commandment of Christian love being also 
pressed upon her. . 

The third epistle is directed to Gams, oi 
Caius. The name was a very common one ; 
and it is impossible to say whether the per- 
son here intended was one of those men- 
tioned elsewhere (Acts xix. 29, xx. 4 ; Rom. 
xvi. 23 ; 1 Cor. i. 14). The scope of the let- 
ter is to commend his stedfastness in the 
faith, and his hospitality, to caution him 
against Diotrephes, and to recommend De- 
metrius to him, reserving other matters 
to a personal interview. 

For an account of St. John's other work 
which has a place in the sacred canon, see 
Revelation, the Book oe. 

JOHN— I. The father of Mattathias, 
founder of the Maccabean family (1 Mace, 
ii 1) _2, (viii. 17 ; 2 Mace. iv. 11).— 3. One oi 
the sons of Mattathias (1 Mace. ix. 35, .^6, 
38) : he is elsewhere called Joannan (ii. 2), 
and Joseph (2 Mace. viii. 22).-4. The son of 
Simon, brother of Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace, 
xiii. 53, xvi. 1, 2, 9, 19, 21, 23). He was a 
celebrated man, known as John Hyrcanus. 
—5. (2 Mace. xi. 17). 

JOI'ADA (whom Jehovah favours). One 
in the line of high priests (Is eh. xii. 10, 11, 
22). One of his sons was son-in-law to San- 
ballat (xiii. 28). ^ ^ ^ ^ a 

JOI'AKTM (whom Jehovah has set np). Ji 
h\s\i priest, son and successor of Jesliui* 
(Neh. xii. 10, 12, 20). 



joiarib] 



f^Ijc Crrasttri} of 



486 



JOI'ARTB (whom Jehovah defends).— 
1. One whom Ezra sent to persuade some 
of the priests to accompany liim to Jeru- 
salem (Ezra Yiii. 16).— 2. A descendant of 
Judah (Neh. xi. 5).— 3. A priest (10). Bu. 
perhaps the name is only mentioned here 
to indicate the head of a course, as m xu. 6, 
19. See 2 Chron. xxiv. 7, where it is given 
in full, JEHOIARIB, which see. 

JOK'DEAM {possessed hy the people). A 
city in the hill country of Judah ^Josh. xv. 
56). 

jo'KIM (whom Jehovah has set up). A 
son or descendant of Shelah, son of Judah 
(1 Chron. ir. 22). 

JOK'MEAM {aathered hy the people). A 
city of the tribe of Ephraim given to the 
Levites (1 Chron. vi. 68). But in Josh. xxi. 
22 we find Kihzaim for Jokmeam. It was 
on the border of one of Solomon's com- 
missariat districts (1 Kings iv. 12), where 
in our translation erroneously Jokneam : 
some other English versions, e. g. the Ge- 
nevan edit. 1597, read rightly Jokmeam. 

JOK'NEAM (possessed by the people). A 
city on the border of the territory of Ze- 
bulun, whose king was one of those that 
Joshua destroyed (Josh. xii. 22, xix. 11). It 
was allotted to the Merarite Levites (xxi. 
34). Its site is marked by Tell Kaivion, a 
hill below the eastern end of Carmel, with 
the Kishon a mile away. Jokneam is an 
error in l Kings iv. 12. 

JOK'SHAN (a fowler, snarer). One of the 
sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 
2 3 ; 1 Chron. i. 32). There is little certainty 
as to the settlement of his descendants. 
Kalisch is inclined from the name to sup- 
pose them generally of predatory habits. 
A portion, however, may have engaged m 
commerce, joining the older tribes of Sheba 
and Dedan, settling within their territories, 
and adopting their mode of life. Hence 
Sheba and Dedan are called sons of Jokshan 
(Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 475). 

JOK'TAN (w^io is made small). One of 
the descendants of Shem, whose posterity 
peopled the whole of the south of the Ara- 
bian peninsula (Gen. x. 25-30 ; 1 Chron. i. 
19-23). His sons were the progenitors of 
various tribes ; and he himself appears to 
be identical with the Kahtan of the Arabs. 
See ARABIA, p. 44 ; Earth, p. 232. 

JOK'THEEL (siihdued of God).— I. A city 
in the plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 38). 
—2. The name which Amaziali, king of 
Judah, imposed on Selah, the Edomite 
strong-hold, after his victory and capture of 
it (2 Kings xiv. 7). 

JO'NA (whom Jehnvah hestoics). Tlio 
father of the apostle Teter (John i. 42). See 
Jonas, 2. , . , ^ -, 

JON'ADAB (whom Jehovah impels).— I. 
One of the sons of Sliimeali, David's bro- 
ther. He was the friend of Amnon, and is 
described as a subtile man ; and his con- 
duct n-akes good the description (2 Sam. 
xiii.). 2. (Jer. xxxv. 6, 8, 10, 14, 16, 18, 19). 
See Jkroxadab. 

JO'^'AH (dove). 820-784 B.C. Of the per 
sonal historv of Jonah we have few parri 
culars. He was the son of Amitrai, of 
Gath-hepher, a town of Zcbulun, and he 
predicted the successes of Jeroboam II. 



1 2 Kings xiv. 25). The legend that he was 
the widow's son whom Elijah restored to 
life (1 Kings xvii. 17-24) is baseless. We 
may approximate with tolerable certainty 
to the time when Jonah delivered his cheer- 
ing prophecy to Israel. It must have been 
at a period of distress. Now certainly in 
the reigns of Jehu and his son Jehoahaz 
calamities fell upon the nation (2 Kings x, 
32, 33, xiii. 3-7) ; yet there was some return 
of' prosperity under the last-named king 
(4, 5), and still more under his successor 
Joash, who gained three battles over 
Syria, and plundered Jerusalem (25, xiv. 12- 
14). But these battles were not decisive 
(xiii. 19) ; and we may therefore suppose 
that the Syrians recovered their strength 
after the death of Joash, and that in the 
earlier years of Jeroboam's leign Israel 
was again brought very low. Jonah's pro- 
phecy of deliverance, then, must have been 
given in Jeroboam's reign, predicting that 
king's success (.who sat on the throne forty- 
one years, and whose victories were pro- 
bably in his later administration), for it 
obviouslv would not overleap the victories 
of Joash^if announced before them. Whe- 
ther Jonah's mission to Nineveh was after 
or prior to his predictions in regard to 
I-rael, we can but conjecture. His reluc- 
tance to undertake that mission, his flight, 
under the belief apparently that, if he 
quitted the land of Israel, the scene of 
theocratic manifestation, God's word would 
not follow him . with his subsequent preach- 
ing and its result, are to be read m the 
book which bears his name. Of the time 
and place of his death we have no informa- 

JONAH, THE BOOK OF. Many critics 
have thought fit to argue that this book is 
either altogether fictitious, or, if with some 
fact at the bottom, yet dressed out accord- 
ing to the writer's fanoy, iu order to teach 
more vividly a moral lesson. The reason 
no doubt is that we have here the record 
of supernatural occurrences: there would 
else have been no difficulty in allowing 
it to be literal truth. The narrative 
is plain and straight-forward like that ot 
anv other book of scripture. It is m ac- 
cordance with the historical relations oi 
the time, when the first communications 
of Israel with Assyria are noted (Hos. v. 13, 
X 6 : comp. 2 Kings xv. 19). The descrip- 
tion of Nineveh (Jonah iii. 3) accords with 
history : the corruption of the people is 
mentioned in Nah. iii. 1 ; Zeph. ii. 15 ; and 
the mourning of men and beasts (Jonah 
iii. 5-8) appears to- have been an Asiatic cus- 
tom (Herod., lib. ix. 24\ 

Bleek has drawn out at length the rea- 
sons for denying the truthfulness of this 
book {Einleitung in das A. T., pp. S^l-^' ' 
They amount to no more than that the 
critic supposes it unlikely that a great city 
would be so stirred at the preaching of a 
^tvinger, and with so little lasting elfect. 
On similar un-.niuds he might disbelieve the 
account of Taul's preaching, e.g. at the 
Pi^idian Antioch (Acts xiii. 44), and more 
e^P<>ciaUv at Lystra, where the apostle was 
fir-t of all regarded as a god by the multi 
ude, and shortly afterwards stoned (xiv 



487 



[jONATHA^J 



8-19). Objection is also taken to the ac- 
count of the fish (probably a kind of shark, i 
which, as Bochart shows, swallows a man i 
entire), and to Jonah's prayer or psalm, t 
which is perversely represented as being i 
composed and finished in the fish's helly, : 
instead of, as common sense might teach, ] 
the embodiment after the deliverance (like : 
Hezekiah's ode, Isai. x sxviii. 9-20) of his pre- < 
vious thoughts and feelings. < 
There is remarkable positive evidence for ( 
the literal truthfulness of the book of Jonah, i 
Ezekiel has been thought to allude to it < 
(Ezek. iii. 5, 6) : the apocryphal book of Tobit i 
mentions Jonah's preaching at Nineveh . 
(Tob. xiv.4. 8). And our Lord himself gives 
a distinct 'authorization of the narrative - 
matt, xii ,39-41). He affirms the two things, 
that the prophet was three days and three 
nights in the fish, typical of his own resur- 
rection ; and that the Kinevites repented 
at his preaching. He affirms, still further, 
his own superiority to Jonah. Would he, 
it may well be asked, have compared or 
contrasted himself with a man in a fable, 
a mere parable, a myth ? It is well worth 
remark that the three facts connected with 
the Old Testament against wliieh modern 
critics have specially objected— the Mosaic 
origin of the Pentateuch, the genuineness 
of Daniel, the literal truth of Jonah's story 
—are distinctly authenticated by Christ. 
See Whale ; and corap. Dr. Pusey's excel- 
lent vindication of the truthfulness of the 
narrative in his ilinoT Prophets, i>V- 24.7-264. 
Whether Jonah himself wrote the book is 
a matter of inferior importance : most pro- 
bably he did ; and the use of the third per- 
son throughout is no proof to the contrary. 
Some alleged Aramaisms may be without 
difficulty accounted for. Tne book consists 
of two parts : I. Jonah's first commission, 
and attending circumstances (i., ii.). II. His 
second mission and its results (Iii., iv.). 
For some good remarks on the typical cha- 
racter of Jonah, see Davison, Discourses on 
Prophecy, disc. vi. part ii. 

Bp King's Lectures vpon Jonah, delivered 
1594, and re-printed Edinh. 1865, are full of 
valuable matter. 

JO'NAN (whom Jehovah bestoivs). A per- 
son named among the ancestors of Christ 
(Luke iii. 30). 

JO'NAS.— 1. The Greek form of Jonah 
(Matt. xii. 39, 40, 41, xvi. 4).— 2. The father 
of the apostles Peter and Andrew (John 
xxi. 15-17), also called Jona (i. 42). 

JO'NAS.—l. (1 Esdr. ix. 23).— 2. The pro- 
phet Jonah (2 Esdr. i. 39 ; Tob. xiv. 4, 8). 

JON'ATHAN (whom Jehovah gave).- 1. A 
Levite, S(m of Gershom, son of Manasseh, 
which last name is supposed to 1)0 put for 
Moses in the Masoretic copies of the He- 
brew bible, out of reverence to the great 
lawgiver (Judges xviii. 30). This young 
man, wandering from Beth-lehem-judah in 
search of employment, was engaged by 
Micah to be the priest of his house of gods. 
He afterwards accompanied the Danites in 
their expedition against Laish, and he and 
his posterity continued priests in that city, 
called by the conquerors Dan, ' until the day 
of the captivity of the land' (xvii. 7-13, 
tviii.). See J u UG ks, the Bo- k o f. 



2. The son (probably the eldest) of king 
Saul. He must have been grown up to man's 
estate when his father was called to the 
throne. For we find him early in Saul's 
reign at the head of a body of troops (1 Sam. 
xiii. 2). The country was still held in military 
possession by the Philistines ; and Jonathan 
resolved boldly to strike a blow for free- 
dom. He accordingly smote 'a garrison' 
of the Philistines (3), probably some pillar 
or monument, the badge of Hebrew subjec- 
tion : see Garrison. This had the effect 
of rousing the Philistines, who prepared 
to take signal vengeance for the affront. 
Miserably were the Israelites furnished for 
war; for their masters had succeeded In 
disarming them; neither were there arti- 
sans in the land who could manufacture 
weapons for the crisis (4-7, 19-23). Jonathar 
was not dismayed. Without consulting his 
father, and accompanied only by his ar- 
mour-bearer, he attacked a Philistine post. 
Encouraged by an omen, he was successful 
in the first onset ; and, an earthquake oc- 
curring at the time, a panic terror seized 
the enemv; which Saul from his positi(U\ 
observing, and being joined by many of 
his people, who now took heart, set upon 
the Philistines and entirely defeated them. 
But in his thoughtless zeal the king had 
forbidden, with a terrible imprecation, any 
of his troops from tasting food till he had 
completed the victory. Jonathan being 
absent did not know of this prohibition, 
and refreshed himself with some honey. 
On the discovery of the fact by lot, Saul 
would have put him to death, had not the 
peo])le interposed (xiv.). 

We hear no more of Jonathan till after 
David's exploit of killing Goliath. Generous 
and affectionate, he immediately formed a 
friendship with the young hero, and gave 
significant proof of it according to eastern 
usage (xviii. 1-4). When Saul in his insane 
jealousy was purposing to put David to 
death, Jonathan interfered, and convinced 
his father of the wuckedness of his pur- 
pose, so that a reconciliation was the re- 
sult (xix. 1-7). But again the king's violence 
broke out; and David had to flee. He ol)- 
tained an interview with Jonathan, who 
could hardly believe that Saul was really in 
earnest. He consequently planned a test, 
and, being terribly convinced by what fol- 
lowed, and himself in consequence having 
suffered indignity from his father, he ap- 
prised David that he could not safely return 
to the court. The two renewed their cove- 
nant of friendship ; Jonathan charging 
David to show kindness to his family and 
descendants (xx.). Once more the friends 
• met; and Jonathan's disinterestedness was 
■ beautifully exemplified. He was persuaded 
; that David would be king ; but no thought 
' of rivalry entered his mind. He was con- 
L tent to be next after David ; and he en- 
r couraged him with the assurance that God 
—as Saul himself could not but know— 
1 would fulfil his purpose of placing Ir.in at 
I the head of his people. It was in the wood 
, of Ziph, when Saul was hunting David to 
r destroy him, that this secret interview 
, took place; and then they parted to meet 
no more on earth (xxiii. 16-18). 



Eljt ZxtK^MVV of 



4S^ 



Jonathan fell with his father at the hattle 
In Gllboa ; and his corpse was treated ^^th 
the same indiarnity. His hones were after- 
wards hurled at Jahesh-gileaa (xxxi. 2, S-131 
and sTihseqnently in Zelah {2 Sam. xxi. 
12-14) David's lamentation for his friend, 
a" touching effusion, celebrates bis loye, 
'passing the love of women,' and notes his 
hraverv and skill in the use of the bow 
(i 11-27). Jonathan left a son, Merib-baal, 
or Mephibosheth, who was five years old at 
his father's death {iv. 4) ; and his line con- 
tinued for many generations of descent 
(1 Chron. viii. 33-40, ix. 39-44\ 
! 3 The son of Abiathar the high priest 
i (2 Sam. XV. 27, 36. xvii. 17, 20 : 1 Kings i. 42, 
' 4.3).— 4. The son of David's l .rother Shimeah. 
He slew a elant in Gath (2 S:im. xxi. 20, 21 ; 
1 Chron. XX. 6, 7\— 5. One of David's heroes 
(2 Sam. xxiii. 32 ; 1 Chron. xi. .34\— 6. A de- 
scendant of Jerahmeel (ii. 32. 33).—/. An 
uncle of David (xxvii. 32\-S. The father of 
a person who accompanied Ezra from Ba- 
bvlon (Ezra viii. 6\— 9. One who with Ezra 
inve=ti£rated the cases of those who had 
married foreign wives (x. 15\— 10. One m 
the line of the high priests (Xeh. xii 11); 
al=o called Johanan (22, 23\ He held his 



J0\'ATEAX.—1. A son of Mattathiaa, 
and brother of Judas Maccabeus. He was 
surnamed Apphus (1 Mace. ii. 5). He suc- 
ceeded his brother Judas in the leadersh:? 
of the Jews (ix. 31), and was made higii 
priest bv Alexander Balas (x. 15-21, 59-66, 
«57-S9'i After some vicissitudes of fortune 
(xi ) he renewed the league his brother had 
formed with the Romans, and was at last 
treacherouslv slain by Tryphon (xii., xiii. 
12. 15, 19, 23-26\— 2. An officer sent by Simon 
Maccabeus to Joppa C^iii. 11). 3- priest 
(2 Mace. i. 23). 

JOX'ATHAS (Toh.v. 13). A person said 
to be of Tobit's acquaintance. ^ , 

JO'X A.TH-E'LEM-IlECHO'KIM itlie dmnb 
dove of dUtant -places). A variety of symbo- 
lical meanings have been given to ti^if 
phrase, which is found in the title to Psal. 
Ivi It has most likely a musical meaning, 
! indicating that the psalra was to he sung 
or chanted to the melody so called. This 
I melodv.no doubt vrell-known, belonged to 
I an ode or poem bearing the name Jonath- 
I elem-rechokim. . ^ . , 

JOP'PA (beauty^. An anci-ent sea-port of 
Pale=tine, respectinsr which there are m 
! profane historv some legendary stories 




Joppa, now Jaffa. 



office thirtv-two vears. His brother Jeshua 
attempted to dispossess him of it, out was 
=la1n bv Johanan in the mner court of 
the teniple (Prideaux, Connecti'j^i,\o\. i. pp. 
304, 396).-ll. A priest in the line of Joakim, 
Representative of the family of Melicu 
rxeh. xii. 14\-12. A priest whose son too^ 
part in the dedication of the wall of Jeru- 
salem v35),perbaps identical with jehona- 
than (18).-13. A scribe in whose liouse ;ya^ 
the prison in which Jeremiah was confined 
(Jer. xxxvii. 15, 20 ; xxxviii 2G1.-14 A son 
of Kareah,one of those who ]omed Geda- 
I-'ah after the capture of Jerusalem (xi. 83. 



The=e need not be noticed here. _ Joppa 
' called also Japho, was in the territory of 
I Dan (Josh, xixt 461. It was the port to which 
the wood cut in Lebanon that Solomon 
required was brought in floats (2 Chron i 
16^ The materials of the second temple al=o 
were landed here (Ezra lii. 7) ; and here 
Jonah embarked for Tarshish - Jonah i. o). 
At Joppa Peter resided for some time, per- 
forming the miracle of raising Tabitna 
(Acts ix. 36-43), and seeing here the vision 
which foreshadowed the calling of the 

%"o';paV-caU?l^''^pe'^■„ the Apocrypha. 



489 



suffered in the MaccaDeau wais : it wa^ 
won from the king ot Syria, ioniQei 
and mnde again a Haven by the {Q'^l^}] 
chiefs (1 Mace. x. 74, 76, xiv. 5, 34. 
comp. 2 Mace. xii. 3-7). It was after- 
wards incorporated by Pompey with the 
province of Syria, hut was restored to Hji- 
canus IL hy Julius Caesar. Later it was 
possessed by Herod, and then by Archelaus. 
Again united to Syria, it was destroyed by 
Cestius Gallus, and subsequently by Vespa- 
sian as having become a nest of r^'ates. 
This emperor erected on its site a castLe, 
about which habitations clustered; and a 
town was again in existence (See Wmer, 
j5i&L-RTF5., art. ' Joppe.' _ 

It liad its history in the time of the crusa- 
ders : it is said to have been the see of a 
Christian bishop ; and it is now, under the 
name of Jaffa, the port, as it was in Solo- 
mon's time, of Jerusalem, from which it is 
about forty miles distant. -r^ m 

' Scarcely any other town,' says Dr Thom- 
son, • has been so often overthrown, sacked, 
pillaged, burned, and re-built.' In the last 
century it was almost deserted ; now, how- 
ever, it is growing and prospering, and^ has 
probably 15,000 inhabitants. The haroour 
is very insecure, and the landing moat in- 
convenient. But the streets are crowded 
and busy ; though the population is motley, i 
and their appearance dirty. Blindness and ] 
leprosy are common ; and the place is some- 
times visited with the plague. But the 
Rardens and orchards are well-watered and 
productive. ' In March and April,' Dr. Thora- 
' «on tells us, 'these Jaffa gardens are in- 
I deed enchanting. The air is overloaded 
i with the mingled spicery of orange, lemon, 
apple, apricot, quince, pUim, and chma- 
trees in bloom. The people then frequent 
the groves, sit on mats beneath their 
grateful shade, sip coffee, smoke the argela, 
sing, converse, or sleep, as best suits their 
individual idiosyncracies, tillevening,when 
they slowly return to their homes m the 
city' (The Land and the Book, pp. 515, 519). 
There are still tanneries on the sea-shore ; 
and the house of Simon is shown; as also the 

:rave of Tabitha. 
1 JOP'PE (1 Esdr. V. 55, and elsewhere). 
Joppa. . ^ ^ 

JO'RAH (ivatering, the former rain). One 
whose descendants returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 18). InNeh. vii. 
24 the name is Hariph, Jora, in some copies, 
being in the margin. . , • o 

JO'RAI(whom Jehovah teaches). A chiet- 
tain of Gad (1 Chrou. v. 13). 

JO'RAM (whom Jehovah has exalted).—!. 
Son of Toi, king of Hamath sent to salute 
David (2 Sam. viii. 10), called also Hadoram 
(iChron. xviii. 10).— 2. A king of Israel (1 
Kings viii. 16, 25, 28, 29, ix. 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 

22, 23, 29; 2 Chron, xxii. 5, 7). See Jeho- 
RAM, 1.— 3.A king of Judah (2 Kings vui. 21, 

23, 24, xi. 2 ; 1 Chron. iii. 11 ; Matt. i. 8). See 
jEHORAii, 2.-4. A Levite (1 Chron. xxvi. 

JO'RAM 0- Esdr. i. 9). Jozabad (2 Chron. 
XXXV. 9). , , 

JOR'DAN (Jloiving doion). The name of 
the great— it may almost be said the only- 
river of Dalestine, the boundary between 



Canaan, properly so called, and that eastern 
region, the dominions of Sihon and Ug, 
which was occupied by Reuben, Gad, and 
half Manasseh. ^ t 

One source of the Jordan, according to 
ancient story, was in the lake Phiala (gene- 
rally thought to be the modern Bir^eter- 
Bam ; though a writer in Dr. Smith s I)^c^. 
of the Bible, vol. i. P. 1130, is inclined rather 
to identify it with the lake Merj el-Man), out 
of which it flowed in a subterranean channel i 
to Paneas iBcinids), where it was joined by : 
another stream ; and, as one was called Dan 
and the other Jor, from the junction the 
united river was the Jordan. It is aimost 
needless to say that this derivation is 
groundless. The researches of late travel- 
lers have proved that there are a multitude 
of gushing streams on the slopes of Anti- 
libanus. Some of these may be dry in the 
summer; but there are others which flow 
in a perennial current. Four of them have 
been particularly noticed. One rises near 
Hashbeiya, in the great fountain of Fuarr, 
and has the name HasMny. Receiving 
some smaller streams, it is joined, at a 
point not half-a-mile north of Tell Sheikh 
Yusuf, by the Leddantvom Tell el-Kadij, the 
ann.ient Dan, and by the Baniasy, ,which 
bursts just outside a cave at Bcmias. a 
fourth stream has been traced up to the 
springs called esh-Shar ; and these may be 
' considered as, together with smaller afflu- 
ents, forming the river Jordan. Ot these 
main branches,' says Dr. Thomson, the 
Hasbany is the longest by forty miles, the 
Leddan ia.much the largest, and the Bani- 
asvthe most beautiful' (The Land and the 
Book, pp. 213, 214 : comp. 620). A marsh lies 
above the lake E-aieh (the ancient Merom), 
which lake the river enters through a sin- 
gle channel, and, quitting it at its southern 
extremity, descends to the lake of Gennesa- 
ret a distance of about nine miles, withm 
this space the fall of the river is about 600 
feet - ?tflrstthe banks are lower and the 
current not very hasty ; but then it passes 
rapidly from Isir Benat Yakolj through a 
narrow winding ravine with precipitous 
banks. At its entrance into the lake, two 
miles below the ruins of Julias, the ancient 
Bethsaida of Gaulanitis, it is a lazy turbid 
stream seventy feet wide (Porter's Sand- 
book, part ii. pp. 426, 427). Through this 
lake it has been said to glide without any 
commingling of the waters. Be this how- 
ever as it may, it quits the lake at its 
southern extremity, and down, down, with 
ceaseless speed, it flows along, winding m 
its course with many a precipitous fall, dan- 
gerous to the few craft that ever navigate 
its waters, through that strange lonely val- 
ley, the Ghor, hot and desolate, where no 
city ever crowned its bank, joined here ajid 
there by a few mountain torrents, the only 
tributaries of any importance being tlie 
Hieromax (now Tarmiik) and the Jabbok, 
now the Zerka. Full 200 miles it runs-^ec 
being probably the direct distance, sinking 
lower and lower till at length it empties it- 
self into that mysterious basin the Dead 
sea ; the surface of which may be said to 
i lie in the bowels of the earth, being 1316 
feet below the M(diterraneau sca-level. 



Jordan] 



treasury at 



490 



From the lake of Galilee to that of Sodom 
the Jordan descends 663 feet : its width ac- 
cordme to lieut. Lynch varies : he found 
it sometimes 70 and sometimes 80 yards, 
while at its mouth it was ISO, and hut three 
feet deep. Two sets of hanks there seem 
to he, ' two terraces,' says lieut. Lynch, 
' and through the lowest one the river runs 

_ _ . r . i-l-iQ cjfroQm 



point where the Israelites crossed could not 
have heen far from the traditionary positiou 
over-against Jericho, where, it seems, there 
is a ford. . , ^ ^ 

Possihly at the same locality might have 
heen the altar of memorial, erected by the 
two tribes and a half when they returned 
to their own settlements, to prevent the 



one the river runs to tiieir u\\u sci.LiciiiciiL:3, ^..^ 

— „ T^^^ii. rhp crrpain Jordan confessedly a boundary, from limit^ 

its labyrinrhine conr-e From di^^^ in fSeir descendants from sharing the 

above the rmmediate bank., ther^ covenant-people (Josh, 

each side a singular terrace of low '^^ , ^'^^ 1^-9 '. Other events connecting them- 
like truncated cones which i. the b.ufi .^^ ^ 

terminus of ^^f/^^^.^^.f .^f ^^^^^.^ S of \ noted. Gideon's pursuit of the Midianites 
ing quite to the ba.e of t lie mrni^^uiin^ oi jephthah's chastisement of 

T^^^l^^'o^^^^^^ Ephraim (xii. 5, 6), the raid of . the men 
Jordan. &c., April 13, p. 123, edit. 1855). 

The Jordan is intimately connected with 
the whole course of Hebrew history ; and 
there is scarcely a character of note named, 
or event of importance related, into thenar- 



or event of importance matea, m lu t.nc y^^^ ^--^ and his 
rative of which some reference to this river (x^ ii. i-),^^na uis 
ratn e oi iii^^^ . fmirful - parting with the aj 



of Jahesh-gilead to recover the bodies of 
Saul and his sons at Beth-shan a Sam. 
xxxi 11-13), Abner's march along the valley 
or Glior (2 Sam. ii. 29), Da'vid's hurried and 
mournful passage through fear of Absalom 
■■ --^ " ^ victorious return and 



does not enter. It was the fair and fruitful 
rallev of the Jordan on which Abraham and 
Lot looked as they stood on the hill by 
Beth-el, and there Lot through worldly 
greed unhappily chose his residence (Gen. 
liii 8-13). It was the Jordan that Jacob 
Eolitarv and afraid passed over with his 
staff, and once again with two bands 
(xxxii 10). It was the Jordan which Moses 
for his sin at Kadesh-nieribah was lorbid- 
den to cross, but over which from tne top 
of Pi^^ahhe surveyed the promised inheri- 
tance ^of his people (Dent. xxxi. 2, xxxiv. 
1-4) Soon afterwards, though it was the 
time of flood, the waters of the Jordan 
were miraculously parted to let the tnues 
go forward into Canaan (Josh. in. 14-17)— an 
event from which the language oi theology 
ha=j often borrowed an illustration, seeing 
that between the earthly pilgrimage and 
the believers eternal home there is a har- 
rier to be passed, a dark cold flood, through 
which the Lord can graciously lead his 
people drvshod. 'Jordan overfloweth aU 
his banks" all the time of harvest. _ &onie 
unnecessary objections have been raised to 
this statement, which the researches_ of 
travellers entirely dissipate. The f ountains 
which supply the Jordan are fed by themelt^ 
ius snows of Hermon and Lebanon ; so that 
iu=t when winter torrents are drying up its 
Itream is most abundant. Ordinarily it is 
the lower bank which is overflowed; the 
water rising to the level of the upper. 
♦Thu=;,' savs Dr. Thomson, who speaks as an 
eve-witness, ' it comes to pass that it does ac- 
tually "overflow all its banks during all the 
time' of harvest," nor does it soon subside, 
as other short rivers do, when the rains 
cease. These fountains continue to pour 
forth their contributions for months with 
undiminished volume; and the river keeps 
full and strong all through March into 
April ; and the proper banks of the river are 
still fuU to overflowing in the tune of har- 
vest ' (p. 620). The flat which borders the 
stream when it is low is a thick ]ungle. 
Just therefore as of ancient times the 
swellings of Jordan roused the lion from 
his lair (Jer. xlix. 19, 1. 44), so now on the 
rise of the river the wild boar, the D^ukal, 
and the wolf have to seek other covert, iue 



(XVll. ~-J, itnu. Ills >n.Lui-iwuo 

parting with the aged Barziilai (xix. 15, 18, 
31-39), the dividins: of the waters before 
Elijah and Elisha ^2 Kings ii. 7-14), the wash- 
ins of ^'aaraan therein (v. 14)— these and 
other circumstances must be hastily passed 

But there are events narrated m the 
is'ev^' Testament which require a little 
detail It was in the Jordan that John bap- 
tized (Matt. ill. 6). He seems to have sta- 
tioned himself at difierent times in dif- 
ferent localities. For the place whither our 
Lord retired from Judeawas 'where John 
at first baptized' (John x. 40). Again he was 
at ' ^uon near to Salim ' (iii. 23) ; and also at 
Bethabara (more probably Bethany), where, 
it is likely, he baptized Jesus (i. 28). It has 
been thought that John advanced up the 
river, baptizing first at the lower fords, then 
at a point where, the water being low, some 
deepen- place than the shallow fords was 
sought for, afterwards at the upper fords, 
advancing towards Galilee, and that our 
Lord coming from Galilee met him hak- 
wav (Dr. Smith's D/cr. of tlie Bible, vol. i. pp. 
ll'^V 11-^8). This is but conjecture : still it 
is not an improbable conjecture. We liave, 
however, no authority for fixing on any 
particular spot as that where our Lord thus 
fulfilled all righteousness (Matt. iii. 15) ; 
and it is quite gratuitous to regard it, as 
modern tradition does, as identical with the 
point where Joshua led the Israelites over. 

After all the events which have been al- 
luded to in connection with this river, it is, 
of course, deeply reverenced by those who 
dellErhtto trace the footsteps of holy men 
of old, and to linger upon the memories of 
^reat events, and to adore the condescen- 
sion of One who stooped to such abasement 
for the love of a perishing world. The 
name has become, and ever will be, a house- 
hold word, supplying topics of interesting 
and instructive thought. 

It may be added that the Arabs now call 
it esh-Sheriah, i.e. ' the watering-place,' with 
the distinctive addition, el-Kcbir, 'the 

'^^jp'EIBAS (1 Esdr. viii. 44). Jarib (Ezra 

"^^JO'EIBUS (1 Esdr. ix. 19). Jarib (Ezra x, 
IS). 



491 



[josEia 



JO'RIM iJehovaJi exalts ?). A person named 
in the ancestry of Christ (Luke iii. 29). 

JOR'KOAM {paleness, or, perhaps, excen- 
sion of the people). Possibly a place m the 
trihe of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 44). ^ ^ ^ , 

JO'SABAD (whom Jehovah bestows). A 
Beniamite (called in some copies J ozabad) 
who joined David at Ziklag (1 Cliron xii. 4). 

JO'SABAD.-l (1 Esdr. viii. 63). Jozabad 
(Ezra viii. 33).-2 (1 Esdr. ix. 29). Zabbai 

^^JO'SAPHAT 0\latt. i. 8). A Greek form 
of Jehoshaphat. ^ . r,. , 

JOSAPHFAS a Esdr. viii. 36). Josiphiah 

^^JO'SEDEC'a Esdr. v. 5, 48, 56 vi 2, ix 
19 ; Ecclus. xlix. 12). Jehozadak, father of 
the high priest Joshua. , • 4^ 

JO'SEDECH (whom Jehovah makes jiist) 
(Hagg. i. 1, 12, 14, ii. 2, 4 ; Zech. vi. 11). See 
Jehozadak, Jozadak. . ^ • 

JO'SE (whom Jehovah helps). One m the 
line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke in. 29). 

JO'SEPH {he tvill add).— I. The first-born 
of Jacob's two sons by Rachel. He was 
born in Padan-aram, after his mother had 
been for some years barren. She then ex- 
claimed,' God hath taken away my reproach 
and, naming the child, said ' The Lord shall 
add to me another son' (Gen. xxx 23 24). 
The Hebrew terms for 'to take away and to 
add' are nearly similar in sound, dsaph and 
vdsaph; and the use of one may have sug- 
gested the other. Plays upon words are 
very common in eastern literature ; so that 
there is no ground, as some critics pretend, 
for dismembering the text here on this ac- 

*^^Joseph was specially dear to his father, 
who distinguished him by a rich dress, pro- 
bably the long tunic with sleeves worn by 
young men and maidens ot the wealthier 
class (xxxvii. 3). But he was disliked by his 
jealous brothers, because he had reported 
their bad conduct (2), and because two re- 
markable dreams seemed to show that he 
would have pre-eminence araongthem (5-11). 
These dreams must have been after Rachel s 
death, as till then Joseph had not eleveti 
brethren : the mother spoken of was doubt- 
less Leah. When Joseph was seventeen 
his father, then residing at Hebron with 
Isaac, sent him to enquire after his ten 
brothers, who were tending their flocks, 
he thought, in Shechem. He had to go on, 
however, to Dothan, where he found them. 
They deemed it a good opportunity to get 
rid of him, and would no doubt have mur- 
dered him but for the interference of 
Reuben and Judah, who alone showed any 
touch of humanity. They sold him, how- 
ever, to a caravan of Midianites (called also i 
Ishmeelites, because these last, the leading 
tribe of Arabia, had most of the trade in 
their hands), and made up a tale to their 
father that Joseph was devoured by a wild 
beast (18-35). , . . ^ . ^ 

Joseph was carried by the Midianites into 
Egypt, and there sold to Potiphar, captain 
of the king's guard, or chief of the execu- 
tioners. He soon by his probity obtained 
his master's favour, and had the mauage- 
i ment of his house and property. But 
i Potiphar afterwards, deceived by his wife s 



false charge, put Joseph into confinement, 
where by God's providence, he was so use- 
ful to the keeper of the prison (most likely 
Potiphar's subordinate) as to be entrusted 
with the oversight of the rest of the prison- 
ers (xxxix.). And then an event occurred 
which ultimately led to his deliverance and 
advancement. The chief of the cup-bearers 
and the chief of the bakers had incurred the 
displeasure of the king, and were placed m 
the custody of the captain of the guard, 
Potiphar, or his successor. In the prison 
they had each a dream, which Joseph inter- 
preted ; and, as his interpretation proved 
true, he was subsequently recommended to 
Pharaoh himself, who had been disquieted 
by two remarkable dreams. These pre-figur- 
ed he said, seven years of plenty and then 
seven years of famine ; and Pharaoh, satis- 
fied that he who could so foretell the future 
must be the favourite of heaven, made hira 
his prime-minister, ordered special honours 
to be paid him, gave him the name of 
Zaphnath-paaneah (.which see), and mar- 
ried him to Asenath, the daughter of Poti- 
pherah, priest or prince of On, by whom he 
had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim 
Joseph was thirty years old when he stood 
before Pharaoh. In his new dignity he 
behaved himself wisely. In the years ot 
plenty he gathered large quantities of corn 
into public granaries. The fertility of Egypt 
is dependent on the risings of the isile; 
and it is a remarkable fact that there is 
monumental evidence that the river rose 
to a great height about the time of J oseph s 
administration. Lepsius discovered a series 
of inscriptions on a rock at Samneh, pur- 
porting to be a register of the risings of 
the Kile in the reign of Amenemha IIL, 
whom Bunsen makes contemporary with 
Joseph. These risings are considerably 
above the modern limit. And Wilkinson 
found in Nubia and farther south vast 
tracts of Nile deposit, evidently formed by 
such inundations (see Voulkes J ones, Egypt 
in its Biblical Relations aud its Moral Aspect, 
pp. 85, 86, 90). After the years of plenty 
came the predicted years of famine ; when 
Joseph supplied the Egyptians from the 
stores he had collected, purchasing, as their 
wants increased, their lands (those of the 
priests excepted) for Pharaoh, but so that 
they afterwards held them from the crow^n 
on payment of a fifth of the produce. We 
may believe that this was no impolitic or 
inequitable arrangement ; for the Egyp- 
tians regarded Joseph as their great bene- 
factor (xli., xlvii. 13-26). 

The famine extended to Canaan; and 
Joseph's brethren were sent down to Egypt 
1 to buy corn. The manner in which Joseph 
received his brethren, how he proved them 
before he discovered himself to them, how 
he sent for his father and placed him with 
his family in Goshen, there to multiply till 
the time of return to possess Canaan was 
come, must be read in the pages of the sa- 
cred historian (xlii.— xlvii.). It is a touching 
story, true to nature, and exhibiting re- 
markably the manners of the age. Herein 
was God's wonderful working : m all this 
was the providential link that connected 
his rromisc to Abraham with its glorious 



JOSEPH] 



i fulfilment. Joseph's blessing was a large 
one from his father on his death-bed, who 
had given him in his sons two tribes in 
Israel. He dutifully closed Jacob's eyes, 
and buried him according to his charge in 
the cave of Machpelah ; and having long 
lived in honour he died at the age of one 
hundred and ten, and his bones were carried 
When the Israelites left Egypt into Canaan, 
and buried in Shechem (xlviii.— 1. ; Exod. 
iiii, 19 ; Josh. xxiv. 32). 

Joseph's character is developed in his 
history. A man of faith and patience, of 
determined resolution, of tender heart and 
forgiving temper, he may be taken as in 
some degree foreshadowing that meek One 
who, like him, was treacherously sold and 
raised at last to more than regal power. 

Sometimes the name Joseph includes the 
two tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, as in 
Dent, xxxiii. 13-17, sometimes the kingdom 
of Israel, as in Ezek. xxxvii. 16, 19 ; Amos 
1 V. 6, and sometimes, poetically, the whole 
covenant-people, as in Psal, Ixxxi. 4. For 
an account of the two tribes of his pos- 
terity, see EPHRAIil, MAiJASSEH, 1. 

2. A descendant of Issachar (Numb. xiii. 
7).— 3. One who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 42).— 4. A priest (ISTeh. xii. 14).— 
5. The reputed father of our Lord, husband 
I of the Virgin. Little is told of him in 
! scripture, save that he was of the seed of 
i David, and a just man, who carried on the 
i trade of a carpenter at IS^azareth. He was 
' several times favoured with divine com- 
: munications, to complete his marriage with 
I Mary, to carry her and the child Jesus into 
i Egypt, to return into Palestine, and settle 
' at his ancient home of Isazareth (Matt. 1. 
i 16, 18-25, ii. 13-15, 19-23, xiii. 55 ; Luke i. 27, 
I Ii. 4, 5, 16, 27, 33). He was still alive when 
! Jesus at twelve years went up to Jerusalem 
\ (41-51) ; but there is reason to believe that 
! he died before our Lord commenced his 
i public ministry. Certainly, had she then 
i had a husband, Mary would not at the cruci- 
j flxion have been entrusted to the care of 
John (John xix. 26, 27). Probably Joseph 
was older than Mary. There are some le- 
gendary stories of him extant which are 
not worth detailing.— 6. A rich and honour- 
able Israelite, one of the great council, or 
sanbedrim, called from his birth-place or 
residence ' of Arimathea.' He was a disciple 
of Jesus, but did not venture openly to 
avow his belief: he dissented, however, 
i from the judgment of his colleagues. And, 
! when the dreadful deed of the Lord's 
i murder was done, Joseph, perhaps embold- 
I ened by the portents which accompanied 
' it and the evident consternation of the 
rulers, went at once to Pilate, begged the 
sacred body, prepared it with Nicodemus 
for burving, and laid it in his own new 
tomb (Matt, xxvii. 57-60 ; Mark xv. 42-46 ; 
Luke xxiii. 50-53; John xix. 38-42). More 
of this Joseph we do not certainly know : 
there is a tradition that he came into 
Britain and settled at Glastonbury.— 
, 8, 9. Three persons in the ancestry of 
Christ (Luke iii. 24, 26, 30).— 10. A disciple 
named Barsabas. Ho must have been a 
distinguished person, possibly one of the 
ueveuty, for he was nominated with Mat- 



thias for the apostleship (Acts 1. 23). We I 
hear no more of him. I ' 

JO'SEPH.—l. An ancestor of Judith (Ju- 
dith viii. 1).— 2. A Jewish captain in the ! 
Maccabean wars (1 Mace. v. S).— 3. John, the 
brother of Judas Maccabeus,appears to have t 
been sometimes called Joseph (2 Mace, viii, |! 
22, X. 19). 

JOSE'PRUS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Joseph ji 
(Ezra X. 42). i; 

JO'SES (whom Jeliovah helps).— 1. One of j 
those called our Lord's brethren (Matt, 
xiii. 55, xxvii. 56 ; Mark vi. 3, xv. 40, 47). { 
See jAiiES, 2.— 2 (Acts iv. 36). SeeBASNA- 

BAS. 

JO'SHAH (whom Jehovah lets dwell). A ! 
chief of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 
34). 

JO'SHAPHAT (whom Jehovah judgesX 
One of David's warriors a Chron. xi. 43). 

JOSHAVI'AH (whom Jehovah lets dwell). 
Also one of David's warriors (1 Chron. 
xi. 46). 

JOSHBEKA'SHAH (seat in hardness). A ; 
head of one of the divisions of singers ; 
(1 Chron. XXV. 4, 241. I 

JO'SHEB-BAS'SEBET (7ic icho sits in the | 
seat) (2 Sam. xxiii. 8, marg.) See Jasho- j 

BEAM. 

JOSH'TJA (Whose help is Jeliovah, or Je- I 
hovahthe salvation).— 1. This eminent leader | 
was the son of ^'un, of the tribe of Eph- 1 
raim, grandson of that Elishama who was 
prince of the tribe (Numb, ii, IS ; 1 Chron. 
vii. 26), and probably seven descents from 
Joseph : see Ephraim, p. 269. He was 
originally called Oshea ; but his name was 
changed to Jehoshua or Joshua (Numb, 
xiii. 16 ; 1 Chron. vii. 27), rendered in Greek 
' Jesus* (Acts vii. 45 ; Heb. iv. 8). 

Joshua was born in Egypt, and was of 
mature age at the time of the exodus. "We 
first hear of him as appointed to command 
the troops selected for resisting the attack 
of Amalek in Rephidim : he was completely 
successful ; and Moses was directed to write 
an account of the victory (Exod. xvii. 8-16). 
He is afterwards repeatedly mentioned as 
attending Moses (xxiv. 13, xxxii. 17, xxxiii. 
11 ; Numb. xi. 28), and was appointed one of 
the spies to search Canaan (xiii. 8). He 
alone with Caleb brought a true account, 
and expressed his firm persuasion that, ac- 
cording to God's promise, Israel was well 
able to dispossess the Canaanites. To the 
faithful two it was declared that, while the 
people were condemned to wander forty 
years in the wilderness, and the rest of the 
spies died almost immediately, they both 
should survive to inherit their portion of 
the good land (xiii. 26— xiv. 45, xxri. 65). 
Moses, for his sin at Meribah,was not to lead 
the people over the Jord;m ; and Joshua was 
then solemnly designated as his successor 
(xxvii. 18-23, xxxiv. 17 ; Dent. i. 38) : and 
earnest charges were given him to be faith- 
ful in his h'igh leadership (.iii. 21, 22, 28, 
xxxi. 7-23). In this he may be considered 
as a tvpe of Christ, bearing, to note no 
other particulars, the same name; and, as 
the one led the Israelites into a place oi 
earthly rest, so the other lirings his choseu 
into the heavenly Canaan, the glorious 
eternal 'rest' which * remaineth tox the 



I 




1 ) 

! 

^ - 

• 

1 


493 


MihU ^mMCQQt. [JOSHUA, THE BOOK 07 


people of God' (Heb. iv. 9) : comp. Pearson i 
On the Creed, art. ii. pp. 75-77, edit. 1683. ] 

Joshua, haying assumed the command 
after Moses' death (at about eighty-three 
or eighty-four years of age), received a 
promise of continued support from God 
(Josh. i. 1-9) : lie then sent spies to Jericho, 
soon after crossed the Jordan with tliehost, 
the waters being miraculously cut off, and, 
encamping at Gi]gal,he renewed the divine 
coA^enant by circumcising the people, and 
afterwards solemnlykept the passover ; the 
manna now ceasing (]0— v. 12). He had 
then a vision of the Captain of the Lords 
host, most probably no created being, but 
the Son himself (13-15) ; and according to 
God's command he attacked and destroyed 
Jericho, the walls of which fell suddenly 
down, when Israel had for seven days com- 
passed the city (vi.). But, on a repulse be- 
fore Ai, Joshua seems for the time to have 
lost heart : the cause, however, the crime 
of Achan, was soon discovered, the culprit 
punished, Ai taken; and Joshua, penetrating 
into the heart of the country, solemnly read 
the blessings and curses of the law on Ge- 
rizim and Ebal, as Moses had commanded 
(vii., viil.). The submission of the Gibeon- 
ites, who obtained terms from Israel by 
fraud, and the consequent league of several 
southern chiefs, led to the conquest of a 
large part of the south (ix., x.) ; and another 
confederacy of northern kings drew on a 
battle and complete victory near the lake of 
Merom : the north was then occupied ; and, 
after various campaigns, one of which is 
particularly specified against the gigantic 
Anakim, Joshua may be said to have had, in 
about six or seven years, military posses- 
1 sion of the whole of the country (xi., xii.) 
' It is true that many of the Canaanites still 
held fastnesses, and maintained themselves 
in different strong places, and probably, as 
Israel grew remiss, afterwards recovered 
several cities that had at first been taken. 
But Joshua was now in a position to allot 
the land to the various tribes. This was 
done in conjunction with Eleazar; and 
Tiranath-serah. in mount Ephraim, was 
given to the leader himself (xix. 49-51). 
Here doubtless he enjoyed a rest ; but we 
find him at the close of his life again pub- 
licly charging the people, in two addresses, 
with some foreboding of the evil into which 
they would run after his decease. Then he 
1 died in peace, aged one hundred and ten 
1 years, and was buried in his own inheri- 
i tance (xxiii., xxiv.). 

Joshua's character is a very noble one ; 
and few blemishes are found in it. The 
favoured disciple of Moses, he learned to be 
faithful to the Lord God. Once indeed he 
was too jealous for what lie conceived 
Moses' honour (Numb. xi. 28, 29). He was 
generally bold and fearless, though an un- 
expected check, as already noted, at one 
time dispirited him. But, with these small 
exceptions, an able commander, a wise 
ruler, a faithful servant of the Lord, Joshua 
shines as a bright star among the noble 
luminaries with which God has decorated 
his church ; and his resolution may well be 
taken as the humble decision of all who 
1 bear the name' of Christ : ' as for me and 


ny house, we wiU serve the Lord' (xxiv. 

^2 A man of Beth-shemesh, in whose field 
the cart stopped which brought back the 
irk from the Philistines (1 Sam. vi. 14, 18). 
—3 A governor of Jerusalem (,2 Kings xxiii. 
B) —4 A high priest after the captivity 
(Hagg. i. 1, and elsewhere). In the books 
of Ezra and Nehemiah he is called J eshua : 
see JESHTJA, , . , 

JOSH'UA, THE BOOK OF. This book 
receives its name from its recording the 
conquest and appropriation of the land of 
Canaan by the Israelites under the leader- 
ship of Joshua. It may be considered as 
comprising three parts: I. The conquest 
and occupation of Canaan (i.-xii.). II. The 
division of the conquered land (xiii.-xxii.). 
Ill The addresses and dying counsels of 
Joshua, his death and burial (xxiii., xxiv.). 

Attempts are made by several niodern ! 
critics to dismember this book ; as if it l 
were compiled by some comparatively-late , 
writer, from various materials, which he | 
has not succeeded, they say, in reducing i 
to a consistent whole. Discrepancies are | 
alleged and interpolations supposed ; but 
when examined they amount to little j 
more than that, whereas Joshua is repre- \ 
sented as having subdued the entire coun- 
trv, vet portions are still said to be 
unconquered ; that he is declared to have 
rooted out the Anakim, who appear after- 
wards in force, and to have captured and 
destroyed many cities which subsequently 
were held against the Israelites. Some ob- 
servations have been made in the preceding 
article which tend to explain these alleged 
contradictions : it is enough to say that 
generallv, after campaigns are decided by 
great victories, there are sure to remain 
petty wars of detail, and that it was not 
possible for the Israelites at once to dis- 
seminate themselves through every corner 
of the country. It is natural, therefore, to 
suppose that places might be lost and won, 
occupied and re-occupied, by both contend- 
ing parties. And we must remember that 
it by no means follows that the limitation 
of a general statement is a contradiction 

^^^either is the alleged diversity of style 
and diction an argument of much force, 
The proofs brought to support it are in- 
sufficient. Besides, a portion of the book 
is historical, another portion geographical 
If v/e find the style more com.plete and 
round in the one, more loose and feeble in 
the other, itis only what we might naturally 
expect. It is not denied that documents 
were used in the composition : the terri- 
torial descriptions of the districts allotted 
to the various tribes were most probably 
taken from the surveys made by the ap- 
pointed officers ; and so accurately have 
they been copied that, whereas too much 
land was at first allotted to Judah, and af- } 
terwards Simeon's Inheritance was taken 
out of it, both the first and second appor- 
tionments are preserved. Documents were 
used, then, but faithfully, judiciously, and 
harmoniously And, after all, so well is the 
book compacted, that Bleek {Einleitanci m 
das A. T., pp. 312, 326, 327) acknowieUgCJ 


1 
1 







JOSHUA, THE BOOK OF] Cl&C t!lXm^\lX]} Of 



494 



that it is not possible "with any certainty to 
separate it into what lie thinks its discord- 
ant parts. 

Taking then the hook of Joshua as a 
whole, we may enquire who was the author, 
and to what date it is to he assigned. Con- 
jectures as to the author range over a vast 
extent, from Joshua himself down to Jere- 
miah, Bleek, who places the hook of Deu- 
teronomy late, believes that the final editor 
of that was also the compiler of Joshua. 
In opposition to such a notion must he set 
the proofs (see Deuteronomy) that of 
-eronomy Moses was the author. Per- 



Deuteronomy Moses — 
haps we mav arrive by careful research at 
a more satisfactory result. The compilation 
was later than Joshua. He is said, indeed 
(Josh. xxiv. 26), to have committed several 
things to writing ; but this record of his, 
though added, it would seem, to some book 
of authority previously existing, can hardly 
be supposed to include more than the re- 
newal of the covenant, the circumstances 
and substance of the address he had just 
made to Israel. And there are indications 
that the composition must be placed later 
than the time of Joshua. For, to refer to 
but one of these, the expedition of the 
Danites to Leshem or Laish is mentioned 
(xix. 47) ; ti fuller account of which is given 
in Judges xviii. And, from that account, 
it appears that a system of image-worship 
was established immediately on the settle- 
ment of Laish, ever after called Dan. We 
find also that (xvii.) the same system had 
previously existed in mount Ephraim, pro- 
bably for a few years. Now, though there 
are indications in Joshua's last address that 
he thought declension into idolatry not un- 
likely, and though there might be indi- 
vidual instances of sin, yet, looking at the 
declarations of Josh, xxiii. 8, xxiv. 31, we 
can hardly imagine that such flagrant ex- 
amples of open image-worship could have 
occurred in that great captain's life-time. 
Yet the date could not have been late. 
There are some expressions tending to prove 
this which must be noticed. We cannot 
indeed lay stress on v. 1, 6 ; where the use of 
the first person is not decisive. But we may 
observe that Rahab is spoken of as still 
alive (vi. 25). We have no knowledge how 
long she lived; yet, as in all probability 
young at the taking of Jericho (she had 
then parents), she might very well have 
survived it sixty or seventy years. The 
expression, 'She dwellcth in Israel even 
unto this day,' would not have been used by 
one writing immediately ; it points rather 
to a time when few who had taken part in 
the stirring scenes of the conquest stil! re- 
mained. The words 'unto this day ' occur 
not less than seventeen times in the whole 
book, viz. iv. 9, V. 9, vi. 25, vii. 26 (twice), 
viii. 28, 29, ix. 27, X. 27,xiii. la, xiv. 14, xv. 
63 xvi. 10, xxii. 3, 17, xxiii. 8, 9. The last 
four instances are found in Joshua's own 
addresses : that in vi.25'is, as just observed, 
an argument for an early date ; and the rest 
may very well come within, if not Joshua's 
life-time, at least the next generation. 
But XV. 63 fixes a lower limit, later than 
which the composition of the book cannot 
be dated. In the seventh or eighth year of 



David's reign the Jcbusites were ex;.elled 
from Jerusalem (2 Sam.' v. 6-9). I'erhaps 
then we may not unreasonably believe that 
this history' was compiled in the days when 
judges ruled. It may be vvhen some who 
witnessed the conquest were yet alive, or, 
if all had passed away, with such a scru- 
pulous adherence to authorities as to em- 
body some of the expressions in which eye- 
witnesses had chronicled the events as they 
occurred. There are indications, too, in the 
stvle, faint no doubt, but still pointing to 
the same period of time. It slightly diifers 
from that of the Pentateuch, but yet is not 
quite assimilated to that of later books. 
To take a single instance : the expression 
' Lord of Hosts' is nowhere found in Joshua. 
It first occurs in 1 Sam. i. 3, 11, and thence- 
forth is sufficiently common. 

It has been already said that this book 
has a historical and a geographical part. 
Some have believed that the last-named 
was a subsequent addition. But there seems 
to be one leading idea, according to which 
the whole was arranged. Thus, in Josh. i. 2-9 
a command and a promise are conjoined. 
Verses 5-8 are a kind of table of contents ; 

5 showing how, by God's help, Canaan 
should be entirely subdued (comp.i. lOxii.) ; 

6 pointing to its distrilnition among the 
trilies (comp. xiii.-xxii.) ; 7, 8 correspond- 
ing with the narrative of xxiii., xxiv. All 
the parts are closely linked together; the 
end of the first portion (xii.) clearly pre- 
paring for an account of the division of 
the country, and the conclusion of the geo- 
graphical sections referring back not only 
to xi. 23, but also to i.2-6 ; while the remain- 
ing chapters both are necessary to narrate 
the return of the trans-Jordanio tribes to 
their own settlements and the close ol 
Joshua's administration, and have also va- 
rious references to what had preceded. The 
independent character of the book, more- 
over, is evidenced by the mention of the 
assignment of their lands to those eastern 
tribes, and of the appointment of the refuge- 
cities ; all of which had been narrated in the 
Pentateuch (see Keil, Einleitung, § 43 : comp. 
his Comm. on Joshua, transl, Introd., pp. 
29, 30). 

The canonical authority of this book haa 
never been disputed : there are references to 
it (besides allusions in the Old Testament) 
in Acts vii. 45; Heb. iii. 5, iv. 8, xi. 30, 31; 
James ii. 25. 

But objection has been made to the cre- 
dibility of the narrative, because it records 
miraculous events. Thus, various expe- 
dients have been devised, hymen who seem 
to have a nervous fear of God's working a 
miracle, to account for the statement that 
the walls of Jericho fell down. And great 
perplexity has been felt in regard to the 
assertion that the sun and moon stood 
still. The main argument against the literal 
truth of this wonder is that it must be of a 
character so stupendous thatall other mira- 
cles sink in comparison into the shade. The 
plain meaning of which is that God may 
work an easv (?) miracle, but not a hard (?) 
one. As if hard and easy could have any 
place in respect to the power of him at 
whose word creation started forth I Man 



i95 



[jot 



is utia'ble to rerform the so-called least 
miracle : God is mighty enough to perform 
the so-called greatest. The only question 
for the reverent enquirer Is whether the 
statement is so distinctly made that it must 
he received without violence to the text. 
Mr Hopkins, in an elaborate examination 
Wner. BiU. Repository, Jan. 1845, pp. 97-130) 
endeavours to show that the historian is 
merely extracting from the poetical book 
of Jasher, which he cites by name, to ap- 
prise the reader that he by no means him- 
self asserts the reality of the miracle. But, 
if the statement were not literally true, 
why did the sacred writer introduce and so 
far endorse it? It is passing strange that 
an author,gravely recording history, should 
suddenly incorporate poetry with his prose, 
and intend it to be understood that the 
poetry was but a nourish, a fictitious exag- 
geration of plain fact. The student is re- 
commended to consult Greswell's Fasti 
Temporis CatJiolici and Origines Kalendarice, 
Oxford, 18.52, diss. v. chapp. ii. iii. iv. vol. i. 
pp. 251-383. Mr. Greswell considers an or- 
dinary day far too short for all the events 
said to have happened in it. He analyzes 
fully the narrative, and investigates the 
extraneous evidence which can be produced 
for the occurrence of the miracle. His con- 
clusions are very weighty. It is not in- 
tended to decide dogmatically how the 
wonder was accomplished. It might be 
by a powerful refraction of the solar light. 
This we must be content to leave. See 
Miracle. , ^ ... * 

It may be added that, in corroboration of 
the general history of this book, a Phoeni- 
cian inscription is cited cProcopius,F«wdaZ., 
lib. ii. 10), as written by Canaanites fleeing 
from Joshua. Some writers, however, doubt 
the authenticity of this account. 

Two other books bear Ehename of Joshua. 
One, printed 1848, is an Arabic chronicle, 
written most likely in the thirteenth cen- 
tury : it contains a legendary history of 
Joshua, with later stories, and comes down 
to the time of Theodoslus the Great. The 
other (a part of the preceding) is in the Sa- 
maritan dialect, a free translation of the 
genuine book, modified according to the 
Samaritan dogmas. It was probably the 
work of a Samaritan who resided in Egypt. 

Keil's commentary on Joshua (Erlaug. 
1847) has been already referred to. There 
is an English translation of it. 

JOS'HTJA, THE GATE OP. One of the 
gates of Jerusalem, called after a person 
of the name who was governor of the city 
(2 Kings xxiii. We have no means of 
identifying the position of this gate. 

JOSI'AH (whom Jehovah heals).— I. The 
son and successor of Amon king of Judah. 
He was but eight years old at his accession, 
and he reigned thirty-one years, 639-609 B.C. 
(2 Kings xxii. 1, 2 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 1, 2). 
When but a youth, in the eighth year of his 
reign, he began to seek the Lord, and in his 
twelfth year he carried out a reformation, 
visiting and cleansing nat only Judah, but 
the country of Israel also, from idolatrous 
pollutions (3-7). This work, it would seem, 
went on for several years ; further steps, 
according to opportunity, beixi^ from time 



to time taken. In the eighteenth year of 
Josiah's reign, the temple having been re- 
paired, a copy of the law was found there, 
and brought to the king (2 Kings xxii. 3-20 ; 
2 Chron. xxxiv. 8-33). Whether this was the 
actual book put originally by Moses by the 
side of the ark (Deut. xxxi. 26), or a trans- 
cript, we know not. It is evident tnat the 
sacred volume had been grievously neglect- 
ed ; and probably the king had never seen it. 
But the hypothesis of some that Jeremiah 
and Hilkiah forged a book, and palmed it 
upon the king, is, apart from its profanity, 
one of the most unreasonable that could 
have been devised. 'The deep and funda- 
mental knowledge of the law,' says Keil, 
'which all the prophets display, necessarily 
pre-supposes the dissemination of copies of 
the Pentateuch among them* (Comm. on 
Kings, transl, vol. ii. p. 138). Some have said 
that the book produced was Deuteronomy, 
then first composed ; but even De Wette 
does not countenance this supposition 
(Einleit., § 162 a). See Hilkiah, 2. For a 
very sensible discussion of the whole sub- 
ject consult Hiivernick, Einleit., § 139, vol. i. 
2, pp. 534-540. A most solemn passover was 
beld in this eighteenth year of Josiah's 
reign ; and further purifications of the land 
were carried out (2 Kings xxiii. 1-27; 
2 Chron. xxxv. 1-19). This sovereign ap- 
pears to have exercised authority over dis- 
tricts formerly comprehended in the king- 
dom of Israel. Thus at Beth-el, the place 
where Jeroboam I. had set up one of his 
calves, Josiah, according to a remarka1)le 
prophecy (1 Kings xiii. 2), burnt the high- 
place and polluted the altar. It has been 
thought that, as the Scythian incursion oc- 
curred in his time (Herodotus, lib. i. 104-106), 
he had less to fear from the Assyrian 
power. Indeed the Assyrians might have 
entrusted the king of Judah with the de- 
fence of those districts ; for it was most 
likely as an ally or vassal of the Assyrian 
monarch that Josiah met the king of Egypt, 
and fell at Megidda (2 Kings xxiii. 28-30 : 
2 Chron. xxxv. 20-27). He was greatly la- 
mented, and buried with the highest 
honours. And this, we are told, was the 
fulfilment of Huldah'a prophecy (xxxiv. 28 • 
comp. Jer. xxxiv. 5). The lament said to 
be made by Jeremiah for Josiah must not 
be supposed the book of Lamentations. 

2. A person at whose house the symbolical 
crowning of Joshua the high priest was to 
take place (Zech. vi. 10). 

JOSI'AS. The Greek form of Josiah 
(Matt. i. 10, 11). 

JOSI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 33). Jeshaiah (Ezra 
viii. 7). 

JOSIBI'AH (whom Jehovah lets dwell). 
A chief among the Simeonites (1 Chron. iv. 
35). 

JOSIPHI'AH (whom mar/ Jehovah in- 
crease). One whose son returned from Ba- 
bylon with Ezra, at the head of 160 males 
(Ezra viii. 10). 

JOT (Matt. V. IS). The Hebrew letter yod 
appears to be referred to, as the smallest in 
size of the alphabet. We have reason to 
conclude from this that the present charac- 
ters were in use in our Lord's time. In the 
older, now called the Samaritan, alphabo; 



jotbahJ 



496 



the yod vtas as large as any of tlie other 
letters. 

i JOT'BAH (goodness, pleasantness'). The 
place where the father of MeshuUemeth, 
king Amon's mother, resided (2 Kings xxi. 
19). It may be identical with 
JOT'BAT H, JOT'BATHAH {id.). One of 
: the stations of the Israelites in the wilder- 
: ness (Xumh, xxxiii. 33 ; Deut. x. 7). 

JO'THAJ,! {Jehovali is npriglit).—!. The 
youngest son of Gideon, who alone escaped 
when Abimelech his half-brother murdered 
his other brethren. He uttered from Ge- 
rizim a warning parable, then fled and 
lived at Beer (Judges Ix. 5-21).- 2. The son 
of Uzziah, king of Judah. He was regent 
while his father was a leper, and then, suc- 
ceeding to his throne when twenty-five, he 
reigned sixteen years, 758-741 B.C. He did 
right In the sight of God : though thehigh 
places were not removed ; and his reign 
was prosperous (2 Kings xv. 5, 7, 30, 32-38, 
xvi. 1 ; 1 Chron. lii. 12, v. 17 ; 2 Chron. xxvl. 
21, 23, xxvii. ; Isai. i. 1, vii. 1 ; Hos. i. 1 ; Mic. 

i. 1).— 3. One of Judah's posterity (.1 Chron. 

ii. 47). 

JOURNEY. It is customary in the east 
to journey in the morning or evening, and 
to rest in the heat of the day. So the three 
strangers were naturally expected by Abra- 
ham to pause, as be saw them coming to- 
wards his tent-door, where he sat for cool- 
ness (Gen. xviii. 1-5). A day's journey was 
probably ten to twenty miles (2s umb. xi. 21 ; 
Beut. i. 2\ Kitto, however, estimates it at 
twenty-three miles {Pict. Bible, note on Gen. 
XXX. 36). A sabbath-day's journey was 2000 
cubits, or paces, about six furlongs, or three- 
quarters of a mile (Acts i. 12). The measure is 
supposed to have been borrowed from the 
space left between the people and the ark 
when thev passed the Jordan (Josh. iii. 4). 

JOY. That happy state of mind which is 
the privilege and duty of God's servants, 
resulting from reconciliation with him 
through faith in Christ (Rom. v. 11). It is 
reckoned as one of the fruits of the Spirit 
(Gal. V. 22). It is to remain with those that 
keep Christ's commandments (Jobn xv. 11). 
Future happiness is illustrated l)y the ex- 
pression ' joy of the Lord ' (Matt. xxv. 21, 23). 
Believers, therefore, are commanded to re- 
joice (Phil. iii. 1, iv. 4). 

But all joy is not of this blessed kind. 
There is a worldly, foolish, or hypocritical 
joy (Job XX. 5 ; Prov. xv. 21). That, which 
has no better source than in vanity or sin, 
will, in the end, be turned to bitterness. 

JO'ZABAD (y^hom Jehovah bestows).— 1. 2. 
Two chiefs of Manasseh, who joined David 
as he went to Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 20).— 
3. One, probablv a Levite, who took part in 
the reforms of Hczekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 13). 
—4. A Levite chief in Josiah's reign (xxxv. 
9).— 5. A Levite who helped to weigh the 
vessels brought to Jerusalem by E/.ra (Ezra 
viii. 33).— 6. A priest who had married a 
foreign wife (x. 22).— 7. One who assisted in 
expounding the law when Ezra read (Neh. 
viii. 7) : he may possibly l)e the same with 
No. 5.-8. A chief of the Levites (xi. 16), 
perhaps also the same person. See Josabad. 

JO'ZACHAR (whom Jehovah remembers). 
One of the murderers of Joash king of 



Judah (2 Kings xii. 21). He is called Zabad 
in 2 Chron. xxiv. 26. 

JO'ZADAK (whom Jehovah viakes jiist) 
(Ezra iii. 2, 8,_ v. 2, x. 18 ; Keh. xii. 26). See 
Jehozadak. 

JU'BAL mnsic). One of the sons of 
Lamech, of the line of Cain (Gen. iv. 21). He 
was the inventor of the harp and organ, i.e. 
of stringed and wind instruments. 

JUBILE, or JUBILEE. A festal year 
prescribed by the Hebrew law, and so called j 
as implying the flowing forth of loud sound, i 
because it was ushered in by the clangour of j 
trumpets. It recurred every flftieth year, i 
after seven sabbaths of years (not being, as ! 
some have supposed, the seventh sabbatical 
year), marking oflc a great cycle of time, so 
that at each half century the Israelitish 
polity began as it were afresh ; a new 
morning of holy gratulation and recovered 
strength dawning on the land. 

The account of this institution, which had 
its type in the weekly sabbath, is carefully 
given in the law^ (Lev. xxv. 8-16, 23-55), 
whence we learn that the jubilee com- 
menced on the tenth day of the seventh 
month, and was proclaimed through the 
whole country. It was to be a year when, 
as in the sabbatical year, the land lay un- 
tilled ; nor was there any formal gathering 
of its spontaneous produce, which was to 
be absolutely free to all comers. 

In the jubilee year every man was to * re- 
turn unto his possession ; ' that is, all alien- 
ated landed property was to revert to the 
original owner. There were two exceptions : 
houses in walled towns, if not redeemed 
within a year, become the purchaser's for 
ever ; the jubilee release not touching 
them. But this provision did not apply to 
house-property belonging to Levites,which 
was the only property they could so mort- 
gage, for they were forbidden to part at all 
with the field of the suburbs of their cities. 
The other exception related to lands dedi- 
cated to God. These, if not redeemed, or if 
so sold as to make redemption impossible 
bv the original owner, did not return to 
liira at the jubilee : they became the priests' 
for ever. But, if the mortgagee or person 
who had purchased such lands dedicated 
them, in that case, as his right over them 
extended only for the time till the next 
jubilee, they returned then to the first pro- ; 
prietor (xxvii. 14-25). It was therefore a | 
general principle that landed property could i 
be alienated only for a term of years. The : 
nearer to the jubilee, the shorter was the i 
term, and the less that which could be raised [ 
upon the property. The owner, too, or his ■ 
next representative, could, subject to the 
provisions above noticed, redeem his lands 
at any time ; only, if they were sanctified to 
the Lord, he must add one-fifth of the esti- 
mated value to the redemption money. 

Hebrew bondmen also became free in the 
year of jubilee, whether in servitude to 
their own countrymen, or to resident 
foreigners (in which last case the right of 
redemption might at any time be exercised). 
Generally they were to serve their brethren 
])ut seven years (Exod. xxi. 1, 2) ; but, if the 
jubilee occurred before the seven years ex- 
pired, they obtained their liberty, even it 



497 



[JTJDAH 



all probability those who had declined 1 
leaving their master at the ordinary term { 

Jc?sephus adds that debts were remitted at 1 
the jubilee {Antiq., lib. iii. 12, § 3). It is not, ] 
however, easy to see what practical opera- ( 
tion such a provision could have had, as the : 
jubilee immediately succeeded a sabbatical < 
year, in which there Avas such a remission : 
(Deut. XV. 1, 2) ; and the scripture says ' 
nothing on the subject. 

It has been disputed whether the law of : 
the jubilee ever came into full operation. 
Little is directly recorded ; but there are 
several allusions to it (Numb, xxxvi. 4; 
Isai. Ixi. 1, 2 ; Ezek. vli. 12, 13, xlvi. 16-18). 
No doubt, like other commandments of the 
law, it was neglected in days of declension 
and apostasy. Its operation would have 
been very beneficial : more touching upon 
general economics perhaps than of a re- 
ligious cast, for there were no special ser- 
vices appointed for it, it must have kept 
the people in general prosperity, checking 
the aggrandisement of a few to the im- 
poverishing of the many. And it was a 
standing testimony to the theocracy, that 
the land was the Lord's, apportioned by him 
to Israel as his tenants. It must have 
pointed forward also to that future state of 
glorious spiritual freedom, where the in- 
heritance of each redeemed one is his for 
ever, no forfeiture of his high privileges to 
be dreaded in God's eternal kingdom. 

JU'CAL {potent) (Jer. xxxviii. 1). See Je- 

HTTCAIi. 

JU'DA.— 1. One of those called our Lord's 
brethren Qlark vi. 3). See James, 2. He 
is termed Judas in Matt. xiii. 55.-2. One 
in the list of our Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 
26). Lord A. Hervey identifies him with 
Abiud (Matt. i. 13), and thinks that both 
names may indicate Hodaiah (1 Chron. iii. 
24 : comp. Ezra ii. 40, iii. 9).— 3. Another in 
the same list (Luke iii. 30).— 4. The patriarch 
Judah (Luke iii. 33 ; Heb. vii. 14 ; Rev. v. 5, 
vii. 5). He is called Judas in Matt. i. 2, 3.— 
5. Used for the land (ii. 6) : so also in the 
Apocrypha (1 Mace. ii. 6, 18). 

JTJD^'A, or JUDE'A. The name by which 
now in popular language the whole of Pales- 
tine is understood. 

We find ' Judea,' or ' the province of 
Judea,' mentioned after the captivity (Ezra 
V. 8 ; Dan. v. 13, where ' Jewry ' ). It derived 
its name from the imperial tribe of Judah ; 
and it seems to have comprised the terri- 
tory occupied by those who returned from 
Babylon ; the mass of these exiles having 
been of the tribe, or of the kingdom of 
Judah, as distinguished from that of Israel. 
It is true that the remnants of many other 
tribes returned also. Thus the sacrifices 
were for the twelve (Ezra vi. 17, viii. 35) ; 
and we have special mention of Ephraim and 
Manasseh (1 Chron. ix. 3), of Benjamin and 
the Levites (Ezra i. 5), and of others whose 
pedigrees were lost (ii. 59, 60). We know 
also that so multifarious were those that 
came back, that it is said, ' all Israel dwelt in 
their cities' (70), and that later in the sacred 
history the descent of individuals not of 
Judah is specified (Luke ii. 36) ; yet, as Jeru- 
salem was now again the general metropo- 



lis, it was natural that the name of the 
great tribe which settled round it should 
prevail above the rest. And indeed, before 
the captivity, the kings of Judah seem to 
have recovered in a measure their authority 
over the rest of the land (2 Kings xxiil. 
19, 20 ; 2 Chron, xxxiv. 6, 7, 9), In th« Apo- 
crypha, ' Judea,' or ' the country of Judea,' 
frequently occurs (e.g. 1 Esdr. iv. 45, vi. 8 ; 
Tob. i. 18; Judith iv. 1 ; 1 Mace. vi. 48), 
though the distinctive name of Israel is by 
no means abandoned (i. 20, 25, vi. 18, 21), In 
New Testament times Judea was held to 
include even the trans- Jordanic provinces 
(Matt. xix. 1 ; Mark x. 1 ; Luke xxiii. 5). 
This was a popular mode of speaking ; for 
we Jind the word elsewhere more precisely 
used (John iv. 3, xi. 7, 8). Properly the 
province of Judea comprised the territoriea 
of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and parts of 
Dan, from the Jordan to the Mediterranean, 
and from a place called Anuath in the north, 
to Jardas in the south (Joseph., Bell. Jud., 
lib. iii. 3, § 5), corresponding nearly with 
the ancient kingdom of Judah. After the 
disgrace of Archelaus, Judea was attached 
to the Roman province of Syria ; the procu' 
rator, subordinate to the governor of Syria, 
residing at C-cesarea. 

JU'DAH (j)7-aised).—l. The fourth son oi 
Jacob and Leah, so called from the joyful 
gratitude expressed by his mother at hi3 
birth (Gen. xxix. 35). After the return of 
Jacob with his family to Canaan, Judah 
took a woman of the country to wife. Her 
death and the disgraceful circumstances 
which followed may be read in xxxviii. Ju- 
dah's character improves as we follow out 
the circumstances of the history. He had 
joined with his brothers in their evil pur- 
pose against Joseph ; but he had some re- 
lentings, and therefore he proposed to sell 
the youth to the merchants of a caravan 
that passed by rather than put him to death; 
a proposal which was accepted (xxxvii. 26- 
28). Afterwards, when it was necessary to 
go a second time into Egypt for corn, and 
Jacob had steadily refused, in spite of Reu- 
ben's remonstrance, to part with Benjamin, 
Judah undertook to be responsible for his 
safe return ; and the father was prevailed 
on (xlii. 3-14). Judah's conduct in Egypt 
was beyond all praise. When Joseph's cup 
was discovered in Benjamin's sack, he nobly 
offered to become a slave himself for life, if 
only Benjamin might be spared to return 
to his father. His address on the occasion 
is peculiarly touching (xliv. 14-34). At the 
descent into Egypt, Judah had three sons 
living : the two grandsons, afterwards dis- 
tinguished as heads of families in the 
tribe, were probably not then born (xlvi. 
, 12). 

: The prophetic blessing pronounced by 
, Jacob augured a splendid destiny to the 
descendants of this son. Though he way 
! not the eldest, and though the birth-right 

■ which Reuben forfeited was conferred on 
; Joseph, yet the royalty of Israel was to be 
L with Judah. His strength, then, his im- 
[ peria] power, and the productiveness of his 
: territory, in wine and as pasturage, were 

■ foretold (xlix. 8-12 ; 1 Chron. v. 2). See Shi- 



jtjdah] 



498 



In reyiewing tlieWstory of Israel we may 
see how soon Judah had the pre-emmence. 
At the first census in the wilderness the 
tribe numbered 74,600; and, though the early 
leaders of Israel, Moses, Aaron, Joshua 
were of other families, yet Judah, as a tribe, 
took always the foremost place, marched at 
the head, and mustered under then- stan- 
dard the largest host (i^'umb. i. 26, 27, ii. 
3-9 vii 12). In the second census Judah 
had multiplied to 76,500 (xxvi. 19-22). The 
inspired benediction of Moses was short, 
yet it nevertheless indicated the increas- 
ing strength of this tribe. Accordingly 
we find a noble inheritance provided for 
Judah ; and it was one of the first assigned 
after the entrance of Israel into Canaan. 
The boundary is described as running on 
the north from the Dead sea where the J or- 
dan eaters it, westward by Beth-hogla, to 
En-shemesh, and probably over the mount 
of Olives to En-rogel, thence along the val- 
ley of Hinnom, to the water of Nephtoah 
(LiftaD, and by Beth-shemesh, and Ekron 
to the coast. The Mediterranean w^as the 
western boundary. The southern frontier 
was the river of Egypt (,Wady el-Arish), by 
Azmon, sweepiner southward to Karkaa, per- 
haps touching Wadij el-KurdizeJi, thence by 
Kadesh-barnea, the wilderness of Zm, and 
Maaleh-acrabbim to the southern extre- 
mity of the Dead sea ; that lake being uhe 
eastern border (Josh. xv. 1-12). This terri- 
tory was in average length about forty-live 
miles, with a breadth of fifty, and compre- 
hended four regions, the south, 'toward the 
coast of Edom,' a district which has been 
excellentlv illustrated by Mr. Wilton, The 
Wegeb, or South Country of Scripture, 1863; the 
' valley,' plain, or Shefelah, the tract lying 
between the central hill-country and the 
Mediterranean (Josh. xv. 33-47) ; the moun- 
tains (48-60) ; and the wilderness, the slopes 
and sunken region adjoining the Dead sea 
(61, 62). A portion of this territory was after 
wards deducted for Simeon, perhaps not 
a compact district, but certain cities with 
their villages ' within the inheritance ' of 
Judah (xix.1-9). Dan, too, had some places 
previouslv allotted to Judah (comp. 40-48). 

Among the towns of chief note in the 
possessions of this tribe may be enume- 
rated Beth-lehem, Hebron, Kirjath-jearim, 
Lachish, and Libnab. It cannot fail to 
strike the reader of xv. 21-32 that, whereas 
the cities of the south region of Judah 
are stated to be twenty-nine, near forty 
names are given in the list. By a careful 
examination of this list, aided by the re- 
searches of various travellers, Mr. Wilton 
has ascertained that the enumeration and 
the names exactly correspond ; several com- 
pound names of places being given in our 
version as if they were separate towns. For 
the right appellation of each, reference 
may be made to the articles under their 
respective headings ; and for fuller infor- 
mation Mr.Wiltou's book must be consulted. 
But it may be well to give a catalogue here 
of the twentv-niue cities as he believes 
them to stand :— 1. Kabzeel. 2. Arad. 3. { 
Hazar-kinah. 4. Dimonah, or Dibon. 5. , 
Ararah, or Aroer. 6. Kadesh. 7. Hazar- 
Ithnan. 8 Telem, or Telaim. 9. Bealoth.or I 



Baalath. 10. Hazor-hadattah. 11. Kenoth- 
hezron, which is Hazar-amam. 12. Shema 
or Shalma. 13. Moladah. 14. Hazar-gad- 
dah. 15. Heshmon. 16. Beth-pelet._ 17. 
Hazar-shual. 18. Beer-sheba. 19. Bizjoth- 
iah-baalah. 20. Ije-azim. 21. El-tolad. 22. 
Chesil, or Bethel. 23. Hormah, or Zephath. 
24 Ziklag. 25. Madmannah. 26. Sansan- 
nah. 27. Lebaoth. 28. Shilhim or Shaaraim. 
29. En-rimmon {TJie Negeb, p. 234). 

The region of Judah was much diversi- 
fied. The low plain along the sea-coast was 
emphatically a corn-producing country : the 
hills were admirably adapted for the culture 
of the vine ; and the wilder districts sui> 
plied abundant pasture for the fiocks and 
herds. But, powerful as the tribe was, it 
did not subdue and occupy the whole of its 
territory. At first, portions of the Shefelah 
were con^iuered by Joshua, and certain 
towns in the hill-country were taken (Josh. 
X 28-35, 38-40, xi. 21); and, after Joshuas 
death, Judah and Simeon together destroyed 
the chief Philistine cities and sacked Jerusa- 
lem (Judges 1. 1-20). But some of these con- 
quests were not retained. The Canaanites, 
who had chariots of iron, were too strong 
to be exterminated; and the tribe would 
seem to have settled mainly in the central 
mountains, holding for the most part the 
south and the wilderness, and, according to 
circumstances, gaining or losing the tracts 
adjacent to the Philistines. 

During the period of the judges we hear 
little of Judah. Only one judge, Othniel, is 
known certainly to have been of this tribe 
(ii. 9-11). Like the rest of Israel, they sub- 
mitted to the Philistine yoke; and their 
pusiUanimous conduct is strongly marked 
in their behaviour towards Sampson (xv 
9-13). They preserved, however, an inde- 
pendent spirit in regard to tbe other tribes, 
and, while thev acauiesced in the Ben]a- 
mite Saul's appointment as king, it could 
hardly have been with a very good 
grace ; as may be inferred from the very 
i small contingent they supplied to that 
{monarch's array when proceeding against 
lAmalek (1 Sam. xv. 4). Gladly, therefore, 
I did they embrace the opportunity of Sauls 
death to anoint their own tribesman, David, 
j king in Bebron; and for some years they 
maintained a separate monarchy (2 Sam. 
iii 1-11). When the nation was re-united 
under David's sceptre, the haughty men of 
Judah thought little of and cared little for 
the rest of the tribes (xix. 40-48, xx. 2, 4), 
an omen of the entire separation which 
occurred after Solomon's death. 

The breaking of the Hebrew monarchy 
into two kingdoms, though the special judg- 
ment of God on sin, was nevertheless the 
natural consequence of tribal jealousy. 
Imperial Judah in the south, first in power 
and importance, had always maintained, as 
j observed above, a kind of contemptuous 
I independence of the rest ; while turbulent 
' Ephraim, occupying the centre of the land, 
was little disposed to settle in a secondary 
position. Besides, the sanctuary so long at 
Ephraimite Shiloh was now transferred to 
Jerusalem, locally Benjamite, but actually 
appropriated by the house of Judah. Both 
the civil and religious authority of the 



499 



[JUDAE 



people had thus passed from Ephraim. 
The smouldering embers of discontent, 
therefore, temporarily stifled by the power 
of David and the splendour of Solomon, 
were quite prepared to blaze out so soon as 
the sceptre fell into weaker hands. Reho- 
boam was not only weak, he was contemp- 
tibly foolish ; and therefore an Israelitish 
monarchy speedily arose, at the head of 
which was a king of the house of Joseph. To 
Judah adhered the single tribe of Benjamin ; 
and it was but the fragment of an empire 
which ever after was ruled by the house of 
David (1 Kings xii. 16, 17). Had Rehoboam 
possessed common sense, he might still 
after the rupture have been a powerful 
king. He did indeed try to adopt some 
salutary measures. He fortified a good 
many of his towns (2 Chron. xi. 5-12) ; and, 
as the priests and Levites generally re- 
sorted to him, and various of the better- 
minded of the other tribes (13-16), and as 
Simeon seems to have been incorporated 
with Judah, and some of the Danite cities 
were possessed (though Beth-el and per- 
haps a few other portions of Benjamin were 
for a while held by Israel), and, moreover, 
as the southern state was more compact and 
defensible, less exposed to hostile neigh- 
bours, Rehoboam might have reigned in 
peace and security. But by his foolish 
disobedience he provoked the Lord's anger ; 
and so Shishak, king of Egypt, swept hke a 
storm from the desert over his dominions, 
plundered Jerusalem, carried off the wealth 
of the temple, and left the king of Judah 
humiliated and impoverished (xii. 1-10). 

For the first three reigns Judah was 
generally in an attitude of hostility to Is- 
rael. Rehoboam, indeed, had been checked 
at a time when perhaps he might have 
succeeded in subjecting the northern king- 
dom (xi. 1-4) ; but a great battle was fought 
between Abijah and Jeroboam, in which 
the latter was signally defeated (xiii.). Asa 
was successful against an Ethiopian host— 
the only time in which a Hebrew king 
fought face to face with one of the then- 
great powers of the world, and prevailed 
(xiv.) ; and, though he was disturbed by the 
Israelites, and sought against them the 
dangerous help of Syria, yet on the whole 
the power of Judah was consolidated: 
there was a drain of the better class from 
the northern kingdom, various outlying 
cities and districts were occupied (xiii. 19, 
XV., xvi.), Edom subdued by David had con- 
tinued faithful to his house, and, with the 
temple-service as a central influence, the 
regular ministrations of the priests, no 
violent change of dynasty, practical re- 
forms carried out, and on the whole God 
nationally honoured, Judah was prosperous, 
very populous, and, by the possession of the 
Red sea ports, able to carry on a lucrative 
commerce. The extent of its territory may 
be estimated at about 3,435 square miles. 

Such was Judah when the pious Jehosha- 
phat succeeded to the crown. His reign 
was happy and successful (xvii., xix., xx.) ; 
but he took a false step which entailed 
disgrace and disaster on his family for 
several generations. The Israelitish royal 
family personally obnoxious to the kings of 



Judah had long ago disappeared ; and a 
new dynasty swayed the northern sceptre 
Jehoshaphat was prevailed on to make 
alliance with one of their princes, Ahab, 
against Syria, and in evil hour he took 
Ahab's daughter for a wife to his son (1 
Kings xxii. ; 2 Chron. xviii.). A series ol 
calamities followed. The worldly leaven 
worked. Weak and wicked princes sat on the 
throne. Edom revolted : the royal family 
were almost extirpated ; Athaliah (Ahab's 
daughter) usurped the crown ; and, when 
the right heir was restored, he ruled justly 
only so long as the priest Jehoiada lived, 
and then saw his kingdom desolated, and 
was slain by conspirators (xxi.-xxiv.). The 
early gleam of prosperity in Amaziah's 
reign was soon quenched : Jerusalem was 
taken and plundered by the king of Israel ; 
and Amaziah, like his father, was the victim 
of a conspiracy among his own subjects 
(XXV.). The process of declension was now 
rapid. If stayed for a while by the early 
prudence of Uzziah, by the efforts of the 
godly Hezekiah, by the reforms of the la- 
mented Josiah, it went on with accelerated 
pace under the rule of headstrong Ahaz, 
ferocious Manasseh, and Josiah's misera- 
ble children (xxvi.— xxxvi.). Heavy clouds 
darkened the sky. Syria was confederate ■ 
with Israel to destroy Judah. And then a 
mightier power stepped forward : Assyria 
was gradually absorbing all the neighbour- 
ing states. The kingdom of Israel fell. 
And, though Judah seems to have had some 
authority afterwards over the country of 
the ten tribes, it could have been only de- 
legated. Her king was but a vassal to a 
foreign power. Through the last sad years 
of her existence she was dependent now on 
Egypt, now on Babylon. And then came 
the catastrophe, precipitated by the wicked 
folly of the reigning prince. The country 
was ravaged : Jerusalem was burnt with 
fire : that holy and beautiful house where 
Jehovah's glory had dwelt was laid in ashes. 
One brief throb of existence there was 
afterwards ; and then Judah was no more 
(2 Kings xxiv., xxv. ; Jer. xxxix.— xii.). 

The restoration of the city and temple, 
and the re-construction of the common- 
wealth are noted elsewhere. See Jerusa- 
lem, Temple. 

So was the word of the Lord fulfilled. He 
preserved a lamp to his servant David ; but, 
when warnings, expostulations,mercies,and 
chastisements produced no effect, Zion was 
'ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem' be- 
came 'heaps, and the mountain of the 
house as the high places of the forest ' (Mic. 
iii. 12). 

The sovereignty of Judah was hereditary 
in the family of David (with the brief ex- 
ception of Athaliah's usurped rule) ; but it 
did not always devolve upon the eldest son. 
A separate list of the kings is unnecessary 
here : one will be found combined with that 
of the monarchs of Israel in another article : 
see King. 

The history of Judah during and after 
the captivity is briefly sketched elsewhere : 
see Alexandria, Captivity, Dispersion, 
Herodian Family, Jerusalem, Jews, 

M^CC^BEES. 



1 jTTDAsl €l^t Crea^urg at 500 


For the explanation of a somewliat-puz- 
zlinff mention ol Judali in Josh. xix. 34, see 
Naphtali ; but it may he that there is 
some transcriber's error in the place. 

2 One, apparently a Levite, whose sons 
took part in setting forward the workmen 
at the re-hnildingof the temple (Ezra iii. 9). 
Possibly he is the same with Hodaviah_(n. 
40) —.3 A Levite who had married a foreign 
wife (X. 23).— 4. A Benjamite (l^eh. xi. 9).— 5. 
A Levite who had returned from Babylon 
withZerubbabeKxii. 8).-6, 7. Persons who 
took part in the dedication of the wall of 
Jerusalem (34, 36). Some of these may have 
been identical. , ^ 

JU'DAS (id.-).-l (Matt. i. 2, 3). The pa- 
March Judah.— 2. The faithless apostle who 
betrayed his Master (x. 4 ; Mark iii. 19; Luke 
vi 16). He was Simon's son (John vi. 71), 
and is called Iscariot ; but critics are not 
agreed as to the interpretation of this name. 
The most probable conjecture is that Judas 
had it from his birth-place, perhaps from 
Ksrioth in Judah (Josh. xv. 25), or from 
Kartan, or Kartah, in Galilee (xxi. 32, 84). 

Of this man's earlier life we know no- 
thing, nor for what reason he was induced to 
follow Jesus. It might be the mere curious 
admiration of the great Teacher, or there 
might have been (who shall say?) some bet- 
ter aspirations at one time in his heart, 
some gracious drawings from above, which 
to his own condemnation he resisted and 
ultimately quenched. Of the motives of 
our Lord in appointing Judas an apostle 
little need be said. His divine eye read the 
traitor's heart from the beginning ; and it 
was some time before the final catastrophe 
that Jesus expressed his knowledge of Is- 
cariot's character (John vi. 64, 70, 71). _ But, 
in the calling of this evil one to so high a 
place of privilege, our Lord acted only m 
accordance with the general administration 
of his kingdom. This is illustrated by one 
of his parables (^»Iatt. xiii. 24-30) ; and it is 
no more than we continually see, ungodly 
men in place and power, both in the world 
and in the church, with gifts which they 
abuse and responsibilities which increase 
their condemnation. It has often been a 
nuzzle to those who did not understand the 
moral government of God (comp. Psal. 
Ixxiii ) ; but he will eventually vindicate his 
wisdom and his justice ; and, meanwhile, 
the most valuable lessons of warning and 
circumspection are taught by the fate of 
such as have perverted their privileges to 
their own most fatal ruin. 

Judas maintained a fair character among 
his fellow-apostles, and was entrusted witn 
the custody of their money (John xii. 6, xui. 
29) • nor do they seem to have suspected 
him even when our Lord was distinctly 
apprising them that one of their number 
would bitray him (Matt. xxvL 21-24; John 
xiii 22). As to Judas himself, he had pro- 
bably no very definite plans formed. He was 
selfish and g^eedi^ di.^ionest m regard to 
the money under his control, nis a^^J^'-*;'^ 
concern for the poor ^vas merely that he 
might have greater opportunity of pecula 
Si Some have imagined that, disap 
pointed that his Master did not assume the 
kingly authority of Messiah, he resolved od 


taking a step which should drive matters 
to a crisis, and force Jesus to act for his 
3wn preservation, and that the traitor per- 
haps believed that his Lord would thank 
him afterwards for what he had done. But 
this view is not in accordance with his 
fraudulent character, or with his eager 
Question to the priests, ' What will ye give 
me?' (Matt. xxvi. 15). More likely he 
was tired of following Jesus, and, feeling 
sure that He must some day fall under the 
powerful malice of the rulers, he resolved 
to make something of it, and get ofl with a 
worldly advantage. Satan espied his oppor- 
tunity and took it (Luke xxii. 3). Probably 
Judas began to see that he was suspected, 
and, when the Lord, in answer to his hypo- 
critical question, had distinctly told him of 
his treason, full of additional passion, he 
went recklessly about his work (INIatt. xxvi. 
25 ; John xiii. 26-30). He was fulfilling pro- 
phecy, but was unconscious of it. His own 
evil heart it was that prompted him ; and 
therefore the guilt of his deed was upon 
himself. . , , ^-u 

It has been much questioned whether 
Judas was present at the institution of the 
eucharist. From the giving of the sop, 
the supper seems still to have been going 
on when he quitted the apartment (30). 
But it was not tiU 'after supper' that our 
Lord took the cup (Luke xxii. 20). And, if 
we suppose Matt. xxvi. 25 to correspond to 
John xiii. 26, just after which Judas went 
out, then his departure was before the 
eating was finished (Matt. xxvi. 26) : see the 
point well stated by bishop EUicott, Mist. 
iect, lect. vii., p. 325, note2. ^ ^ , 

The catastrophe soon followed. Judas 
got his pay, and conducted the officers to 
Jesus marking him out to them by a trea- 
cherous kiss (Matt. xxvi. 47-50 : Mark xiv. 
43-46; Luke xxii. 47, 48; John xvui. 1-5). 
Doubtless he followed the divine prisoner 
to see the result, and had free access into 
the court ; yet it is but a wild notion which 
some have entertained that he was the dis- 
ciple who introduced Peter (15, 16). 

When Jesus was condemned, then the 
pangs of remorse began to seize the miser- 
able traitor. Now he knew what he had 
done ; and the horror of eternal death was 
on him. He had intended with his 
money to buv some land, and had perhaps 
already bargained for it (see Acelda3IA) ; 
but now he rushed to the priests, threw 
down the accursed money, and in despair 
went and committed suicide (INIatt. xxvii. 
3-5 ; Acts i. 18). A discrepancy has been imar 
gined between the two accounts of this ; but 
they may without much difficulty be recon- 
ciled. It has been well said, ' The revolting 
details recorded are perfectly consistent 
with facts. In our own day, where execu- 
tions are effected with comparative skill, 
criminals of large stature and bulk have, on 
the rem-oval of the drop, suffered precisely 
what is here recorded of Judas ; the inter- 
nal viscera being suddenly shattered and 
ejected with great violence .... without 
any external trace of injury but in the im- 
mediate region of the passage {seeJourn.of 
Sacr. Lit, Oct. 1853, pp. 160-162 ; Home's In, 
troduct., edit. Ayre, vol. ii. p. 479). 



501 



MfblZ WillO^ltXiQZ* [JUDE, THE EPISTLE O? 



Little more can be said. In the prayer of 
the apostles, while appointing a successor, 
the traitor is said to have gone ' to his own 
place 'Acts i. 25). And our Lord yet more 
emphatically declared, ' It had been good 
for that man if he had not been horn' (Matt, 
xxvi. 24). ^ ^ 

3. One described as one of the Lord's bre- 
thren (xiii. 55), called also Juda (Mark vi. 
3). An Interesting story is related of his 
family,by Eusebius {Hist. Eccles.,lih. ill. capp. 
xix. XX.), out of Hegesippus. The emperor 
Doraitlan was alarmed by what he had heard 
of Messiah's kingdom, and ordered some of 
the descendants of the house of David to be 
sought out and brought to him. Those so 
presented to the emperor were the grand- 
sous of Judas ; but the hardness of their 
hands, proving that they were but ordinary 
peasants, and their description of the spiri- 
tual nature of the new sovereignty, removed 
all apprehensions. They were let go, and 
lived on, honoured as the Lord's relatives, 
into the reign of Trajan.- 4. A brother of 
James, and one of the apostles, called also 
Thaddeus and Lebbeus (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark 
iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 16 ; John xiv. 22 ; Acts i. 13). 
He was probably identical with jSTo. 3* being 
Jude, the author of the epistle : see Jasies 2, 
JUDB. According to tradition he preached 
in Syria aud Arabia, and was martyred in 

5. Jiidas of Galilee, a leader of insurrec- 
tion (Acts V. 37). According to Josephus 
iAntiq., lib. xviii. 1, §§ 1, 6), this man was a 
native of Gamala in Gaulanitis. He boldly 
declared it unlawful to acknowledge any 
foreign authority, and drew after him vast 
multitudes of followers ; the insurrection 
beginniug in Galilee, about 6 a.d. When he 
perished, though his adherents were dis- 
persed, yet it seems that from them sprang 
the Zealots aud Sicarii of later times. 

6. A person dwelling in Straight-street in 
Damascus, to whose house Saul of Tarsus 
was conducted after the divine manifesta- 
tion to him, and where he was visited by 
Ananias (Acts ix. 11, 17). Straight-street is 
supposed to be that now called the street of 
the bazaars : a house popularly said to be 
that of Judas is still shown.- 7, A disciple, 
surnamed Barsabas, eminent in the early 
church, endued with the gift of prophecy. 
He was deputed by the apostles and elders 
at Jerusalem, with Silas, to accompany Paul 
and Barnabas to Antioch, carrying the de- 
cree of the council just held (xv. 22-33). 

JU'DAS—1. (1 Esdr. ix. 23). Judah (Ezra 
X. 23). 

2. The third son of Mattathias, surnamed 
Maccabeus (l Mace. ii. 4). After his father's 
death he was at the head of the Jewish 
patriots. He obtained several victories, 
and at length, 164 B.C., he reached Jerusa- 
lem, cleansed the sanctuary from the pollu- 
tions of Antiochus Epiphanes, and on the 
twenty-fifth of the month Casleu dedicated 
the new altar, built instead of the defiled 
one ; the feast being kept eight days (ill., 
iv.). He afterwards punished the Idumeans 
and Ammonites, and conducted a success- 
ful campaign in the country of Gilead, 
and in Philistia (v.). Other exploits fol- 
lowed ; but, perceiving that the Jews could 



not cope with the power of tbe Syrian 
kings, he sent ambassadors to Rome to 
negotiate an alliance with the great republic 
(vi., vii., viii.). Before the answer arrived, 
Judas was slain, 161 B.C. Bacchides and 
Alcimus had advanced into Judea with a 
large Syrian army: the troops of Judas 
were few, and many of them through fear 
deserted him ; so that he fell, and the rem- 
nant thereupon dispersed. His brothers Jo- 
nathan and Simon buried him in their 
father's sepulchre at Modin, amid great 
and continued lamentation (ix. 1-22). See 

MACCABEES. 

3. The son of Calphi, a Jewish captain 
(xi. 70).— 4. A brother of John Hyrcanus, 
murdered by Ptolemee (xvi. 2, 9, 14, 16). 
—5. (2 Mace. i. 10). It is doubtful who ths 
person here intended was. Some haTe sup 
posed liim Judas Maccabeus. 

JTJDE. The writer of one of the epistles is 
so called in our translation. He designates 
himself ' the brother of James ' (Judel), and 
must therefore be either that Judas the 
apostle who was brother of James the sou 
of Alpheus, or Judas brother of James the 
Lord's brother. But if, as there is reason to 
believe, the Lord's brother was James the 
apostle (see James, 2), then Jude was both an 
apostle and also brother, i.e. cousin, to Jesus. 
One argument against this is taken from 
Jude's epistle (17), where he seems not to 
include himself among the apostles. This, 
however, cannot be deemed decisive. Little 
is recorded of Jude in scripture. See Ju- 
das, 3,4. 

JUDE, THE EPISTLE OF. That this 
epistle was penned by Jude, or Judas, who 
was one of the apostles, is here adopted as, 
on the whole, the more probable opinion. 
It is peculiarly a catholic epistle, for no 
special community is specifically addressed 
in it ; it is, therefore, vain to conjecture 
w^ho were meant. We can only say that 
there is a Jewish cast of thought ; so that 
perhaps Jewish believers rather than Gen- 
tiles were in the author's mind. The place 
and time of writing are equally uncertain. 
But, as there is a remarkable similarity 
between this and Peter's second epistle 
(see Peter, the Epistles of), and this 
may be concluded the earlier of the two, 
we may perhaps imagine that it was com- 
posed 63 or 64 A.D. 

The design of it is to warn against un- 
believing men, licentious, and mockers, who 
had crept into the church, though it is 
doubtful whether any as yet accupied the 
place of teachers. The vile character of 
such is shown, as well as their impending 
destruction, by a reference to the fallen 
angelSj to the people of Sodom and Go- 
morrah, and to other presumptuous sinners 
of old time. The faithful were not to be 
alarmed at such an out-break of evil : they 
had been apprised of its approach ; but they 
must themselves persevere in faith aud 
godliness, and seek to rescue others from 
the snares of the ungodly. The authority 
of this, as of several others of the catholic 
epistles, was not at first acknowledged ; nor 
was Jud^ in the old Syriac translation. It is, 
however, cited byTertullian as the work of 
Judas the apostle (I^e Hab. Mul, cap. 3),an(i! 



jupea] 

by many other of the early fathers. There 
is now little question in regard to it. 

The alleged references to apociTPhal wri- 
tings in this letter have caused some per- 
plexity. Passing over the notice of the 
contention of Michael with the devil ahout 
the body of Moses (9), of which the most 
probable explanation is that there were 
facts well known in the church which yet 
no earlier inspired writer had chronicled 
(comp. Acts. XX. 35; 2 Tim. iii. 8), it must 
be admitted that there is an apocryphal 
book extant which contains the words of 
Jude 14, 15. This is called the book of Enoch ; 
and if it were published before Jude wrote 
it would be hard to prove that lie did not 
cite it. But the probability is that this 
apocryphal work was written at a later 
period; and therefore the author might 
draw his statements from tradition, or, it 
is not unlikely, from the epistle of Jude 
itself. See Exoch, the Book op. 
JUDE'A. See Jud^a. 
JUDGES. A certain judicial authority 
appears in very early times to have been 
exercised by the heads of families. The 
first recorded instance is when Judah sen- 
tenced his daughter-in-law Tamar to death 
for 'playing the harlot' (Gen. xxxviii. 24). 
We have no notice of any such jurisdiction 
during the residence of Israel in Egypt. The 
hand of their taskmasters was in all proba- 
bility too heavy upon them. Had there been 
such,we should hardly find the whole burden 
of judging upon Moses in the wilderness. 
' Elders,' it is true, there were (Exod. iv. 29) ; 
but these were, perhaps, rather the repre- 
sentatives than the magistrates of the peo- 
ple. And the ' officers' (v. 14), were simply 
to enforce the compelled labour. At length, 
at Jethro's suggestion, to relieve Moses, 
subordinates were appointed, perhaps the 
chiefs of families and tribes, to hear infe- 
rior matters, while those of special diffi- 
cultv were reserved for the decision of 
Moses himself (xviii. 13-26; Dent. i. 9-18). 
Provision was made in the law for the con- 
tinuance of such functionaries, with a 
charge to them to perform their duties 
conscientiously (xvi, 18-20). And it would 
seem that the priests and Levites exercised 
a concurrent, in some respects a superior, 
authority to the judges so appointed, as 
they were the expounders of the statutes 
according to which judgment must be given 
(xvii. 8-13, xxi. 5). Tet the priests are care- 
fully distinguished from the ' judges ' (xix. 
17) ; and also, though the elders of a city are 
represented as judging (xxi. 18-21), yet the 
'judges' are mentioned distinctly (2). We 
do not know how these magistrates were 
appointed, possibly selected from the ge- 
neral body of elders or heads of families ; 
and to these Levites might perhaps be 
added ; wbile occasionally the elders gene- 
rally of a place might be appealed to and 
take part in the decision of a cause. Thus, 
Boaz would seem to have called on the first 
ten elders of Beth-lehem that passed the 
gate to settle the civil question of the in- 
heritance of Elimelech and the marriage 
of Ruth (Ruth iv. 1-12). Sometimes the 
magistracy of a city is distinguished into 
• princes' and ' elders ' (Judges viii. 14) ; but 



602 



whether they had really separate functions 
cannot be precisely determined. 

Some of the'jadges,' of whom mention 
will afterwards be made, who were specially 
raised up to deliver Israel from servitude 
to neighbouring nations, would seem to 
have also administered civil and criminal 
justice, though inferior judges were still 
continued (Judges v. 10). And, when a king 
was appointed, doubtless he was the su- 
preme judicial authority, consulting very 
probably on occasion the high priest as to 
the interpretation of the law ; the right of 
asking counsel of God through the priest 
being claimed as a royal prerogative (Numb, 
xxvii. 24 ; Josh. xvii. 4 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 18, xxii. 
10, 13, 15, xxiii. 6). In David's days the 
appeals to the king were numerous, and the 
decision of them slow, of which Absalom 
took advantage (2 Sam. xv. 2-6). It must 
not be supposed that there were no local 
or inferior judges at this period. They 
are referred to in a psalm attributed to 
David (Psal. Ixix. 12), as « they that sit in 
the gate' ; and judicial offices were specially 
assigned in his reign to certain Levites, 
perhaps the oldest of the body (1 Chron. 
xxiii. 4 : comp. xxvi. 29, 30, 32). In later 
times we find a notice of provincial courts 
in Judah, and apparently a central tribunal 
in Jerusalem (2 Chron. xix. 5-11) ; wbile in 
Israel there were the elders of a city (see 
Cities, CotrifCiL)— the Levites had re- 
treated into Judah— exercising capital ju- 
risdiction (1 Kings xxi. 9-14). Instances of 
of the administration of supreme judicial 
power by the sovereign personally, with or 
without assessors, are very numerous (e. g. 
1 Sam. xxii. 16-18 ; 2 Sam. i. 13-16, iv. 9-12 ; 

1 Kings ii. 23-34, 42-46, iii. 16-28, xxii. 26, 27 ; 

2 Kings vi. 31, xiv. 5, 6 ; Jer. xxxviii. 4, 5). 
After the captivity, various courts were 

by degrees established : see Sanhedrim ; 
and the synagogues exercised a judicial 
power : see Synagogue. Before such tri- 
bunals a more formal kind of procedure 
was used : advocates were employed, and 
customs adopted from the nations to whom 
the Jews had been or were subject. 

The incorruptibility of judges is strongly 
enforced in various parts of scripture. They 
were to receive no bribes : they were to be 
no respecters of persons. They were nei- 
ther to disregard the cry of the needy and 
oppressed, nor to court popularity by a vain 
pretence of being the friends of the people 
(Lev. xix. 15, 35 ; Deut. xvi. 19 ; Psal.lxxxli.; 
Prov. xxiv. 23). Thus Samuel, on the ap- 
pointment of a king, could fearlessly appeal 
to the nation that his administration had 
been pure (l Sam. xii. 3-5) ; while his sons 
are stigmatized as having turned aside after 
lucre and perverted judgment (viii. 3). Re- 
peated were the denunciations of the pro- 
phets against such corruption, and terrible 
the threats of deserved vengeance on such 
unrighteous rulers (Isai. i. 17, 23, 26, v. 7, 
X. 2, Ivi. 1, lix. 4 ; Jer. v. 1, vii. 5-7, xxi. 12, 
xxii. 3, 4, 15-17; Ezek. xiv. 8,9; Zech. vii. 
9-14). See Trial. 

The judges especially so called, who ge- 
nerally ad'ministered the affairs of Israel, 
from the settlement in Pidestine till the 
erection of the monarchy, were magistrates, 



503 



3S^^lU I^UOluUXfcre* [judges, the book o? 



for the most part military leaders, to break 
Che voke of foreign oppressors, commis- 
sioned in some emergency, without any 
regular transmission of their authority. 
They were many of them men of faith and 
piety. Of some, however, little is recorded ; 
and one, at least, Ahimelech, raised himself 
to the office he held hy violence and crime. 
To Eli alone the power seems to have come 
with no special divine call. His authority 
was exercised because he was the high 
priest. Several of these judges were ac- 
knowledged hy only a portion of the people. 
They gained some victory in some parti- 
cular district ; and there alone they had 
jurisdiction. It is possible, indeed, that 
more than one were in office at the same 
time in different parts of the land. Some, 
as Gideon (Judges viii. 23), resigned their 
authority when the emergency was past ; 
and scarcely any except Samuel governed 
all the tribes (1 Sam. iii. 20, iv. l)..^And 
even he, in his judicial circuits, did not 
visit the distant northern or the trans- 
Jordanic provinces (vii. 15-17). 

The number of these judges is differently 
reckoned, according as the wicked Abime- 
lech is or is not included, and according as 
the list is confined to those mentioned in 
the book of Judges, or stretches on to 
those who judged Israel downwards to the 
monarchy. The last seems the best mode 
of reckoning. We may therefore number 
fifteen:— 1. Othniel. 2. Ehud. 3. Shamgar. 
4. Deborah (with Barak). 5. Gideon. 6. 
Abiraelech. 7. Tola. 8. Jair. 9. Jephthah. 
10 Ibzan, 11. Elon. 12. Abdon. 13. Sam- 
son. 14. Eli. 15. Samuel. Notices of each 
will be found under their respective 

^^BuT'then it is most difficult to fix the 
chronology of these magistrates. Some of 
the dates are left undetermined in the 
book of Judges; and the chronological 
notices which are found there and else- 
where (Judges xi. 26 ; l Kings vi. 1 ; Acts 
xiii. 20) are not easy to reconcile. Various 
theories have been propounded, which it is 
impossible to examine here : the reader 
must be referred to detailed systems of 
chronology. In order, however, to give 
some notion of the modes adopted of set- 
tling the succession, the following table is 
appended from Browne's Ordo Scecloritm, 
part 1. chap. v. sect. 3, pp. 280, 281 ; it being 
premised that Mr. Browne considers the 
true date of the exodus to have been 1586 
B.C., and does not reckon in Abimelech. 
Allowing then 30 years from the death of 
Joshua, he proceeds— 

• 1486. The first servitude ; Cushan-risha 
thalm, of Mesopotamia, 8 years 
(Judges iii. 8). 
1478. The first judge, Othniel, son of 
Kenaz (9). The land had rest 
40 years (11). 
1438. The second servitude; Eglon, of 

Moab, 18 years (14). 
1420. The second judge, Ehud (16). Rest 
80 years; during which time, 
after the death of Ehud, the 
third judge was Shamgar 
(30, 31). 



B.C. 
1340. 



1320. 
1280. 



1273. 



1233. 
1230. 



1185. 
1167. 
1161. 

ai57. 

1154. 
1144. 

1136. 



The third servitude; Jabin, of 

Canaan, 20 years (iv. 3). 
The fourth judge, Barak, 40 years 
(V. 31). 

The fourth servitude ; the Midian- 

ites, 7 years (vi. 1). 
The fifth judge, Gideon, 40 years 

(viii. 28). 
Abimelech reigns 3 years (ix. 22). 
The sixth judge, Tola, 23 years 
(X. 1, 2). 

1207. The seventh judge, Jair, 22 years 
(3). 

The fifth servitude ; Philistines and 

Ammonites, 18 years (7, 8). 
The eighth judge, Jephthah, 6 

years (xii. 7). 
The ninth judge Ibzan, 7 years 
(8, 9). 

Eli, high priest, 40 years). 
The tenth judge, Elon, 10 years (11). 
The eleventh judge, Abdon, 8 years 
(13, 14). 

The sixth servitude ; Philistines, 

40 years (xiii. 1). 
The twelfth judge, Samson, 20 
years (xv. 20). The birth of 
Samson was announced during 
a time of Philistine oppression 
(5iii. 5) , that is, while the Phil- 
istines were oppressing the 
south and west, and the Am- 
monites the east (x. 7). At the 
beginning of the sixth servitude 
he might be between 20 and 30 
years old. 
Autumn. The ark is taken: Eli 
dies. Somewhat earlier Sam- 
son is taken : the ark is in cap- 
tivity 7 months, restored in the 
days of wheat-harvest (1 Sam. 
A-i. 1, 13) ; hence the time of 
capture is defined. The return 
of the ark must have preceded 
Samson' s death and the great 
overthrow of the lords of the 
Philistines. Perhaps the great 
sacrifice to Dagon, in Gaza, 
besides its connection with the 
rejoicing on account of the 
capture of Samson (Judges xvi. 
23), may have been intended as 
a celebration of the deliverance 
from the plagues (1 Sam. v., vi.).' 
JUDGES, THE BOOK OF. This book has 
its name because it contains an account of 
the Israelites, from the death of Joshua, 
under the administration of various persons 
raised up from time to time to deliver 
them from foreign oppression, or to regu- 
late their internal aflfairs, and generally 
called judges, till the time of the high 
priest Eli. It is not a connected history 
relating everything that happened : long 
periods (see iii. 30, v. 31 and other places) are 
often passed over without notice. But, as 
we find elsewhere in scripture narrative, 
individual persons are brought forward as 
the central figures around which the events 
of their times maybe grouped. The scope 
and intention of these records is indicated 
in Judges ii. 6-23 : it was to depict the theo- 
cracy, to exhibit the relation of God to his 



1117. 



judgment] 



Cr^a^urw at 



504 



people, and of the people towards him and 
AVlth each other, during the first term of 
their enjoyment of the promised land, to 
show how the covenant Lord dealt in judg- 
ment and in mercy for the warning and in- 
struction of future ages. It may he read as 
a living commentary upon the inspired 
maxim : ' Righteousness exalteth a nation ; 
but sin is a reproach to any people ' CPro v. 
xiv. 34). 

The hook of Judges consists of two prin- 
cipal parts ; I. i.— xvi., II. xvii.— xxi. In 
the first we have, after an introduction, i. 1 
— iii. 4, an account of the oppressions of the 
Israelites, and their deliverances ; in the 
second.the story of two particular disgrace- 
ful interna] events. 

Modern critics have been zealous in their 
attempts to dismember this book. The parts, 
they say, do not agree : thus in Judges i. 18 
we find Judah seizing Gaza, Askelon, and 
Ekron, while in iii. 3 five lords of the Philis- 
tines (those of the three cities just named 
being included) are said to be left unsub- 
dued. Again, it is urged that i. 1 begins 
very naturally 'after the death of Joshua,' 
but that a single writer was never likely to 
commence again (il. 6-10), with what the 
people did when Joshua, the war being 
ended, let them go to their several posses- 
sions (Bleek, Einleiting in aasA. T., pp. 344, 
&c.). Bat these are not very formidable 
objections. In all campaigns, especially 
under circumstances similar to those of the 
Israelites occupying Canaan, to^vns and 
districts are taken and ravaged by one 
partv, and afterwards recovered and held 
by the other. There is no improbability, 
therefore, in the statement that the Philis- 
tine cities were at one time in the hands of 
Judah, or that Jerusalem was burnt (Judges 
i. 8), and yet that somewhat later the lords 
of the Philistines again made head, and 
that the Jebusites were in possession of 
Jerusalem. For surelj', if for their sins 
foreign nations, Moab, Ammon, Midian, 
were permitted to enslave the Israelites, 
the remnant of the original inhabitants of 
Canaan would have ample opportunity of 
regaining at least some of their fortresses. 
And, as to the alleged two beginnings, the 
critics have failed to see that the historian 
describes, very naturally, two different re- 
lations of the people, i. 1— ii. 6, that to the 
Canaanites, ii. 6— iii. 4, that to their own 
theocratic King. Both these views were 
necessary for the full understanding of what 
was to follow. With regard to xvii.— xxi., 
it certainly does seem that these chapters 
stand apart from the preceding narrative, 
in which, generally speaking, chronological 
sequence is observed, while the two stories 
found here are not in the order of time 
in relation to what had been before chro- 
nicled. Much stress cannot, indeed, be laid 
on this, because the events are of internal 
history, not the strifes of the nation with 
external foes, and a writer might very well 
think it best to place them by themselves. 
But, further, there is some difference of 
diction ; and, if that could be accounted for, 
yet the date of the composition can hardly 
be the same in both parts. Inxiii.l the length 
of Israel's subjection to the Philistines 



is stated. It was terminated by Samuel's 
victory (1 Sam. vii. 1-14), until after which 
of course the history was not written. But 
it must have been written (see Judges 
i. 21) before the seventh year of David.when 
(2 Sam. V. 6-9) that king occupied Jerusa- 
lem. The Jews ascribe the composition to 
Samuel, and, as it would seem to fall in the 
life-time of that prophet, there is no impro- 
bability in supposing him the author ; who 
used, no doubt (see Deborah's song, Judges 
v.), written documents. 

But the appendix, so to call it, must 
be placed later. It is repeatedly said 
(xviii. 1, xix. 1, xxi. 25) that there was 
then 'no king in Israel.' The natural in- 
ference is that the writer lived in the 
time of the kingdom. But it was probably 
not far on ; for there is no hint of the sepa- 
ration into two states : it might therefore be 
in the reign of Solomon, perhaps a century 
later than the composition of the first part. 
And it may be observed that this second 
part is simply an appendix to the first : 
there is no indication that the later wi'iter 
touched the work of the earlier : the two 
are just put together. It must in fairness 
be said that the expression (xviii. 30) ar- 
gues to many a later date for the appendix. 
If ' the captivity of the land ' means the 
Assyrian deportation, doubtless the history 
could not have been written earlier than 721 
B.C. ; but it is possible that the carrying off 
of the ark by the Philistines may be in- 
tended (comp. Psal. Ixxviii. 61). And It is not 
very likely that David and Solomon would 
have left the unhallowed worship at Dan 
without interference. The explanation 
(Judges xxi. l2),'Shiloh, whichisinthe land 
of Canaan,' does not prove that the section 
was written by a foreigner, or out of Pales- 
tine : it is only to mark the situation of 
Shiloh as distinguished from Jabesh-gilead, 
which was to the east of the Jordan. It is 
very difficult to settle the chronology of 
the book of Judges. See the last article. 

There is a valuable old commentary on 
this book by Peter Martyr, English trans- 
lation, 1564. 

JUDGMENT, JTJDGME27TS. Properly 
the decision of a judge (Deut.xvii. 9). And, 
as this ought to be a just decision, judg- 
ment is put for equity, or justice (Psal. 
lxxii.2, cxix.66): judgments signify also the 
right ways or statutes of the Lord (102). Very 
frequently the term implies the punishment 
inflicted by sentence (2 Chron. xxii. 8; 
Ezra vii. 26 ; Prov. xix. 29) ; God's final con- 
demnation of sinners (Rom. ii. 5 ; Jude 15); 
the plagues which he brings upon the 
wicked in this world (Exod. vi. 6) ; or the 
moderation in which he afflicts his people 
(Jer. X. 24). Some other shades of meaning 
occur, easily explained by the context. 

JUDGMENT, THE DAY OP. God is called 
' the Judge of all the earth ' (Gen. xviii. 25) ; 
and-it is reasonable to suppose from the very 
notion we are taught to form of him that he 
will righteously administer his dominions. 
In the world.however.the ungodly are often 
seen to prosper, and the righteous to be 
oppressed. And this has sometimes griev- 
ously perplexed God's servants, who have 
not known how to reconcile the fact with 



605 



[JUSTICI? 



his holy justice (Psal. Txxiii.). Scripture, 
therefore, points onward to a time when ail 
these apparent anomalies will he explained, 
when a grea't assize will sit, and a just re- 
compense of reward will he meted out to 
men (Eccles. xi. 9, xii. 14 ; Acts xxiv. 2o). 
This judgment, we are told, shall be exer- 
cised hy ^Christ (x. 42, xvii. 31 ; Rom. xiv. 
10). Men might he judged either individu- 
ally, each on his departure from the world, 
or collectively. Scripture gives us reason 
to helieve that the latter will he the course 
of God's procedure (Matt. xxv. 31-46 ; Rev. 
XX. 12, 13) ; and a day is spoken of, some- 
times called the 'last day' (John xi. 24), 
sometimes the 'great day' (Jude 6), when 
this shall be. The space of time to be so 
occupied it is impossible for us to cal- 
culate : about the nearness or distance ot 
that day it is useless to speculate (Matt, 
xxiv 36) : it will be a strict and searching 
iudgment (xii. 36) ; so that the practical 
lesson we have to learn is, to be prepared, 
to iudge ourselves, that we be not judged 
and condemned of the Lord (1 John ii. 28, 

^^juDGMENT-HALL (John xviii. 28, 33, 
xix. 9). Pilate's residence at Jerusalem, the 
' pavement ' where his tribunal was erected 
being without. That mentioned in Acts 
xxiii. 35 was a part of the palace erected by 
Herod at Cgesarea. See Pr^toriuSi. 

JU'DITH {Jewess'). One of the wives of 
Esau (Gen. xxvi. 34). See AKOLiBAiiiAH. 

JU'DITH (id.). The heroine of the apo- 
cryphal book noticed in the next article. 
She is painted as a beautiful, bold, unscru- 
pulous character, her piety ritualistic^, her 
courage cruel (Judith viii.— xvi.). It is 
needless further to describe a person, ot 
whose very existence there is little pro- 
bability. _ . 

JU'DITH, THE BOOK OF. This apocry- 
phal work professes to relate the history of 
a great deliverance of the Jews from the 
Assyrians by the instrumentality of Judith. 
The narrative is agreeably written ; but, 
though some critics have imagined that it 
carries with it an air of truth, yet when 
examined there are difficulties chronologi- 
cal, historical, and geographical so great 
that its authority is now all-but universally 
given up. It does not, however, by any 
means follow that it was written without a 
purpose. It may have been intended by an 
allegori cal representation to stir up the J ews 
to a bold resistance against the enemies that 
then threatened them. Perhaps the names 
introduced, Judith, a Jewess, the daugh- 
ter of Judah, Bethulia, the virgin of Jehovah, 
&c., may be taken to strengthen this view. 
Too much stress, however, Hebrew names 
being generally significant, must not be 
laid on this. The original language of the 
book was probably the vernacular Syro- 
Chaldee of Palestine at the time. of its com- 
position. And from it the existing Greek 
text seems to have been translated. Of 
this Greek there is a Syriac version extant. 
The Latin text is of a different cast, with 
various additions, transpositions, and omis- 
sions. Jerome in making his translation 
would seem to have taken the old Latin as 
the basis of his work, though he used a 



copy of the book in Chaldee. It is from the 
Greek, it may be added, that the English 
version was made: Luther's version follows 
the Latin text. As to the date of this book, 
it may be assigned to the first, or with yet 
greater probability to the second, century 
before Christ. The author was, no doubt, 
a Palestinian Jew. It is referred to by 
Clement of Rome (Epist. i. 55), and by seve- 
ral subsequent early writers. There is a 
sensible paper on the book of Judith m the 
Journ. of Sacr. Literature, July 1856, pp. 342- 

^^^ju'EL.-\ (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Uel (Ezra x. 34). 
—2 (1 Esdr. ix. 35). Joel (Ezra x. 43). _ 

JU'LIA (feminine of Julius). A Christian 
female at Rome whom St. Paul salutes 
(Rom. xvi. 15). She was perhaps the wite 
or sister of Philologus. Some believe the 
namethatof a man, Julias. 

jr'LIUS. A centurion of Augustus 
Band (which see), under whose charge St. 
Paul was conveyed to Rome (Acts xxvii., 
xxviii ) He was courteous to the apostle, 
and may be the same with Julius Priscus, 
subsequently prefect of the Praetorian 
guards (Tacitus, Hist., lib. iv. 11). See 
Wieseler, Chronol. des Apost. Zeitalt, note, 
pp. 389-393. ^ . . . 

JIT'NIA (for Junilius or Junianus). A 
Christian at Rome, whom St. Paul speaks of 
with Andronicus as his kinsmen, i.e. of the 
same tribe, of note among the apostles, and 
in Christ before himself (Rom. xvi. 7). Some 
have imagined the name that of a female ; 
but this is less likely. 

1 JUNIPER. The word so translated 
(1 Kings xix. 4, 5 ; Job xxx. 4 ; Psal. cxx. 4) 
is generally understood to be a species of 
broom , Genista monosperma. It is a legumi- 
nous plant, and. bears a white flower. _ It 
grows in Spain, Portugal, and Palestine, 
and is abundant in the desert of Smai, 
where it affords shade and protection to 
travellers. The roots are bitter, and could 
be eaten only in extreme hunger : they are 
much valued by the Arabs for charcoal. Dr. 
Thomson imagines that the roots were used 
only to cook the mallows which are de- 
scribed as cut in the same place (Job xxx. 4). 
' This ' he says, ' would give a sense m ac- 
cordance with the known use of these roots, 
and still preserve the connection with the 
food of the poor ' {The Land and the Boofc, 

^' JIJ'PITER. The heathen god worshipped 
by the Greeks under the name of Zeus. He 
was supposed to exercise supreme power; 
but the actions attributed to him were 
frequently in the highest degree sensual 
and abominable. Antiochus Epiphanes 
dedicated the temple at Jerusalem to this 
deity as Zeus Olympius, that on Gerizim to 
him as Zeus Xenius, the 'defender of 
strangers' (2 Mace. vi. 2). He is two or three 
times mentioned in the New Testament 
(Acts xiv. 12, 13, xix. 35). 

JU'SHAB-HE'SED (whose love %s re- 
turned). A descendant of the line of David 
(1 Ohron. ill. 20). . * .t> t 

JUSTICE. A high divme attribute (Psal. 
Ixxxix. 14) ; according to which God acts m 
the government of the universe (Gen. xix. 
25;. His justice is seen in his holding to his 



justification] 



606 



covenant himself (1 John i. 9), and in his 
punishing those that disobey his commands 
(Exod. xxiii. 7). Some have regarded the 
divine justice in two lights, as legislative, 
laying down just and righteous laws, and 
distributive, dealing with creatures accord- 
ing to those laws ; while justice, as applied 
to men, is administrative, as exercised by 
those in authority (Dent. i. 16, 17), and com- 
mutative, as governing men's dealings one. 
with another (Mic. vi. 8). 

JUSTIFICATION A forensic term used 
to imply the declaring or accounting of a 
person just or righteous before God. If any 
one were free from sin, if he perfectly 
obeyed God's commandments, he would 
'naturally be pronounced, for he would really 
be, just, not exposed to the penalty of 
transgression (Rom. ii. 13). But mankind, 
as sinful, are not just in this sense, and 
cannot be so treated (Psal. cxliii. 2 ; Rom. 
iii. 19, 20, 23 ; 1 John i. 8). If, then, they are 
to be freed from the condemnation of sin, 
if they are to be dealt with as those not 
amenable to God's law, it must be not by 
the establishment of their innocence, but 
by the remission of their guilt. And it was 
for this that the Lord Jesus Chiist came 
into the world, and offered himself a sacri- 
fice for sin, that men might be delivered 
from the condemnation into w^hich their 
sins had cast them (Rom. iii. 24, 25 ; 2 Cor. 
V. 21 ; 1 John i. 7, ii. 2). The scripture 
therefore teaches that we are justified by 
faith in Christ (Rom. iii. 28 ; Gal. ii. 16). This 
doctrine is thus expressed in the eleventh 
article of the Anglican church: 'We are 
accounted righteous before God only for the 
merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ 
by faith, and not for our own works or de- 
servings. Wherefore that we are justified 
by faith only is a most wholesome doctrine, 
and very full of comfort.' The originating 
cause of justification is God's free grace and 
loving pity for a fallen world (John iii. 16 ; 
Rom. V. 8 ; Eph. ii. 4-8). The meritorious 
cause is the sinless life and sacrificial death 
of Christ (Rom. iv. 25), for the virtue of 
which God could without moral fault, or 



detriment to justice, remit sin. The instru- 
mental cause is faith, whereby we receive 
the atonement, accepting God's mercy on 
the terms on which he offers it (iii. 30, 
V. 11). Those who are so justified are at 
peace with God, and have all the advantages 
of such a state of reconciliation (1, 2). 
Justified men desire and endeavour to walk 
in holiness of life (viii. 1). Gratitude for 
the mercy received will incline them to do 
that which is well-pleasing in God's sight. 
They feel that they have been purchased to 
be his, and must glorify him in their body 
and their spirit (2 Cor. vi. 20). This will be 
their mark, the token, the proof that they 
are no longer enemies, but friends, not 
sentenced culprits, but beloved children. 
Should any not so walk and act, they cannot 
be God's children. And, if they profess to 
have faith in Christ, it is a mere pretence. 
Such a faith as theirs, a faith which worketh 
not by love, is empty and useless (James ii. 
17, 26). Abraham's obedience was the proof 
that he possessed that faith which was 
counted to him for righteousness (21-23) : 
comp. art. 12. 

Of justification, then, it may be briefiy 
said that (1) its source is the grace of God, 
(2) its ground the mediatorial work of 
Christ, (3) faith the way by which we receive 
it, and (4) the holy life of a believer the 
evidence of its possession ; or, yet more 
briefly, it is originally by grace, merito- 
riously by Christ, in strum entally by faith, 
evidentially by good works : comp. Homily 
on Salvation. 

JUS'TUS (jusf).—l. A surname of Joseph, 
called Barsabas (Acts i. 23). See Joseph, 10, 
— 2. A Christian at Corinth with whom Paul 
lodged (xviii. 7). Some versions here read 
Titus.— 3. A surname of Jesus, one of St. 
Paul's fellow-labourers (Col. iv. 11). See 

JUT'TAH (extended). A city in the hill- 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 55), afterwards 
allotted to the priests (xxi. 16). It is now a 
village called Yutta. Conjectures have been 
hazarded that this was the birth-place ot 
I John the Baptist (Luke i 39). 



K 



KAB'ZEEL (which God gathers). A city 
of Judah (Josh. xv. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 20), 
called also Jekabzeel. Wilton would place 
it at 'Am el-AriXs, at the confluence of the 
Wady el-Kuseib and other streams in the 
Sabkhah {The Negeb, pp. 69-72). 

KA'DES (Judith i. 9). 

KA'DESH {sacred)OT KA'DESH-BAR'NEA 
{sacred desert of wandering t ). A place, 
town, or district, in the south of Canaan 
(Numb, xxxiv. 4 ; Josh. x. 41), in the desert 
of Zin (Numb. xx. 1, xxvii. 14 ; xxxiii. 36; 
Deut. xxxii. 51) on the border of Edom 
(Numb. XX. 16), not far from Gerar (Gen. 
XX. 1). There was a fountain here called 
En mishpat {fountain of judgment) (xiv. 7); 



and some have imagined a shrine or an ora- 
cle at the place. Abraham sojourned in the 
neighbourhood ; and it was from Kadesh 
that Moses sent the spies to traverse the 
land of Canaan ; and thither they returned, 
bringing an evil report of it (Numb. xiii. 
3, 26, xxxii. 8). There, too, it was that the 
waters of Meribah flowed when the children 
of Israel, towards the end of their wander- 
ings, strove with the Lord, and Moses and 
Aaron did not sanctify him and were con- 
sequently excluded from the promised land 
(XX. 1, 13). Kadesh is also marked as the 
southern border of the tribe of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 3) : it is most probably theKedesh 
of 23. 



507 



[kedrok 



Some difficulty has been found in identi- 
frlig the site of Kadesh. Dr Stanley, 
strangely enough, places it at Petra- ^ 
more reasonable supposition is that of Dr. 
Robinson, who considers tii^t it must have 
been in the western part of the Arabah 
south of the Dead sea, perhaps not far from 
the fountain 'Ain el-Weibeh the most fre- 
quented watering-place in that region iBibl. 
Bes., vol. ii. PP. 173-176, 194, 2nd edit.) But 
the discovery of Mr. P^o^lands would seem 
to set the question at rest. He finds Kadesh 
at ^Ain el-Kadeis, about twelve milf ©f^t- 
south-east of Moildhi, the ancient Beer- 
lahai-roi (William's Holy Cdy, jol. i. pp. 466- 
468). This supposition, though disputed by 
Dr. Robinson {tibi supr., note), is adoptea 
bv Mr. Wilton {TheNegeb, pp. 6, 7). See also 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Kadesch.' The wil- 
derness of Kadesh or Zin is the modern 

^KAD^'IeL (one before God, i.e. minister 
of God).-l. A Levite whose descendants 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 40 ; Neh. vii. 43, xii. 8). His f ami y 
was represented in the days of Joiakim 
(24) -2. A Levite, perhaps the represen- 
tative of the same family, who took part 
in a solemn service of humiliation, and 
afterwards sealed the covenant (ix. 4, x. 9). 

KAD'MONITES {orientals). A People, 
dwelling, it may be supposed, m the east 
(Gen. XV. 19). Perhaps they comprise the 
nations generally, 'children of the east, 
who extended from Canaan to the Euphra- 
tes Dr. Thomson says that the name is still 
preserved among the Nusairiyeh north of 
Tripoli, and that there is a tradition axiiong 
them that their ancestors were expelled by 
Joshua. Their physiognomy and manners 
impressed him with the idea that they were 
a remnant of the ancient inhabitants of the 
country (The Land and the Book, p. 164). 

KA'IN (a lance ?) (Numb. xxiv. 21, marg.). 
See Kenitb, which is the rendering of the 

^^KAL'LAI (swift messenger of Jehovah). 
One of the priests in the days of Joiakim 

^"^KA'NAH ''(p^ttce of reeds).— I. A town- in 
the territory of Asher (Josh, xix 28). It is 
said to be now a village not far from Tyre 
bearing its original name, with about 2,000 
inhabitants, though there is a doubt as 
to the identification. In a ravine near are 
some curious sculptures on the face of the 
rocks, figures of men, women, and children, 
rudely carved, which Dr. Thomson supposes 
the work of early Phoenician artists. Ancient 
oil-presses abound here, giving proof that 
the olive was once largely cultivated.-2. A 
river or stream at the border of Ephraim 
and Manasseh (xvi. 8, xvii. 9): it is pro- 
bably now the Akhdar, falling mto the sea 
near Cajsarea. ^ ^ , 

KARE'AH (bald). The father of Jphanan 
and Jonathan, two of the chiefs with Geda- 
liah after the taking of Jerusalem (Jer. xl. 
8, 13, 15, 16, xli. 11, 13, 14, 16, xlii. 1, 8, xlui. 
2 4 5). In 2 Kings xxv. 23 it is Careah. 

KARKA'A (a foundation, bottom). A 
place in the southern border of Judah 
(Josh. XV. 3). Wilton would place it m the 
Wady el-Kkuraizeh (The Negeb, pp. 162-168). 



KAR'KOR (foundation). A place east ol 
the Jordan, in the regions occupied by 
nomad tribes, where the remnant of the 
Midianitish army, under Zebah and Zal- 
munna encamped, believing themselves 
safe, when Gideon fell upon them, routed 
them, and succeeded in capturing the 
chiefs (Judges viii. 10). 
KARNA'IM (two horns). SeeASETBBOTH- 

KARNAIM. 

KAR'TAH (city). A town locally m 
Zebulun, allotted to the Levites of the 
family of Merari (Josh. xxi. 34). 

KAR'TAN {double city). A city of Naph- 
tali allotted to the Levites of the family 
of Gershon (Josh. xxi. 32). It is probably 
the same with Kirjathaim (1 Chron. vi. 76)._ 
KAT'TATH (small). A town in the terri- 
tory of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 15). 

KE'DAR (darli-sUnned). One of the sons 
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13), from whom an 
Arabian tribe descended. Various hints 
are supposed to be given in scripture of 
the locality and habits of this tribe, as to 
their dwellings, tents, and also villages or 
towns (Sol. Song i. 5 ; Isai. xlii. 11), their 
being a pastoral people, and supplying Tyre 
with sheep (lx.7 ; Ezek. xxvii. 21), their pro- 
sperity (Isai. xxi. 16), their skill in archery 
(17), &c. It is thought that they must have 
lived at a distance from Palestine (Jer. ii. 
]0), and in the south as being contrasted 
with Mesech in the north (Psal. cxx. 5). 
But perhaps some of the inferences from 
these passages can hardly be sustained; 
especially as it is acknowledged that m pro- 
cess of time Kedar was put for Arabia 
generally. It would seem that the Kedar- 
ites suffered much at the hand of Nebu- 
chadnezzar (Jer. xlix. 28-33). They have 
been identified in modern times with the 
nation of Harb in the northern part of the 
Hediaz.where there is a town called Kedeyve 
(seeKalisch, Comm. on the Old Test. Qen., 
note, pp. 482, 483; Winer, £i&L RWB.,BXi. 
' Kedarener.' - „ ^, 

KE'DBMAH (eastward). One of the sons 
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chron. i. 31). 

KE'DEMOTH (antiquities). A city m the 
territory of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18), assigned 
to the Levites (xxi. 37 ; l Chron. vi. 79). It 
gave name to the neighbouring wilderness 
(Deut. ii. 26). ^ ^ . - 

KE'DESH (sanctuary).—!. A Canaanitish 
city, whose king Joshua smote (Josh, xii. 
22) It was assigned to the tribe of Naphtali, 
hence was sometimes calledKedesh-naphtali, 
and was subsequently given to the Levites 
and made a city of refuge (xix. 37, xx. 7, 
xxi 32 : 1 Chron. vi. 76). Barak was a na- 
tive of Kedesh (Judges iv. 6-11), and thither 
he summoned the northern tribes. In later 
times it was seized with the neighbouring 
district by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings xv. 29). 
The modern village KUdes is four miles 
from the lake Merom, and stands upon a 
hill where are many ruins, fragments of 
pillars, sarcophagi, and huge door-posts. 
Also in the mountain-clifls to the south- 
west are many rock-tombs.-2 A place m 
the extreme south of Judah ( Josh. xv. 23). 
See Kadesh.— 3. A Levitical city m Issa- 
char (1 Chron. vi. 72). See KiSHiON. 
KE'DRON. SeeKiDROX. 



kehelatkah] 



608 



KEHE'LATHAH {coiivocation). One of 
the stations of the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness (Xumb. xxxiii. 22, 23). 

KEI'LAH ifoTtress). A city in the plain 
country of Judah near the Philistine bor- 
der (Josh. XV. 44). The inhabitants are dis- 
gracefully distinguished for endeavouring 
to betray David to Saul just after he had 
protected them from a Philistine invasion 
(1 Sam. xxiii. 1-13). The rulers of Keilah 
took part in repairing the wall ox Jerusalem 
(ISTeh. lii. 17, 18). It is said to have been 
I about eight miles east of Eleutheropolis 
towards Hebron. The name also occurs 
among the genealogies of Judah (l Chron. 
iv. 19), where it is not clear whether a place 
or a person Is meant. 

KELAI'AH isivift messenger of Jehovah). 
A Levite who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 23). He is also called 

KELI'TA (dicarf) (Ezra x. 23; ^Teh.viii. 7, 
X. 10). 

KEM'UEL (assemlJy of God ?).—!. One of 
the sons of ;N'ahor Abraham's brother (Gen. 
! xxii. 21).— 2. A chief of Ephraim appointed 
one of those who were to superintend the 
division of Canaan (ZSTumb. xxxiv. 24). — 3. A 
Levite, whose son Hashabiah was ruler of 
the Levites in David's time (1 Chron. xxvii. 
17). 

KEIS'AI?' {smith, perhaps lancer) (1 Chron. 
i. 2). See CAiNAif, 1. 

KE]S"A'TH {possession). A town and dis- 
trict of Bashan, which ITobah took and 
called by his own name (2sumb, xxxii. 42 ; 
Judges viii. 11) ; though this new appel- 
lation does not seem to have lasted. He 
possibly acted in conjunction with Jair. 
I But the passage in 1 Chron. ii. 22, 23 may 
! be more accurately translated, ' Geshur and 
Aram took the towns of Jair with Kenath,' 
and the notice refer to a later period. 
Kenath has been identified with Kunawdt, 
where splendid ruins adorn the slopes of 
the Jebel Hauran. 

KE':N'AZ (a hunt).—l. A son of Eliphaz and 
grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42 ; 1 
Chron. i. 36, 53) : he probably gave name to 
a region.— 2. The father of Othniel (Josh. 
XV. 17 ; Judges i. 13, iii. 9, 11 ; 1 Chron. iv. 
13). Some, taking the word ' son ' in a general 
sense, wottld identify this Kenaz with no. 1. 
—3. A grandson of Caleb (15), called TJknaz 
in the margin. 

KEX'EZITE. A designation given to 
Jephunneh the father of Caleb (^^umb. 
xxxii. 12 ; Josh. xiv. 6, 14). Some have ima- 
gined this to be derived from an Edomit- 
ish ancestor, probably Kenaz, 1. 

KE'XITE, KE'XITES {smiths, or dicellers 
in a nest). A nomadic tribe, first mentioned 
Avith those whose territories were promised 
to the seed of Abraham (Gen. xv. 19). Their 
principal seat seems to have been the rocky 
tracts on the south and south-west of Pa- 
lestine, near the Amalekites (Numb. xxiv. 
21, 22). Kalisch supposes that ' they may 
have spread in a western direction, to the 
land of Egypt ; so that by their expulsion 
the frontiers of the promised land would 
have nearly touched the valley of the is'ile ' 
(Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., pp. 371,372). 
Probably those who lived near the Amalek- 
ites shared their sentiments of hostility 



to Israel. But it Is clear that many of the 
tribe were accounted fi-iendJy, and were 
treated with marked favour ' by the He- 
brews. Jethro was a Kenite ; which indi- 
cates some connection between them andMi* 
dian, and his descendants were aftein^-ards 
to be found in the north of Palestine 
(Judges i. 16, iv. 11, 17, v. 24). And even 
those that were dwelling in the south were 
carefully separated by Saul when he march- 
ed against the Amalekites (1 Sam. xv. 6). 
David maintained the same friendly rela- 
tion with the Kenites (xxx. 29). Possibly 
they had embraced the Israelitish religion, 
or at least were not idolaters. The house of 
the Ptechabites were of this tribe (1 Chron. 
ii. 55), traced to an original ancestor He- 
math. 

Miss Corbaux considers the Kenites a 
branch of the Emim, and supposes Sela, or 
Petra, the chief city of the principal divi- 
sion of the tribe {Journ. of Sacr. Lit., Apr. 
1852, pp. 80-89). 

KEX'IZZITES {hunters). A Canaanitish 
tribe of which nothing is known (Gen. xv. 
19). It cannot be supposed to have any 
connection with the Edomitish chief Ke- 
naz. 

KERCHIEF (Ezek. xiii. 18, 21). See 

HAyPKEECHiEF. Kitto supposes that the 
kerchiefs placed on the head of every sta- 
ture were a rich or peculiar veil or head- 
dress, with which females of every age who 
were brought to join the evil society of the 
women mentioned were decked. He con- 
nects the practice with the worship of As- 
tarte, in whose figures there is always 
something remarkable about the head- 
dress {Pict. Bible, note on Ezek. xiii. 18). 

KE'EEX-HAP'PUCH {the paint-horn). 
Job's third daughter born after his restora- 
tion to prosperity (Job xiii. 14). See Je- 

KER'IOTH {cities).— 1. A city in the ex 
treme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 25). Some 
have supposed this the birth-place of Judas 
Iscariot. It is probably the modern el- 
Kuryetein, to the south of Hebron. Most 
likely Kerioth-hezron is one name: see 
HEZEO^f.— 2. A city of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 24, 
41), called also Kirioth (Amos ii. 2). Per- 
haps the word is not a proper name, and 
should be translated 'the cities.' 

KE'ROS (a iceavefs comb). One "whose 
descendants, Kethinim, returned from cap- 
tivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 44 ; ^STeli. vii. 
47). 

K'ESl'TA'R{tveighed out). This Hebrew word 
occurs in three places, \iz. Gen. xxxiii. 19; 
Josh. xxiv. 32, where it is rendered 'pieces 
of money,' or 'of silver,' 'lambs' niarg., 
and Job xiii. 11, where we find simply 
'piece of money.' The ancient versions 
generallj- translate ' sheep,' or ' lamb.' But 
the word does not occur elsewhere for 
sheep. And, besides, this would imply the 
practice of barter, whereas certainly pur- 
chases were made in those times by money, 
weighed out though not coined (see Gen. 
xxiii. 16, xiii. 35, xliii. 12, 15, 18, 21-23 : comp. 
Acts vii. 16). It is possible indeed that, 
after the precious metals came into use as a 
medium of exchange, commodities might 
still be a measure of value. So that, as 



509 



David purchased his wife Michal from Saul 
for two hundred Philistine foreskins, twice 
the number demanded (1 Sam. xviii. 25), a 
hunter might rate a possession at one hun- 
dred skins.an agriculturalist at one hundred 
lamhs. Hence the word perhaps signified 
not a literal lamb, but the value of a lamb. 
It has been suggested indeed that Job's 
friends might, out of delicacy, instead of 
offering him money, present him with flocks 
and herds. But this supposition is nega- 
tived by what follows : ' they gave each an 
ear-ring of gold,' possibly the ring-money 
which is known to have been anciently in 
use. Taking the kesitah, then, for money, 
the question is, What kind of money was 
it? and what connection had it with a 
lamb? Various replies have been given. 
Some have imagined that it was the stan- 
dard value of a lamb. But that value would 
vary under different circumstances. Others 
therefore have believed that a lamb was 
stamped upon it ; and coins have certainly 
been discovered bearing such an impress. 
But it cannot be proved that coined money 
was in use in Jacob's and Job's times ; and 
the coins so stamped were those of Cyprus, 
of a far later date. Perhaps the most satis- 
factory solution is that the kesitah was a 
weight cast in the form of a lamb. Among 
the Egyptian monuments such weights 
are pictured, in the act of being used for 
weighing ; weights also like bulls' heads : 
moreover, weights of lions have been found 
at Nineveh. See Carey, The Book of Job, 
notes on xlii. 11, pp. 420, 421, 486. 

KETTLE (1 Sam. ii. 14). A boiler. In 2 
Chron. xxxv. 13 the same word is rendered 
' caldron ; ' in Job xli. 20 ; Psal. Ixxxi. 6 a 
• pot,' and in 2 Kings x. 7 ; Jer. xxiv. 2 a 
•basket.' 

KETU'RAH (incense). A ' wife ' of Abra- 
ham, by whom he had six sons. These he 
sent away eastward into the east country 
(Gen. XXV. 1-6 ; 1 Chron. i. 32, 33), where pro- 
bably the descendants of some of them 
were intermingled with elder clans. Notice 
of them will be found under their respec- 
tive names. Keturah may have been a 
secondary wife or concubine, whom Abra- 
ham had taken prior to Sarah's death, as 
after that event there was hardly time, 
during the patriarch's life, for so many sons 
to be born, to grow up to manhood, and to 
be settled in their respective abodes. Be- 
sides, Abraham's vigour is said to have 
failed long before (Rom.iv. 9 ; Heb. xi. 12) : 
see Bush, Notes on Genesis, pp. 260, 261). 

KEY. Keys and locks in Palestine are 
very frequently now, and were doubtless in 
old time, large, and both of them miide of 
wood. But the handle is sometimes of 
brass or silver, ornamented with filagree 
work. Ancient keys are described as 
crooked, bent Into the shape of a sickle, 
and like it borne on the shoulder. If there is 
a bunch to be carried, they hang down, some 
before, others behind. A single key is sus- 
pended by a handkerchief tied to the ring : 
it is then placed on the shoulder, while 
the handkerchief is in front. And there is 
a kind of proverbial expression in use to 
designate a man's consequence when it is 
said that he carries the key. Hence we see 



how a key in scripture is a symbol of autho- 
rity, and a bestowal of keys is equivalent 
to the entrusting any one with a weighty 
charge (Isai. xxii. 22 ; Matt. xvi. 19 ; Rev. 1. 
18, iii. 7, ix. 1, xx, 1). There is a somewhat- 
similar custom among ourselves, certain 
officers of state receiving on appointment a 
golden key. A censure is recorded against 
taking away ' the key of knowledge ' (Luke 
xi. 52), the right understanding of the law 
and the prophets, which Jewish expounders 
perverted, shutting, so to speak, the door of 
the kingdom of heaven against themselves 
and others who would enter. 

KEZI'A (cassia). Job's second daughter, 
born after his restoration to prosperity (Job 
xlii. 14). See Jemima. 

KEZI'Z (cut off). The valley of Keziz is 
mentioned among the cities of Benjamin 
(Josh, xviii. 21). 

KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH (graves of 
longing). One of the stations of Israel in 
the wilderness, where they murmured for 
flesh-meat, and where quails were sent 
them ; but while the flesh was between 
their teeth a great plague destroyed them, 
and many were buried there (Numb. xi. 31- 
35, xxxiii. 16, 17 ; Deut. ix. 22). 

KIBZA'IM (tivo heaps). A Levitical city, 
locally in the territory of Ephraim (Josh, 
xxi. 22). In the corresponding list we find 
Jokmeam (1 Chron. vi. 68). 

KID. The young of the Goat, which see 

KID'RON (the turbid). A stream, called 
also Kedron and Cedron (2 Sam. xv. 23; 

1 Kings ii. 37, xv. 13 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 6, 12 ; 

2 Chron. xv. 16, xxix. 16, xxx. 14 ; Jer, xxxi. 
40 ; John xviii. 1), running in the valley of 
Jehoshaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, be- 
tween the city and the mount of Olives. 
Its channel is generally dry, except some- 
times during the winter, or after heavy 
rains ; but, when swollen by torrents, it 
flows with great impetuosity. The ravine 
of the Kidron, after passing the village of 
Siloam, branches off in the direction of the 
Dead sea. It is of the wildest character ; 
and in it the celebrated monastery of Santa 
Saba is situated. Dr. Robinson thus traces 
it to its outlet at the Dead sea : * The deep 
and almost-impassable ravine of the Kid- 
ron, running down by Mar Saba, and thence 
called Wady er-Bahib, " monks' valley," but 
here also bearing the name of Wady en-Nar, 
*' fire valley." At this place (on the western 
border of the lake) it was running ESE. 
in a deep narrow channel, between perpen- 
dicular walls of rock, as if worn away by 
the rushing waters between these desolate 
chalky hills. There was, however, no water 
in it now ; nor had there apparently been 
any for a long time' (Bibl. I2es., vol. i. pp. 
268, &c. 

Mr. Grove is disposed to believe that the 
Kidron was ' the brook that ran through 
the midst of the land,' the spring-head of 
which Hezekiah stopped so effectually (2 
Chron, xxxii. 4) that the ancient bed has 
since been generally dry ' (Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible, vol. ii. p. 14). 

KIKA'JON (Jonah iv. 6, marg.). See 
Gdurd. 

KI'NAH (a song of mourning , lamentation). 
One of the cities in the extreme south oi 



kindred] C!)e Cr^a^urp tit 5io 



Judah (Josh. xv. 22). Wilton, proposing an 
enlendation of the text, reads Hazar-kinah, 
• the Kenite inclosure ' or ' settlement,' and 
Identifles it with the ruined site el-Hud- 
hairah, the main encampment of the Je- 
nalin, an Arabian tribe (The Negeb, pp. 74-76) . 

KINDRED. This term, or the equivalent 
*near of kin,' repeatedly occurs in scrip- 
ture (e. g. Lev. xviii. 6), and may he supposed 
to have a comprehensive meaning. The par- 
ticular degrees of kindred are noticed under 
their respective names, to which the reader 
is referred : see also Marriage. 

KINE. See Bull, Cow, Ox. 

KING. This term is used with consider- 
able latitude in scripture for the ruler of a 
great empire, as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, 
Persia, and also of some small city or dis- 
trict, as when thirty-one of them are enu- 
merated as having had authority in Canaan 
at the time of the Israelitish conquest 
(Josh. xii. 7-24). Some of these last must 
have been as insignificant as not a few of 
the black 'kings' on the African coast. 

There was for several hundred years after 
the conquest no king in Israel, if we except 
the three years' rule of Abimelech, whose 
authority extended very probably over but 
a limited district round Shechem (Judges 
ix). But, when monarchy was established, 
the following kings reigned, some over the 
whole nation, others over one or other of 
the divided kingdoms of Judah and Is- 
rael :— 
Date of 
accession 

B.C. 
1056 

1016 

977 Rehoboam 

960 Abijam 

958 Asa 



917 Jehoshaphat 

892 Joram 

885 Ahaziah 

884 Athaliah 

878 Joash 

838 Amaziah 



809 TTzziah 

757 Jotham 

741 Ahaz 

726 Hezekiah 



697 Manasseh 

642 Anion 

640 Josiah 

610 Jehoahaz 

609 Jehoiakim 

599 Jehoiachin 

598 Zedekiah 
There is some difficulty in arranging these 
kings chronologically, because of the dif- 
ference between current and complete years. 
Thus, after a king had reigned one year 
and had entered his second, he would be 
said to have reigned two years, even though 



he did not live to fill up the second current 
year. If allowance is not made for this, 
the dates will not tally as they appear in 
the parallel annals of Judah and Israel, 
which are a check the one upon the other. 
In the preceding table, the dates with the 
length of the reigns are given according to 
the calculation of Mr. Browne in his Ordo 
ScBclorum, part i. chaps, iv. v. 

After the return from captivity, the Jews 
were under the rule of the Persian, Egyp- 
tian, and Syrian monarchs successively. 
When, however, they had re-established 
their independence by the victories of the 
Asmonean princes, and the authority, both 
civil and ecclesiastical, was united in the 
line of that family, the title of king was 
again assumed, Aristobulus being the first 
who bore it ; and it continued to be held, 
with some interruption, down to Herod the 
Great, who was king of Judea at our Lord's 
birth. Other kings of his family, who were 
vassal princes under the Roman supremacy, 
are mentioned in the New Testament. See 
Herod. 

The authority exercised by the Hebrew 
kings was great. They made war and peace : 
they exercised the power of life and death, 
and administered justice personally or by 
inferior judges. For these ends, indeed, 
the Israelites desired to have a king, that 
he might command their armies, and 
that he might judge them (l Sam. viii. 
19, 20). We have many examples of exe- 



cution done at the simple order of the 
king (xxii. 16-18; 2 Sam. i. 15, iv. 9-12; 
1 Kings ii. 23-46). Yet in practice there 
were limitations to this power. No monarch, 
however despotic, can act according to his 
unbridled will without danger. He may 



David 



17 years 
2 = 3 current 



Saul 

J 

David 
Solomon 

Jeroboam I. 
Nadab 



Date of 
accession 

B.O 



52 
16 

15 = 16 current 



55 
2 
81 

3 mohths 
11 

3 months 
11 



Elah 
Zimri 

Omri, Tibni 
Ahab 

Ahaziah 2 

Joram 12 

Jehu 28 

Jehoahaz 17 

Joash 16 

Jeroboam II. 41 

[Interregnum] 11 
Zachariah, Shallum 1 

Menahem lo 

Pekahiah 2 

Pekah 20 

[Interregnum] 8 

Eoshea 9 



21 = 22 current years 
1=2 current 951 
23 = 24 current 
1=2 current 
1 month 
11 = 12 current 



956 



921 
899 
897 
884 
857 
839 
824 

772 
771 
760 
758 



511 '^Mt UnofcDkXfse. 



remove and put to death his immediate 
ofllcers and courtiers ; but even of these | 
some will he too powerful to he touched, as 
David, for example, found that he could not 
punish Joab. Neither must he, without 
some colourable pretext, invade the pro- 
perty or take the life of private citizens. 
So Ahab did not venture to seize Naboth's 
vineyard till a corrupt tribunal had con- 
demned him (xxi.). No one in fact could 
retain authority if there was a general 
sense of insecurity under his reign (see 
Juvenal, Sat. iv. 153, 154). It would 
seem that there were great officers of 
state, besides the commander-in-chief, enu- 
merations of whom are frequently given, 
such as the recorder, the steward of the 
house, the scribe, the king's friend, the tax- 
gatherer, the counsellors, the captain of the 
body guard, &c. (2 Sam. viii. 16-18, xv. 12, 
37, XX. 23-26 ; 1 Kings iv. 3-6 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 
S2-34) ; and there were princes, either these 
officers or other men of rank, whose influ- 
ence the king felt he could not withstand 
(Jer. xxxviii. 4, 5). Yet with all these de- 
ductions the authority of an Israelitish 
king was very great. He was the vice- 
gerent of the Deity, specially anointed and 
enthroned, his person being on that account 
deemed sacred (1 Sam. x. 1, xvi. 13, xxi v. 
6, 10, xxvi. 9 ; 1 Kings i. 39 ; Lam. iv. 20). 
He had also much ecclesiastical power, ar- 
ranging the services of the sanctuary, and 
sometimes deposing the high priest (l Kings 
ii. 26, 27 ; 1 Chron, xxiii.-xxvi.X The most 
effectual check to misgovernment seems to 
have been in the free expostulations of the 
prophets, who did not hesitate to rebuke 
the most powerful sovereigns, and who 
were dreaded by the worst (2 Sam. xii.1-14 ; 
1 Kings i. 11-14, xiii. 1-3, xiv. 5-16, xvi. 1-4, 
xvii. 1, xviii., xxi. 17-26; 2 Chron. xvi. 7-9, 
xix. 2, 3, XX. 37, and elsewhere). Some- 
times, however, these bold monitors suf- 
fered for their faithful testimony (1 Kings 

xxii. 26, 27 ; Jer. xxvi. 20-23). 

The magnificence of the Hebrew monarch s 
was great. That of Solomon is particularly 
described in 1 Kings x. ; and the roj^al robes, 
and crown, and sceptre, &c., are elsewhere 
mentioned (xxii. 10 ; 2 Kings xi. 12 ; Psal. 
xlv. 6). They were approached with the 
deepest reverence ; the most powerful sub- 
jects, and even prophets, bowing before 
them to the ground (2 Sam. xiv. 22 ; 1 Kings 
i. 23). Their wives also did obeisance (16) : 
they, however, bowed themselves to their 
mothers (11. 19). 

The sovereigns had several sources of 
revenue which must have sufficed for the 
maintenance of their state. These were 
presents, or voluntary offerings, without 
which no man must approach them (1 Sam. 
X. 27, xvi. 20 ; 1 Kings x. 25) ; the produce 
of the royal demesnes over which certain 
oflBcers were appointed, and the royal fl.ocks 
(1 Sam. xxi. 7 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 25-31 ; 2 Chron. 
xxxii. 28, 29) ; the tenth part of the produce 
of the fields and vineyards (1 Sam . viii. 15, 
17); from which source it might be that 
victuals were provided for the royal house- 
hold (1 Kings iv. 7-19). Perhaps there was 
a direct money-tax (x. 14 : comp. 2 Kings 

xxiii. 35). There was, moreover, a portion 



[kings, the books of 



of the spoil of conquered nations (2 Sam. 
viii. 1-14), on whom also tributes were im- 
posed (1 Kings iv. 21 ; Psal. Ixxii. 10). And 
then there were the customs levied on 
foreign merchants (1 Kings x. 15) ; with 
perhaps other powers of obtaining revenue 
or raising levies for public works (1 Sam. 
viii. 11-17 ; 1 Kings v. 13-16). The weight of 
all these imposts may be judged of by the 
popular discontent which led to the revolu- 
tion under Jeroboam (xii. 1-19). 

It may be added that the duties of a king 
were prescribed in the law (Deut.xvii. 14-20) 
(see Kingdom), and that loyal obedience is 
inculcated in Rom. xiii. 1-7 ; 1 Pet. ii. 13-17). 

KINGDOM. A state ruled by a single 
person. The commonwealth of Israel was 
a kingdom under the special government 
of the Deity, who is often called their King 
(Deut. xxxiii. 5 ; Judges viii. 23 ; 1 Sam. 
xii. 12) ; all human authorities being merely 
his lieutenants. When, therefore, the He- 
brews demanded that the administration 
of their state should be assimilated to that 
of neighbouring nations, and God acceded 
to the request, he as paramount sovereign 
appointed conditions and limitations ac- 
cording to which men were to reign. 
There was, so to speak, a constitution pre- 
scribed, and this was written down and 
kept in sacred custody (x. 25). The king was 
to be a native Israelite : he was to be de 
signated by God himself, who changed the 
dynasty at his will, enforcing by temporal 
success or disgrace the responsibility of 
the monarchs to himself. And the history 
evidently shows that he was most pros- 
perous who had the truest conception of 
the relation in which he stood to Jehovah, 
as his vice-gerent ruling theocratically. 
These provisions were revealed to Moses to 
be the rule in times when a single man 
should be entrusted with the government 
of Israel as king (Deut. xvii. 14-20). Gene- 
rally speaking, unless some sin provoked 
the Lord, the kingdom was hereditary, but 
not necessarily to be claimed by a deceased 
monarch's eldest son. The sovereignty 
of a female does not seem to have been 
contemplated. There is a sensible ac- 
count of ' the law of the kingdom ' given 
by Dr. Kitto, Daily Bible Illustrations, 
thirty-first week second day, in which, too, 
various disqualifications are enumerated, 
said by the Talmudists to preclude a man 
from being king in Israel. 

The term * kingdom ' is often applied to the 
sovereign rule of God (see Heaven, King- 
dom OF) ; and Messiah pre-eminently was to 
have a kingdom that should not be moved. 

KINGS, THE BOOKS OF. The two books 
of Kings follow and are closely connected 
with those of Samuel, carrying on the his- 
tory of the chosen people from the point 
where the preceding record leaves it. They 
are not separate compositions — in fact, in 
the Hebrew canon they formed but a single 
book, in which the author has exhibited the 
progressive development of the theocracy, 
according to the principle of God's promise 
to David (2 Sam. vii. 12-16). This promise 
is the connecting thread ; and its fulfil- 
ment is illustrated in the way in which God 
preserved an inheritance to David's family. 



KIXGS, THE BOOKS Of] Zl)t ZXtKSXlX}) Cf 



612 



In the kingdom of the ten tribes the sceptre 
i5 seen passins from one to another, seized 
hv hold usurpers, -whose descendants re- 
tained it rarely ahove two or three genera- 
tion? : hut David wanted not a man to sit 
upon his throne continuaUy— a pregnant 
fact— a eracious assurance heing therein 
conveyed of that everlasting kingdom 
which should he fully established in the 
person of David's greater Son, who was to 
have the heathen for his inheritance and 
the uttermost parts of the earth for his 
possession (Psal. ii. S\ 

It is to the illustration of this great prin- 
ciple that the hooks of Kings are dedicated. 
And thev evince a sufficient unity to show 
that thev were composed hy a single author. 
They are compiled, no douht, from various 
: sources ; vet they are not a hald compila- 
tion, hut a perfect history, worked up on a 
definite plan, in method and in style giving 
ample proof of their independent complete- 
ness. The writer refers to his sources in 
i the same terms, marks carefully the chro- 
' nolosv of the most important events, esti- 
' mates the character and administration of 
the kins-s hv the rules of the Mosaic law, 
- " 



consequently at an end. The answer ia 
that the author retained the expressions 
from the sources he used. Again, 1 Kings 
xxi. 13 and 2 Kings ix. 26 are said to be 
scarcely in hannony ; as in the first the 
death of Xaboth alone is described, while 
the blood of his sons is mentioned iu the 
last- It has been well rejoined that the 
death of Xaboth's natural heirs is at lease 
implied in 1 Kings xxi. ; else how could his 
inheritance have^f alien to the king 1 But in 
truth such objections are, as before said, 
unwoithy of notice. The credit and con- 
sistency of every history that was ever 
wi-itten might he impugned with equal 
justice. 

The sources from which the author drew 
his materials are exactly indicated. Thus 
at the close of Solomon's historyhe refers to 
the Book of tfte Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41); 
for every king of Judah to the Book of the 
Chroniclh of the kings of Judah xiv. 29, 
XV. 7, 23, xxii. 45 ; 2 Kings viii.23, xii. 19, and 
elsewhere^i : and for every king of Israel to 
the Book of the Chronicles of the kiyigs of 
Israel (1 Kings xiv. 19, xv. 31, xvi. 5, 14, 20, 
27, xxii. 39: 2 Kings i. IS, x. 34, and else- 
where). The hook of the acts of Solomon 



?i?4"of e?cl re™,'^^^^^^^ d?a?h' anS ^ haTbeen fhoVghridentical with .^^^^ 

the sSverei^ns in the sar::e V ::.>a7?i f/^s i>rop?26t Chron. ix. 29) : it was 



burial of the sovereigns 
phraseolosrv. These points have been ^vi..: 
illustrated, as hy Keil {Binleitinig, § 5? : 
Comm. an Kings, transl., vol. i. Iniroa., 
PP 9 10^ who shows that the same usages 
in'po'int of lansuage are found throughout. 
There are critics, however, who, while they 
admit the substantial unity of Kings, te- 
lieve rli i: tIjc" see instances oi discrer ar.cy 
andrepe^-Lirn which tend to prove that the 
author did little more than bring his mate- 
rials into juxta-posiilon. Thus, there are 
direct contradictions alleged. It is said 
that 1 Kines ix. 22 is inconsistent with 
V. 13 and xi. 2S : for that in the la^t-named 
place Solomon is said to have imposed tasks 
on Israel, and laid a burden on the house 



probably a comprehensive history 
cm piled from, or at all events comprehend 
in^ all that was recorded in, the three books 
named in the same place. The book of the 
chronicles of the kings of Israel is cited for 
the last time in 2 Kings xv. 31, that of the 
kinss of Judah last in xxxiv. 5 : possi- 
blv these chronicles did not come down to 
a later point than the reigns of Pekah 
and Jehoiakim respectively. We can only 
conjecture that these works may have been 
part of a complete history cited as the Book 
of the kings of Judah aiid Israel, in 2 Chrou. 
xxxii. 32, and with slight variations of title 
in XX. 34, xxiv. 27, xxxv. 27. Some have 
imas-ined that these were annals duly kept 
nf Tr,=pph while in the fornrerhe7ssTated by the ' recorders,' of whom we freauently 
t'o^^a^fikJe^noneof the Israelites bond- ^^^^^^^^f^^'^^X^^^ 
men. But the objection confounds t^'^ ^^"^^ ^^^^^^^^^^-'I^'o-^^^ 

thf portion of i'aboth at Jezreel acts of Elijah and Elisha\. not Perhaps m a 

19^ is =aid to be contradicted bv the regular succession, but still so as to furm.h 

St for ^Sab-^biood wis merely licked anumberof memoirs from which the hist.^^^ 

S) bv'do% when the chariot in which he of the nation migl^^jDe^compUed^efore^^^^^^ 

had ' ■ ^ ^ '~ ^ 



TSSl^^^S'S^s^IS^^i^i^i is tinis-o! Israel •..C.ron.x34X 

(comp. jouan u . as to declare The time when the books of Kings were 

S not to' h m but io htrpos ei^tv tbl compiled may bepretty nearly fixed on. It 

Jull measure of udgm em should be meted was in the time of the exile : the last^ event 

rS}t^ Kh^^s " Kiues ix. 25, 26\ related being the kindness shown to Jehoia- 

?ndirecf .SscremncTes have also been ga- chin by Evil-merodach ; and some have be- 

tLred ^v in?ui ?r^^^^^^ But they are lieved that it was while Jehoiachm yet 

J^S^SlfiSg Require more thana^siiig ^^ed :^Uiee.P^ss.n, l^ev^^ 

fore him all the daps of his life; woutd 
rather imply that that life was ended. But 
the exile was not over : there is no indica- 
tion of that : most probably, then, the coin- 



too trifling to requirt 

notice. Thus, things are described as sub- 
sistiue ' to this day' a Kings viii. 8, ix 21. 
xii 19"; 2 Kincs viii. 22^ ; whereas the Jew- ; 
ish polity had ceased to exist before the : 
work was compiled, and such relations were | 



513 



[kish 



position may be dated between tlie deatli of 
Jehoiachin (the exact time of which we do 
not know) and the return from captivity. 
The author cannot he identified. Many 
have believed that it was Jeremiah ; but 
that prophet, whose ministry began in the 
thirteenth year of Josiah, must have been 
in extreme old age at the liberation of Je- 
hoiachin 66 years later ; and therefore those 
who hold to J eremiah's authorship suppose 
the notice of Jehoiachin a subsequent ad- 
dition. Bleek imagines it was Baruch (uM 
su-pr., p. 369J, who he supposes arranged the 
prophecies of Jeremiah, and attached the 
last chapter to them, a historical appendix 
nearly identical with the close of Kings. 
This is but a conjecture ; and it does not 
very well account for the slight variations 
between Jer. lii. and 2 Kings xxiv. 18— xxv. 
30). Certainty cannot be arrived at on this 
point. 

The books of Kings have always had a 
place in the Jewish canon ; and the history 
chey contain is authenticated by the refer- 
ences we find in the New Testament (Luke 
iv. 25-27 ; Acts vii. 47 : Rom. xi. 2-4 ; James 
V. 17, 18). Modern research is also continu- 
ally adding fresh evidence to the truth of 
Che narrative. 

These books may properly be distributed 
into three different parts. I. The narrative 
of Solomon's reign (1 Kings i.— xi.). II. 
The contemporary history of the two king- 
doms of Israel and Judah from the division 
of the nation (xii.— 2 Kings xvii.). III. The 
accoimt of the kingdom of Judah while it 
stood alone to the period of the Babylonish 
captivity (xvii i.— xxv.). The length of time 
embraced is about 453 years. It may be ob- 
served that the first book would end better 
at xxii. 50 than at 53 vv.^51-53 more pro- 
perly belonging to 2 Kings i, 

Keil's valuable commentary on the two 
books of Kings has often been referred to 
in these pages. It has been translated into 
English : 2 vols. Edinb. 1857. 

KIR (a tvall, a walled place}.— 1. A city or 
district to which the king of Assyria carried 
away the people of Damascus (2 Kings xvi. 
9 ; Amos i. 5). Kir is also named with 
Elam (Isai. xxii. 6) ; and the Syrians are 
said to have been brought from Kir (Amos 
ix. 7). A difference of opinion exists in re- 
gard to the position of Kir. Very probably 
It was in Media, the present Kerend. Raw- 
linson suggests the eastern Ethiopia, Gush. 
—2 (Isai. XV. 1). See next article. 

KIR-HARA'SETH (irick fortress). A city 
and important fortress of Moab, known 
also as Kir-hareseth, Kir-haresh, Kir-heres, 
and Kir of Moab (2 Kings iii. 25). It 
is now caUed Kerak, seated on a high 
calcareous rock, rising from a deep and 
narrow glen, which thence descends west- 
ward under the name-of Wady Kerak to the 
Dead sea. It was a place of importance in 
the time of the crusaders. 

KIR-HARE 'SETH, KIR-HA'RESH, KIR- 
HE'RES (id.) (Isai. xvi. 7, 11; Jer. xlviii. 31, 

36). See KlR-HARASETH. 

KIRIATHA'IM (double city) (Jer. xlviii. 
1, 23 ; Ezek. xxv. 9). See Kirjathaim. 

KIEIATHIA'BIUS (1 Esdr. v. 19). Kir- 
jath-arim (Ezra ii. 25). i.e. Kirjath-jearim. 



KIR'IOTH (cities) (Amos ii. 2). See Ke- 

EIOTH, 2. 

KIR'JATH (city). A city of Benjamin 
(Josh, xviii. 28). Some have identified it 
with Kirjath-jearim. 

KIRJATHA'IM (double eity).—l. A city 
east of the Jordan, built or fortified by the 
Reubenites, and allotted to them (Numb, 
xxixii. 37 ; Josh. xiii. 19). In later times it 
was in the possession of the Moabites (Jer. 
xlviii. 1, 23 ; Ezek. xxv. 9), in which places 
it is called Kiriathaim. According to Por- 
ter, with whom, however. Grove disagrees, 
it is the modern Kureiyat, under the 
southern side of Jebel Attarus.— 2. (1 Chron. 
Ti. 76). See Karta^t. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA (city o/^r&a,or, accor- 
ding to the Jews, city of four, because 
Adam, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were 
buried there) (Gen. xxiii. 2, xxxv. 27 ; Josh, 
xiv. 15, XV. 13, 54, XX. 7, xxi. 11 ; Judges i. 
10 ; Neh. xi. 25). See Hebron. 

KIR'JATH-A'RIM. A contract form of 
Kirjath-jearim (Ezra ii. 25). 

KIR'JATH-BA'AL (city of Baal). The 
same with Kii'jath-jearim(Josh. xv. 60,xviii. 
14). 

KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH (city of streets). A 
city of Moab (Numb. xxii. 39), perhaps re- 
garded as a place of sanctity. 

KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM (City oficoods). One 
of the cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17). 
On the allotment of Canaan it was on the 
border of Judah and Benjamin (xv. 9, xviii. 
14, 15), but yet belonging to Judah (xv. 60 ; 
Judges xviii, 12). It was variously called 
Baalah (xv. 9, 10), Baale of Jiidah (2 Sam. vi. 
2), Kirjath-baal (xviii. 14), Kirjath-arim 
(Ezra ii. 25). Itwas to this place that the ark 
was brought after the catastrophe at Beth- 
shemesh (1 Sam. vi. 21, vii. 1, 2), and from 
thence carried by David to Jerusalem (1 
Chron. xiii. 5, 6 ; 2 Chron. i. 4). Some of 
the families who settled in it are mentioned 
in 1 Chron. ii. 50, 52, 53 ; and a number of 
its inhabitants returned from Babylon after 
the captivity (Neh. vii .29). Urijah, the pro- 
phet put to death by Jehoiakim, was of 
Kirjath-jearim (Jer. xxvi. 20-23). The mo- 
dern Kziriet el-'Aineb is satisfactorily identi- 
fied with Kirjath-jearim. It is but a poor 
village, with a ruined Latin church. On the 
hill to the north-west probably stood the 
house of Abinadab (1 Sam. vii. 1). Dr. 
Thomson believes it identical with Emma- 
us. which see. 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH (palvi-city). The 
same with Debir (Josh, xv.49), or 

KIR'JATH-SE'PHER (book-city). A city, 
perhaps originally a seat of learning, taken 
by Othniel, for which he obtained Achsah, 
Caleb's daughter, in marriage (Josh. xv. 15- 
17 ; Judges i. 11-13). It was also called De- 
bir (Josh. X. 38, 39, xi. 21, xii. 13, xxi. 15 ; 1 
Chron. vi. 58), and Kirjath-saunah (Josh. 
XV. 49). 

KIR-MO'AB (fortress of Moab) (Isai. xv. 

1). See KiR-HARASETH. 

KISH (a bow).—l. The father of king Saul 
(1 Sam. ix. 1, 3, x. 11, 21, xiv. 51 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 
14 ; 1 Chron. viii. 33, ix. 39, xii. 1, xxvi. 28).— 
2. Another Benjamite of the same family 
(viii. 30, ix. 36).— 3. A Levite of thefamily of 
Merari (xxiii. 21, 22, xxiv. 29).— 4. A Levite 
L L 



KISHi] 



514 



In the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron xxix. 12). 
But tHe name may stand for the family 
instead of an individual, and may he identi- 
cal with Kishi.-5. An ancestor of Mordecai 

of Jehovah). A Leyite of the 
familr of Merari (1 Chron. Yi. 44), caUed 
also Kushaiah (xv. 17). T-corhqr 
KISH'ION {hardness). A city of Is^achar 
(Josh xix. 20), allotted to the Gershom e 
Lerites ; hut in l Ohron. vi 72 Kede^h is 
substituted. It is also called 
(^^.) (Josh. XXI 28) 
KI'SHOii^ {curved, winding). A stream 
which issues from the mountains af Car- 
mel, and discharges itself after a very short 
Surse ix^to the hay of Acre. It is described 
S sluWish, with hrackish water, passing 
Srou^ a marsh. But there is, besides a 
mire remote source near En-gannim (the 
fountain of Jenin). The water, liowever 
which flows hence, though augmented by 
Ztnlev torrents still f^^t^^^r to the east 
fails during the summer and autumn, it 
S only therefore in certain seasons of the 
year that the Kishon is full. But hat it 
becomes when swollen with rams may be 
[magTned from the resistless force with 
whici ft swept away the flying troops ^f 
Si^era (Judges iv. 7, r. 21). See Barak. 
Thifstream°is noted for another grea , 
event in scripture history. It ^^^s to its 
banks that Elijah on the day of Carmei 
SSuJht down the idol priests for execu- | 
S(l Kings xviii. 40). The Kishon is now 

^^iS W (Psal. ixxxiii. 9). A form of 

^Tlll A token of respectful and affec- 
tionate salutation (Gen. ^?^y"- 26, 27, xxix 
13), of reconciliation (xxxiii. 4, 2 Sam 
-^-V) of leave-taking (Gen. xxxi.28, 55 , itutn 
? 'a Vlam xix. 39), of homage (1 Sam. x. 

pil ?■ 12) Besides kissing on the 
mouth hand, or cheek, sometimes the 

SrV^Ma^p'rs VV; 6arey, Jot,. P 347. 
ToZbI Z loot-print of a rnnce or lick 
the dust before him, Jf^,?^?,'''';' 
vpvprence and subjection (Psal. Imi. 9. 
S ihx ?3) in the New Testament we 
ink the klst ol peace or holy kiss a mart ot 
S™le broSherhood : It seems to have 

^^^'S?c\s"Thrt.;rfeX 

Ct Ld receive? t'h" kiss, of peac. (Blng- 

"^^S; fntS" SSitS-rboSi 

/ If Olid on various other occasions. 
Siven'thf aliarrtlie doors, threshold 
AVlarr &c of the church were kissed m 
?okln of affection (ibid., i^ook via. chap. 

!ied as a generic name for various species 



of hawk, falcon, &c. Or it may be supposed 
identical with the Falco cesalwi of Lmnaens, 
merlin. It must evidently he a bird noted 
Sr ts cry and keen-sighted. The Milviis 
reaalis, or common kite, is well known in 
Europe ; and the Milvus^gyptiaciis Arahmn 
kite is one of the most abundant of bird* of 
prey in Egypt: see Duns, ^iW.xYflt. Science, 

^KITH'LISH (a man's icall^). A town in 
the plain country of Judah (Josh xv- 40). 

KIT'ROX {knotty). A town of Zebulun 
(Judges i. 30) : it has been thought the same 
with Kattath (Josh. xix. 15). , 

KIT'Tm (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chron. i. 7). See 
Chittim: 



Ki^EADIKG-TROUGH (Exod. Ji^i- 3, xii. 
t; Deut. xxviii. 5, 17, marg.). See Bee^. 
K^s^IFE (Gen. xxii. 6, and elsewhere). 
Knives were made variously of flmt, bone, 
copper, iron, and steel. At flrst perhaps 
a sing e knife, worn in the girdle (a prac- 
tice still almost universal in the east) was 
sufBcient for all general P^PO^^es. But 
in the course of time knives of -Narious 
'.hapes and purposes were multiplied In 
;Scfifcing, oSe ^asused to kill the ^nctim : 
there was another, rounded at the top to 
the fourth of a circle, for flaymg^it ; and a 
third, for dissecting the carcase. Specimens 
of different kinds of ancient Egyptian 
knives to ^vhich no doubt the Hebrew 
were similar, may be seen in the British 
Museum. Knives were little used at me^s ; 
I and still meat is usually divided with the 

' ^ KNOP. An ornament of the golden can- 
dle^itick (Exod. xxv. 31, xxxvii. 17, and 
e&where), probably formed like a^poin^ 
m^anate Also a carved ornament of the 
fedSork of the temple, and the molten 
sea (1 Kings vi. 18, vii. 24), perhaps like 
wild ffourds or cucumbers. 

k/oWLEDGE, the tree of. a tree 
Placed in the midst of the garden of Eden, 
?Slv insome conspicuous spot of which 
L°an wasnotto eatandnotto ^^^^h it,under 
the nenaltv of death (Gen. u. 9, 1/, lu.S). It 
must have been a literal tree; the prohibi- 
Son against the use of which is not so nnrea- 
sons.ble as some are Pleased to consider it^ 
For manv commandments,afterwards given 
to the wOTld when replenished with mbabi- 
an^'^^^ere quite inapplicable to the a^^^^^^^ 
stances of a single pair m POS=e^'=ion of 
all their eves beheld. And it may be added 
?bat:?f the Deity had devised any other 
kiSd of test of the obedience of his cvea- 
ti¥es. certain critics would equally have 
found some ground of objection ^e_^neea 
not trv to discover the species of t^i^s tiee. 
Natnrkllv the fruit was wholesome, and the 
Lpect of it pleasant ; and it had, according 
?o the tempter, marvellous virtue ^o); 
more than this we cannot know. It was 
Jailed ' the tree of knowledge of good and 
evil ' not because God would know by the 
Suit of the trial whether man would 
cleave to good or make choice of evil, but 
rather because Adam, if he ate.would know 
SaUs,have a practical and ezpenme^^^^^^ 
acquaintance with, good and evil (2^). Bush 
is of opinion that the term ' tree is used as 
a noun of multitude, so that trees of life and 



515 



[kushaiah 



] 



of knowledge were interspersed througli- 
out the garden, that Adam might he ' con- 
stantly reminded of the terms on which he 
held his happiness ' (Notes on Genesis, p. 44). 
See Life, The Tree of. 

KO'A (stallion, he-camel, hence prince). 
This word is found only in Ezek. xxiii. 23 ; 
where it is used with Shoa, tvealthy, in paro- 
nomasia. 

KO'HATH (assembli/). One of the sons of 
Levi, from whom the great Kohathite 
branch of that tribe was descended (Gen. 
xlvi. 11 ; Exod. vi. 16, 18 ; ISTumb. iii. 17, 19, 
27, and elsewhere). 

KO'HATHITES. One of the three great 
families of the tribe of Levi, descended 
from Kohath, Levi's son, distinsruished 
into four branches, Amramites, Izharites, 
Hebronites, and Uzzielites, after Kohath's 
four sons, and comprising at the first cen- 
sus 8,600 males from a month old, 2,750 be- 
tween the ages of thirty and fifty. They 
were to encamp in the wilderness on the 
south side of the tabernacle, and were to 
have charge of the ark, and the table, and 
the candlestick, and the altars, and the 
vessels of the sanctuary, and the service 
thereof (rTumb. iii. 27-31, iv. 2-15, 34-37). 
These, when they were covered by the 
priests, the Kohathites carried on their 
shoulders, on a march ; and therefore not 
any of the waggons given by the princes 
were apportioned to them (vii. 9). When the 
Israelites entered Canaan, the priests, who 
were sons of Kohath, had thirteen cities 
allotted them in Judah, Benjamin, and 
Simeon ; and the rest of the Kohathites, 
ranking from their closer connection with 
the priests as first of the Levites, ten cities 
from the territories of Ephraim, Dan, and 
western Manasseh CJosh. xxi. 4, 5, 20-26 ; 
1 Chron. vi. 61, 66-70). Their service was 
afterwards arranged with that of the other 
Levitical families by David, when the whole 
were divided into courses, and had special 
ofllces assigned (1 Chron. xxv., xxvi.). 

KOLAI'AH {voice of Jehovah).—!. A Ben- 
jamite (Xeh. xi. 7).— 2. The father of the 
false prophet Ahab (Jer. xxix. 21). 

KO'RAH (ice, hail, or baldness). — 1. One 
of the sons of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 
1 Chron. i. 35). It might seem (16) as if he 
were the son of Eliphaz, or as if there were 
two of the name ; but Kalisch suggests that 
some branches of the family of Korah inter- 
married with a portion of the family of Eli- 
phaz, and gradually rose to sufficient power 
and influence to form an independent clan ; 
while the other part remained under the 
original division {CQmm, on Old Test. Gen.y \ 



p. 598, note).— 2. A Levite, son of Izhar, and 
grandson of Kohath (Exod. vi. 18, 21, 24). 
His descendants were called Korahites 
(1 Chron. ix. 19, 31), Korathites (Numb, 
xxvi. 58), and Korhites (Exod. vi. 24 ; 
1 Chron. xii. 6, xxvi. 1 ; 2 Chron. xx. 19) ; 
and to them are attributed several of the 
Psalms (viz. xlii., xliv.-xlix., Ixxxiv., Ixxxv., 
Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii.). Korah is notable as a 
ringleader of a rebellion excited, in con- 
junction with Dathan and Abiram, against 
Moses and Aaron. These conspirators were 
fearfuUy punished. The earth opened and 
swallowed Dathan and Abiram, with their 
immediate adherents ; while two hundred 
and fifty who offered incense, together with 
(it seems most probable) Korah,perished by 
fire, Korah's children, however, survived, 
not being partakers in his guilt (Numb, xvi., 
xxvi. 9-11, xxvii. 3 ; 1 Chron. vi. 22, 37, ix. 19). 
Some discrepancy has been imagined in the 
history given of Korah's rebellion ; but the 
charge cannot be sustained (see Home's In- 
troduction, edit. Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 573, 574). 
Indeed, Professor Blunt has shown that 
there are minute coincidences which go to 
prove the exact accuracy of the sacred 
writer {Undesigned Coincidences, part i. 20, 
pp. 79-84). Korah is called ' Core ' in Jude 
11. — 3. A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 
ii.43). 

KO'RAHITES. A Levitical family, de- 
scended from Korah (1 Chron. ix. 19, 31). 
They were appointed to conduct the service 
of sacred song, some of them being also 
porters or door-keepers in the sanctuary. 

KO'RATHITES. Another designation of 
the same family (Numb. xxvi. 58). 

KO'RB {a partridge).— I. A Levite of the 
family of Korah (1 Chron. ix. 19). Probably 
the same person is intended in 1 Chron. 
xxvi. 1, where Asaph is for Ebiasaph : see 
marg. In 19 the translation should be ' the 
Korhite.' — 2. A Levite porter, who had 
charge of the offerings and oblations in the 
time of Hezekiah \2 Chron. xxxl. 14). 

KOPt'HITES. A Levitical family, descen- 
dants of Korah (Exod. vi. 24; 1 Chron. xii. 6» 
xxvi. 1 ; 2 Chron. xx. 19). 

KOZ {thorn). A priest, head of one of the 
courses (1 Chron. xxiv. 10). The article is 
prefixed; and here our translators have 
given it as part of the name, Hakkoz. But, 
in other places where descendants of this 
person are mentioned (Ezra ii. 61 ; Neh. iii. 
4, 21, vii. 63), our version has rightly Koz. 
It appears that the pedigree of the family 
was not accurately preserved. 

KUSHAI'AH (boiv of Jehovah, i.e. rain- 
bow) (1 Chron. xv. 17). See Kishi. 



laadah] 



516 



L. 



LA' ADAH (^order). One of Judali s de- 
scendants (1 Chron. iv. 21). 

LA'ADAN (put in order).— I. An Eplirann- 
ite, ancestor of Josliua (1 Chron. vii. 261— 
2. A Gershonite Levite (xxiii. 7, 8, 9, xxvi 
21) : he seems to hare heen identical wita 

^ L A'BAJ? (T^Sie) . ' The son oi Bethuel, and 
brother of Rehekah. When first introduced 
in the sacred story, he appears to great ad- 
vantage. He runs to welcome Abraham s 
servant, addresses him in the language of 
piety, receives him hospitably, and, quite 
taking the lead in the negotiation of his 
sister's marriage, acts with justice and pro- 
priety, referring the matter to the Lord 
(Gen. xxiv. 29-60). He must have been then 
verv young, perhaps but Dust grown to 
Ss^ estate. After Ilebekah:s inarriage 
we do not read of any communication with 
his sister ; but there probably was ; for she 
expressed her anticipation that he would 
receive her son Jacob kindly when he fled 
from the apprehended revenge of Esau 
(Svii. 43-45). He did receive him kindly; 
and, when Jacob had been with him a little 
while, taking part in his occupation with- 
out reward, Laban honourably, as we may 
call it, desired him to name his wages, as 
it would be unfair that because he was a 
relative he should labour for nothing. Ja- 
cob asked the hand of his cousin Rachel, 
and consented to serve seven years foi love 
of her. We may suppose that something oc- 
curred in these years to sour Laban s ramd. 
He was now advanced in life : eighty or 
ninety years had passed since Hebekali s 
marriage : perhaps his sons, as we after 
wSs find them interfering, might influenc^ 
him. He first deceived Jacob by substitut- 
ing Leah for Rachel (xxix. 1-30), and after- 
wards exacted toilsome service from Inra 
unwilling to part with one through whom 
hfs worldly circumstances had prospered. 
We cannot approve the mode m wliich Ja- 
cob acted; but Laban, hard and selfish 
acted more unjustifiably still, changing 
continually the manner m which his 
nephew was to be remunerated vxxx. 25-43). 
At length, when Jacob had become the 
richer of the two, all family harmony was 
at an end: Labau's sons aggravated then 
father's ill-feeling: his daughters were es- 
t?anged from him ; and Jacob, expecting 
to bS plundered, took an opportunity of 
departing secretly. Laban in wrath pur- 
sued : his property had dwindled : his gods, 
?oo were gone. But the Lord interfered to 
protect Jacob; and, after mutual recnmi- 
Sat oSs, uncle' and ^ephew ratified a cove- 
nant proposed by Laban ; and then they 
Separated (xxxi.) ; and Laban is named no 
mSre ; except once or twice in reference to 
the previous history (xxxii. 4 xlvi 18, 2o) 
He had evinced early premise : but the 
cares of the world had corrupted him. 
LA'BAN (.id.). A place in the Arabian 



wilderness (Deut. 1. 1), possibly the same 
with Libnah (Numb, xxxiii. 21, 22). 
LAB' ANA (1 Esdr. v. 29). Lebanah (Ezra 

" L ABOLR. It is observable that man was 
not upon his creation to live in indolence. 
When placed in Uie garden of Eden he was 
'to dress it and to keep it' (Gen. ii. lo). 
This labour would have been delightful had 
Adam continued in his state of innocence ; 
the garden that he kept repaying by its 
f ruitfulness and beauty the care bestowed 
upon it. It was upon the fall that labour 
became toil, inducing weariness and sorrow 
(iii 17-19, 23). But labour is wholesome, 
mentally and bodily. No persons are more to 
be pitied than those who have nothing to do, 
no employment, no worthy pursuit. The 
Jews were accustomed to instruct their 
children in some kind of labour which 
might afterwards be a m.eans of support. 
Thus St. Paul, with a liberal education, was 
yet taught a manual art (Acts xviu. 3, xx. 
34 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8) ; and he ordered that if 
any refused to labour he should not be 
allowed to eat (10-12). For the modes of 
labour in use among the Hebrews see Agri- 
culture, HA3JDICRAFT. All labour was to 
be undertaken from a right motive, and the 
fruit of it put to a right use (Rom. xii.ll ; 1 
Cor X 31 ; Eph. iv. 28). And the greatest 
pains and labour were to be not for earthly 
sustenance, but for the meat that ' endureth 
unto everlasting life ' (John vi. 27). 
LABOURER (Luke x. 7). See HiRE- 

^"^LACE (Exod. xxviii. 28, 37, xxxix. 31). 
The word so rendered is translated ' brace- 
lets ' in Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25, but it means 
there the cord or string by which the sig- 
net-ring was suspended. It signifies twist- 
ed, and must be in the places where it la 
called ' lace ' a thread or cord. 

LACED^MO'NIANS (1 Mace. xii. 2, 5, 6, 
20, 21, xiv. 20, 23, XV. 23 ; 2 Macc. V. 9). See 

LA'CHISH (the smitten, captured, or the 
tenacious, i.e. impregnable). A city of 
Canaan captured by Joshua (Josh, x 3, 5, 23, 
31 35 xii 11) : it ^vas situated m the plain 
country of Judah (xv. 39), and was fortified 
bv Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 9). Kmg Ama- 
ziah was killed here (2 Kings xiv. 19 ; 2 
Chron xxv. 27). Lachish was besieged and 
nrobabfy taken by Sennacherib (2 Kings 
xviii. 13-17, xix. 8; 2 Chron. xxxii 9; Isai. 
xxxvi. 2, xxxvii. 8). A description has been 
deciphered at Kouyunjik to this efifect : 
' Sennacherib, the mighty kmg, king of the 
country of Assyria, sitting on the throne of 
judgment, before the city of Lachish; I 
give permission for its slaughter. There 
is also sculptured a! representation of the 
^ipo'e This city is mentioned in Jer. 
xxifv 7 ; Mic. i. 13, and was inhabited 
after the return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 30). 
The site of Lachish has not been identified; 



517 M%U ItUOtDleUfiC, [lamentations 



there is indeed still a.village on a knoll be- 
tween Gaza and Beit Jibrin, called Um La- 
kis ; l)ut the city was prohahly farther to 
the south. According to Eusebius it lay 
seven Roman miles south of Eleuthero- 
polis. 

LACU'NUS (1 Esdr. ix. 31). 

LA'DAN (1 Esdr. v. 37). Probably a cor- 
ruption of Delaiah (Ezra ii. 60). 

LADDER OF TYRU8 (lM2i.cc.Ji\.m). A 
mountain north of Acre rising immediately 
from the sea, a natural barrier between 
Palestine and Phoenicia. It is the modern 
Bas-en-Nakhurah, and is crossed by a zigzag 
path. 

LA'EL (0/ G^o^Z, i. e. created). AGershonite 
Levite (Numb. iii. 24). 

LA'HAD (oppression). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 2). 

LAHAI'-ROI (the living one that sees me) 
(Gen. xxiv. 62, xxr. 11). See Bber-lahai- 

ROI. 

LAH'MAM (provisions). A town in the 
plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 40). Som© 
copies'have ' Lahmas.' 

LA'HMI (warrior). The brother of Go- 
liath, slain by Elhanan (1 Chron. xx. 5). See 
Elhanan. 

LA'ISH (lion). A person to whose son 
Michal, David's wife, was given (1 Sam. 
XXV. 44 ; 2 Sam. iii. 15). 

LA'ISH (id.)—l (Judges xviii.7,14,27,29). 
See Dak.— 2. A place near Jerusalem (Isai. 
X. 30), which passage would be more pro- 
perly rendered 'Listen, O Laish:' nothing 
more is known of this Laish. 

LAKE. There are several noticeable lakes 
in Palestine, as that of Sodom or the Dead 
sea, known by several other names; that 
of Gennesaret, which also had other appel- 
lations ; and the waters of Merom. These 
are described under their own names. See 
Genkesaret, Merom, Sea. 

LA'KUM (way-stopper, i. e. a fortified 
place). A town on the border of Naphtali 
(Josh. xix. 33). 

LAMB. This word according to our usage 
signifies the young of the sheep. More than 
one Hebrew word is so rendered, some in- 
cluding also a kid, the young of the goat. 
A lamb or a kid without blemish was to be 
the paschal offering, to be killed and eaten 
at the passover (Exod. xii. 3-10). See Pass- 
over. Lambs also were continually offered 
in the various sacrifices of the law, daily 
(xxix. 38, 39), weekly (Numb, xxviii. 9), 
monthly (11), at the great yearly festivals 
(Lev. xxiii. 18-20 ; Numb. xxix. 2, 18-40), and 
on various special occasions. 

LAMB OF GOD. A title repeatedly given 
to the Lord Jesus Christ (John 1. 29, 36). 
It had been predicted that Messiah should 
be like a lamb patient under suffering (Isai. 
liii. 7) ; and the passage in which this was 
declared was distinctly applied to Jesus by 
the early Christian teachers (Acts viii. 32-35; 
1 Pet. ii. 24). But the special idea with its 
peculiar application is taken not from a 
lamb generally, its gentleness andharmless- 
ness, but from the fact of a lamb's being 
selected, without blemish, as a sacrificial 
offering. Thus for the passover a male of 
the first year was to be set apart and slain 
(Exod. xii. 3, 5-7). And so Christ is called 



the 'passover' * sacrificed for us' (l Cor. v. 
7). Lambs of the first year without spot 
were also to be offered day by day, in the 
morning and at even for a continual burnt- 
offering, and on various other occasions 
(Numb, xxviii. 3, and elsewhere) ; see last 
article. And thus redemption was made 
'with the precious blood of Christ without 
blemish and without spot' (1 Pet. i. 18, 19). 
Further, when St. John beheld the Lamb in 
heavenly glory, it was ' as it had been slain' 
(Rev. V. 6). Christ, therefore, is the Lamb 
of God, in that he was offered a sacrifice and 
propitiation for the sins of the world (1 John 

ii. 2). 

LA'MECH (powerful). An ante-diluvian 
of the line of Cain. He had two wives and 
was the father of distinguished sons : one, 
Jubal, was a musician ; another, Tubal-cain, 
a worker of metals. Lamech had, it does 
not appear how, slain some one ; and some 
verses are preserved, the oldest snatch of 
poetry known, in which he addresses his 
wives, expressing his conviction that, if 
Cain was to be avenged seven-fold on any 
who slewhim,vengeance seventy-and-seven- 
fold would be exacted for Lamech himself. 
This may intimate that the homicide he 
was chargeable with was accidental or in 
self-defence (Gen. iv. 18-24).— 2. An antedi- 
luvian patriarch, son of Methuselah and 
father of Noah (25-31 ; 1 Chron. i. 3 ; Luke 

iii. 36). 

LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH, THE. 
This book has generally among the Jews 
for an appellation its first word, signifying 
how. It is also called by a name implying, as 
that we use does, the nature of its contents. 
In the Hebrew canon it is one of the flveTwe- 
gilloth, usually placed between Ruth and 
Ecclesiastes. 

The Lamentations are expressly ascribed 
to Jeremiah in a verse prefixed to the 
Septuagint translation. This has been adopt- 
ed in some other versions ; but there is 
no reason to suppose that it was ever in 
the Hebrew original. It may be taken, 
however, as a valuable witness to the early 
belief of the Jeremian authorship. And 
this authorship there is no valid reason 
for doubting. It is true that Thenius (Die 
Klaglieder erklcirt) and others have ima- 
gined that there is a perceptible difference 
between the different elegies which the 
book contains, so that they could not have 
proceeded from the same hand. Thus, stress 
is laid upon the alleged incompatibility of 
Lam. ii., iv. with iii. 1-20; and it has been 
said that the last-named passage has images 
more varied, expressions stronger than 
could be expected from the prophetic Jere- 
miah, whose style and cast of thought are 
different. But these objections have no 
great weight. The writer is evidently an 
eye-witness (seeii.ll, iv. 17-20, v.) : the dic- 
tion is very similar ; characteristic words 
and expressions being found in Jeremiah's 
prophecies and also in this book. And it is 
the deliberate judgment of Bleek(M7ileitung, 
pp. 502, 503) that there is an observable re- 
lationship between the Lamentations and 
the prophetical book, not only in style but in 
entire character and spirit. In contents and 
in tone of thought. And he points out ho-rt 



lamp] 



518 



exactly Lam. iii. 52, &c. answers to Jer. 
xxxTiii. 6, &c. 

The book comprises fire separat e poems, 
each distinct and complete in itself, hut yet 
connected hv the same leading idea, ihe 
third describes the personal snfEermgs ot 
the writer ; the others the face of the city. 
It is a nice point to determine with ex- 
actness the time of the composition. -But, 
as we learn from the history (comp. Jer. 
xxxix. 2, and 111. 12, 13) that an interval of 
about a month elapsed between the capture 
of the citv and its actual destruction by 
ai-e some have imagined that they see in- 
dications in i., ii., iT., V. pointing to that 
interval : the king and the nobles were m 
captivity (ii. Q, iv.20) : the temple was pro- 
faned and the observance of the ritual ser- 
vice at an end (1.4, 10, ii. 6, 7, 20); but yeu it 
is not distinctly said that the temple was 
burned or the city quite destroyed, btill it 
cannot be denied that there are expres- 
sions whichcan hardly be fully understood 
except as intending that final catastrophe 
S iL 2, 3, iv. 11, V. 18). Perhaps, therefore 
Che date mav be more justly fixed to that 
time when Jeremiah appears to have been 
carried with the rest of the captives to 
Ramah, where ^'ebuzar-adan released him 
and sent him to Gedaliah (Jer. xl.). And no 
time would seem to suit better with the 
personal lamentation of chap. ill. _ _ 

The composition of these elegies is re- 
markable. Each consists, of twenty-two 
Deriods or stanzas ; and m the first four 
everv one of these periods begins with words 
the initials of which are letters of_ the 
Hebrew alphabet in order. In chap. in. the 
three verses of each period commence with 
the same letter. In ii., iii., iv. the verses 
beginning with the letter pe precede tho^ 
Sllinnini with ain. In tHe Vulgate and 
some other versions chap. v. is entitled 
the Praver of Jeremiah. It is onlynece=- 
sarv to add that these elegies must not be 
considered the lament w^hich (2 Chion. 
xxxV. 25) Jeremiah is said to have made for 

■^Th^'commentaries of Blayney, 1784, 1810, 
Henderson 1851, and others on Jeremiah, 
include Lamentations. 

LAAIP. We have frequent mention oi 
lamps in scripture, but little or no indica^ 
tion of their shape or of the material of 
which they were made. But, as Egj ptian 
Tud Assyrian lamps have been found of 
terra cotta, baked clay, bronze, ^HfJ 
verv well suppose that those used b} theHe- 
breWs were of similar materials and very pm 
bably of similar shapes. The 'lamps' w nch 
were carried bv Gideon's soldiers in pitchers 
Judffes vii 16 20) must have had handles 
Lnd have been so formed as that the oil 
cSuld not easily be spilled. Not n^iprotab y. 
however, these were torches or flambeaiix, 
which, when the pitchers wer« broken 
would make a stronger glare. Animal fat i. 
now verv frequently burnt in lamps m ^ ex- 
tern Asia: it is likely that it was also used by 
the ancient Hebrews ; though for the lamps 
of the candlestick in the tabernacle pure oil- 
oUve was specially prescribed (Exod. xxviu 
90- Lev xxiv 2). Cotton wicks are at pre- 
sent in common use ; but it is supposed that 



the Hebrews, like the Egyptians, employed 
the outer coarse fibre of flax. According to 
rabbinical tradition the priests' linen gar- 
ments were uni-aveUed when old to furnisli 




Assyrian lamps of terra cotta, ^lass, &c From 
originals in Brit. Mus. 

wick= for the sacred lamps. Lamps are noT? 
Sten supported on stands of brass or wood, 
or thev are placed upon brackets This was 
probably an ancient custom ; and, if we ma) 




Bronze lamps of the Roman period, found In 
Egyptian tombs. 

further suppose that anciently as now lamps 
were kept burning through the night, we 
shall find many scriptural expressions U- 



619 MtbU ^noMttSQt* [language 



lustrated. The keeping up of the light is 
thus a symbol of unbroken succession (1 
Kings xi. 36, xv. 4 ; Psal. cxxxii. 17) ; while 
the extinguishing of the lamp betokens 
change and decay (l Sam. xxi. 17 ; Prov. 
xiii. 9, XX. 20). The illustration may, how- 
ever,have been borrowed from the perpetual 
light of the sanctuary. Again, our Lord 
speaks of ' outer darkness ' into which the 
wicked should be cast (Matt. viii. 12, xxii. 
13) ; lamps of course were used at festivals 




Ancient Egyptian lamp, represented in a painting 
a* Thebes. 

and marriage-feasts ; and the contrast is the 
more striking when one is expelled at once 
from a well-lighted apartment into the dark 
night. 

The Jewish feast of dedication is, from 
the illuminations then made, sometimes 
called the Feast of Lamps. The origin and 
mode of observing it may be noted here. 
When Judas Maccabeus had recovered Jeru- 
salem and purified the temple after its 
desecration by Antiochus Epiphanes, he 
instituted a feast in which it is said that 
he ' set forth incense and lights' (2 Mace. 
X. 3). Some legendary stories are added 
to this account by the Jews. The cere- 
monies now practised are described by Mills 
{The British Jews, pp. 186, 187) :\ ' On the 
evening of the 24th of Kisleu, a light 
called the Chanukah light is prepared. Pro- 
perly this light ought to be a lamp supplied 
with oil of olives ; but wax candl-es are gene- 
rally used. One candle is placed in the 
candlestick near the ark, when the following 
blessing is said : " Blessed art thou, O Lord, 
King of the universe, who hast sanctified 
us with thy commandments, and command- 
ed us to light the lights of dedication. 
Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the universe,who wrought miracles for our 
fathers in those days and in this season. 
Blessed art thou, 0 Lord, our God, King of 
the universe, who hast maintained us and 
preserved us to enjoy this season." The last 
blessing is said only on the first night of 
the feast. The candle;being thus lit, the fol- 
lowing is then repeated: " These lights we 
light to praise thee for the miracles, won- 
ders, salvation, and victories, which thou 
didst perform for our fathers, in those days 
and in this season, by the hands of thy holy 
priests. Wherefore, by command, these 
lights are holy all the eight days of dedica- 
tion ; neither are we permitted to make any 
other use of them save to view them, that 
we may return thanks to thy name, for thy 
miracles, wonderful works, and salvation." 
On the second evening two candles are 
lighted, on the third three, adding one 



every evening until the eighth, the con- 
clusion of the feast, and repeating the abova 
blessings, as on the first evening. A few 
additions are made to the public service. 
See Dedication, Feast of. 

LANCE (Jer. 1. 42). See Arms. 

LANCET (1 Kings xviii. 28). Probably a 
light spear. 

LAND. See Eaeth. 

LAND-MARK. The removing of a land- 
mark was specially prohibited by the Mosaic 
law (Deut. xix. 14, xxvii. 17 ; Prov. xxii. 28, 
xxiii. 10). See also Job xxi v. 2. As this was 
so flagrant an offence, the expression seems 
to have become proverbial to designate un- 
principled conduct : see Hos. v. 10. 

LAN'GTJAGE. We read in scripture of 
communications by means of speech at the 
very beginning of the human history. Tiius, 
even before the creation of woman, the man 
is said to have given names to the various 
creatures which surrounded him in the 
happy garden (Gen. ii. 19, 20). It is a natural 
inference— one very agreeable to the just 
conclusions of reason, that the Deity, who 
endowed Adam when he made him with 
high and excellent faculties, taught him at 
least the first uses of those faculties, and 
gave him that almost-instinctive perception 
of the qualities and natures of the different 
animals he saw, which is implied in his 
calling them by appropriate names. Some 
exercise of language, then, he must have 
had— elementary, doubtless, and confined 
to what his wants required, but capable of 
developement, and soon actually developed, 
in the growth of society, and according to 
the amenities and necessities of social inter- 
course, and the interchange of thought 
between individuals. What the primitive 
language was, whether identical with or al- 
lied to any of those which exist, either in 
common speech or in writing, can be only 
conjectured. 

In the lapse of years, when men multi- 
plied before the deluge, it is natural to 
suppose, the same causes operating then as 
have operated since, that diversities of 
speech would begin to manifest themselves. 
Whether this were so or not, a single lan- 
guage would survive in Noah's family. And 
this, the sacred historian tells us, was the 
condition for some time of the post-dilu- 
vian world (xi. 1). Diversities would of 
course, after a while, have appeared, as the 
families of men settled in different regions 
far apart. But such diversity was not left 
to its own natural growth. There was a 
supernatural interference, in order to check 
the overweening pride of those, the mass 
of existing men probably, who were as- 
sembled in the plains of Shinar. See 

TONGUES, CONPUSIOK- OF. 

We are not told into how many branches 
the original speech was thus divided. But 
philologists have, in the course of their in- 
vestigations, observed that the mass of 
known languages, those now spoken or 
that have been spoken over those wide 
regions of the earth that form generally 
the field of history, may be arranged in three 
great families. The dialects of Africa and 
America, and perhaps of China, may be set 
: apart ; and the other numerous tongues 



language] 



520 



will fall under the Sheniltic or Semitic, the 
Arian or Indo-European, and the Turanian 

A Semitic language has this distinctive 
characteristic. Its roots miLst comprise 
three letters; while the Arian and Turanian 
roots consist of one or two, rarely of three. 
The Semitic family is distributed into three 
principal branches, Aramaic, Hebrew, and 
Arabic, The Aramaic prevailed in the north, 
including Syria, Mesopotamia, and part of 
Babylonia. It was divided into two leading 
dialects, Syriac and Chaldee, which stiH ex- 
ist under certain modifications, the for- 
mer in the Syrian churches, the latter 
among the Nestorians. The Hebrew was 
the language of Palestine : its golden age 
is regarded as lasting from Moses to the Ba- 
bylonish captivity ; its silver age from the 
captivity downwards. All the sacred books 
of the Old Testament were written in He- 
brew, save Ezra iv. 8— vl. 18, vii. 12-26; 
Jer. X. 11 ; and Dan. ii. 4— vii. 28 ; which are 
Chaldee. Hebrew was encroached upon 
Dy Aramaic dialects, which became ver- 
nacular in Palestine in our Lord's time, and 
it degenerated ultimately into the rab- 
binical language of the Talmud, and va- 
rious Jewish writers. The speech of the 
Phoenicians and Carthaginians was nearly 
allied to Hebrew; and certain differences of 
phrase and pronunciation showed them- 
selves among different Israelitish tribes 
(^Judges xii. 5, 6). In the countries where 
Aramaic and Hebrew were anciently spo- 
ken, Arabic has come to prevail. This, the 
most developed of Semitic languages, was 
originally confined to the Arabian penin- 
sula ; but it spread and maincained itself 
in many regions of Asia and Africa, 
and even of Europe. One of its dialects, 
the Koreishite, prevailed above the rest, 
and became emphatically the Arabic lan- 
guage, in which all its classical literature is 
found. It flourished till the fourteenth 
century, degenerating at last into the vulgar 
Arabic still so widely spoken. The Ethiopic 
tongue had its origin in an Arabic dialect, 
the Himyaric; and from this, mixed up 
with other speech, proceeded the modern 
Amharic. Besides the great Semitic 
tranches just noticed, there were other 
dialects, probably derived from the same 
source, hut with greater or less difference. 
Of these may be named the Egyptian, the 
Berber prevailing along the northern coast 
of Africa to the Atlantic, and the Baby- 
lonian. Through many fair regions of the 
earth, then, languages and dialects of Se- 
mitic or half-Semitic character established 
themselves. . 

The Arian, or Iranian, or, as it used to 
be called, the Indo-European, family (be- 
tween which and the Semitic a relationship 
is to be perceived), has occupied likewise 
a vast domain. It includes two great 
divisions. In the southern may be ranked 
the classical Sanscrit and other Indian 
tongues ; while the northern, ein1)racing 
also many great classes and subordinate 
branches, reckons in its lists both the an- 
cient Greek and Latin, and the tongues 
generally of modern Europe, including our 
wn. In one of these Arian languages, the 



Greek, the New Testament was written. It 
was in apostolic times most widely diffused, 
known and employed throughout the Ro- 
man empire. And we cannot help acknow- 
ledging the wise providence of God, which 
had prepared such an admirable vehicle for 
the expression of religious truth. It was 
of high cultivation and flexibility, in which 
the nicest shades of thought could be most 
accurately defined, and it was a language 
which, from its character and from the lite- 
rature contained in it, would always engage 
the close attention of civilized and refined 
nations. The Greek of the New Testament, 
however, is not classical Greek. For some 
account of the way in which it received 
its peculiar character see Hellenist, p. 
371. Both in the words employed, in the 
forms and constructions used, and in the 
phraseology and modes of expression, this 
character is to be distinguished. The lan- 
guage was adopted by men who were accus- 
tomed to an Aramaic cast of thought, and 
who, besides, had to convey new ideas. 
Conversant with the Hebrew scriptures, 
though mainly perhaps through the Greek 
translation, the New Testament writers 
would often employ in Greek Hebrew 
idioms. Indeed religious expressions must 
appear in a Jewish dress ; for Christianity 
was built upon a Jewish basis. The Alex- 
andrian or Septuagint translation of the Old 
Testament, of course, exercised much influ- 
ence over the phraseology of the New ; and 
the careful study of it is of high importance 
towards the understanding and elucidation 
of the productions of the apostles and evan- 
gelists. 

Of the Turanian family of language little 
need be said. These do not contribute, like 
the Semitic and the Arian,to the illustration 
of the holy book. These languages are less 
definitely related or bound together than 
those of the other two families. They are 
rude and primitive, the grammatical modifi- 
cations constructed by what has been called 
'agglutination,' the words affixed to the roots 
not coalescing, or being incorporated as in 
the other families, but so added by mechani- 
cal junction, that they can be easily dissec- 
ted. But these languages sweep over yet 
vaster portions of the world. They have 
prevailed among the Mongolian and Tartar 
and other nomadic peoples. The represen- 
tative of the Turanian family in Europe is 
the Turkish language (see Max Mtiller's 
Survey of Languages, pp. 23, &c.). 

LANTERN (John xviii. 3). The lantern 
still in use in western Asia consists of a 
round top and bottom of tinned coppei, the 
first having a handle, the last a stand for a 
candle. The two are united by a cylinder of 
waxed cloth, or sometimes paper, extended 
over wire rings. When set down, the cloth 
or paper cylinder folds between the bottom 
and the top, so that the candle rises through 
a hole left in the cover, and seems placed 
In a broad-bottomed candlestick. When 
taken by the handle the cylinder extends 
itself ; and the candle is thus shaded, the 
light shining through the paper or cloth. 
Such lanterns are generally two or three 
feet in length, and nine inches in diameter 
See Pict. Bible, note on John xviii. 3. 



521 



LAODICE'A. This city was originally 
i called Diospolis, afterwards Rhoas. It was 
re-t>uilt and beautified by Antiochus II., 
i king of Syria, and named after his wife 
Laodice,t>y whom he was subsequently poi- 
I soned. In Roman times it was a very prin- 
cipal city among those of the second rank 
in Asia Minor. It suffered in the Mithrida- 
! tic war, but ere long recovered : it was also 
I well-nigh destroyed by a great earthquake 
I 62 A.D., but was repaired by the efforts of 
its own citizens, who asked no help of the 
I Roman senate. Laodicea was in southern 
' Phrygia, caUed Phrygia Pacatiana, not far 
I from Colossffi and about six miles south 
of Hierapolis. It was distinguished from 
other cities of the same name by being 
termed Laodicea on the Lycus. Its com- 
1 merce was considerable, being principally 
' in the wools grown in the neighbouring 
i district, which were celebrated for their 
i fine texture and rich hue (see Winer, Bibl. 
BWB., art. 'Laodicea'). It is repeatedly 
referred to in the New Testament (Col. ii. 1, 
iv. 13-16 ; Rev. i. 11, iii. 14-22). St. Paul did 
not visit this city before his imprisonment 
at Rome ; but he wrote a letter to the 
church there, or to some individual of it ; 
respecting which various conjectures have 
• been formed. Wieseler {CUronol. des Apost. 
Zeitalt, pp. 450-454) has an ingenious argu- 
ment to prove that it was the epistle to 
. Philemon, and adds in corroboration that 
I Archippus there mentioned is said on an- 
: cient authority to have been bishop of Lao- 
j dicea. A village called Eski-hissar stands 
i amid its ruins. 

1 LAODICE'ANS (Col. iv. 16 ; Rev. iii. 14). 

1 Inhabitants of Laodicea. 

I LAP'IDOTH (torches). The husband of 
the prophetess Deborah (J udges iv. 4). 

LAP, LAPPING. The custom of lapping 
still prevails in the east. A person will sit 
on his heels with his head close over a 
river and so dexterously throw the water 
into his mouth with his hand, putting out 
his tongue to meet it, as scarcely to spill a 
drop. It was to this test that the men of 
Gideon's army were subjected, in order, it 
would seem, to prove the alertness of those 
who so drank (Judges vii. 5-7). 

LAPWING. An unclean bird forbidden 
to the Hebrews as an article of food (Lev. 

: xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18). Various opinions 
have been entertained as to the identiiica- 
tion of this bird ; but it is most generally 

! believed to be the hoopoe, Upupa epops. 
Hoopoes are numerous in Egypt, where 
they are said to form two species— one sta- 
tionary, which is considered inedible ; the 
other migratory, which wades in the mud 

i when the Nile has subsided, and feeds on 
worms and insects. This,however, is ques- 
tionable : more likely there is but a single 
species. Its flesh is sometimes eaten, and 
has been pronounced very good. The hoo- 
poe visits several parts of Europe, and is 
often met with in Palestine, where the 
Arabs have a superstitious reverence for it, 

''i believing it to possess medicinal qualities. 
They call it therefore 'The doctor.' See 
Duns, Bibl. Nat. Science, vol. ii., pp. 91-93. 

I LASE'A. A city of Crete, described as 

I * nigh ' to the Fair Havens (Acts xxvii. 8.) 



The ruins of this place, which had not been 
previously identified, were discovered afew 
years ago. There are the remains of two 
temples; and marble shafts and capitals lie 
scattered around. The ancient name still 
survives. Lasea is near to cape Leonda, 
which lies about five miles east of the Fair 
Havens. See Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck 
of St. Paul, app. no. iii. 262, 263. 

LA'SHA Cflssure). The extreme point to 
which the boundary of Canaan extended 
(Gen. X. 19). It must consequently have 
been beyond the Dead sea to the east. It 
is likely that it derives its name from the 
breaking forth of the hot springs which 
are believed to identify the place. These 
springs are of a sulphureous character. The 
largest is about an hour and a half east 
from the sea. And, though it is not known 
that a town was ever seated here, yet there 
are remains of pottery, &c., which show. that 
there must have been some habitations, 
perhaps for the accommodation of invalids 
resorting thither. We may believe the place 
identical with the Callirrhoe of Jerome and 
several ancient translators. There is a 
river formed, to which the sulphur deposit- 
ed in it imparts a brilliant yellow hue : 
this precipitates itself from lofty rocks 
into the plain. Its water is hot, and, after 
receiving some tributary streams within a 
short distance, it pours with considerable 
velocity into the Dead sea. An oppressive 
temperature prevails in the valley in 
summer; and canes, aspens, and palm-trees, 
are abundant on the banks. 

LASHA'RON {the plain). The king of 
Lasharon Is enumerated among those 
whom Joshua destroyed (Josh. xii. 18). La- 
sharon has been supposed identical with the 
district of Sharon ; but this is doubtful. 

LAS'THENES (1 Mace. xi. 31, 32). A per* 
son of rank, to whom Demetrius II. Nicator, 
king of Syria, gave the titles of ' cousin ' and 

LATCHET (Isai. v. 27 ; Mark i. 7 ; Luke iii. 
16). See Sandal. 

LATIN (Luke xxiii. 38 ; John xix.20). The 
language of the ancient Romans. 

LATTICE. A latticed window (Judges 
V. 28) : so also in Sol. Song ii. 9 ; but in 
2 Kings i. 2 it is probably the lattice-work 
or balustrade before a window or round a 
balcony. See House, p 397. 

LAUGH, LAUGHTER. Laughter some- 
times implies incredulity (Gen. xviii. 12-15 , 
Matt. ix. 24), sometimes derision (Neh. ii. 
19), sometimes joy (Gen. xxi. 6 ; Psal. cxxvi. 
2 ; Luke vi. 21), and sometimes the con- 
ciousness of security (Job v. 22). When 
God is said to laugh, the phrase is to 
express scornful indignation (Psal. ii. 4, 
xxxvii. 13 ; Prov. i. 26). 

LAYER. One of the utensils of the ta- 
bernacle, to contain the water necessary 
for the ablutions of the priests during their 
ministrations. It was made of the metal 
mirrors of the women, and consisted of a 
large basin and a foot or pedestal (Exod. 
XXX. 18-21, xxxviii. 8). It was to stand in 
the court of the tabernacle, between the 
sacred tent and the altar (xl. 30-32). Pos- 
sibly the sacrifices were also washed in this 
laver. When the temple was built, a much 



Creas^itrw at 



622 



larger basin, called the molten sea, was 
consti-ucted for the priests ; while, for the 
washing of the things offered, ten layers 
were made, each holding forty baths, about 
three hundred gallons. Five of them were 
placed on the right hand, and five on the 
left (2 Chron. iv. 6), These layers stood 
upon square bases mounted on wheels, and 
were ornamented with figures of cheru- 
bim, lions, and palm-trees. Possibly the 
bases or stands receiyed the water drawn 
from the layers cl Kings vii. 27-40). But it 
is A^ery difficult to understand fi-om the de- 
scription, minute as it is, exactly how the 
layers and bases were constructed. See 
Keil, Comm. on Kings, transl, yoL i. pp. 129- 
134. 

LAW. A definite commandment imposed 
on intelligent beings by competent autho- 
rity. But the term is also extended to in- 
animate things, and then it implies a pro- 
perty or particular mode of sequence. Thus 
the motions of the heayenly bodies are 
said to be in obedience to certain laws, 
often called laws of nature. Ixo law can 
enforce itself. Compliance with it, and 
penalties in case of its infraction, depend 
upon the power of the law-giyer. We must 
therefore be careful not to regard a law as 
something apart from him wlio originally 
established it. The laws of nature just re- 
ferred to are but the result of the Creator's 
will, the forms of his goyernment, which 
could not hold a single moment except 
through the continuing influence of his au- 
thority. 

According to our notion of law, it is risi- 
ble eyerywhere, for the sustentation and 
well-being of the whole frame-work of crea- 
tion. It is thus that from causes flow cor- 
responding effects. If we could imagine it 
otherwise, if, the causes being the same, 
the effects Ayere different, from machinery 
so disorganized destruction must ensue. 
Hence we may appreciate the fault of dis- 
obedience to moral laws : it disappoints the 
whole purpose of the creature's being, and 
must be followed by rectiflcation or punish- 
ment. It is not without ample ground, 
then, that Hooker has said, ' Of law there 
can be no less acknowledged than that her 
seat is the bosom of God, her Yoice the har- 
mony of the world : ail things in heayen 
and earth do her homage, the yery least as 
feeling her care, and the greatest as not 
exempted from her power ; but angels, and 
men, and creatures of what condition so- 
eyer, though each in different sort and 
manner, j'et all with uniform consent, ad- 
miring her as the mother of their peace and 
joy' {Eccles.Pol, booki. 16). 

Of physical laws our knowledge is gather- 
ed from obseryation of their effects : re- 
sults are laid together ; and fi'om the com- 
parison the operation of the regulating law 
which goyei-ns them is deduced. From 
some natural effects, too, certain higher 
conclusions may be sometimes drawn ; as 
when St. Paul shows that ' by the things 
that are made ' ' the eternal power and 
Godhead' of the Deity might be seen 
(Rom. i. 20). But generally moral laws must 
be known from God himself, either by some 
principle which he implants in the mind, as 



the natural conscience, or by the actual re- 
yelations which he makes. The word ' law ' 
is occasionally used in scripture in a large 
sense, but more frequently, with the article 
prefixed, or other limitation.to express God's 
reyealed will, specially that which was made 
known in the earlier dispensation, or that 
AVTitten in the Pentateuch. Hence 'the 
law' occurs sometimes in a kind of oppo- 
sition to that fuller display of the diyine 
pm-pose manifested in Christ : e.g. ' The law 
was giyen by Moses; but grace and truth 
came by Jesus Christ ' (John i. 17 : comp. i 
Gal. iii. 2, 5, 18). 

By the deeds of the law it is repeatedly | 
said no one is justified in God's sight (Bom. i 
iii. 20, 28), because they are imperfect, and : 
do not reach that exact conformity with i 
the diyine will which is necessarily re- i 
quired : in men's sight, howeyer, they do i 
justify, as eyideuciug the principle which ! 
is working in the heart, without which eyi- i 
dence we cannot suppose that the principle i 
exists (James ii. 14-26). This topic, howeyer, i 
need not be pursued here. See Justifica- i 

TIOX. 

The law, as noted aboye, sometimes com- 
prehensiyely signifies the whole of the Old 
Testament rerelation, as where, in John x. I 
34, a psalm (Ixxxii. 6) is referred to un- 
der the name. But the code deliyered 
by Moses is that more properly so termed, 
and it wiU be now examined. It is usual ; 
to distribute its proyisions into moral, i 
ceremonial, and political. This distinction 
indeed is not perfectly accurate: a cere- 
monial obseryance, for example, might 
haye also a moral and a political aspect. | 
But similar objpctious would lie to eyery i 
other mode of classification : it will there- j 
fore be adhered to here. 

The moral law includes those precepts ] 
which regulate a man's conduct towards ; 
his Creator, and towards his fellow-crea- i 
tures. It is embodied in the ten command- \ 
ments or words (so they are called in the | 
original) deliyered on Sinai (Exod. xx. 1-17), ; 
and repeated with no substantial difference j 
by Moses (Deut. y. 6-21) ; and it has been \ 
condensed by our Lord into two emphatic ! 
sentences, ' Thou shalt loye the Lord tby i 
God with all thy heart, and with all thy j 
soul, and with all thy mind:' 'Thou shalt 
loye thy neighbour as thyself' (Matt. xxii. | 
37-40). These are perfect laws: if really 
fulfilled they would constitute a sufficient 
righteousness before God : their end and 
and object is complete holiness of heart 
and life. 

The ceremonial law prescribed the mode 
of Hebrew worship, and was, besides, con- 
structed with an elaborate reference to the 
great gospel doctrines which should be at 
last fully reyealed to mankind. In the 
performance of its rites intelligent de- 
yotion would be called forth, and men's 
minds prepared for future deyelopment. 
Suited for a present purpose, these rites 
were also shadows, with a definite relation 
to the substance which was to supersede 
them. They were types and figures of better 
things to come (Gal. iy. 3-5). They were 
connected with the moral law because, 
while that demanded undiyided reyerenoe 



j23 



[law 



to God, they showed how that reverence 
might be paid ; and when the moral law 
was broken they held out the hope of repa- 
ration for the fault. They were connected 
with the political law ; for they separated 
Israel from other nations, and with their 
sanctions were, so to speak, the frame-work 
of the theocracy. 

The political law regulated the relations 
of man to man in society, exhibited God in 
his theocratical aspect as the legislator and 
monarch of Israel, and constituted the 
statutes of his kingdom. These statutes 
were excellent ; but in the nature of things 
they were not perfect. Their excellence 
consisted in their adaptation to the people 
to whom they were given. Human legis- 
lators are perfectly aware that it is neces- 
sary to educate men up to a good system. 
That political constitution, which is the 
pride and blessing of those who knowhoTV to 
use and enjoy it, might inflict the most fatal 
evils on a nation which did not understand 
and was not prepared for it. Laws there- 
fore are made suited to the growth of those 
for whom they are intended. They should 
be a little in advance of the age, to lead 
men gradually forward: were they more 
than that little, they would be as useless as 
a musical instrument in the hands of one 
who had never learned to touch it, and 
whose rude handling would produce not 
harmony but discord ; they would be as dan- 
gerous as a sword in the grasp of a savage, 
which he would use for mischief, not for 
legitimate defence. God's wisdom, then, is 
seen in fitting the system of law he pro- 
mulgated to the more rude and untutored 
state of the Hebrew people. It mitigated 
many evils : it contributed to refine and 
ameliorate their habits ; and it is no im- 
peachment of its merit to say that there 
might and would come a state of society 
which had outgrown it. Our Lord dis- 
tinctly announced this principle when he 
said that Moses, for the hardness of their 
hearts, suffered the Israelites to put away 
their wives (Matt. xix. 8). The concession 
was made to bar greater enormities. So 
slavery was regulated, not prohibited. It is 
for want of perceiving this that some have 
fallen into serious error, and have dared to 
charge God foolishly. They have forgotten 
that it was a corrupt world for which the 
legislation was to be. 

There is no ground for attributing inhu- 
manity to the Mosaic code. A few of its 
provisions may be noted. It embodies, first 
of all, the principle that crime must be re- 
garded not merely as a breach of human 
law, but as sin against God. No other code 
has taught this high doctrine. Hence the 
stringency of its enactments, because 
disobedience was a fault against the 
heavenly King. Besides, stringency is no 
defect. It Is for the welfare of the go- 
verned. In barbarous countries laws are 
not stringent, except when some special 
interest is involved. They are often evaded : 
they may be tampered with. And the uncer- 
tainty of their application encourages crime. 
It has been said that the penalties of the 
Mosaic code were severe. They were less so 
than in many civilized countries in modern 

I 



times. The punishment of death was inflict- 
ed for but four or five classes of crimes, mur- 
der, treason (which in the theocracy included 
witchcraft, idolatry, &c.), man-stealing, foul 
sensuality, and perverse filial disobedience. 
Less severe penalties would have altogether 
failed in checking the peculiar tendencies 
of Israel to crime. And the actual punish- 
ment was not cruel : there was neither 
torture nor prolonged suffering inflicted. 
But look at the positive side of Hebrew 
legislation. Observe its care for human 
life (Deut. xxi. 1-9, xxii. 8), its consideration 
for the poor (Lev. xix. 9y 10), its inculcation 
of charity (Deut. xv. 11), its injunctions 
that no servant should go forth from his 
master empty(12-14), its provisions for gene- 
ral release (Lev. xxv.), its regulation of 
pledges (Deut. xxiv. 6, 10-12), its enactment 
that wages should be punctually paid (15), 
its protection of an escaped slave (xxiii. 15, 
16), its setting apart seasons of rejoicing in 
which all were to share (xvi. 11), its exemp- 
tions from military service (xx. 5-7, xxiv. 5), 
its humane care of animals (Exod. xxiii. 10, 
11 ; Deut. xxii. 1-7, xxv. 4) — surely, in these 
and many other particulars which might 
be named, the Mosaic code gives unmis- 
takeable proof that it was no barbarous 
head that devised, no rash hand that penned 
it (see Sewell on Humaneness of Mosaic Code 
in Biblioth. Sacr., Apr. 1862, pp. 368-384; 
Bp. Browne, The Pentateuch, pp. 81-86). 

The law of Moses had its peculiar and 
most suitable position in that it was prepa- 
ratory to a better covenant. In no sense 
\ did it contradict the coming dispensation : 
I it was the seed of the future tree : it was 
I the elementary introduction to a more de- 
; veloped system. And thus our Lord de- 
clared that he came not to destroy but to 
fulfil it (Matt. V. 17), to reveal that which it 
pre-signifled, to give all its types their per- 
i feet realization, to establish that spiritual 
! kingdom which carried to its highest glory 
! the theocratic principle of the earlier polity, 
i to inspire the only effectual motive which 
j could ensure obedience to its moral pre- 
cepts, and thus to be ' the end of the law 
! for righteousness to every one that be- 
j lieveth' (Rom. x. 4). The law was imperfect 
only when it was stretched beyond its 
I measure. It was ' weak through the flesh' 
(viii. 3) ; and the fault of the Jews was that 
they did not recognize its true character as 
introductory, as leading to, and completed 
by Christ. It was when it was thus per- 
verted from its real signiflcation that the 
apostles had to correct the error, denoun- 
cing, not the law itself, but the miserable 
use that was made of the law. Even under 
the Mosaic dispensation, righteousness v 
not obtained by legal observance. Hence 
the necessity of a constant repetition of 
the sacrifices prescribed (Heb. x. 1-4). So 
that from the elder testament St, Paul 
argues for the righteousness.of faith (Rom. 
iv.). But it is not to be concluded that the 
law is in no respect now binding upon be- 
lievers in Christ. So far as it was political, 
indeed, it came to an end when the Jews 
were no longer a state, and settled people. 
So far as it was ceremonial, its shadows 
disappeared before the substantive things 



524' 



which they "betokened. But, in so far as its 
precepts exhibit the pure character of God 
the law-giver, they are a moral obligation 
upon his servants. His holy command- 
ments become their delight. So that for 
any to profess to belong to him, and yet to 
disregard his revealed will, would be a 
monstrous contradiction. 

Crimes against the Mosaic law were visit- 
ed with specified punishments. Some acts, 
indeed, were reserved to the peculiar ven- 
gence of God ; but for most of them the 
penalty was named, sometimes capital, 
sometimes of a secondary nature. Distinc- 
tions were made between those committed 
presumptuously, or 'with a high hand,' 
and those which flowed rather from human 
infirmity. But more on this topic need not 
be said here. See PuivISHMents. 

LAWYER. A person skilled in the law 
(Tit. iii. 13). The lawyers mentioned in the 
Gospels were Mosaic jurists, whose special 
province was the interpretation of the law 
(Matt. xxii. 35 ; Luke x. 25). The person 
who is in these passages said to have inter- 
rogated our Lord is elsewhere called (Mark 
xii. 28) ' one of the scribes.' It has been in- 
ferred, therefore, that lawyers and scribes 
were identical, and that they differed only 
In that the scribes were the public, the law- 
yers the private, expounders of the law. 
The term 'scribe,' however, is of more 
general application : it was an official title, 
and might include lawyers. 

LAYING ON OF HANDS. A significant 
ordinance used as an outward means for 
the transference of responsibility, and the 
communication of spiritual gifts, whether 
in the exercise of supernatural power or as 
designating or ciualifying for some office in 
the church (Lev. iii. 2, 13, xvi. 21 ; Numb. 

xxvii. 23 ; Matt. xix. 15 ; Mark v. 23, vi. 5, 
xvi. 18 ; Acts vi. 6, viii. 17, 19, xiii. 3, xix. 6, 

xxviii. 8 ; 1 Tim. v. 22 ; Heb. vi. 2). See 
ATOiS'EMENT, DAY OF. For the laying on 
of hands after baptism, whence has de- 
scended the rite of confirmation, which is 
practised through the larger part of the 
Christian church, see Bingham, Orig.Eccles., 
book xii. chaps. 1,2, 3. 

LAZ'ARUS {Qod his help, or, as some sug- 
gest, there is no help).-l. A name intro- 
duced by our Lord into that remarkable 
parable, in which he exposes the carnal and 
luxurious selfishness of the worldly man 
placed in sharp contrast with the poorest, 
exhibits the change in the world of spirits, 
and delivers an impressive warning, par- 
taking of the character of prophecy, of the 
rejection of himself and his kingdom by 
those whom the law and the prophets failed 
to humble and convince (Luke xvi. 19-31).— 
2. One, perhaps the youngest, of a family at 
Bethany whom Jesus loved. He died, and 
was buried, and was restored to life by 
Christ's almighty power, after being in the 
grave four days. This wonderful miracle 
enraged the Jews and incited them to seek 
our Lord's destruction : Lazarus, too, they 
wished to destroy ; as his life was a stand- 
ing evidence for Christ, inclining many to 
believe in him (John xi., xii. 1-11). We hear 
nothing more of Lazarus in scripture : per- 
haps it was felt that one who had seen the 



eternal world and was restored to this must 
not be spoken of as a common man : there 
would be an awe regarding him which 
would make his history one to be pondered 
over, not talked about. And this may he 
a reason why the narrative is given in 
but one of the Gospels, that written after 
Lazarus had died again. Of none of those 
raised by Christ or his apostles from thS ': 
dead have we any later account. For the - 
rest of their life on earth they must have 
been wonders to themselves, and must 
naturally have dwelt in privacy. About i ^ 
Lazarus tradition has been busy ; but the 
stories that are told ^re not trustworthy. 

LEAD. A well-known metal : ancient . 
workings of it have been discovered in the 
mountains between the Red sea and the 
Nile; it is said to exist also near mount 
Sinai. But it is not extensively used in the : 
east; nor do we find many notices of it in 
scripture. Its weight is alluded to, to il- 
lustrate the sinking of the Egyptians in the 
sea (Exod. xv. 10). Generally, however, it is 
mentioned in connection with the refining : 
or purifying of more precious metals, for 
which purpose it was employed (Jer. vi. 29 ; 
Ezek. xxii. 18, 20). There is a difference of 
opinion in regard to Job xix. 23, 24: it 
might be that engraving on a leaden tablet 
was meant; but Carey, after some other i 
critics, believes that lead was ' poured into 
the cavites of the letters after they had 
been cut in the rock, for the purpose of 
preserving the sharpness of their edges' 
iTIie Book of Job, note on xix. 23, 24, p. 264). 
Lead is also mentioned in Numb. xxxi. 22 ; 
Zech.v. 7, 8, being probably used for weights, 
and it may be supposed to have been the 
material of which a plummet was made 
(Amos vii. 7 ; Acts xxvii. 28) : see Napier's 
Ancieyit Workers and Aniflcers in Metal, pp. 
123-131. 

LEAF, The leaves of trees, which are or- 
gans of respiration, and which, from being ; 
first green and fiourishing, afterwards fade : 
and fall off, to be succeeded by another , 
generation of the same kind, are frequently 
applied to illustrate prosperity (Psal. i. 3 ; i 
Jer. xvii. 8 ; Ezek. xlvii. 12), or decay (Job i: 
xiii. 25 ; Isai. i. 30, Ixiv. 6 ; Jer. viii. 13 ; Ezek. \ 
xvii. 9). Other illustrations are also taken 
fi-om leaves (Lev. xxvi. 36 ; Isai. xxxiv. 4 ; I 
Dan. iv. 12, 14, 21 ; Mark xiii. 28 ; Rev. xxii. 2). > 

The ' leaves ' of folding doors are mention- \ 
ed in 1 Kings vi. 32, marg., 34 ; Isai. xlv. 1; 
Ezek. xii. 24. 

The 'leaves' of the roll (Jer. x xxvi. 23) 
were the columns in which the roll was 
written. 

LEAGUE. See Alliance. 

LE'AH (wearied). The elder daughter of 
Laban. Her eyes were delicate and weak 
(Gen. xxix. 16, 17). By her father Laban's de- 
ceit she was married to Jacob : she bore him 
six sons and a daughter, but seems to have 
been ever pSTufuliy sensible that her hus- 
band's affections were given mainly to her 
sister Rachel (21-25, 31-35, xxx. 1-21). She 
willingly accompanied Jacob into Canaan 
(xxxi.); and there she died, before tlie 
house of Israel went down into Egypt, and 
was buried in the cave of Machpelah (xlix 
31). In after-times the fruitf ulness of Leat 



' 525 



[iZEBANON 



and Racliel was implored for a new-married 
woman (Ruth iv. 11). 

LEATHER. Existing specimens prove 
that the Egyptians were well acquainted 
with the art of tanning. Pieces of leather 
dyed various colours have heen discovered 
in their tombs ; and they applied this arti- 
cle to a vast many different uses. The 
Israelites must have learned from them. 
There could be no lack of the skins of ani- 
mals in Israel, so numerous were their 
sacrifices ; and we find these skins, more or 
less dressed and prepared, used sometimes 
for clothing (Job xxxi. 20 ; Heb. xi. 37), 
sometimes for coverings (Exod. xxvi. M), 
for girdles (2 Kings i. 8 ; Matt. ill. 4), and for 
other purposes (Lev. xiii. 48, 49). Leather, 
too, was employed for writing upon. The 
trade of a tanner was in very low esteem i 
among the Jews, and on account of the un- 
pleasant smell was usually carried on out- \ 
side a city, near rivers or by the sea-side , 
(Acts ix. 43, X. 6, 32). i 
LEAVEN. Any substance that promotes 
fermentation. Sour dough is generally 
used in the east for this purpose : lees of 
wine are also employed. The fermentation 
produced is a kind of putrefaction : indeed it 
is distributed into three kinds, the vinous, 
the acetous,the putrefactive. All leaven was 
prohibited in meat-offerings (Lev. ii._ 11, 
vii 12, viii. 2 ; Numb. vi. 15), and specially 
in the paschal feast of the Hebrews (Exod. 
xii 3 19, 20) ; whence this was often called 
' the feast of unleavened bread' (Matt. xxvi. 
17) The nature of leaven, affecting the 
whole lump of the substance to which it is 
added furnishes some striking illustrations 
In scripture (xiii. 33; 1 Cor. v. 6); as 
also does the corruption it had undergone : 
thus we have warnings in Luke xin 1 ; 1 
Cor V 7 8, where the word is symbolically 
used for corruptness of life, or doctrine. : 
LEBA'NA or LEBA'NAH {tlie ichite, the 
moon). One whose descendants, Nethmim, 
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 45 ; Neh. vii. 48). 1 
LEB'ANON {white, sc. the white moun- 
tain) A very celebrated mountain-chain to 
the north of Palestine. The name occurs 
first in the Pentateuch, where it is said 
that the inheritance of Israel should reach 
to its base (Deut. i. 7, iii. 25, xi. 24). 

Lebanon may be considered as com- 
prehending two distinct parallel ranges, 
which commence about 33° 20' N. lat., run 
upwards of 100 miles from SW. to NE., 
and enclose a long valley called Ccele-syria, 
from five to eight miles in width. This is 
the ' Talley of Lebanon ' (Josh. xi. 17) ; and it 
retains now an exactly-corresponding name, 
el-Buka'a, ' the valley.' It is a kind of pro- 
longation of the Jordan valley, and ]oins on 
northward to that of the Orontes. Of these 
two paraUel ranges the westernmost is Le- 
banon proper, Jeiel esh-Sharki; while the 
other was distinguished as ' Lebanon to- 
ward the Bun-Tising' (xiii. 5), and is com- 
monly known as Anti-libanus, now Je&eZ 
el-Gharhi : the southern part of which is 
separated by the fertile Wady et-Teim f rom 
Lebanon and the Galilean hills. The Leba- 
non mountains are mainly of white lime- 
Btone ; but there are sandstone belts on the 



western slopes. Fossils abound in the lime- 
stone rocks ; and iron has been obtained m 
considerable quantities from the sandstone 
(comp. Deut. viii. 9, xxxiii. 25). Coal also 
has been found. 

Lebanon, the western range, commenc- 
ir g at the deep gorge of the Leontes, now 
the Litdny, a stream which empties itself 
into the Mediterranean a little to the 
north of Tyre, stretches north-eastward 
parallel to the coast, and enclosing the 
narrow Phcsnician plain as far as the river 
Eleutherus, the Nahr el-KeUr. Here the 
plain of Emesa opens out, so repeatedly re- 
ferred to in scripture as * the entering of 
Hamath' (Numb, xxxiv. 8 ; 1 Kir.gs viii. 65 ; 
2 Kings xiv. 25). The upper part of the 
range is bare and barren,with grey rounded 
summits, and here and there some stunted 
trees. But at a lower elevation the western 
slopes are of glorious beauty. There are 
towering rocks and wild ravines, bold 
promontories jutting out into the Mediter- 
ranean, evergreen oaks and pines clothing 
the mountain's side, while fig-trees, vines, 
mrlberry and olive-trees, abound on ter- 
raced heights or in picturesque glens. Corn 
is cultivated in every possible nook : villages 
nestle amid the cliffs ; and convents crown 
the summits of well-nigh perpendicular 
rocks ; while ever and anon the eye of the 
traveller rests on the sunny waters of the 
'great sea,' into which many streams ot 
historic note descend, having cut their way 
i through deep and rugged gorges. 
I All who have visited these scenes speak 
with rapture of them. 'Never shall I for- 
get,' says Dr. Buchanan, ' the magnificence 
of the view which burst upon us when we 
suddenly turned the narrow ridge pf the 
mountain. Before gaining this point we 
had many times turned round to gaze .... 
on the scene we were leaving —he was 
iourneying from Damascus and Baalbek-- 
' But grand as this view was, it seemed 
klmost tame and common-place in compa- 
I rison with the wonderful .... sight that 
' opened upon us when we at length reached 
the summit of this gigantic mountain-wall, 
and looked over to the other side .... 
' Light fieecy clouds were sailing across our 
' line of vision from one mountain-side to 
another. The glorious blue heaven was 
above our heads. Far down beneath us, at 
the bottom of the gorge, the plain, gleam- 
ing in bright sunshine, seemed almost at 
our feet .... There was Tripoli .... 
shining brightly above the dark foliage of 
the groves and gardens around it ; and 
there was the sea as blue as the sky {Notes 
of a Clerical Furlough, pp. 432, 433). _ Doubt- 
less Lebanon was a' goodly mountain ; and 
the breezes that blew from the heights came 
charged with aromatic fragrance (Sol. Song 
iv. 11 ; Hos. xiv. 6, 7). Well might the in- 
spired Hebrew poets borrow their similes 
from its grandeur and its beauty, its_ cool 
streams, its noble forests (Psal. Ixxii. 16 ; 
Sol. Song iv. 15, V. 15 ; Isai.ii. 13 ; Jer. xviii. 
14: Hos. xiv. 5). And far renowned were 
the cedars of Lebanon, the chosen material 
of royal palace and holy temple (1 Kings v. 
6 8-10, 13-15, vii. 2-12 ; Ezra iii. 7) clustered 
ik a vast recess (on, it is said, the morala« 



lebaoth] 



626 



of a glacier), round the head of which high 
summits rise ; hut foradesrriptionof these 
see Cedars. Besides the well-known grove, 
Mr. Tristram has recently found a forest of 
cedars at the roots of Lebanon and near 
the sea {Quart. Review, Oct. 1864, p. 402, 
note). T -u 

The height of the mountains of Leba- 
non is generally from 6000 to 8000 feet : the 
loftiest peaks, however, rise considerably 
higher. The Sunntn is above 9000, and 
Jebel Mu'khmel about 10,200 feet above the 
sea-level ; while the Jehel Arneto is very 
little lower: some of these summits are 
generally clothed with snow. Wild beasts 
as of old, hyenas, wolves, bears, and pan- 
thers, are numerous in the recesses of the 
ransre (2 Kings xiv. 9 ; Sol. Song iv. 8). 

The ancient inhabitants are described as 
the Giblites and Hivites /Josh. xiii. .5; 
Judges iii. 3). The modern Jebail is perhaps 
identical with Gebal (Ezek. xxvii. 9), a city 
of the first-named tribe. Nov/ the northern 
parts of the mountain are peopled by tne 
industrious Maronite Christians, amount- 
ing, it has been estimated, to 150,000. Their 
principal occupation is rearing the silk- 
worm : hence their villages are surrounded 
with gardens of mulberry-trees. An inter- 
esting account of these is given by Risk 
Allah Effendi {Tliistle and Cedar of Lebanon, 
chap. XX. pp. 352, &c.). In the southern 
parts there are the Druses or Druzes ; and 
;he aspect of many of the Lebanon villages 
has been of late sorely changed by the 
out-break between these tribes. 

On the east Lebanon descends abruptly 
to the Coele-syrian plain, on the opposite 
side of which runs Anti-libanus. This 
range extends from the plateau of Bashan, 
not far from Banias, north to the con- 
spicuous Hermon, Je&eZ es-Sheikh (see Heu- 
MOX), and then, having thrown out three 
radiating spurs, the main ridge stretches 
north-east to the plain of Emesa. The 
height of this range is generally about 
5000 feet. It is bleaker and more barren 
than Lebanon, more thinly peopled, and 
abounds more in wild beasts. Yet there 
are some beautiful glens ; and from these 
heights descend the Abaua and the Pharpar. 
Anti-libanus, as before noted, is just men- 
tioned as a chain in scripture ; butHermon 
frequently occurs. It is Hermon, doubtless, 
that is described as ' the tower of Lebanon 
which looketh toward Damascus' (Sol. Song 

'^^LEBA'OTH (lionesses') (Josh. xv. 32). See 
Beth-birei, Beth-lebaoth. 

LEBBE'US (possibly hearty, courageous). 
One of the names of the apostle Jude (Matt, 
x. 3). See Jude. 

LEBO'NAH {franlcincense). A place not 
far from Shiloh (Judges xxi. 19). It has 
been identified with el-Lubban, about four 
hours south of Nablous. 

LB'CAH {a going, journey). A name 
found in the genealogy of Judah : it is pro- 
bably that of a town (1 Chron. iv. 21). 

LEECH. See Horse-Leech. 

LEEK. A species of vegetable food, after 
which the Israelites longed in the wilder- 
ness (Numb. xi. 5). The same word is else- 
where rendered 'grass' (1 Kings xviu. 5 : 



2 Kings xix. 26 ; Job xl. 15 ; Psal. xxxvii. 2), 
'herb ' (Job viii. 12), ' hay' (Prov. xxvii. 25 ; 
Isai XV. 6). The specific translation 'leek' 
is questionable. The fenu-grec, Trigonella 
fcenum-grcecum, may be meant, an annual 
plant, resembling clover,known inEgyptby 
the name of lielbeli, the food both of cattle 
and of men. Sonnini describes it as * tied 
up in large bunches, which the inhabitants 
eagerly purchase at a low price, and which 
they eat with incredible greediness, without 
any kind of seasoning. They pretend that 
this singular diet is an excellent stomachic, 
a specific against worms and dysentery, in 
fine, a preservative against a great number 
of maladies. They in fact regard it as en- 
dowed with so many good qualities, that it 
is in their estimation a true panacea. The 
Allium porrum, or common leek, is suffi- 
ciently well known. 

LEES. Wine was preserved m strength 
and colour by standing upon the dregs or 
lees In Isai. xxv. 6 the meaning is gene- 
rous old wine, racked ofi or purified from 
the lees. Some, however, have suggested 
that rich preserves made from grapes may- 
be intended in the place. There is a pro- 
verbial expression occasionally used, 'to 
settle upon the lees ' (Jer. xlviii. 11 ; Zeph. 
i. 12), that is, to live a life of quiet indiffe- 
rence and sloth; while ' to drink the lees' 
or ' dregs' (Psal. Ixxv. 8) was to endure the 
extremity of suffering. 

LEGION. A division of the Roman array ; 
the number of men in it differed at various 
times. OriginaUy a legion consisted of 
about 3000 ; but in the time of Augustus 
it contained about 6000 : there were also 
cavalry attached, to the amount of one-tenth 
of the infantry. Each legion was divided 
into ten cohorts, each cohort into three 
maniples, and each maniple into two cen- 
turies, which, according to the name, should 
comprise one hundred men. The word 
'legion' came in the course of time to 
express indefinitely a large number: so 
it is used in Matt. xxvi. 53 ; Mark v. 9, 15 ; 
Luke viii. 30; and so we frequently now 
use it. . . ^ . J, 

LEHA'BIM (flames, inhabitants of a dry 
and scorched land?). Descendants of Miz- 
raim (Gen. x. 13 ; 1 Chron. xi. 11). They 
are certainly the Libyans, being generally 
coupled with Ethiopia and Egypt. Lybia 
was bounded by the Kile on the east, the 
Atlantic on the west, by the Mediterranean 
on the north, the southern limits being 
variable. Lehabim is often found in a con- 
tracted form, Lubim (2 Chron. xii. 3, xvi. 8 ; 
Dan. xi. 43, Hebr.; Nah. iii. 9). 

LE'HI (jaio-bone). The name of a place 
or district on the borders of Philistia, 
where Samson slew a thousand Philistines 
with the jaw-bone of an ass. The name 
f uUv was Ramath-Lehi, ' the hill of Lehi,' 
so called perhaps fi'om a ridge of craggy 
serrated rocks, or from Samson's casting 
away— such would be the meaning with a 
slight change of vowels— of the jaw-bone. 
Athirst and weary with the slaughter he 
had made, he cried to the Lord ; and there- 
upon a stream gushed forth, not from the 
jaw-bone, but from the place Lehi (Judges 
XV. 14-19). 



T 



Mhlt Wl^MttiQt. [leper, LEPEOSy 


LE'MECH (Gen. v. 25, marg.). See ^ 

^ iSSoJEL (of God, sc. created, or, pos- ^ 
^mj, devoted to God). A king to whom 
instructions were given by Ins motner 
(Prov xxxi. 2-9). Various conjectures bave 
been 'liazarded respecting Lemuel; but 
nothing can be said of him with certainty. 

LEND. See Pledge. 

LENTILES. A leguminous plant, Ervwn 
lens, producing a kind oi pulse resembling 
small beans. They are chiefly used tor 
pottage, which is of a red or chocolate 
colour. Such was that for which Esau sold 
his birth-right (Gen. xxv. 29-84). An illus- 
tration of this is furnished in the tomb- 
paintings of Egypt, where there is a repre- 
sentation of a man cooking lentilesfor soup 
or porridge. Among the provisions brought 
to David while he lay at Mahanaim m Ab- 
salom's rebellion, we find lentiles (2 Sam. 
xvii 28) : and it was in a field of lentiles 
that an exploit of one of his warriors was 
performed (xxiii. 11). Sometimes lentiles, 
in seasons of scarcity, and by the poor, 
were employed for making bread (Ezek. iv. 
9). Mixed with barley they are said to be 
frequently so used in the southern parts 

^^I^EOPARD. The original word thus ren- 
dered implies spotted or speckled, and 
probably includes various feline species, 
which are distinguished by us as leopards, 
panthers, &c. The animal meant would 
seem to be the panther, now not uncommon 
in the Lebanon, and occasionally to be 
found elsewhere in Syria. It is much 
smaller than a lioness, but heavy m propor- 
tion to its bulk. It prowls about by night, 
is cat-like in its habits, and is mischievous 
to domestic cattle, sometimes even to nien. 
There is a larger variety in Asia Minor. The 
leopard is noticed in scripture as infesting 
Lebanon and Anti-Iibanus (Sol. Song ly. 8) : 
its fierceness is indicated (Isai. xi. 6) ; its 
mode of watching for its prey (Jer. v. 6; 
Hos. xiii. 7) ; the spottings of its hide (Jer. 
xiii 2.3) ; its fleetness (Hab. i. 8) ; and it is 
also symbolically introduced (Dan. vn. 6; 
Rev. xiii, 2). 

LEPER, LEPROSY. The leprosy was a 
fearful disease, commonly occurring m 
Palestine, and repeatedly mentioned mboth 
the Old and the New Testaments. According 
to a strange perversion of the sacred nar- 
rative, the Israelites are said to have been 
expelled from Egypt because they were lep- 
rous (Tacitus, Hist., lib. V. 3 ; Joseph., C-owir. 
Avion., lib. i. 26). Exaggerated and falsi- 
fied as this account is, there may possibly 
be some ground-work of fact. Skm-diseases 
are prevalent in hot climates ; and,. If we 
consider the condition of the Israelites 
while in slavery, forced to grinding toil 
working in the furnaces, and with smal 
means very likely of attending to health 
and personal cleanliness, we may very wel 
conceive that such maladies would spread 
and manifest a more virulent type thar 
under other circumstances. Certain it i 
that reference is occasionally made in th 
law to the evil diseases of Egypt, whicl 
it is feaid shall afflict the Israelites if thej 
disregard the divine commandments (Exod 


XX. 26 ; Deut. xxviii. 27, 35). Therewere also 
epers among the people in the wilderness, 
svhom Moses was directed to remove from 
the camp (Numb. v. 1-4). , , 

Leprosy rendered the person afflicted with 
it unclean. It was therefore necessary to 
lave some precise marks by which it might 
be distinguished. And the decision was 
appropriately left to the priests : from the 
directions given to them we may gather 
information of the nature and symptoms 
of the disease. The first symptom was a 
swelling, a bald scab, a bright spot in the 
flesh. It might, however, be but a scab, or 
a boll, a mere temporary ailment of the 
skin, which, after a week or two, would 
pass away. But, If it spread, if it seemed 
deeper than the skin, if the hair of the part 
affected turned white or yellow, if there 
was the appearance of raw flesh, these were 
fatal omens : it was evidently the plague of 
leprosy : the man was unclean. But it is 
remarkable that, if the whole of a person's 
body was covered, if all his flesh was white, 
he was to be pronounced ceremonially clean. 
Either the disease, then, by its extension, 
must have assumed a milder type, or else 
the spreading eating character of it must 
have been that which essentially polluted, 
so that, when it could spread no more, the 
poUution had ceased. Baldness of the head 
was by no means symptomatic of leprosy ; 
but, if in a bald head a white reddish sore 
appeared, the priest had not to look further, 
whether it spread or not : it was the plague 
in its worst form : the man was utterly un- 
clean. And he that was a leper was to be 
separated from society : he was to manifest 
all the tokens of calamitous mourning : 
his clothes were to be rent and his head 
made bare, while the lower part of his face 
was mxUffied ; and, In order to prevent clean 
persons from coming near and contracting 
defilement from him, he was to cry out with 
his wailing voice, ' Unclean, unclean ! ' (Lev. 
xiii. 1-46). . , . , , 
There were doubtless various kinds ol 
leprosy ; and some of the rabbinical writers 
have multiplied them. Attempts there have 
been to classify these, and to make the dif- 
ferent forms of Hebrew leprosy, as ex- 
pressed by different words, correspond with 
those of the Greek physicians. Any purely- 
medical disquisition would be out of place 
here. But it Is an interesting question 
whether the Syrian leprosy as at present 
existing (which seems to have been carried 
by the crusaders over Europe, though now, 
in most places, providentially extinct) is 
identical with the disease so repeatedly 
mentioned in scripture. The accounts given 
by modern travellers of what they have 
witnessed are positively frightful. Dr. 
Thomson describes his horror when sud- 
denly coming upon a crowd of beggars, 
who, he says, 'held up toward me their 
I handless arms,' while ' unearthly sounds 
gurgled through throats without palates. 
[ The disease, he adds, 'is feared as con- 
3 tagious : it is certainly and inevitably here- 
3 ditary : "it is loathsome and polluting : its 
1 victim is shunned by all as unclean :. it la 
7 most deceitful In its action. New-^^orn 
children of leprous parents are often a." 



!! 



LEPEE, leprosy] 



628 



pretty and as healtliy in appearance as any ; 
but, by and by, its presence and working 
become visible in some ot tlie signs de- 
scribed in Lev. xiii. The " scaD " comes on 
by degrees in different parts of the body : 
the hair faUs from the head and eye-brows : 
the nails loosen, decay, and drop off: joint 
after joint of the fingers and toes shrink 
up, and slowly fall away. The gums are 
absorbed; and the teeth disappear. The nose, 
the eyes, the tongue, and the palate, are 
Blowly consumed ; and, finally, the wretched 
victim sinks into the earth and disappears, 
while medicine has no power to stay the 
ravages of the fell disease, or even to miti- 
gate sensibly its tortures' (27ie Land and 
the Book, pp. 651. 653, 654). It is argued that 
some of the worst results of the disease, 
elephantiasis, as now witnessed, are not ad- 
verted to in Lev. xiii. But it is forgotten 
that the Mosaic record naturally describes 
only the initiatory stages of the malady- 
how to distinguish it on its first appearance, 
in order to immediate separation. There 
was no need to touch upon its later develop- 
ment. And there is a remarkable passage 
in the Pentateuch, which seems in no un- 
certain language to point to what the le- 
prosy running its awful course then (as 
well' as now) became. When Miriam was 
struck with it, and Aaron, the partner of 
her presumptuous sin, had, as priest, to look 
on her and pronounce her leprous, he ex- 
claimed, in his agony of entreaty that Moses 
would intercede for her, ' Let her not be as 
one dead, of whom the flesh is half con- 
sumed when he cometh out of his mother's 
womb' (Kumb. xii. 10-12). Words could 
hardly depict more vividly the modern 
wasting of the leper's body. It is very pos- 
sible that all leprosy might not be of this 
extreme type: different kinds, as above 
noted, are described in scripture ; and we 
are told that diseases vary according to cli- 
mate, and by lapse of time, so as to assume 
distinct forms, and run in different courses. 
It may be so here. But, upon the whole, 
the conclusion seems a necessary one, that 
the Syrian leprosy now (of which, too, fresh 
types frequently occur) corresponds in es- 
sential characteristics with that of which 
we read in scripture. . , . ^ ^ 

Dr. Tilbury Fox Has lately investigated 
the subject. He thinks the reference in the 
Mosaic law is specially to early stages of 
elephantiasis : the two forms of berat cor- 
responding to the melas and leuke of Cel- 
sus, the morphaaa alba and nigra of our 
times ; while the l>oak of Moses is the al- 
phos of Celsus, and the lepra vulgaris of 
our times— the three (melas, leuke, alphos) 
constituting the vitiligo of Celsus. In the 
Lebanon range there are two forms of 
eruption known, designated by the generic 
term baras : one, chat of the Arabs, is an 
early condition of the elephantiasis Grs- 
corum: the other (unconnected with the 
former^ is called baras el Israih/, and is 
Willan's lepra vulgaris : the disease, there- 
fore, supposed peculiar to the Hebrews, 
Btill exists as lepra vulgaris : see paper read 
Bt the Medical Society of Lond(m, noticed 
In The Lancet, Jan. 20, 1866, pp. 76, 77. 
The sacred history shows us that leprosy, 



fearful as in its lightest form It was, did not 
always Incapacitate from active life. Naa- 
man, though a leper, still seems to have 
retained his position as captain of the Sy- 
rian hosts. The leprosy of which he was so 
wonderfully cured was in judgment inflicted 
on the wretched Gehazi (2 Kings v. 1, 27). A 
difficulty has sometimes been felt as to Ge- 
hazi's admission afterwards to the presence 
of the king of Israel (yiii. 4, 5). But we 
do not know whether the events of Elisha's 
history are placed exactly in chronological 
order : the conversation might have been 
before Gehazi's punishment. Moreover, it 
does not appear that lepers were rigidly 
excluded from converse with other per- 
sons : they were to dwell apart, and not 
to be touched ; but surely they might be 
spoken with. Still further, when leprosy 
had covered the whole body, the man was, 
as we haye seen, ceremonially clean, Pos- 
sil^ly—the expressions used make it pro- 
babie— Gehazi's body was so entirely co- 
vered. Is 0 rank exempted a man from the 
ceremonial defilement, and consequent dis- 
abilities. When king Uzziah was smitten, 
and the leprosy rose in his forehead, he 
was thrust out at once from the temple, 
and had to dwell in a separate house till his 
dying-day (2 Chron. xxyi. 19-21). , 

The power and compassion of Christ were 
wonderfully displayed in that he healed the 
lepers. No disease was too virulent for him 
to cure ; no victim too loathsome for him 
to pity. There is inexpressible tenderness 
in his" treatment of a sufferer, as narrated 
in Matt. viii. 2, 3 ; Mark i. 40-42. 

Admirably does this act of our Saviour 
depict his gracious dealing in the cure of 
sin, that leprosy of the soul. There is a deep 
moral lesson taught in the history of He- 
brew leprosy. The judgment of God— ex- 
traordinarily so in many cases— it was a 
symbol of sin. And hence lepers were pro- 
verbially called 'the smitten,' i.e. the smit- 
ten of God ; so that, from Messiah being 
termed smitten (Isai. liii. 4) it was strangely 
supposed by some Jewish writers that he 
was to be a leper. But, just as the fatal 
taint, not visible at first in the child of 
leprous parents, gradually developes itself, 
becomes a malady which human skill can- 
not cure or check (2 Kings v. 7), and which 
masters at last every faculty and disables 
every limb, ending in a doleful death, so 
does sin, the taint inherited from Adam, 
by degrees appear, and, unless checked and 
conquered and eradicated by divine grace, 
run its wretched course to death, the pe- 
nalty of sin. ' If left unchecked by power 
divine,' says Dr. Thomson, 'the leprosy of 
sin will eat into the very texture of the 
soul, and consume everything lovely and 
pure in human character. . . . There is only 
one Physician in the universe who can 
cleanse" the soul. ... he says to many a 
moral leper, ' Go in peace : thy sins be for- 
given thee ' ; and it happens unto them ac- 
cording to their faith. To my mind there 
is no conceivable manifestation of divine 
power more triumphantly confirmatory of 
Christ's divinity than the cleansing of a 
leper with a word. When looking at these 
handless, eyeless, tongueless wrecks of 



529 



humanity, the unbelieving question starts 
unhidden, " Is it possible that they can be 
restored?" Yes, it is more than possible. 
It has been accomplished again and again 
by the mere volition of Him who spake and 
it was done. And He who can cleanse the 
leper can raise the dead, and can also for- 
give sins, and save the soul. I ask no other 
evidence of the fact ' (p. 654). 

When a leper was healed, he was to appear 
before the priest, that being examined he 
might be pronounced clean. And he was to 
undergo a process of purification,whichalso 
taught important lessons. It ' had three 
distinctly-marked stages,' says Dr. Fair- 
bairn. ' The first of these bore respect to 
his reception into the visible community of 
Israel, the next to his participation in their 
sacred character, and the last to his full re- 
establishment in the favour and fellowship 
of God.' There were to be two living birds, 
one to be killed, with the blood of which 
the restored man was to be sprinkled, while 
the other was let go. Still seven days 
must pass ; and then, after shaving the hair 
and washing the clothes, on the eighth day 
there were to be offerings. With the 
blood of the trespass-offering, and with oil 
the man was to be anointed, and as it were 
consecrated. And then last of all the full 
atonement was made and the perfect 
restoration signified (Lev. xiv. 2-32). On 
this last prescribed rite Dr. Fairbairn 
remarks, ' When .... thus far restored— 
his feet standing within the sacred commu- 
nity of God's people, his head and members 
anointed with the holy oil of divine refresh- 
ment and gladness, he was now permitted 
and required to consummate the process by 
bringing a sin-offering, a burnt-offering, 
and a meat-offering, that his access to God's 
sanctuary, and his fellowship with God 
himself, might be properly established. 
What could more impressively bespeak the 
arduous and solemn nature of the work, by 
which the outcast, polluted, and doomed 
sinner regains an interest in the kingdom 
and blessing of God ? The blood and Spirit 
of Christ, appropriated by a sincere repen- 
tance and a living faith, this .... alone 
can accomplish the restoration. Till that 
is done, there is only exclusion from the 
family of God, and alienation from the life 
that is in him. But, that truly done, the 
child of death lives again, he that was lost 
is again found' (Typol. of Script., book iii. 
chap. ill. sect. 8, vol. ii. pp. 383-386). 

Of leprosy in garments and houses (Lev. 
xiii. 47-59, xiv. 33-53) little can be said. It 
might be propagated by animalculas or 
fungus ; and the regulations concerning it 
must hav^e been of a sanitary as well as 
moral character. It is well known that the 
disease is now frequently conveyed by 
clothes. 

LE'SHEM (a precious stone, perhaps opal 
or jacinth) (Josh. xix. 47). See Dan, 1. 

LE'THECH (a measure, so called from 
■pouring) (Hos. iii. 2, marg.). See Mea- 

SUBES. 

LETTER. See Epistle. 
LETTERS. See Writing. 
LET'TUS (1 Esdr. viii. 29). Probably 
Hattush CEzra viii. 2). 



LETU'SHIM {the hammered, sharpened) 
An Arabian tribe descended from Dedan 
(Gen. XXV. 3). 

LETJM'MIM {peoples, nations). Also an 
Arabian tribe descended from Dedan (Gen. 
XXV. 3) ; possibly those called by Ptolemy 
Allumoeoti, in the central part of Yemen. 

LE'VI (a joining).—!. The third son of 
Jacob by Leah, who gave him his name as 
trusting that her husband would, now that 
she had born him three sons, be joined in 
affection with her (Gen. xxix. 34). Levi, 
with his brother Simeon, took the lead in 
the dreadful vengeance inflicted upon the 
Shechemites for the defilement of their 
sister Dinah (xxxiv. 25-31). Jacob viewed 
their conduct with abhorrence, and, before 
his death, while prophetically describing 
the future fortunes of his sons and their 
posterity, uttered a solemn denunciation 
upon Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7). This ap- 
pears to have had its full effect in regard to 
Simeon ; but the holy zeal of the Levites on 
occasion of the golden calf procured them a 
remarkable blessing and distinction (Exod. 
xxxii. 26-29). Levi had three sons, Gershon, 
Kohath, and Merari, the heads of the fami- 
lies of the tribe. He died in Egypt at the 
age of one hundred and thirty seven (Exod. 
vi. 16). See Levites.— 2. (Mark ii. 14 ; Luke 
V. 27). See Matthew.— 3, 4. Two of our 
Lord's ancestors (Luke iii. 24, 29). 

LEVI'ATHAN. This word, according to 
its derivation, properly denotes an animal 
wreathed, gathering itself in folds. Hence, 
according to Gesenius, it signified some- 
times a serpent (Job iii. 8, marg.), some 
times a sea-monster (Psal. civ. 26), and was 
used in a figurative way of a hostile king- 
dom (Isai. xxvii. 1), or a cruel enemy (Psal. 
Ixxiv. 14). In the passage last-named the 
allusion would seem to be to Egypt : pro 
bably it is so in the denunciation of 
Isaiah, though there it may be to the 
Assyrian or Babylonian power. Job iii. 8 
is confessedly obscure. It is rendered by 
Carey, 'Let execrators of days note it in- 
famous, who are prepared to provoke the 
crocodile'; and be illustrates his version 
by the fact that, though Egyptians gene- 
rally venerated this reptile, there were 
those who hunted and destroyed it. The 
sense of the entire verse he thinks is, ' Let 
that night be stigmatized with names the 
most odious, by that particular class of men 
whose practice it is solemnly to devote cer- 
tain days to the object of waging war with 
the evil demon in the person of the croco- 
dile' {The Book of Job, p. 189). Implying, 
then, generally a monster, the word seems 
to have sometimes a more precise significa- 
tion. Such it must have in Job xli. ; where 
it clearly intends a particular creature re- 
markable for its size, and its power of re- 
sisting attack. The conjectures which have 
been hazarded as to what it was are many, 
and need not be enumerated here. But an 
indication has been already given of the 
quarter to which we are to look ; and it 
may be said that biblical critics are now 
pretty well agreed that the sacred writer is 
describing the crocodile. Indeed Dr. Kitto 
has observed: 'This is so evident, that 
no one could ever have attempted to 
M M 



I 



LEvisl Oje €xtmtvvi of 530 


show that it was any other creature, hut 
from the necessity supposed . . . . hy other 
texts . . . . ot showing that the leviathan 
must he something else than a crocodile' 
(Daily Bible Illustrations, Sec. Sen, eighth 
week, third day). See Crocodile. A Jew- 
ish legend in regard to Leviathan is found 
in 2 Esdr. vi. 49, 52. 

LE'VIS (1 Esdr. ix. 14). A corruption for 
'theLevite' (Ezrax. 15). 

LE'VITE, LE'VITES. The descendants of 
the patriarch Levi, in whose history we 
have a remarkable example of a prophetic 
curse (Gen. xlix. 7) literally fulfilled and yet 
made into a blessing. The sins of the 
fathers may he visited upon the children 
(Exod. XX. 5), hut penally upon those chil- 
dren alone that partake their fathers sms 
(Ezek. xviii. 5-20). ^ ^ . 

Distinguished persons were early horn of 
this tribe. Moses and Aaron, the great lead- 
ers of the movement from Egypt, were Le- 
vites (Exod.ii.l, vi. 16-25). But the Levites 
did not multiply rapidly. At the first census 
there were only 22,000 of them, though all 
the males from a month old were numbered 
(Numb. iii. 39), fewer than those of any 
other tribe reckoned above the age of 
twenty years. , . 

Aaron and his family were soon designa- 
ted for the priesthood (Exod. xxviii, 1) ; but 
nothing was as yet said of the rest of the 
tribe. It may be supposed, however, that 
from a feeling of clanship they would he 
employed by Moses, and would specially ad- 
here to their great tribesman. And an op- 
portunity occurred, while the Israelites 
were encamped about Sinai, when they 
evinced a higher principle and stood by 
Moses, not merely because he was of km 
to them, but because his was the cause of 
God. It was when Moses came down hasti- 
ly from the mount and espied the golden 
calf. Anxious to avenge the foul idolatry, 
he cried, 'Who is on the Lord's side? let 
him come unto me.' The Levites, we are 
told, responded to the call, and, at the di- 
vine command, slew three thousand of the 
guilty people (xxxii. 25-29). It was for this, 
done from the high motive of vindicating 
God's honour without regard to earthly ties, 
that the tribe was selected to be Jehovah s 
peculiar Inheritance, his ministers, the 
privileged servants of his sanctuary (Deut. 
X 8,9, xviii. 1, 2, xxxiii. 8-11). When the 
first-born of the Egyptians were slam, and 
those of Israel preserved, God declared- 
and it was to be a standing ordinance- that 
whatsoever opened the womb, were it of 
man or of beast, should be his (Exod. xui. 
2) The first-born of animals fit for sacrifice 
w'ere to be so oflcered : others were to be 
redeemed in a specified way : tl^e first-born 
of man also were to be redeemed (1.3). Now 
at the census there were found 22,273 flist- 
born of Israel : for these, then, the Levites 
nearly equal in number, were to be taken in 
redemption, five shekels a-piece being paid 
to the priests as redemption-money for the 
overDlus (Numb. iii. 44-51). Some have pro 
fessed to wonder why the first-born of Is- 
rael were so few : for a satisfactory answei 
to such cavils the reader may consult 
Birks' Exodus of Israel, chap. vi. PP. G4-77. 


The tribe of Levi was composed of three 
great families, the Kohathites, the Ger- 
shonites, and the Merarites. The whole of 
them were generally to do the service of 
the tabernacle, and were cleansed and sanc- 
tified in a solemn manner (Numb. viii. 5-22) ; 
but a special distribution of their work was 
made among the three families. The Ko- 
hathites were to have charge of the sacred 
vessels, the Gershonites of the hangings 
and curtains of the tabernacle, while to the 
Merarites was assigned the care and cus- 
tody of the boards and pillars thereof. And 
exact directions were given how each were 
to perforin their ofiice when the Hebrew 
host was on march through the wilderness 
(iii. 21-37, iv., vii. 4-9). Their service was to 
last from twenty-five years of age to fifty 
(viii. 23-26). Much of this was but a tempo- 
rary arrangement. It suited a moveable 
camp ; it would not suit a settled nation. 
Accordingly we find that Moses assigned 
judicial duties to the Levites, and made 
them keepers of the book of the law (Deut. 
xvii. 8-12 : comp. xxvii. 14, xxxi. 9, 26). Be- 
sides, their numbers would multiply, and 
they would become far more than would be 
needful for the actual service of the taber- 
nacle or the temple. Hence, though the 
great principle was ever to be kept in view, 
that the tribe was specially the Lord's for 
his service, we find in later times Levites 
engaged in'various pursuits, holding secu- 
lar offices, and living very much as the rest 
of Israel, save that the tenure of their pro- 
perty distributed them through the whole 
land. Instead of their being located as 
others were in a defined territory of their 
own. , , 
Moses had, before his death, commanded 
that forty-eight cities should be allotted 
to the tribe of Levi, with the suburban 
districts a thousand cubits from the wall 
on each side, in order to supply pasture- 
land for cattle (Numb. xxxv. 1^8). Accord- 
ingly, when Canaan was divided among the 
Israelites, forty-eight cities were selected 
by lot from the inheritance of the vari- 
ous tribes, thirteen of them being appro- 
priated to the priests, and six being also 
refuge-cities. The following table exhibits 
these Levitical cities (Josh. xxi. 1-42; 
1 Chron. vi. 54-81). The refuge-cities are 
marked (B.) :— 

Kohathites. 
(1) Of Aaron's family, i. e. the priests— 

1. Hebron, or 1 

Kirjath-arba (B.) 1 

2. Libnah 1 

3. Jattir 1 

4. Eshteraoa . Inf^nh nrrl 

5. Holon,orHilen ^^^°"^i^2)n 

6. Debir 

7. Ain, or Ashan 

8. Juttah 

9. Beth-shemesh J 

10. Gibeon \ 

11. Geba ^ , 

12. Anathoth ' from Benjamin. 

13. Almon, or j 

Alemeth ^ 



531 



Mvblt WilwtsylttS^t* [levite, levites 



from Ephraim. 



(2) Of the other families— 
14. Shechem (R.) 
15 Gezer 

16. Kibzaim,or 

Jo km earn 

17. Beth-horon 

18. Eltekeh 

19. Gibbethon 

20. Aijalon 

21. Gath-rimmon 

, ( from 
Taanach 1 or Aner and ) q. 



23. Gath-rimmon j 



tern 
(Manasseh. 



Gershoi^ttbs. 



Golan (R.) ) 
Beeshterah, or > 

Ashtaroth ) 
Kishon, or Kedesh"! 
Dabareh, or | 

Daberath 
Jarmuth, or 

Ramoth 
En-gannim or 

Anem 
Mlshal, or Mashal 
Abdon 
Helkath, or 

Hukok 
Rehob 
Kedesh (R.) 
Haramoth-dor, or 

Hammon 
Kartan, or 

Kirjathaim 



from 
eastern Manasseh. 



}>from Issachar. 



from Naphtali. 



MEBAE-ITES. 



>frorn Zebulun. 



37. Jokneam") or 

38. Kartah ( Rimmon 

39. Dimnah ( and 

40. Nahalal ) Tabor 

41. Bezer (R.) 

42. Jahazah, or Jahzah (from Reuben, 

43. Kedemoth 

44. Mephaath 

45. Ramoth (R.) 

46. Mahanaim ^from Gad. 

47. Heshbon 

48. Jazer 

Thus, it will be observed, the Levites 
were scattered in Israel. But they had a 
large inheritance— so many goodly cities 
in every district of the land. And it must 
have been a blessed provision for these 
colonies of sanctified men to be located 
everywhere, always ready for God's service, 
the nurseries of holy literature, the models 
of just and righteous conduct. It was a 
blessed provision; but, as with the rest of 
the law, its benefits were but partially 
reaped. There may be a doubt whether the 
Levites ever occupied all the cities reserved 
for them ; and, though there are some noble 
examples which they gave of godly sincerity 
and self-denial, yet the subseguent history 
shows us that tney were not the working 
leaven they were intended to be through 
the masses of Israel. 

In addition to their cities, the Levites 
were to have tithes of all produce; and 
from these they were to set apart a tithe for 
bhe priests(Numb. xviii. 21, 24, 26-31 ; Neh. 



X. 37-39). And it would seem that every 
third year they were to have an additional 
tithe shared with the poor ; and the rest of 
the people were charged never to forsake 
them, but to let them share their abundance 
and participate in their feasts (Deut. xiv. 
27-29, xxvi. 12, 13). Also, if any Levite, not 
bound to attend on the tabernacle, came up 
of his own devout mind to take part in the 
sacred service, his zeal was not to go unre- 
warded (xviii. 6-8). 

It has been observed that it was because 
of their readiness to avenge the Lord's 
quarrel that the Levites were selected as 
his ministers. Once in the wilderness we 
find them— a considerable body of the tribe 
at least— ambitiously desiring further pre- 
eminence, and envying the family of Aaron, 
who had exclusively the priesthood. This 
movement was repressed and punished by 
the destruction of Korah and his company ; 
and, by the sign of Aaron's rod blossoming 
and yielding fruit, God's immutable purpose 
was sufficiently declared (Numb, xvi., xvii.). 
The Levites seem ever after to have acqui- 
esced in their position ; and they were 
relieved of the most onerous duties when, 
on entering Caanan, the Gibeonites were 
made hewers of wood and drawers of water 
for the congregation and the house of God 
(Josh. ix. 21, 23, 27). 

Nevertheless, as hinted above, the Levites 
did not in Canaan fill the place which pro- 
perly belonged to them; and the accounts 
we gather during the times of the judges 
are somewhat perplexing, as compared with 
the ordinances delivered in the Pentateuch. 
Dr. Kalisch has drawn out a long list of 
events tending to show that the sacred rites 
were not performed exclusively or even 
generally by the priestly tribe, that sacri- 
fices were offered in many places beside the 
sanctuary, that judges and princes assumed 
sacerdotal functions, and that the Levites 
themselves did not seem aware of their re- 
ligious prerogatives, and even sometimes 
contributed to set up a kind of worship in- 
compatible with the law to which they owed 
their standing, and by which they were 
separated as God's ministers from the rest 
of the people {Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 
736-740). Too much stress is unquestion- 
ably laid upon some of the examples pro- 
duced. Occasionally it was by special divine 
command that sacrifices were offered else- 
where than in the sanctuary (e. g. 1 Chron. 
xxi. 18, 26). And it by no means follows, 
when a chief or a private person is said 
to have offered sacrifice, that he individu- 
ally and personally exercised the sacerdotal 
function. In the law itself repeatedly a 
man is said to offer, when immediately after 
his part as a layman is expressly distin- 
guished from that which belonged to the 
priest (e. g. Lev. i. 2, 3, xiv. 30, 31, xxii. 18-21). 
It is almost superfluous to produce in- 
stances of a common figure of speech, 
as when one is described as doing that which 
he does really by the ministry of another : 
let a single case from each Testament suffice. 
Ahaz is said to have * burnt his burnt-offer- 
ing'; and yet it is clear that the priest 
burnt' the king's burnt-sacrifice' (2 Kings 
xvi. 12, 13, 15). Our Lord, again, is spoken 



X^YITE, LEYITES] 



532 



of as 'baptizing ; and yet we know that per- 
sonally he did not perform the rite : it was 
by the hands of his disciples (John ir. 1, 2). 
Yet, after making full allowance of this 
kind, we cannot evade to a certain extent 
the conclusion that the Levites for a long 
time did not secure hierarchical power, 
were little regarded as the religious teachers 
of the nation, and were indeed in a state of 
dependence and helplessness. 

The reason must be sought in the fail- 
ure of the people generally to realize their 
high destiny. If the Levites! did not ob- 
tain possession of the cities allotted to 
them, the other tribes shrunk equally from 
occupying their territories (Judges i. 21-36). 
If tbe Levites failed in carrying out their 
peculiar organization, other tribes were 
alike remiss, every one, from the want of 
some central authority, doing that which 
was right in his own eyes (xvii. 6). Besides, 
the sacerdotal tribe was small in point of 
numbers : they were not able, from the 
paucity of men, to supply the demand. For 
we find a wandering Levite eagerly caught 
up, first by a household, and afterwards by 
a section of a tribe, and his presence and 
ministrations, though above those he had 
a right to perform, regarded as a pledge of 
the divine blessing (xvii., xviii.). Under 
such circumstances the original system of 
household-priesthood, the eldest-born or 
chief of a family acting as the priest of it, 
no doubt largely prevailed. But in this 
condition of the Levites we may see how 
remarkably the prediction of Jacob had its 
accomplishment. 

Progress, however, was made. Samuel 
was a Levite ; and his administration must 
haA^e reflected honour on the tribe and 
contributed to its importance. And, though 
anomalies still occurred— the holy ark, for 
example, being left long in the charge, ap- 
parently, of laymen (1 Sam. vii. 1, 2), and 
even David, when intending to bring it to 
Jerusalem, not at first understanding that 
none ought to carry it but the Levites 
(1 Chron. xv.)— yet, in the reign of that 
monarch, by whom so many other excellent 
arrangements were made, the Levites were 
recognized and set in their proper position, 
' to wait on the sons of Aaron, for the ser- 
vice of the house of the Lord, in the courts, 
and in the chambers, and in the purifying 
of all holy things, and the work of the ser- 
vice of the house of God, both for the 
shew-bread, and for the fine flour for meat- 
olfering, and for the unleavened cakes, and 
for that which Is baked in the pan, and for 
that which is fried, and for all manner of 
measure and size ; and to stand every morn- 
ing to thank and praise the Lord, and like- 
wise at even ; and to offer all burnt-sacrifices 
unto the Lord in the sabbaths, in the new 
moons, and on the set feasts, by number, 
according to the order commanded unto 
them, contniually before the Lord; and 
that they should keep the charge of the 
tabernacle of the congregation, and the 
charge of the holy place, and the charge of 
the sons of Aaron their brethren, m the 
service of the house of the Lord' (l Chron. 
xxiii. 28-32). The tribe was now very nu- 
merous : the males, from thirty years up- 



wards, amounted to 38,000. Of these, 24,000 
were selected ' to set forward the work of 
the house of the Lord,' that is, tu do the 
ordinary ministerial service : 6,000 were offi- 
cers and judges : 4,000 were porters ; and 
4,000 were musicians (3--5). These were pro- 
perly ai-ranged, divided into courses ; their 
terra of service beginning now at twenty, 
instead of twenty-five or thirty, when their 
work was more laborious (Xumb. iv.47, viii. 
24, 25) ; and it would seem probable that 
th'ev discharged their duties in rotation, 
comiugup from their cities to the sanctuary 
according to their turn (1 Chron. xxiii., 
xxiv. 20-31, xxv., xxvi.). In illustration of 
their political and judicial functions, we 
find special mention of a family supply- 
ing judges and officers, some for the king- 
dom west of the Jordan, others for the 
trans-Jordanic tribes (29-32). 

This full organization did not last very 
long. At the revolt of the ten tribes, the 
Levites, nobly refusing to participate in 
Jeroboam's unhallowed doings, left their 
cities and repaired to the southern king- 
dom (2 Chron. xi. 13-15). Judah was, of 
course, strengthened by this migration 
but the worldly wealth of the tribe must 
have been materially diminished. Doubt- 
less the Lord's favourable presence was 
more to them than perishable treasure ; 
and in the subsequent history we often 
find them honourably mentioned. Yarious 
prophets were of the sacerdotal tribe ; and 
Levites took their part in the occasional 
revivals of religion. Abijah referred with 
pride to their presence in his kingdom 
(xiii. 9, 10) : they were put in places of 
trust by Jehoshaphat (xix. 8-11): they led 
his host with holy songs (xx. 14-19, 21, 22, 
26-28) : they had a great part in estabhsh- 
ing Joash on the throne after the usurpation 
of Athaliah (xxiii. 1-8, 18) : they were more 
zealous than their brethren the priests at 
Hezekiah's reformation (xxix, 3-36, xxx. 21, 
22) : their courses were re-organized, and 
the tithes again brought to them (sxxi. 
2-4), and their genealogies were revised 
(11-19) ; and later they were employed In 
promoting the reformation under Josiah 
(xxxiv. 12, 13, XXXV. 3-18). 

After the captivity, some Levites and 
priests returned with Zerubbabel and Ezra 
(Ezra ii. 36-42, viii. 15-19). Those that thus 
came back resumed their proper functions 
(iii. 8-12 ; Neh. viii. 7, ix. 4-38) : they sub- 
scribed the national covenant (x.2-13), and 
dwelt around Jerusalem (xi. 36, xii. 27-30) : 
they also aided Ezra and Nehemiah in their 
pious works (Ezra x. 15 ; iseh. xiii. 13, 22). 

In later times, many of the scribes and 
elders, we may well suppose, were Levites ; 
but in the Isew Testament they have little 
prominence : they are coupled with the 
priests as formalists and opposers of truth 
(Luke X. 31, 32). Nevertheless there were 
Levites, such as Barnabas (Acts iv.36, 37), 
who gladly embraced and preached the 
SOspeL 

Since the destruction of Jerusalem, all 
trace of the separate existence of the tribe 
has been lost. Some Jews, indeed, have a 
traditionary notion that they are of Le- 
vitical families ; but it is needless to say 



533 



[LIBYA 



Chat the assumption is incapable of actual 

^^LEYIT'ICUS, THE BOOK OF. The third 
book of Moses has its name (derived from 
the Septuagint:), because it contains almost- 
exclusively those ritual laws respecting 
sacrifices, purifications, &c., the administra- 
tion of which was the charge of the priests, 
the sons of Levi. The first Hebrew word 
in it (signifying ' And he called ') is its title 
among the Jews. It is also termed ' The 
law of the priests.' ^, ^ 

In Hebrew bibles Leviticus is distributed 
into ten perashioth, and by ourselves di- 
vided into twenty-seven chapters. But its 
contents may very properly be classed in 
five sections:- 1. The laws concerning 
sacrifices (i.— vii.), comprising (i.) burnt- 
oflerings, (ii.) meat-offerings, (iii.) peace- 
offerings, (iv.— V. 13) sin-ofEerings (14— vi. 
7) trespass-offerings, (8— vii. 38) attendant 
rites, with the assignment of portions of 
the sacrifices to the priests. II. The ac- 
count of the consecration of the priests, 
with various ordinances appertaining, and 
the punishment of Nadab and Abihu (viii.— 
X.). III. Laws concerning clean and un- 
clean animals, the purity and impurity of 
men, with the annual purification of the 
sanctuary on the great day of atonement(xi. 
— xvi.). IV. LaAvs against various offences, 
for which no atonement was provided (xvii.- 
XX.). V. Laws relating to the spotlessness 
of the priests and the sacrifices, also to the 
great festivals, with promises and threat- 
enings (xxi.- xxvi.), and an appendix, with 
regulations about vows, things devoted, 
and tithes (xxvii.). 

The Mosaic authorship of this book is 
evident on the face of it. It is, moreover, 
specially referred to as Moses' law in Neh. 
viii. 14, 15. And, though some modern critics 
have thought fit to represent it as a collec- 
tion of statutes gradually formed by vari- 
ous compilers, some of them at least (De 
Wette is an instance) have felt themselves 
obliged, on more mature consideration, to 
retreat from such an untenable position. 
Bleek acknowledges everywhere the hand 
of Moses, though still he maintains that 
the book was not put exactly into its pre- 
sent shape by the great legislator iEin- 
leitung in das A.T., pp. 279-282). Thus, he 
says that Moses would never have placed 
chaps, xviii. and xx., containing similar 
precepts, so near together, and fancies that 
he detects traces of a later hand in xviii. 3, 
24, &c., 27, &c. He objects to the col- 
lection of diverse laws given without or- 
derly arrangement in xix., and also to the 
regulations concerning festivals in xxiii., 
which yet are there arranged and summed 
up in order. These objections are of very 
little weight ; for every book in existence 
might be dismembered on some such pre- 
texts. In fact, the simple artlessness of 
the way in which various statutes are here 
recorded is no slight proof that we have 
the whole as Moses wrote it. A later com- 
piler and interpolator would have gone 
more systematically to work. 

By comparing Exod. xl. 17 with Numb. 
1. 1, we may infer that the time comprised 
ill this book is about a month, from the 



erection of the tabernacle to the numbering 
of the people ; the commands in it being de- ; 
livered in the first month of the second 
year after leaving Egypt, 1490 B.C., ac- 
cording to the common computation. 

Leviticus is altogether of a prophetical 
character. The typical nature of its ordi- 
nances is illustrated bythe epistle to the He- 
brews ; and in xxv., xxvi. the whole future 
of the nation is delineated. The spiritual 
purport of the law is thus most clearly dis- 
played. 

Bishop Babington's ComfoHaUe Notes upon 
Exodus and Leviticus, 1604, printed also in 
his collected works, are well worth reading. 

LIB' ANUS (1 Esdr. iv, 48 ; Judith i. 7^ 
Lebanon. In the last-named place Anti- 
libanus occurs, 

LIBER'TUSTES. The descendants of Jew- 
ish freedmen at Rome, who had been ex- 
pelled, 19 A,D., by Tiberius (Acts vi, 9). 
They might very well have a synagogue of 
their own at Jerusalem ; as they were nu- 
merous, and as there are said to have been 
not fewer than 460 or 480 synagogues in that 
city. 

LIB'NAH (whiteness, transparency).— 
1. One of the stations of Israel in the M'il- 
derness (Numb, xxxiii, 20, 21).— 2. A city of 
Canaan which Joshua took (Josh. x. 29- 
32, 39, xii. 15) : it was in the plain country 
of Judah, and was afterwards assigned to 
the priests (xv. 42, xxi. 13 ; 1 Chron. vi. 
.57). Libnah revolted in the disastrous 
reign of Joram king of Judah (2 Kings 
viii, 22 ; 2 Chron, xxi, 10) : it seems, how- 
ever, to have been afterwards recovered. 
In Hezekiah's reign it was besieged by Sen- 
nacherib (2 Kings xix, 8 ; Isai, xxxvii. 8). 
After this we hear nothing more of Libnah, 
save that Harautal, a wife of Josiah, and 
•mother of two of his sons, Jehoahaz and 
Zedekiah, was a native of the place (2 Kings 
xxiii, 31, xxiv, 18 ; Jer. lii. 1). Its site has 
not been certainly identified ; but con- 
jecture finds it variously at Ardk el-Mensht- 
yeh and Tell es-Safieh. 

LIB'NT {White).— 1. A Levite, one of the 
sons of Gershon rExod, vi. 17 ; Numb, iii, 18 ; 
1 Chron, vi, 17, 20).— 2, Another Levite of 
the family of Merari (29). 

LlB'NITES, A Levitical family descended 
from Libni (Numb, iii, 21, xxvi. 58). 

LIB'YA. A region of northern Africa. 
The Greeks understood by this name all that 
vast tract which, lying west of Egypt, ex- 
tended along the Mediterranean, and was 
unexplored towards the south and far west. 
It was peopled by a swarthy race, who had 
in two points been driven back into the in- 
terior—at Carthage by a Phoenician colony, 
and by a Greek colony at Cyrene. These 
inhabitants were the Lehabim (Gen. x, 13) 
or Lubim, a Hamite race. See Lehabim. 
There must have been relations between 
the Lybians and the dynasties of Egypt ; for 
we find them, ' Lubims,' in the army which 
Shishak led against Rehoboam (2 Chron. 
xii. 3), and in that with which Zerah at^ 
tacked Asa (xvi. 8) ; and by Nahum the}' are 
described as the auxiliaries of 'populous 
No,' No Anion, i.e. Thebes (Nah. iii. 8, 9). 
They are, later, coupled with the Egyptians 
and Ethiopians (Dan. xi. 43) ; and we know 



LIBYANS] 



534 



that, after the Persian conquest of Egypt, 
they served in the Persian armies (Herod., 
lib vii 71, 86). This region came ultimately 
into the possession of the Romans i though 
the name was not used geographically hy 
them. The country from the borders of 
Egypt to those of Carthage was generally 
distributed into three districts, Marmarica, 
Oyrenaica, and Africa proper: hence the 
propriety of the expression in Acts ii. 10, 
Many Jews had settled in these parts. See 
Winer, BiU. BWB., art. ' Libyen. 

LIB'YANS (Jer. xlvi. 9 ; Dan. xi. 43). In 
habitants of Libya. See Phut. 

LICE (Exod. viii. 16-18 ; Psal. cv. 31). One 
of the plagues inflicted on the Egyptians. 
There is some reason to suppose that the 
mosquito gnat is intended. These insects 
are an intolerable pest. They breed m 
marshy soils, and particularly in moist rice- 
grounds. The annual overflowing of the 
Nile therefore renders Egypt peculiarly lia- 
ble to them. They appear there in immense 
swarms; and travellers concur in saying 
that nowhere are they so multitudinous and 
voracious, nowhere are the pain and conse- 
quent itching and smart of their bite more 
acute. Still these gnats could hardly be 
said to be ' in man and in beast ; ' besides, 
the 'lice' were produced from the 'dust, 
and not from watery ground. And lice are 
said still to abound in Egypt, and to be a yet 
greater nuisance than mosquitos. Perhaps 
therefore, the authorized version is right 
(see Buns' Bibl. Nat. Science, \ol. li. pp.16 
19). Sir S. W. Baker suggests a kind of 
tick, plentiful, he says, in dust and sand. 
LIE. See LYING. ... . _ 

LIEUTENANTS (Ezra vm. 36; Esth. 
iii 12 viii. 9, ix. 3). The satraps {warriors 
ofthehost) or viceroys of the large provinces 
among the ancient Persians, possessing 
civil and military authority, and represent- 
ing the person of the sovereign. . 

LIFE This word is frequently used m 
its ordinary acceptation as opposed to 
natural death (Gen. xxv. 7 ; Acts xvii.;^2o, 
and elsewhere). It is, besides, emploj-ed m 
a moral sense to denote the course of con- 
duct (xxvi. 4). Also it signifies the ac- 
tive principle imparted by the Spirit ot 
God to the soul, whereby he that was dead 
in trespasses and sins' is 'quickened to a 
new existence (Eph. ii. 1, 5), and ' is passed 
from death unto life' (John v. 24), that 
spiritual life which has its workings m holy 
conformity to Christ's image (xi. 26 ; Rom. 
v. 18 ; Gal. ii. 19. 20 ; Col. iii. 3), and which 
emphatically is salvation (John vi. 47, 51, 
54) Further, it denotes the life of glory in 
God's eternal kingdom, everlasting life and 
blessedness (Matt. xix. 16, 17 ; John in. 15 ; 
Rom V 17, 21 ; 1 Tim. iv. 8). Life is also used 
to indicate the Living One, the Deity, who 
lives by his own inherent power, and is the 
source of life, bestowing it in its various 
forms upon his creatures: it is applied to 
the different Persons in the Godhead (John 
i 4 V 26, vi. 57 ; Rom. viii. 2 ; Col. m. 4 ; 
iJo'hn'i 2). Still further, the term is con- 
nected with various things as possessing 
life, tending to it, or supporting it ; e.g. 
♦ tree of life' (Gen. li. 9), ' path of life ' (Psal. 
xvi 11), ' bread of life' (John vi. 35), woid 



of life (Phil. ii. 16), * crown of life (James 
i 12), ' water of life' (Rev. xxii. 1), &c. 

LIFE, THE TREE OF. That wonderful 
tree planted in the garden of Eden, which 
must have been gifted with special natural 
qualities, and which had also a symbolical 
character (Gen. ii. 9). Its fruit was intended 
for man's gratification and support ; and it 
was probably endowed with so much virtue 
that by feeding upon it, as a means, the 
strength and vitality of the human body 
would be preserved for ever. The language 
used after the fall, that Adam must not he 
allowed to taste this excellent tree (iii. 22, 
24), seems to warrant this conclusion. Not 
merely was the blessing which the tree sym- 
bolized now forfeited, but the tree itself, 
it is declared, was no longer free for use; 
else a result would follow, incongruous and 
unendurable in the new condition of man s 
fallen nature. And therefore the use of the 
tree was barred, for it still retained its 
life-sustaining power ; but yet a hope was 
held out that one day the barrier would be 
removed, the fruit and leaves be tasted 
again, and man be restored to a glorious 
immortality (Ezek. xlvii. 12; Rev. ii. 7, 
xxii. 2). -, . • -u 4. 

Much would seem to be taught us m what 
is recorded of this tree. And there are al- 
lusions to it in different parts of scripture, 
which both show its high estimation, and 
give countenance to the opinion expressed 
by the Jewish rabbis that the men of the 
resurrection should eat thereof (Prov. in. 
18, xi. 30, xiii. 12, XV. 4). Access to it, for- 
feited by sin, the wages of which was death, 
should again be opened, if, sin being atoned 
for, life were restored. And this, the gospel 
reveals to us, the wisdom of God has de- 
vised ; and the fruit of the righteousness 
fulfilled and perfected in the work of Jesus 
Christ is the restoration to all the privi- 
leges which man while yet unf alien had en- 
joyed in paradise. Paradise then would be 
won back ; and all that was lost m Adam 
would be recovered in Christ. The tree of 
life retaining its virtue, not destroyed 
but only fenced off from sinful men, must 
have cherished from the earliest times the 
hope of immortality ; so that the faithful 
would learn to anticipate and long for that 
restored communion with him who is tne 
Fountain of Life ; the full blessedness of 
which far exceeds the liveliest symbolical 
representation (see Fairbairn, Typology oj 
Scripture, book ii. chap. ii. vol. i. pp. 214- 

^"liGHT. It was heretofore believed that 
the light of day was produced by the 
emission of luminous particles from the 
sun : it was, therefore, a difficulty to con- 
ceive how light could exist before the for- 
mation of that great luminary. Now, how- 
ever, philosophers generally hold that light 
is the result of the pulsations of some 
subtle ethereal medium. There is nothing, 
therefore, antagonistic to modern science 
in the statement that God, at an early period 
of his creative work, commanded, ' Light, 
be,' a command immediately obeyed, 'And 
light was ' (Gen. i. 3). Afterwards he formed 
light-bearers, that is, made heavenly bodies 
the great means of exciting the undulations 





of the ethereal fluid by which we see 1 
riVl8) It was Important to teach the world ^ 
that light had a divine origin ; the more as ( 
{ts brilliancy, specially in and towards 
tropical regions, made it regarded as the 
symbol of all that was beautiful, joyous 
and most excellent. 'The sun when it 
shined, and the moon walkmg m bright- 
ness,' to many became objects of idolatrous 
worship (Job xxxi. 26, 27) ; but he who pos- 
sessed the oracles of God was taught therein 
S the heavens were the work of Jehovah's 
fingers, the moon and the stars what he 
had ordained (Psal. viii. 3, xix. 1-6). 

' Light ' is often figuratively used m scrip- 
ture. The term is applied to the Deity 
(James i. 17 ; 1 John i. 5) ;.and so to Christ 
(Luke ii. 32 ; John i. 7-9, viii. 12, xu. 35, 36 . 
Angels are said to be ' light ' (2 Cor. xi. 14) 
And the term is also referred to men God s 
Servants (Matt. v. 14 ; John v.35 ; Eph v 8 ; 
Phil ii 15) : and it represents posterity, 
knowledge, joy, perpetuity, and happiness, 
in a multitude 'of places d Kings xi. 36 ; 
Esth.viii.16; Psai. iv. 6, cxix. 105; ProA,. 
fv. is; Isai. viii. 20; 1 Pet. ii. 9). and in 
fine the bliss of that kingdom which is the 
glorious inheritance of the Lords re- 
deemed (Col. i. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 23-25, xxii. 5) 

LIGHTNING. The visible flash of elec- 
tricity from the clouds. Thunder is called 
in Hebrew ' the voice of God' (Exod. ix. 28, 
marg.). And lightnings and thunders sym- 
bolize the divine presence, and the terrors 
of his wrath (Exod. xix. 16, xx. 18 ; Psai. 
xviii 14 ; Rev. iv. 5, xvi. 18). 
LIGN- ALOES (Numb. xxiv. 6). See Aloe. 
LIGT/RE. One of the gems ui the high 
priest's breast-plate (Exod. x^xviii.l9 xxxix. 
12) It was probably identical with J aointh, 
which see. Or it may be tourmaline or the 
red variety of it called rubellite. There is no 
stone now termed ligure, but there is ligu- 
rite-so named from Liguria, a discrict 
of ancient Italy, where it was found-a 
crystalline mineral of which the primary 
form is an oblique rhombic prism. 1 ins is 
hard, translucent, yellowish-green, or apple- 

^ LIK'HI (learned). One of the descen- 
dants of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 19). 

LILY. This flower is repeatedly men- 
tioned in scripture in both the Old ^^nd the 
New Testaments ; but it is extremely diffi- 
cult to decide which species of the genus 
Ulmm is intended. Various travellers 
mention flowers which they have seen, and 
conjecture that they are the lilies of the 
bible ; but their descriptions are generally 
too vague for identification. Dr. Stanley 
says. * The only " lilies" which I saw m Pales 
tine in the months of March and April were 
large yellow water-lilies, in the clear spring 
of 'Ain Mellahah, near the lake of Merom, 
and he thinks that the name ' may include 
the numerous flowers of the tulip or ama 
ryllis kind, which appear in the early sum 
■ mer or the autumn of Palestine' (Stnai am 
Palestme, pp. 429, 430). 

But some of the notices we may collec 
point to a particular kind of lily. It wa 
of gorgeous beauty (Matt. vi. 28), growing 
near the place where the Sermon on th 
Mount was delivered, luxuriant and pro 

J 


jably rapid in its growth (Hos. xiv. 5) : it 
;vas found in the valleys among thorns, and 
m pasture-land (Sol. Song ii. 1, 2, 16, iv. 5, 
n 3) • still whether it was scarlet, or 
smitted a fragrant odour, we cannot gathet 
with certainty from v. 13, as critics differ 
n their interpretation of this verse. If 
the former idea be preferred, the flower 
may be supposed to be the Uhum Chal- 
cedonicum, or scarlet martagon, which is 
said to be found plentifully m GalUee m 
spring-time. But this flower has little fra- 
grance ; so that, if the lily was fragrant, it 
was probably the Lilhim candidam, or com- 
mon white lily, which also grows m Pa- 
lestine. On the whole the balance of pro- 
bability would seem to be in favour of that 
flrst-named. Dr. Thomson describes a lily 
which seems exactly to correspond to the 
postulates of scripture ; but unfortunately 
he does not know the botanical species of 
the plant : ' It is very large ; and the three 
inner petals meet above, and form a gor- 
geous canopy, such as art never approached, 
and king never sat under, even m his ut- 
most glory. And, when I met this incom- 
parable flower, in all its loveliness, among 
the oak-woods around the northern base of 
Tabor, and on the hills of Nazareth, where 
our Lord spent his youth, I felt assured 
that it was to this he referred. We call it 
Huleh lily, because it was here that it was 
first discovered. Its botanical name, if it 
has one, I am unacquainted with. I sui> 
pose also that it is this identical flower tc 
which Solomon refers in the Song of Songs 
(ii 1 2 16). . . . Our flower delights most m 
the valleys, but is also found on the moun- 
tains. It grows among thorns ; and I have 
sadly lacerated my hands in extricating it 
from them. Nothing can be in higher con- 
trast than the luxuriant velvety softness of 
this lily and the crabbed tangled hedge of 
thorns about it. Gazelles still delight to 
feed among them; and you can scarcely 
ride through the woods north of labor, 
where these lilies abound,without frighten- 
ing them from their flowery pasture (i/ie 
Land and the Book, V. 256). _ 

Lily-work is mentioned m relation to tti£ 
temple and some of its utensils (1 Ki^ngsvii. 
19, 22, 26) : ornaments resembling lilies are 
pr'oba'bly meant. • ^ 

LIME The Hebrew word std is twice so 
rendered (Isai. xxxiii. 12 ; Amos ii. 1) : it is 
also used for plaster (Deut. xxyii. 2, 4). 
Lime combined with carbonic acid, carbo- 
nate of lime, is the abundant material of 
rocks in almost every part of the world. 
Many of the Syrian mountains are lime- 
stone ; and from this, marble, chalk, &c., 
lime is obtained by a process of burning or 
' calcining. The earthy matter of bones is 
phosphate of lime : from them, therefore, 
i also lime may be procured. The various 

- uses of this substance for mortar, plaster, 

- &c., were as well known in ancient as in 
I modern times. ^ * ^ 

LINE. A line or cord was used for mea- 
1- cmrinsr land fAmos vii. 17 ; Zech. i. 16, 11. 1, 
r^To cS a?ord,' therefore, is to mea- 
sure or allot (Mic. ii. 5). Hence ime coi^^^^^ 

- to signify an inheritance, a defined po;,- 

- session (Psal. xvi. 6). See Coud. 



I 



linen] 



63b 



LINEN. There are several Hebrew words 
which are thus rendered ; and it is hardly 
possible to distinguish the fahrics which 
they respectively intended. But two of these, 
shesh and bad, we may consider either as sy- 
nonymous, or else that the kinds of linen 
they designated were so nearly egual that it 
signified not which was used in any speci- 
fied work. For the linen drawers of the 
Hebrew priests, which were made of sJiesh, 
(Exod. xxxix. 28) are described as of bad 
(xxviii. 42). Or it is possible that the one 
might be the material, the other the fabric 
manufactured from it. Of the shesh offer- 
ings were made for the tabernacle (xxv. 4, 
XXXV. 6, 23) : it was spun and woven (25, 35, 
xxxviii. 23) : it was then used for the hang- 
ings and curtains of the tabernacle (xxvi, 1, 
31,36, xxvii. 9, 16, 18, xxxvi, 8, 35, 37, xxxviii. 
9, 16, 18), and for the sacred vestments 
(xxviii. 5, 6, 8, 15, 39, xxxix. 2, 5, 8, 27-29) ; 
the phrase ' twined linen' perhaps implying 
that it was made of twisted threads. Of the 
same material were the robes of Joseph 
(Gen. xli. 42), and of ladies (Prov. xxxi. 22, 
in our version 'silk'). Of bad we find re- 
peated mention also (Exod. xxviii. 42, xxxix. 
28 ; Lev. vi. 10 ; 2 Sam. vi. 14 ; Ezek. ix. 2 ; 
Dan. X. 5). 

In the later books of the hible we have 
mention of batz,wovn by kings (1 Chron. xv. 
27), hy priests (2 Chron. v. 12), and other 
persons of rank and distinction (Esth. i. 6, 
viii. 15). This linen was prohably identical 
with that called previously shesh ; and the 
word corresponded with the Greek byssos. 
If butz differed from shish, it must have 
heen that the former was the product of 
Syria (Ezek. xxvii. 16), the latter of Egypt 
(7). 

There are some other words which appear 
also to denote linen, or something made of 
linen; as etiln, 'fine linen of Egypt' (Prov. vii. 
16), perhaps tapestry of Egyptian yarn ;sad??i, 
a linen under-garment (Judges xiv. 12, 13 ; 
Isai. iii. 23) : this is said to be made by the 
notable housewife (Prov. xxxi. 24) ;pSsheth, 
which implies hoth the raw material, flax 
(even the plant in Josh. ii. 6), and the manu- 
factured article (Lev. xiii. 47, 59). The 
Greek terms linon and byssos are identical ; 
though some have imagined the latter finer 
and more delicate than the former. 

Egypt was celebrated from very early 
times for its flax and fine linen, which was 
put to a variety of uses ; and of which spe- 
cimens remain to the present day. For the 
cloth in which mummies were swathed, 
often supposed to be of cotton, has on bet- 
ter examination proved to be linen. Linen 
yarn was imported by Solomon (1 Kings x. 
28) ; though it must be acknowledged that 
scholars are not agreed in the interpreta- 
tion of the passage (see Keil, Comm. on 
Kings, transl, vol. i. pp. 180, 181). 

Mention is sometimes made of 'fine linen' 
as a mark of luxury (Luke xvi. 19), and 
sometimes as indicative of purity. Thus it 
is ' in fine linen, clean and white,' the perfect 
righteousness of her Lord, that the bride, 
the Lamb's wife, the redeemed church, is 
said to be arrayed (Rev. xix. 8). 

LI'NUS. A Christian who is joined in St. 
Paul's salutation to Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 21). 



He is said to have heen afterwards hishop 
of Rome. 

LION. A well-known carnivorous animal, 
frequently mentioned in scripture. There 
are several Hebrew words, implying certain 
qualities of the lion, which are used to de 
signate this creature. Ari or aryeh is per- 
haps the most common name, ' a puller ' or 
'render' (Judges xiv. 8, and elsewhere). 
G6r, or gfir is a cub or lion's whelp, from a 
word implying 'to suck' (Ezek. xix. 2, 3, 5). 
This word is sometimes joined with the 
preceding (Gen. xlix. 9 ; Deut. xxxiii. 22). 
KhepMr, ' shaggy,' is, a young lion already 
weaned, able to seek prey for itself. The 
force of this term is seen in Ezek. xix. 3, 
where a gdris said to become a khephlr. 
Shahhal,' the roarer,' is poetically used (Job 
X. 16 ; Prov. xxvi. 13 ; Hos. xiii. 7). Laish is 
a fierce lion, the word signifying ' strength' 
(Prov. XXX. 30). Lebt or Idbt, from a root 
which implies ' to roar,' denotes a lion, or 
specifically a lioness, found in poetry (Deut, 
xxxiii. 20 ; Psal. Ivii, 4). Other expressions 
are sometimes employed, as ' sons of pride ' 
(Job xxviii. 8), in our version 'lion's 
whelps.' 

Lions are not now found in Palestine : 
but it is very evident both from scripture 
narrative (Judges xiv. 5 ; 1 Kings xiii. 24, 
XX. 36, and elsewhere), and allusion (Jer. 
xlix. 19, 1. 44, li, 38, and elsewhere), and from 
the names given to various places, Beth- 
lebaoth, Laish, &c,, that they must an- 
ciently have been common in the country. 
Their fierceness and ravages are often de- 
picted (2 Kings xvii, 25, 26">, effectually dis- 
posing of the fancy that they were of the 
Persian variety, a timorous kind of animal. 
The single-handed encounters of men with 
them (Judges xiv. 6; 1 Sam. xvii. 34-37) are 
no proof of the inferior character of the 
lions : similar single-handed encounters, 
with the fiercest kind, are not imcommou 
even to the present day. 

Figuratively the lion denotes a ferocious 
man (Psal. xxxv.l7) : so it is sometimes in- 
troduced as a symbol into a prophetic vision 
(Dan. vii. 4). It was the emblem of royal 
power (2 Sam. i. 23), and was specially used 
to indicate the imperial dignity of the tribe 
of Judah (Gen. xlix, 9) ; and hence our Lord, 
a descendant of Judah, is styled ' the Lieu 
of the tribe of Judah' (Rev, v. 5). In an 
evil sense the devil is represented as ' a 
roaring lion ' (1 Pet, v. 8). The Roman em- 
peror is possibly alluded to in 2 Tim. iv. 17 ; 
and the allusion is the more apposite, be- 
cause the being thrown to the lions was a 
punishment inflicted on the Christians: 
comp. Dan. vi. 

LIP, This word is often used in a tro- 
pical sense ; but the phrases in which it 
occurs are easily intelligible. Thus, it is 
put for the organ of speech. To ' open the 
lips' of any one (Psal.li. 15) is to cause him 
to speak : to be ' of uncircumcised lips 
(Exod. vi. 12) is to be not ready of speech. 
Sometimes it expresses the manner of 
speech : thus, 'one lip' (Gen. xi, 1, marg.) 
signifies one language or dialect; then, as 
the manner of speech indicates the dis- 
position of an individual, 'lying lips' 
(Prov. X. IS^t intend falsehood ; ' the lip 



537 



milt %mi3yU^Qt. 



[loan 



of truth ' (xii. 19), veracity; 'burning lips 
(xxvi. 23)">, ardent professions. So again, 
' the word of thy lips ' (Psal. xvii. 4) Is God's 
precept ; ' the talk of the lips ' (Prov. xiv. 
23), mere empty discourse ; ' a fool of lips 
(X. 8, marg.), a talkative fool. Again, ' the 
calves of the lips' (Hos. xiv. 2) are the 
sacrifices (calves being offered in sacrifice) 
of praise. Lip also signifies a boundary, 
as of the sea (Gen. xxii. 17, marg.), 1. e. the 
shore, or of a country (Judges vii. 22, 
marg.), i.e. its frontier, or, perhaps, rather 
the bank of the river, the Jordan, at the 
place mentioned. To cover the upper lip 
(Lev. xiii. 45 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17) was a sign of 
mourning. 

LITTER. A conveyance resembling a 
cradle, covered handsomely with cloth, so 
as to protect a person carried in it from 
sun and rain (Isai. Ixvi. 20). Such litters 
are borne sometimes by men, sometimes on 
camels, one on each side the animal, and 
have openings for the admission of light. 



(Ezek. xxi. 21). The liver was always con- 
sidered the most important organ in such 
divination. See Divination. 

LIZARD, rnder this term are included 
all the cold-blooded animals that have the 
conformation of serpents, with the addition 
of four feet. Hence this great family would 
comprise the Saurians, the Lacertince-, and 
the Lacertidce; some of the species being of 
vast size and formidable strength. ' Lizard' 
occurs but once in our version of the bible 
(Lev. xi. 30) : it is probable that the Lacerta 
stellio, so termed from the bundles of star- 
like spines upon the body, is the animal 
meant, or possibly the Ptyodactulus gecko, 
or fan-foot lizard, from the toes of which a 
poisonous matter exudes, raising pustules 
on the skin which it touches. There are 
others of the lizard kind designated in 
scripture, such as those called in our trans- 
lation the ' tortoise,' the * ferret,' the ' cha- 
meleon,' the 'snail,' the 'mole' (29, 30), 
and the ' spider ' (Prov. xxx. 28). For some 




Litter or palanquin. From ancient Egyptian painting. Champollion. 



See Henderson, Isaiah, note on Ixvi. 20. 
The same word is found (joined with an- 
other) in Numb, vii. 3, ' litter-waggons,' i.e. 
covered and commodious like litters. These 
litters are common In the east at the pre- 
sent day, ^ , 
LTVER. The Hebrew term so rendered 
implies heaviness ; the liver being the hea- 
viest of the viscera, in both weight and 
importance. The expression ' the caul above 
the liver' occurs frequently in ths Penta- 
teuch (Exod. xxix. 13, 22 ; Lev. iii. 4, 10, 15, 
iv, 9, vii. 4, vlii. 16, 25, ix. 10, 19). By this 
Gesenius understands the great lobe of the 
liver itself; while Jahn suggests that the 
smaller lobe is meprnt iBibl. Antiq., part iii. 
chap. V. 378). Whichever it was, it was not 
to be eaten as sacrificial food, but burned 
upon the altar. Sometimes the word is 
introduced to indicate severe suffering ; 
bodily, as a mortal wound (Prov. vii. 23), or 
mental (Lam. ii. 11). We also find a refer- 
ence to the ancient mode of divination by 
Inspection of the viscera of a slain animal 



notice of these reference must be made to 
the articles under their respective names. 
Lizards of various species abound In dif- 
ferent parts of Syria and Palestine. They 
are especially plentiful among ruined build- 
ings. _ 

LOAF, LO AYES. See BREAD. 

LO- \M'MI (not my people). A symbolical 
name given to a child by God's command, 
in order to show that he no longer consi- 
dered rebellious Israel his people (Hos. i. 9). 

LOAN. Brotherly-kindness, In lending 
to the needy, was enjoined, both in the Ola 
Testament and by our Lord (Ley. xxy. 3a ; 
Deut. XV. 7-10 ; Matt. vi. 42 ; Luke vi. 3d). 
These loans were not to be usurious. Ot a 
foreigner interest might be exacted, but 
not of a Hebrew (Exod. xxii. 25; Ley. xxv. 
36, 37 ; Deut. xxiii. 19, 20). This regulation, 
however, like so many of the other sta- 
tutes, was often disobeyed (Neh. v. 1-13). 
Security might be taken for the due a,s- 
charge of the loan ; but only under certain 
restrictions. An outer garment, which was 



lock] 



638 



the covering by nigU, must be returned 
before sunset : a widow's garment was not 
to be taken at all ; nor a miU-stone, since 
without that the family could not provide 
their daily bread. Moreover, the lender 
must not enter the debtor's house, but wait 
outside for the pledge (Exod. xxli. 26, 27 ; 
Dent. xxiv. 6, 10-13, 17) : see Pledge. Per- 
sons in poverty might serve as bondmen, 
but they would be released at the seventh 
year, or at the jubilee cl^ev. xxv. 39-41); 
and in the sabbatical year there was a gene- 
ral remission of debts (Deut. xv. 1-3, 7-10) : 
this provision did not apply to a foreigner. 
In later times we read of sons being seized 
for their father's debts (2 Kings iv. 1). But 
it does not appear that this was allowed by 
the law. 

LOCK. Locks, as well as keys, are often 
made of wood in Palestine. Dr. Thomson 
describes one in an old castle, which he says 
was almost a load to carry. Its construc- 
tion was such that it would have been 
difficult to fit it with a false key. ' These 
locks are placed on the inside of the doors 
of gardens and outer courts, and even of 
those of inner rooms in some places. To 
enable the owner to unlock them, a hole is 
cut in the door, through which he thrusts 
his arm, and inserts the key. All the gar- 
den-doors about Sidon are thus arranged ; 
and such must have been the custom in the 
davs of Solomon. In Sol. Song v. 4 he 
makes the bride say, " My beloved put in 
his hand by the hole of the door," that is, 
she saw him thrust in his hand to unlock 
the door that he might enter ' {The Land 
and the Book, p. 317). See Key. 

LOCUST. A most destructive insect, the 
ravages of which are very frequently de- 
scribed or referred to in scripture. A va- 
riety of Hebrew words are used to desig- 
nate either different species or different 
forms, as the larva, or the winged state, of 
this destructive creature. These are arbeh, 
from a root implying ' to be numerous,' the 
word in most frequent use, and well it de- 
scribes the swarming host ; gdzam, signify- 
ing ' the devourer,' rendered in our version 
' palmer-worm ' (Joel i. 4, ii. 25 : Amos iv. 9) ; 
gob, perhaps 'creeper,' rendered 'grass- 
hoppers' or 'green-worms' (Amos vii. 1, 
marg.; Nah. iii. 17); lihdg&b, implying 'to 
hide or veil,' for the clouds of them hide 
the sun (Joel ii. 2, 10), in our version once 
' locust ' (2 Chron. vii. 13), elsewhere ' grass- 
hoppers' (Lev. xi. 22 ; Numb.xiii.33 ; Eccles. 
xii. 5 ; Isai. xl. 22) ; hhargdl, 'a leaper,' ren- 
dered 'beetle' (Lev. xi. 22); hhasU, 'de- 
vourer,' in ou-r translation 'caterpillar' 
(1 Kings viii. 37; 2 Chron. vi. 28; Psal. 
Ixxviii. 46 ; Isai. xxxiii. 4 ; Joel i. 4, ii. 25) ; 
yelek,'tl-ie feeder,' translated 'caterpillar' 
(Psal. cv. 34 ; Jer. li. 14, 27), and ' canker- 
worm ' (Joel i. 4, ii. 25 ; Nah. iii. 15, 16) ; 
ftdrdm, ' the consumer,' ' bald locust' (Lev. 
xi. 22) ; and tzeldtzdl, which mplies ' whiz- 
zing ' (Deut. xxviii. 42X 
We niav well conclude that, as above noted, 
these different terms indicated different 
species or different states of the locust; and 
such passages as Joel i. 4 are best inter- 
preted on such a supposition. We are told 
that there are some locusts which, in their 



larva state, are quite as destructive as 
when they have expanded their wings. 
But naturalists have hitherto found it 
impossible to interpret with full precision 
the various Hebrew terms. We have to be 
content, therefore, with knowing that some 
of them must designate the CEdipoda mi- 
gratoria and the Acridium peregrinum, two 
species at this day very common in Syria 
and Arabia, and most formidable for the 
devastations they commit. 

Almost all eastern travellers describe the 
appalling consequences of a visitation of 
locusts in the most vivid language. Thus 
Dr. Thomson tells us that, riding up a hill, he j 
found the whole surface as it were animated 
and rolling down the declivity. There were 
millions of young locusts, not yet able to 
jump, looking like a mass of semi-fluid mor- 
tar. On another occasion a flight of locusts 
did considerable injury and disappeared. 
But they had laid their eggs ; and after a 
while the news arrived that these were 
hatched and the young ones on their march. 
They were without wings and about the size 
of full-grown grasshoppers. 'The whole 
face of the mountain was black with them. 
On thev came like a living deluge. We dug 
trenches, and kindled fires, and beat and 
burned to death "heaps upon heaps ;" but 
the effort was utterly useless. Wave after 
wave rolled up the mountain-side, and 
poured over rocks, walls, ditches, and 
hedees ; those behind covering up and 
brid'ging over the masses already killed. . . 
For four days they continued to pass on to- 
ward the east ; and finally only a few strag- 
glers of the mighty host were left behind. 
In every stage of their existence, these 
locusts give a most impressive view of the 
power of God to punish a wicked world. 
Look at the pioneers of the host— those 
flying squadrons that appear in early spring. 
Watch the furious impulse for the propaga- 
tion of their devouring progeny. No power 
of man can interrupt it. Millions upon 
millions, with most fatal industry, deposit 
their innumerable eggs in the field, the 
plain, and the desert. This done, they 
vanish like morning mist. But in six or 
eight weeks the very dust seems to waken 
into life, and, moulded into maggots, begins 
to creep. Soon this animated earth becomes 
minute grasshoppers ; and, creeping and 
jumping, all in the same general direction, 
they beo-in their destructive march. After 
a few days their voracious appetite palls : 
they become sluggish, and fast, like the 
silkworms, for a short time. Like the silk- 
worms, too, they repeat this fasting four 
times before they have completed their 
transmutations and are accommodated with 
wiuffs. ... In their march they devour 
every green thing, and with wonderful ex- 
pedition. A large vineyard and garden 
adjoinins: mine was green as a meadow in 
the morning, but long before night it was 
naked and bare as a newly-ploughed field or 
dusty road. The noise made in marching 
and foraging was like that of a heaAT 
shower on a distant forest.' The scripture 
allusions to the habits of locusts are re- 
markably accurate. Moses, when announc- 
ing their approach in Egypt, said that they 



539 



[lobd's suppeb 



would ' cover the face of the earth that 
one cannot be ahle to see the earth (Exod 
T 5) And Dr. Thomson says, I have tnis 
dreadful picture indelibly fixed on my mmd. 
For several nights after they came to 
Ataeih, as soon as I closed my eyes, the 
Whole earth seemed to be creeping and 
lumping; nor could I banish the ugly 
male from my brain.' In Nahum we read 
thatW'camp in tl^e hedges m the cold 
day but, when the sun ariseth, they nee 
awav'CNah. iii. 17). And so Dr. Thomson 
tells us : ' In the evenings, as soon as the 
air became cool at Abeih, they literally 
camped in the hedges and loose stone walls, 
covering them over like a swarm of bees 
settled !n a bush. There they remained 
until the next day's sun waxed warm when 
thev again commenced their march. And 
he adds that on one cold day they scarcely 
moved at all. We also read, ' They shall run 
Uk Jmighty men : they shall climb the wall 
likl men of war ; and they shall march every 
one on his ways ; and they shall not break 
their ranks' (Joel ii. 7). So we are told, 
'When the head of the mighty column 
came in contact with the P^J^ce of the emir 
Asaad in Abeih, they did not take th^ 
U'ouble to wheel round the corners, but 
climbed the wall like men of war, and 
Sa?ched over the top of it' (2%e Land and 
the Book, pp. 416-419). 

Locusts (four species are enumerated 
arbeh, hhdgdb, hhargdl, «^^'«^^>.7f5f,^??^.f,';'^ 
food (Lev. xi. 22), the so-called ' beetle being 
unquesUonably 'a species of locust So John 
the Baptist is said to have fed on locusts 
(Matt ill. 4). They are at present boiled, 
Smetimes in salt-water, and sometimes m 
butter by the Bedouin Arabs; and, ac- 
cordS'g to Europeans who have tasted 
them, they resemble shrimps m flavour. 
Threl naines are used to describe he lo- 
custs that devastated Egpyt, cf^fi'^f^^!^^ 
velek And it must be repeated that the 
terms applied in scripture to the insect 
itself to its sound, its appearance, its de- 
structive effects, are admirably illustrative 
of'SS habits and effects of locusts as ob 
served in the present day. See a variety 
of partSulars, well drawn out Mr Wil- 
ton, in Good Words, Dec. 1863, PP- 844-8o2 

LOD (perhaps strife) A sma town or 
village in Benjamin (1 Ohron. viii. 12 , Ezra 
7i 33; Neh. vii. 37, xi. 35). It was after- 
wards called LYDDA, which see. 

LO'-DEBAR {no pasture). A town in 
Gilead,tothe east of the Jordan, not far 
from Mahanaim (2 Sam.ix.4, 5, xvn. 27). 

LODGE (Isai. i. 8). A hut made of bought 
interwoven. Dr. Thomson {The Land and 
the Book,v.^Q2) says, ' The true point of the 
comparison will not appear until the crop is 
over, and the lodge forsaken by the keeper. 
Then the poles fall down, or lean every way, 
and those green l^oughs with whiten it is 
shaded will have been scattered by the w nd 
leaving only a ragged sprawling wreck a 
most affecting type of utter deso ation, as 
Sodom and like unto (^omorrah. 
LODGmG-PLACE (Josh. Iv. 3). See Inn. 
LOFT (Acts XX. 9). See HOUSE. 
LOG (a deep cavity, basin). See Mba- 

gURES. 

I ■ 



LOG'OS. The Greek term for 'word; See 
Word. 
LOINS. See Girdle. 
LO'IS. A Christian female, grandmother 
of Timothy (2 Tim. i. 5). 

LOOKING-GLASS. This word occurs in 
Exod. xxxviii. 8 ; Job xxxvii. 18 ; also m 
Isai. iii. 23, where simply * glasses. The 
articles intended were mirrors, tablets or 
plates of polished metal, mostly of a round 
form, and furnished with handles. Those 
carried by the Hebrew women at the time 
of the construction of the vessels of the 
tabernacle were used for making ' the laver 
of brass and the foot of it of brass.' Many 
of these have been discovered in Egypt, 
and are to be seen in museums. They are 
of mixed metal, chiefly copper, very care- 
fully wrought and highly polished. 

LORD. Several Hebrew words are so 
rendered. Addn is sometimes applied to 
God (Josh. iii. 13), usually to human beings. 
Adondi is everywhere spoken of God, and is 
generally substituted by the Jews m reaa- 
ing for Jehovah, the peculiarly-sacred name 
of God. The Greek Kurios, is used both of 
the Deity, as the translation of the Hebrew 
names, and also of men. ' Lord' m our ver- 
sion represents these various words, it 
is printed in small capitals when Jehovah 
occurs in the original. Similarly, when the 
letters of Jehovah have the vowels of 
MoMm, ' God ' is in small capitals (e.g. Gen. 
XV. 2). There are a few unimportant 

^""loRD'S^DAY (Rev. i. 10). See Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUPPER. This holy feast, one 
of the Christian sacraments, was mstitutea 
by Christ on the evening of his passion, at 
or after the passover meal. He intended to 
point out the typical reference whicti the 
passover had to himself, to give it a higher 
signification, and leave a memorial with his 
church of his death, in which the union ol 
his people with himself and with each other 
might be testified, and which might be the 
means to them of blessing derived from 
him, and a mode of participating therein. 

The account of the institution is given by 
several of the sacred writers (Matt. xxvi. 
26-29; Mark xiv. 22-25; Luke xxii. 17-20; l 
Cor xi. 23-25). By a reference to the mode 
of eaung the paschal feast (see Passoyer) 
our Lofd's actions will be more clearlj^ 
illustrated. It was probably of one of the 
earlier cups that he first declined to par- 
take : the sop that was given to Judas was 
a piece of the bread dipped m the bitter 
sauce, after which the traito^retired : the 
bread broken and distributed to the disci- 
ples was the unleavened cake ; and the cup 
after supper was one of those cups, the 
thi?d or fourth, with which the ceremony 
concluded: It would hence seem most 
p?obable that Judas did not partaice the 
newly-instituted ordinance. 

The passover was celebrated annua b - 
Our Lord did not specify the frequency 
which the holy supper was to be rece^\«^^ ' 
but the expression, ' This do, o^^.^^^.^y^ 
shall drink it,' may be taken to m y ;^ 
frequent commemoration. Accordinglj n c 
soon find traces of Its observamu^^. H 1 a^^ 
been, indeed, supposed that Chn^t Jiuu 



lo-etjhamah] 



540 



self repeated the celetiration at Emmaus 
on the evening of his resurrection, and 
that it was this which occasioned the 
immediate recognition of him (Luke xxiv. 
30, 31). More prohably it was the Lord's 
supper which is referred to in the accounts 
of the growing church, when the baptized 
' continued stedfastly in the apostles' 
fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in 
prayers ' (Acts ii. 42, 46, xx. 7, 11 : comp. 
xxvii. 35). Very generally combined with 
the Lord's supper (which from the nature 
of the case was at first celebrated in private 
houses) were those feasts of charity, which 
grew ere long to such a pitch of disorder 
as to call forth the grave censure of the 
apostle Paul upon the church which allowed 
it (1 Cor. xi. 20-22) ; and subsequently, it 
may be added, these feasts of charity were 
generally discontinued: see Feast of 
Charity. But the occasion led St. Paul 
more fully to explain the institution and 
meaning of the Lord's supper, and to en- 
force that careful self-examination with 
which professing Christians should ap- 
proach the Lord's table (x. 16, 17, xi. 26-34). 

It is not necessary to trace here the 
further history of this sacred rite, how, 
according to early Christian writers (e.g. 
Justin Martyr, Apolog. i., 65-67, edit. Bened., 
pp. 82-84), it was the high act of worship ; 
still less to detail the corruptions and con- 
troversies which arose upon it, and which 
to this day divide one part of Christendom 
from another. The student will find large 
particulars of ancient practice in Bingham's 
Orig. Eccles., chap. xv. And the general 
reader may well be reminded of the doctrine 
of the Anglican church as expressed in her 
twenty -eighth and twenty-ninth articles : 
'The supper of the Lord is not only a sign 
of the love that Christians ought to have 
among themselves one to another; but 
rather it is a sacrament of our redemption 
by Christ's death ; insomuch that, to such 
as rightly, worthily, and with faith receive 
the same, the bread which we break is a 
partaking of the body of Christ, and like- 
wise the cup of blessing is a partaking of 
the blood of Christ. . . . The wicked, and 
such as be void of a lively faith, although 
they do carnally and visibly press with 
their teeth (as St. Augustine saith) the 
sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, 
yet in no wise are they partakers of Christ, 
but rather, to their condemnation, do eat 
aud drink the sign or sacrament of so great 
a thing.' To this the direction of the 
catechism may be subjoined, in answer to 
the question : ' What is required of those 
who come to the Lord's supper?' 'To 
examine themselves, whether they repent 
them truly of their former sins, stedfastly 
purposing to lead a new life ; have a lively 
faith in God's mercy through Christ, with a 
thankful remembrance of his death; and 
be in charity with all men.' 

LO-RUHA'MAH (wot compassionated). 
The symbolical name of a child, to indicate 
that God's mercy towards rebellious Israel 
was exhausted (Hos. i. 5, 8). 

LOT (covering, veil). The son of Haran, 
and nephew of Abram. He was born, it 
appears, in TJr of the Chaldees, where his 



father died, and whence he accompanied 
his grandfather Terah and his uncle to Ha- 
ran (Gen. xi. 27, 28, 31). Afterwards he went 
with Abram into Canaan (Xii. 4, 5), and also, 
it would seem, into Egypt, when there was 
famine in Canaan. 

Returning from Egypt, the family estab- 
lished themselves for a while near to Beth- 
el ; and their property increased. They had 
each of them flocks and herds in abundance. 
And then the burden of wealth began to be 
felt. There was strife between the herdmen 
of the uncle and the nephew, each pushing 
the other; for the land could not suffice 
for them. It was not an unsettled country, 
where anyone might extend himself as far 
as he would. There were Canaanites and 
Perizzites around, compressing them, so as 
to render it necessary that, for peace' sake 
and for room's sake, they must part. Abram 
gave Lot his choice. And Lot seemed to 
look only for worldly advantages ; so he 
fixed upon the fruitful plain of the Jordan, 
and did not take into account the wicked- 
ness of the inhabitants of the cities in that 
neighbourhood (xiii.). But after a while 
a notable calamity befel him. Chedor- 
laomer, an eastern king, came to revenge 
himself on the king of Sodom and other 
cities for throwing off his yoke. He con- 
quered them, and carried off captives and 
vast spoil; and Lot was involved in the 
overthrow. He, too, with all his posses- 
sions, was captured. Delivered by the 
active valour of his uncle Abram, one 
might have thought that Lot would be 
glad to leave the dangerous A^icinity of 
Sodom. But he settled there again, even 
in the city (xiv. 12-16). He was a man of 
piety : he was vexed at the filthy conversa- 
tion of the wicked (2 Pet. ii. 7, 8) ; but he 
could not tear himself away. It was a place 
for worldly prosperity ; and, besides, Lot 
had daughters, and he sought alliance for 
them, and was even matching them with 
men of Sodom. But the eye of the Holiest 
was on the wickedness of Sodom; and the 
day of her judgment was at hand. Two 
strangers came one evening to the city ; 
and Lot hospitably received them to his 
house. And then there was a frightful 
tumult, which Lot attempted to appease by 
a proposal almost as frightful, and would 
himself have fallen a sacrifice had not his 
guests— angels they were— miraculously in- 
terfered. They told him the impending 
doom of Sodom, and desired him to escape 
immediately with all his family. He tried 
in vain to persuade his sons-in-law, whether 
persons who had married other daughters, 
or those who were to marry the daughters 
who fled with him, we know not. But 
they ridiculed his warning; and Lot, leav- 
ing all his property, was hastened away, 
with only his wife and two daughters, to- 
wards Zoar, a little city, spared, at his re- 
quest, by the angels, of mercy to him, of 
vengeance to the wicked inhabitants of 
Sodom. And then came the catastrophe, 
crushing and most fatal, some traces of 
which we, perhaps, still behold ; and Lot's 
wife, disobediently looking back, perished 
also. Lot, not thinking he was safe in 
Zoar, soon betook himself to the mouu- 



HI 



[luhith 



tains.where deeds of shame were done (Gen. 
six.) ; and Lot is mentioned no more, save 
as tlie father of two nations, Moah and 
Ammon, seated to the east and south-east 
of Palestine (Psal.lxxxiii. 8). It is a dis- 
astrous record; and men may well take 
warning from it, and learn the danger of 
associating with the evil, lest they be in- 
volved in their ruin. 

Josephus (Antiq., lib.i. 11, § 4) and others 
speak of a pillar of salt existing in their 
day, which they identified with Lot's wife, 
encrusted with saline deposit. That such 
a pillar may still be seen at the south-west 
extremity of the Dead sea is attested by 
modern traveUers. But it is of enormous 
height, probably 40 feet, and is doubtless a 
natural production, formed into its present 
shape by the action of the winter rams. 
Some curious eastern traditions respecting 
Lot may be found in D'Herbelot, BiUioth. 
Orient., art. ' Loth.' 

LOT, LOTS. The casting of lots was a 
common mode of deciding a disputed ques- 
tion, or dividing a property, practised 
among heathens (Jonah i, 7 ; Matt, xxvii. 
35). The decision by lot was resorted to 
by the Hebrews, with special appeal to God 
(Prov. xvi. 33). And God sanctioned this 
mode of appeal to him, and in some cases 
prescribed it (Lev. xvi. 8, 9 ; Numb. xxvi. 
55, 56 ; Josh. vii. 14, xiv. 2, xviii. 6 ; 1 Sam. 
xiv, 40-42 ; Acts i. 26). Hence the word ' lot 
has come to signify in scripture, as it does 
in common speech amongst us, a portion, 
or the destiny assigned to any one in God s 
providence. 

LO'TAN {covering). One of the sons of 
Seir, the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22, 29 ; 1 
Chron. i. 38, 39). 

LOTHASU'BUS Q. Esdr. ix. 44). A cor- 
ruption of Hashum (Neh. viii. 4). 
LOTS, FEAST OF. See PURiM. 
LOVE. One of the most blessed attri- 
butes of God : 'God is love' (1 John iv. 16). 

When the great Father had formed tbe 
world, he beheld it with loving eye as he 
pronounced the work of his fingers ' very 
good' (Gen. i. 31). And, even when his 
creatures had provoked him by disobedi- 
ence, his love was not exhausted : he was 
still ' kind unto the unthankful and to the 
evil' (Luke vi. 35). He proved this in a 
marvellous manner: 'God so loved the 
world'— the sinful world— -'that he gave 
his only-begotten Son, that whosoever be- 
lieveth in him should not perish, but have 
everlasting life ' (John. iii. 16). Out of his 
love he gave a priceless boon to win their 
love, and to free them from everything 
which could incapacitate them from tasting 
his love. Those who avail themselves of 
his offers enjoy the fulness of his love : 
they are his dear and cherished children ; 
the love of God being shed abroad in their 
hearts by the Holy Ghost which is given 
unto them (Rom. v. 5). The Christian re- 
velation thus shows God in the most attrac- 
tive character ; it announces a loving mes- 
sage— 'good-will toward men ' (Luke ii. 14). 
And this is one of the broad stamps upon 
it by which we see that it comes from God. 

Love will beget love. No one can really 
know the excellent perfections of God, 



and the love he has shown to sinful men, 
without responsive love to him. 'We 
love him because he first loved us ' (1 John 
iv. 19). These are 'the cords of a man, 
' the bands of love ' (Hos. xi. 4) by which 
he draws us ; and ' he that loveth not 
knoweth not God ' (1 John iv. 8). And love 
to God is evidenced by love to our brethren 
(iii. 14). The injunction of the gospel is 
that we love one another as he hath 
loved us (16, iv. 11). This is the great com- 
mandment of the divine law (Rom. xiii. 10). 
Even faith is but an empty notion, if it does 
not work by love (1 Cor. xiii. 2 ; Gal. v. 6). 
Were this great principle of the gospel car- 
ried out as it ought to be, it would establish 
the harmony and happiness of the world. 
A religion with such a tendency worthy 
of the Deity : it is, it must be, divine. 
LOVE-FEAST. See Feast of Charity. 
LO'ZON (1 Esdr. v. 33). Darken (Ezrf 
ii. 56). 

LU'BIM {dwellers in a scorched land) (2 
Chron. xii. 3, xvi. 8 ; Dan. xi. 43, Hebr. ; 
Nah. iii. 9). See Lehabim. 

LU'CAS (Philem. 24). This is Luke, 
which see, 

LU'CIFER {Ught-bringer). The original 
word signifies ' brilliant star,' i.e. the morn- 
ing-star. The title is applied to the king of 
Babylon in Isai. xiv. 12 : he had outshone 
other kings, as the bright star of the morn- 
ing surpasses other stars. Falling from 
heaven denotes a sudden political over- 
throw or catastrophe. In popular language 
Lucifer is regarded as an appellation of 
Satan. 

Lr'CITTS. A Cyrenian, a Christian teacher 
at Antioch (Acts xiii. 1). It is probably the 
same person whom St. Paul calls his kins- 
man, i.e. of his own tribe, and whose salu- 
tation he conveys to the Roman church 
(Rom. xvi. 2). 

LTJD {strifel inhabitant of the deserti) 
A son of Shem (Gen. x. 22 ; 1 Chron. i. 17), 
ancestor of a people in Asia Minor, called 
Ludi, or Lydians. Their original settle- 
ments were probably in Armenia; but they 
seem to have migrated westward, and driven 
out the Mseonians, who inhabited the tract 
between the rivers Hermus and Masander ; 
which was from this eastern race deno- 
minated Lydia. See Lydia. They were a 
brave people, whose warlike service was 
sought by the Tyrians (Isai. Ixvi. 19 ; Ezek. 
xxvii. 10). 

LUD (Judith ii. 23). The Lydians pro- 
bably are meant, though the word is 
coupled with ' Phud,' i. e. Phut. 

LU'DIM. A people descended of the 
f amily of Ham, through Mizraim (Gen. x. 13 ; 
1 Chron. i. 11). It is clear that they must 
have been an African nation, and not the 
Lydians of Asia Minor. And as coupled 
with Ethiopia and Lybia (Cush and Phut or 
Put) they must be intended in Jer. xlvi. 9 ; 
Ezek. XXX. 5, where our translation wrongly 
gives ' Lydians 'and 'Lydia.' They were ce](^ 
brated as archers, and were probably settled 
in Lower Egypt, north of Memphis, where 
was a town called Letopolis, or.Letus. 

LU'HITH {made of boards, probably hav- 
ing boarded houses). A town or place of 
Moab (Isai. xv. 5 ; Jer. xlviii. 5). 



ltjke] 



Ct)e Crrasurg at 



542 



LTJKE. A distinguislied companion of 
St. Paul. We can gather but little of bis 
history from the sacred volume.- Indeed, it 
is only by inference that we can judge whe- 
ther he was a Jew or a Gentile. The diction 
of those books in the New Testament, the 
Gospel and the Acts, which are commonly 
ascribed to him, is such as to persuade some 
that he must have been a Jew. But St. Paul, 
writing to the Colossians, after mentioning 
all 'of the circumcision' who had been a 
comfort unto him, adds the salutation of 
' Luke, the beloved physician' (Col. iv. 10-14). 
The plain conclusion is that Luke was not 
a Jew. It has, indeed, been doubted whether 
the person here named was the evangelist, 
on the ground that he would not have needed 
any additional designation ; but this Is no 
sufficient reason against the identity. 

Luke is traditionally said to be a native 
of Antioch : this, however, has perhaps no 
better foundation than the confounding of 
him with that Lucius who is reckoned 
among the teachers at Antioch (Acts xiii. 
1) ; from whom he must certainly be distin- 
guished. He has also been said to be one of 
Christ's seventy disciples ; but, if (as we 
have seen) not a Jew, he would hardly have 
been taken into that company. Besides 
(Luke i. 2) he expressly disclaims the having 
himself been an eye-witness of what he 
records of our Lord's history. When and 
where he became a Christian we have no 
means of deciding; whether, too, he was 
first a Jewish proselyte is equally unknown. 
That he accompanied St. Paul in some of his 
journeys is gathered from the use of the 
pronoun in the Acts. In Acts xvi. 10 the first 
person plural is used : Luke, therefore, pro- 
ceeded to Philippi ; and there he seems to 
have staved, as the third person is resumed 
in xvi. 40, xvii. 1. In sx. 5, 6 he again in- 
cludes himself in the narrative, as leaving 
Philippi with Paul. Whether he had con- 
tinued in that city during the whole in- 
terval, which was probably seven years, we 
must be uncertain. He went with Paul to 
Jerusalem, possibly was with him at 
Csesarea, and certainly accompanied him to 
Rome, as the later chapters of the Acts 
prove. It mav, however, be noted that 
some critics have imagined that various 
narratives have been used in compiling the 
Acts, and that Luke might have left the 
pronouns as he found them{Blee^,Einle7Uivg 
in das N. T. pp. 120, 121, 338-340) ; but this 
supposition has little proof; and cannot be 
admitted to modify the preceding conclu- 
sion. We find Luke at Rome with Paul 
during his first imprisonment (Col. iv. 14, 
Philem. 24), and even later (2 Tim. iv. 11). 
Nothing is certainly known of his death ; 
some traditions making him suffer martyr- 
dom, others asserting that he died a natural 
death. The story of his being a painter is 
of late origin. . 

LUKE, THE GOSPEL OP. This is the 
third in order of the Gospels, attributed by 
universal consent to the evangelist whose 
name it bears. 

It commences with an inscription to 
Theophilus, which states the object of 
writing, viz. to put on record an authentic 
orderly account of our Lord's history from 



his birth to his ascension (i.1-4). There is 
then a narrative of Christ's birth with at- 
tendant circumstances, and particulars of 
his infancy and youth (5— ii. 52). Af ter^vards 
we have a notice of John's ministry, to his 
imprisonment (iii. 1-20). And then com- 
mences the history of Christ's public min- 
istration, headed with a mention of his 
baptism (21, 22), his genealogy (23-38), his 
temptation (iv. 1-13), his discourses, mira- 
cles, and transactions in Galilee (14— ix. 50). 
We have then his last journeyings towards 
Jerusalem, including the narrative of his 
passion, death, resurrection, and ascension, 
(.51— xxiv. 53). . ^ , TT- 

St. Luke wrote his Gospel m Greek. His 
writings prove him to have been a man of 
education and attainment. His style is 
pure, copious, and flowing, more classical 
than that of the other evangelists : the pre- 
face, indeed, is altogether classical Greek. 
Still there are many Hebraisms, and cer- 
tain peculiarities of diction apparent. The 
writer, moreover, evinces a thorough ac- 
quaintance with Jewish customs. This is 
not surprising in so clear-sighted an ob- 
server, especially as he certainly visited and 
perhaps more than once resided in Palestine. 
He had, too, the close intimacy of the apos- 
tle Paul, and was possibly, but, as already 
remarked, not certainly a Jewish proselyte. 
A singular propriety has been observed in 
the way in which he names and describes the 
various diseases he has occasion to mention 
The thoughtful comments, too, which he 
frequently makes upon the circumstances 
he records, with the notice of the causes 
which led to particular events, admirably 
correspond with what we might expect 
from a well-informed professional man. 

St. Luke refers to the narratives which 
others had previously drawn up (Luke i. 1) : 
it has been questioned whether the Gospels 
of Matthew and Mark were among those nar- 
ratives. Some critics, arguing on the false 
principle that a writer necessarily must re- 
late all he knows, have insisted that, if St. 
Luke had been acquainted with the other 
Gospels, he would not have omitted events 
which they mention. This argument is 
worthless. A judicious author selects his 
materials ; and, besides, there was here the 
higher influence of the Divine Spirit, not 
indeed superseding the exercise of the 
natural faculties, but yet directing to that 
which it seemed good to him that his ser- 
vant should record. Still, looking at all the 
circumstances of the case, that those who 
are said to have'written do not appear to be 
mentioned as eye-witnesses any more than 
Luke himself, whereas Matthew at lease was 
an eye-witness of much he relates ; and fur- 
ther that Luke does not say that he had con- 
sulted these narratives, whatever they were, 
but points to separate and independent 
sources of information, it is most safe to 
conclude that he had not the Gospels of 
Matthew and Mark in his hands. It has 
been thought by some that he derived as 
sistance from St. Paul ; who is even sup- 
posed to allude to this Gospel and as it were 
claim it (Rom. ii. 16). But Paul was not 
one of the eve-witnesses whom Luke de- 
scribes ; and there is little or no trace of 



643 



Pauline diction. It is worthy of note, how- 
ever, that the account ot the institution ot 
the Lord's supper in Luke xxii. 19, 20 is re- 
markably similar to that in 1 Cor. xi. 23-25, 
and further that St. Paul appears to cite 
Luke's Gospel as scripture (Luke x. 7, com- 
pared with 1 Tim. v. 18). Though not deriv- 
ing his hook from Paul, yet the close com- 
panionship he had with the apostle may 
have exercised a certain influence upon the 
evangelist. , 
The time when this Gospel was composed 
must have been prior to the composition ot 
the Acts (Acts i. 1), possibly two or three 
years earlier : and it is not unlikely that it 
was written at Cassarea. Dr. Alf ord places 
it earlier, at Philippi. Though addressed to 
an individual, it was not intended for him 
alone, more likely for Geutiles, or indeed 
with an universal aspect. And so it is cha- 
racteristically a history, the most complete 
in itself of any of the Gospels. Some at- 
tempts have been made to impugn the 
authenticity of certain portions, especially 
chaps, i., ii : but they are futile. Some valu- 
able observations on this topic wiU be found 
in Dr. Mill's Mythical Interp. of the Gospels, 
part ii. pp. 91-122. ^ ^ ^ . 

LUKE WARM (Rev. lii. 16). The state in- 
tended by this word is not a transitional 
but a final state. The ' cold' are those apart 
from gospel influence : the ' hot ' are earnest 
believers. But the ' lukewarm ' are men to 
whom the gracious call had come and made 
no impression, to whom the privileges 
vouchsafed had been useless. From the 
cold when the voice of mercy reached them, 
converts might be hoped. The 'lukewarm, 
gospel-hardened, were well-nigh hopeless. 
See Trench, Comm. on Epistles to Seven 
C/mrcftes, 2nd edit., pp. 194-198. _ . 

LUNATIC. Probably epileptic (Matt. iv. 
24, xvii. 15). See Demoniac. , , ^ _ 
LUZ (almond-tree, or hazel).— i. A town 
near to which Jacob rested and had a pro- 
phetic vision : on this sacred spot was 
afterwards Beth-el (Gen. xxviii. 19 xxxv. 6, 
xlviii. 3 ; Josh. xvi. 2, xviii. 13 ; Judges i. 23). 
See Beth-bl, 1.-2. A city in the land of the 
Hittites, which a man, spared from the sack- 
ing of the first Luz, wenc and built (J uages 
i 26) There are various conjectures as to 
its locality : see Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 

"^LTCAO'NIA. An inland region of Asia 
Minor, bordering on Galatia in the north, 
on Cappadocia in the east, and on Phrygia 
in the west : on the south it was separated 
by the Taurus mountains from Cilicia. But 
the boundaries were variable; and politi- 
cally Lycaonia belonged sometimes to Cap- 
padocia, sometimes to Galatia. The whole 
district was a kind of hilly plain, impreg- 
nated with salt, very ill watered, but adapt- 
ed for sheep-pasture, and the growth of 
wool. The principal cities of Lycaonia 
were Lvstra, and Derbe. Iconium, thougb 
sometimes reckoned to other provinces, 
and made a separate government, might oe 
called the capital of Lycaonia. The nature 
of the Lycaonian language is uncertain, bee 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Lycaonia.^ Paul 
and Barnabas preached the gospel m tuis 
region, at Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 



xiv. 1-23), and Paul visited it again on his 
other journeys (xvi. 1-6, xviii. 23, xix. 1). 

LY'CIA. A maritime province of Asia Mi- 
nor. On the west it bordered on Caria,on the 
north and north-east on Phrygia and Pam- 
phylia, on the east on Pamphylia, and it was 
washed on the south by the Mediterranean. 
It was not unfruitful, in climate and soil 
resembling Cilicia. Its cities Patara and 
Myra are mentioned in the New Testament 
(Acts xxi. 1, xxvii. 5). Lycia was subject 
to the Persian power : it then formed part 
of the Syrian kingdom : afterwards, having 
been for a while under the dominion of 
Rhodes, it became independent (1 Mace. xv. 
23), but was at length subjected to the Ro- 
man sceptre by the emperor Claudius. It was 
at first combined with Pamphylia, but was 
afterwards a distinct province. Offsets 
from the Taurus mountains penetrated 
Lycia, between which ridges, called Cragus 
and Anticragus, the river Xanthus flowed 
(Winer, Bibl. BTO., art. ' Lycia'). Many 
noMe remains of antiquity in this pro- 
vince have been discovered and described 
by Sir 0. Fellowes and other travellers. 

LYD'DA. The Greek name of the town 
known in Old Testament history as Lod, 
by the Romans called Diospolis. Here 
Peter preached, and healed Eneas of his 
palsy; after which multitudes, both m 
Lydda and the neighbourhood, were con- 
verted to the faith (Acts ix. 32-38). Lydd 
(for that is its modern name) is now a. 
flourishing village, with about 2,000 inhabi- 
tants, embosomed in rich orchards of 
olive, fig, pomegranate, mulberry, syca- 
more, and other trees, and surrounded by a 
very fertile country. Here it is said St. 
George was born and buried, and here are 
the remains of a noble church dedicated to 

^Tydda, the district doubtless, is men- 
tioned (1 Mace. xi. 34), as one of the three 
governments added to Judea. 

LYD'IA. A woman of Thyatira, a seller 
of purple— the purple dying of Thyatira 
and its neighbourhood being celebrated, and 
inscriptions of the guild of dyers there still 
existing— who heard Paul preach when at 
Philippi, believed, and was baptized with 
her family. She then offered her house to 
those through whom she had received the 
heavenly message (Acts xvi. 14, 15, 40). 
LYD'IA (Ezek. XXX. 5). An African nation. 

^^LYD^LA.'a region of Asia Minor (1 Mace, 
vin 8) the centre of that dominion of which 
Croesus was the last king. In later times, 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was com- 
pelled by the Romans to yield it to Eumenes, 
king of Pergamos ; and after the death of 
Attains IIL it came under the immediate 
authority of Rome, and was made part ot 
the province of Asia. Lydia extended, ex- 
cluding the Ionian coast towns, from the 
promontory of Mycale to the mouth of the 
river Hermus. The northern boundary was 
formed by one chain of mountains striking 
out from Taurus, while another chain on 
the right bank of the Maeander separated 
Lydia on the east and south from Phrygia 
and Caria. Mount Tmolus runs through 
the country ; in which, however, there art? 



LYDIANS] 



644 



considerable plains: the climate is agree- 
able, and the land fertile. Sardis, the an- 
cient capital, Thyatira, and Philadelphia 
were in Lydia, which in the Old Testament 
is called Lud. 

LYD'IANS (Jer. xlvi. 9). See Ludim. 

LYING. The precepts of scripture point- 
edly forbid lying and deception (Lev. xix. 
11 ; Eph. iv. 25; Col. iii. 9 ; Rev. xxi. 8, 27). 
A fearful judgment was inflicted on Gehazi 
(2 Kings V. 25-27), and on Ananias and Sap- 
phira for their false dealing (Acts v. l-ll). 
But it is remarkable that many even of the 
holier persons mentioned in scripture fell 
into this sin. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, David, 
are familiar examples (Gen. xii. 11-13, xx. 2, 
xxvi. 7, xxvii. 18, 24 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 8). 
Falsehood is a besetting vice of oriental 
nations ; but it is abominable, whether 
spoken or acted, in the eyes of him who 
will not admit a liar into his pure king- 
dom. 

LYSA'NIAS. There appear to have been 
two persons of this name rulers of Abilene. 
The first was put to death by Mark Antony 
at Cleopatra's instigation, 34 B.C. Most of 
his territories were subsequently given to 
Herod the Great, but not Abilene. The fair 
inference is that it was reserved to the 
family of the Lysanias that was slain. And 
it is probable that the second of that name 
(Luke iii. 1) was a descendant of the first. 
As an additional reason for believing that 



there was an earlier and a later Lysanias, 
we find that Abilene is called ' of Lysanias ' 
when given by Claudius to Herod Agrippa 
the younger. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
' Abilene.' 

LYS'IAS, CLATJ'DITJS. A military officer, 
probably a Greek, as he obtained his Roman 
citizenship by purchase. He was in com- 
mand at Jerusalem as tribune when Paul 
was seized by the Jews : he rescued him, 
and afterwards sent him with a strong guard 
to the procurator Felix at Csesarea (Acts 
xxi. 31-40, xxii., xxiii.). 

LTS'IAS (1 Mace. iii. 32, 33 ; 2 Mace. x. 11, 
xi. 1, and elsewhere). A nobleman of the 
Syrian blood royal, entrusted with impor- 
tant offices by Antiocbns Epiphanes. 

LYSIM'ACHUS.—l (Rest of Esth. xi. 1).— 
2. Brother of Menelaus the high priest 
(2 Mace. iv. 29, 39). 

LYS'TRA. A city of Lycaonia, though 
by some reckoned to other provinces. 
Here was performed the miraculous cure 
which induced the people to believe that 
Paul was Mercury, and Barnabas Jupiter. 
Timothy was probably a native of Lys- 
tra (Acts xiv. 6, 8-11, 21, xvi. 1, 2 ; 2 Tim. 
iii. 11). Lystra seems to have been situated 
at the foot of the mountain-mass Kara- 
dagh, to the south of Iconium. There are 
some ruins of churches north of this moun- 
tain, at a place called Bin-Mr-Kilisseh : per- 
haps this was Lystra. 



M 



MA'ACAH (oppression). The daughter of 
Talmai, king of Geshur : she was one of 
David's wives, the mother of Absalom (2 
Sam. iii. 3), and was called also Maachah 
(1 Chron. iii. 2). 

MA'ACAH (id.), A district or kingdom 
of Syria, to the north-east of Palestine, 
bordering on the territories of the trans- 
Jordanic tribes, pei-haps eastward of Argob, 
the modern Lejdh (2 Sam. x. 6, where our 
version erroneously leaves out 'of,' 8), 
termed also Maachah and Syria-maachah 
(1 Chron. xix. 6, 7). It is not clear whether 
any connection subsisted between it and 
Abelbeth-maachah. 

MA'ACHAH (id.).— I. One of the children, 
we know not whether male or female, of 
Nahor, Abraham's brother, by his concubine 
Reumah (Gen. xxii. 24).— 2. The father of 
Achish, king of Gath (1 Kings ii. 39), called 
also Maoch (1 Sam. xxvii. 2).— 3. A daughter, 
perhaps granddaughter, of Absalom, who is 
sometimes called Abishalom: she was one of 
Rehoboam's wives, mother of Abijam, and 
graiidmother of Asa. It has been thought 
that Asa's own mother was dead : Maachah 
therefore still held the dignity of queen- 
mother (1 Kings XV. 2, 10, 13 ; 2 Chron. xi. 
20, 21, 22, XV. 16). She is called also Michaiah 
(xiii. 2).— 4. A concubine of Caleb (1 Chron. 
11. 48).— 5 (iii. 2). See Maacah.— 6. A 



descendant of Benjamin, wife of Machir 
(vii. 15, 16).— 7. The wife of Jehiel, father or 
colonizer of Gibeon (viii. 29, ix. 35).— 8. The 
father of one of David's warriors (xi. 43).— 
9. The father of the ruler of the Simeonites 
in David's time (xxvii. 16). 

MA'ACHAH (id.) (1 Chron. xix. 7). A 
Syrian kingdom. See Maacah. 

MAA'CHATHI (id,). The inhabitants of 
Maacah, or Maachah (Deut. iii. 14). 

MAA'CHATHITES. Also inhabitants of 
Maacah or Maachah (Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 11, 13 ; 
2 Sam. xxiii. 34 ; 2 Kings xxv. 23 ; 1 Chron. 
iv. 19 ; Jer. xl. 8). In some of these places 
the name may possibly be derived from a 
person. 

MAADAI' (ornament of Jehovah). One 
who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 34). 

MAADI'AH (id.). A priest who returned 
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 5), 
called also Moadiah (17). 

MAAl' (compassionate 1). A Levite who 
took part in the dedication of the wall of 
Jerusalem (Neh, xii. 36). 

MA'ALEH-ACRAB'BIM (the ascent of 
scorpions, scorpion-pass) (Josh. xv. 3). See 
Akrabbim. 

MA'ANI (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Bani (Ezra x. 29). 

MA'ARATH (a najced, or open, place). A 
town in the mountains of Judah (Josh 
' XV. 59). 



545 



[MACCABEES I 



MAASEI'AH (work of Jehovah).—!. A 
Levite porter appointed to play on the 
psaltery (1 Chrou. xv. 18, 20).— 2. An officer 
who joined with Jehoiada in placing Joash 
on the throne of Judah (2 Ohron. xxiii. 1).— 
3. A ruler under king TJzziah (xxvi. 11).— 4. 
A son of king Ahaz (xx^-iii. 7).— 5. The 
governor of Jerusalem under Josiah (xxxiv. 
B).— 6, 7, 8. Three priests who had married 
Zoreign wives (Ezra x. 18, 21, 22).— 9. An- 
other person who had transgressed in like 
manner (30).— 10. The father of one who 
repaired the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 23). 
—11. One who, when Ezra read the law, 
assisted in explaining it (viii. 4, 7).— 12. 
A person who sealed the covenant (x. 25).— 
13. A descendant of Judah (xi. 5). Possibly 
Identical with Asaiah (1 Chron. ix. 5).— 14. A 
Benjamite (Neh. xi. 7).— 15,16. Two priests 
that took part in the dedication of the wall 
of Jerusalem (xii. 41, 42).— 17. The father of 
Zephaniah,a priest in king Zedekiah's reign 
(Jer. xxi. 1, xxix. 25, xxxvii. 3).— 18. The 
father of the false prophet Zedekiah (xxix. 

21) .— 19. A door-keeper of the temple (xxxv. 
4). 

MAASEI'AH (his refuge is Jehovah). The 
father of Neriah and grandfather of Baruch 
and Seraiah (Jer. xxxii. 12, li. 59). 

MA'ASIAI (idorJc of Jehovah). A priest 
(1 Chron. ix. 12: comp. Neh. xi. 13). 

3IAASrAS (Bar. i. 1). A name in the 
genealogy of Baruch. 

MA'ATH {small). One of the persons 
named in our Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 26). 

MA'AZ (anger). A descendant of Judah (1 
Chron. ii. 27). 

MAAZI'AH (consolation of Jehovah).— I 
The chief of the twenty-fourth course of the 
priests (1 Chron. xxi v. 18).— 2. A priest who 
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 8), probably 
the representativ^e of the course No. 1. 

MAB'DAIil Esdr. ix. 34). Benaiah (Ezra 
X. 35). 

MABNAD'EBAI (Ezra x. 40, marg.). This 
appears in some copies for Machnadebai in 
the text. 

MAC'ALON (1 Esdr. v. 21). A corrupt form 
of Michmas or Michmash (Ezra ii. 27). 

MACCABEES, THE BOOKS OF. The 
two historical books so designated have 
their name as containing the history of the 
gallant exploits of the Maccabean family in 
behalf of their countrymen the Jews. 

The first book is a valuable document, 
comprising a history of events from the 
reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death 
of the high priest Simon, 175-135 B.C. After 
an introduction and account of the Macca- 
bean family to the death of the father Matta- 
thias (1 Mace, i., ii.), the narrative relates 
first the achievements of Judas (iii. 1— ix. 

22) ; next the events under the adminis- 
tration of his brother Jonathan (23— xii. 
53) ; and thirdly, the establishment of Jew- 
ish freedom under Simon (xiil.— xvi.) : this 
part closes with a notice that, though Simon 
had fallen by treachery, his son succeeded 
to his power, and maintained the position 
he had won. 

It would seem that the author drew from 
written sources (ix. 22, xvi. 24) : he has 
also inserted many documents (viii. 22-28, 
X. 18-20, 25-45, and elsewhere). Some of the 



documents are expressly called copies, and 
may therefore be supposed transcripts oi 
the originals : of others it is said that they 
were ' to this effect ' ; the writer has given 
therefore only the substance of them. We 
can hardly suppose that he was himself 
engaged in the events he records ; but he 
may very well have had intelligence from 
those who were. He has used his materials 
fairly and truthfully ; and his geographical 
details are minute and accurate, exhibit- 
ing the pains v/hich have been taken with 
the work. Still there are many errors 
arising from imperfect information ; and 
the brevity of some parts of the narrative 
renders it occasionally obscure. Examples 
of inaccuracy are the statements that 
Antiochus the Great was taken prisoner by 
the Romans (viii. 7), that a single annual 
magistrate governed the Ptoman common- 
wealth (16) ; and many others might be 
added. The tone of the book is simple and 
natural : the style is easy and unaffected. 
In a religious point of view it differs widely 
from such Hebrew annals as the books of 
Samuel and Kings. The author did not feel 
himself empowered to describe the divine 
purposes and interpositions ; and in one 
note-worthy passage (ix. 27) he acknow- 
ledges that the prophetic spirit had ceased 
among the chosen people. 

There is everj^ probability that the first 
book of Maccabees was originally written 
in Hebrew ; and it must have been the 
work of a Palestinian Jew. From the 
closing sentences we may place the date of 
it either towards the end of the adminis- 
tration of John Hyrcanus or shortly after 
his death. We may therefore venture to 
assign it to some point between 110 and 
90 n.G. The author of the Greek translation 
is not known. There are Syriac and old 
Latin versions, closely rendered from the 
Greek. 

The second book of Maccabees is very 
inferior to the first ; it is far less simple 
and trustworthy. 

It commences with two letters purporting 
to be written by the Jews in Palestine to 
their Alexandrine brethren (2 Mace. i. 1— ii. 
18). Then follows an abridgment of a work 
of Maccabean history, in five books, by one 
Jason of Cyrene, prefaced by an introduc- 
tion (19-32), and closed with a brief epilogue 
(XV. 38, 39). Tlie intervening part (iii. 1— 
XV. 37) begins with the narrative of an 
attempt to plunder the temple by Helio- 
dorus, under king Seleucus Nicator, and 
terminates with the death of Nicanor made 
governor of Judea. The period comprised 
, may be reckoned as extending from 176-161 
B.C. Nothing certain is known of Jason, 
the author of the larger work ; but it has 
been conjectured that he lived between 120 
and 100 B.C. As little is known of the epito- 
mizer, who may have lived between 100 and 
50 B.C. The two letters at the beginning 
were probably prefixed by him to his com- 
pilation from another source. The original 
language must have been Greek of an 
Alexandrine cast. 

The history of this second book is a more 
full account of a part of the time comprised 
in the first: but the statements do not 
N N 



MACCABEES] 



€rrasiiry of 



546 

transmitted his power and the pontifical j 
dignity to his son Hyrcanus,%vho=e son and ; 
=ucce=5or, Aristohulus, assumed the title of j 
king " His hrother Alexander Jaunsus j 
succeeded : after ^vhose death a civil ^var 
wa= wased between his sons Hyrcanus and 
Ari^toDulus; the last-named of whom was 
defeated by Pompey. and with Antigonus, , 
hi- cnn the dvnasty ended. The two last i 
nier'-v^rs of the family were Aristobulus ! 
and Slariamne, grandchildren of Aristobu- j 
lus II ; and with the death of Mariamne the I 
1 ^laccabean race may be said to be extin- 
guished. See Mattathias, 2,Jubas, 2, 

JOHX, 4, HEB.OD. 

I The following table of the Maccabean or 
I Asmonean family may be found convenient 
I for reference :— 

rha=mon (a priest of the conrse of Jehoiarib or Joiarib), from whom some 
derive the name Asmonean. 

Simeon \ 

John ^ (1 Mace. ii. 1). 



alwavs agree. Moreover, there are demon- 
strable inaccuracies and contradictions m 
the bouk itself. Thus the account of the 
death of Antiochus Epiphanes 
quite different from that m ix. Thi= book 
too, is peculiar in its religious tone, it 
contains legends, and records of superna- 
tural everts. The style is emoelli.=hed and 
exaggerated; and the narrative is Inter 
Bpersed with moralizing observations, ihere 
are Svriac and old Latin translations It 
may be added that neither Philo nor Jo=e- 
nhus allude to the book. 

The^e two books of Maccabees were 
acknowledged as canonical by the council 
of Trent -.the proofs of their inaccuracy 
are sufficient to show the impropriety 
of that decision. See Apocrypha, 



Mattathiai ^ 



Joan nan, or Jr,hn, 
or Joseph, called 

Caddis (1 Mace. ii. 2 
ix. 35, 36 ; 2 Mace, 
viii. 22) 



Simon Thassi 
(1 Mace. ii. 3) 



Judas Maccabeus Eleazar 
(1 Mace. ii. 4.) Avaran 

(1 Mace. ii. 5^ 



Jonathan 
Apphus 
(1. Mace. ii. 5) 



Judas John Hyrcanus I. 

(1 Mace. xvi. 2, U) (1 Mace. xvi. 1, 2; 



Mattathias A daughter=Ptolemeua 
(1 Mace. xvi. 14) (1 Mace. xvi. 11, 12) 



AristohnlTis I- 



Antigonus 



Alexander Jann8eus=Alexandra 
I 



Hyrcanus II. 



Alexandra= Alexander 
[ 



Mariamne-Herod the Great, 

There are other three books, bearing the 
titles respectively of the third, the fourth, 
and the fifth books of Maccabees. As these 
were never received even into the RomisH 
canon, it is unnecessary to give any account 
of them here. The reader who desires to 
know something about them may consult 
Dr Cotton's Five Books of the Maccabees. 

MAC' CAB EES, THE FAMILY OF MACCA- 
BETS Maccabeus was a surname of Judas 
the =on of Mattathias (1 Macc.ii. 4), proljably 
derived from makk&hi, a hammer. Hence 
the line of Maccabean princes ; who, after 
freeing their country from the Syrian ty- 
rannv, governed it for about 126 years. They 
were also called the Asmoneans, perhaps 
from a Hebrew word signifying fat, i.e no- 
bles or princes (PsaL Ixviii. 31). Mattathias 
caniraenced his patriotic course IbT B.C. 
Hi« sons, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon, car- 
ried out their father's purpose. Simon 



Aristobulus II 



I 

Antigonus. 



Aristobulus. 

The line of succession in the government 

is as follows :— 

IkC. 

166 Judas Maccabeus. 
161 Jonathan. 
143 Simon. The first year of Jewish 

freedom was 142 B.C. 
135 John Hyrcanus. 
107 Aristobulus. 
105 Alexander Jannseus. 
79 Alexandra. 
70 Hyrcanus II. 
69 Aristobulus II. 
63 Hyrcanus II. restored. 
40 Antigonus. , 
From Jonathan downwards the pontitlca 
as well as the civil dignity was held by all 
these princes, of course with the exception 
of queen Alexandra. The kingly title 
Aristobulus I. assumed was borne by his 
■iucce^^^ors. The last male of thefamily was- 



547 



[machpklah 



Aristobulus son of Alexander. He was 
high priest, and was drowned wlien bathing 
by Herod's procurement, 35 B.C. 

MAOEDO'NIA. A country to the north of 
Greece proper: its boundaries varied at 
different times. After the time of Philip it 
reached on the east to the ^gean sea and 
the frontiers of Thrace : on the north it 
was separated from Moesia by a mountain- 
chain, and similarly from Illyricum on the 
north-west and west : on the south it bor- 
dered on Thessaly and the iEgean. It was 
perhaps originally peopled by the Chittira or 
Kittim (Gen. x. 4 : see 1 Mace. i. 1). It rose 
to great power under Philip, whose son, 
Alexander the Great, subdued the chief part 
of the then-known world. His empire is 
described by Daniel under the emblem of a 
one-horned goat (Dan. viii. 5-8, 21); and coins 
still exist representing Macedonia under 
this symbol. Its king Perseus Was conquered 
167 B.c.by the Romans Under Paulus J^milius, 
and the country was at first declared free ; 
but, after being divided into four districts, 
of which Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Fella, 
and Pelagonia were the the chief towns, it 
subseauently, 142 B.C., became a single 
Roman proconsular province till the reign 
of Tiberius. A change was afterwards made; 
and, from the time of Claudius, Macedonia 
and Achaia com.prehended the whole of 
Greece (Rom. xv. 26 ; 2 Cor. ix. 2 ; 1 Thess.i. 
8). St. Paul (summoned by a remarkable 
vision, in which a man of the country prayed 
for help) preached the gospel in Macedonia 
in his second and third missionary journeys; 
Silas and Timotheus being his companions 
(Acts xvi. 9, &c., XX. 1-3). Other Macedonian 
cities besides those above noted are men- 
tioned in the New Testament— Philippi, 
Neapolis, Apollonia, Berea (Winer, Bibl. 
RWB., art. ' Macedonia'). By 'Macedonians' 
(2 Mace. viii. 20) Syrians are meant ; Syria 
being a part of Alexander's empire. 

MACBDO'NIAN (Acts xxvii. 2). An in- 
habitant of Macedonia, 

MAOHBAN'AI {what like my sonsl ac- 
cording to some, bond of the Lord). A 
Gadite chief who joined David (1 Chron. 

xii. 13). 

MACBE'NAH (a cloak). A name found 
among the genealogies of Judah, probably 
that of a town of which Sheva was the 
'father,' i. e. the founder (1 Chron. li. 49). 

MA'CHI {deer easel). The father of the spy 
selected from the tribe of Gad (Numb. 

xiii. 15). 

MA'CHIR isold).—l. The son of Manasseh 
and grandson of Joseph, who became the 
distinguished head of a family in his tribe 
(Gen. 1. 23 ; Numb. xxvi. 29, xxvii. 1, xxxii. 
39, 40, xxxvi. 1 ; Deut. iii. 15 ; Josh. xiii. 31, 
xvii. 1, 3 ; Judges v. 14 ; 1 Chron. ii. 21, 23, 
vii. 14, 15, 16, 17).— 2. A person in whose 
house Mephibosheth was preserved (2 Sam. 
ix. 4, 5, xvii. 27). 

MACHI'RITES. A family of Manasseh, 
descendants of Machir (Numb. xxvi. 29). 

MACH'MES (1 Mace. ix. 73). Mi ohm ash. 

MACHNAD'EBAI {what like the liberal T) 
One who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra 
X. 40). 

MACH'PELAH {portion, lot, or, it may be. 



which Abraham bought of Ephron the 
Hittite, to be a burial-place for his family. 
There Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebe- 
kah, Jacob andLeah,were buried(Gen. xxiii., 
XXV. 9, 10, xlix. 29-32, 1. 12, 13). The cere- 
monious manner in which the purchase was 
made is exactly conformable with modern 
Syrian customs. See Thomson, Tlie Land 
and the Book, pp. 577-579 ; and thus we have 
a remarkable corroboration of the truth oi 
the narrative. This cave still exists, and is 
guarded with jealous care ; very few indeed 
but Mohammedans being permitted to visit 
it. It is enclosed by a structure called El 
Haram, very ancient, perhaps of Jewish 
workmanship. It stands on the declivity of 
a hill, the town of Hebron lying for the 
most part below to the south and west. 
Pilasters surround it, square, without capi- 
tals. Sixteen of these are on each side and 
eight at the ends. The whole building is, 
according to Dr. Robinson, 200 feet long, 
150 broad, and 60 high. Within the exterior 
edifice is a large mosque, once perhaps a 
Christian church, and beneath the dome is 
the cave. In this mosque are the six tombs, 
possibly over the places where the actual 
sarcophagi lie in the cave below. 

The Mohammedans have always jealously 
refused admission into the interior of the 
mosque. But on occasion of the prince of 
Wales's visit to Palestine in 1862 the rigid 
prohibition was to some degree relaxed. An 
account of what was seen has been given 
by Dr. Stanley, Lectures on the Jewish Churchy 
append, ii. parti. The building, he observes, 
is on the upper slope of the hill, ' and there- 
fore above the level, where, if anywhere, 
the sacred cave would be found.' He adds 
that it is clear that the mosque was origi- 
nally a Byzantine church, and had been at a 
later period converted to its present pur- 
pose, and proceeds to describe the tombs 
of the patriarchs, ' premising always that 
these tombs, like all those in Mussulman 
mosques, and indeed like most tombs in 
Christian churches, do not profess to be the 
actual places of sepulture, but are merely 
monuments or cenotaphs in honour of the 
dead who lie beneath. Each is inclosed 
within a separate chapel or shrine, closed 
with gates or railings similar to those which 
surround or inclose the special chapels or 
royal tombs In Westminster Abbey. The 
two first of these shrines or chapels are con- 
tained in the inner portico or narthex, before 
the entrance into the actual building of the 
mosque. In the recess on the right is the 
shrine of Abraham, in the recess on the left 
that of Sarah, each guarded by silver gates. 
The shrine of Sarah we were requested not 
to enter as being that of a woman. A pal! 
lay over it. The shrine of Abraham, after 
a momentary hesitation, was thrown open. 
The chamber is cased in marble. The so- 
called tomb consists of a coffin-like struc- 
ture, about six feet high, built up of plas- 
tered stone or marble, and hung with three 
carpets— green embroidered with gold. 
Within the area of the mosque were shown 
the tombs of Isaac and Rebekah. They are 
placed under separate chapels, in the walls 
of which are windows, and of which the 



double cave). 



A field in Hebron with a cave, , gates are grated, not with silver, but irot 



maceon] 



648 



-bars Their situation in the body of_ the 
mosaue may indicate their Christian origin, 
[n almost aU Mussulman sanctuaries the 
tomhs of distinguished persons are rlaced 
not in the centre of the huildmg, hut m the 
comers ToRehekah's tomh the same de- 
corous rule of the exclusion of male visitors 
naturally applied as in the case of Sarah s 
But on requesting to see the tomb ot is^ac 
we were entreated not to enter. . . Aora^- 
ham was full of loving-tuidness : he naa 
withstood even the resolution of God 
against Sodom and Gomorrah : he was good- 
ness itself, and would overlook any afErout. 
But Isaac was proTerhially jealous ; and it 
was exceedingly dangerous to exasperate 
him " The shrines of Jacob and Leah 
were 'shown in recesses, corresponding to 
those of Abraham and Sarah, hut m a sepa- 
rate cloister opposite the entrance of the 

mosque Up to this point no mention 

has been made of the subject of the greatest 
interest ; namely, the sacred cave itself, m 
which one at least of the patriarchal family 
may possibly stiU repose intact— the em- 
balmed body of Jacob One indication 

alone of the cavern beneath was \asible. In 
theinterior of the mosque, at the corner of 
the shrine of Abraham, was a small circular 
hole, about eight inches across, ox which 
one foot above the pavement was l^mlt oi 
strong masonry, but of which the lower 
part. Is far as we could see and feel, was of 
the living rock. This cavity appeared to 
open into a dark space beneath, and that 
space (Which the guardians of the mosque be- 
lieved to extend under the whole platform) 
can hardly be anything else than the ancient 
cavern of Machpelah. This was the only 
aperture which the guardians recognized. 
Once they said, 2,500 years ago, a servant of 
a great king had penetrated through some 
other entrance. He descended m full posses- 
sion of his faculties and of remarkable cor- 
pulence : he returned blind, deaf, withered, 
and crippled. Since then the entrance was 
closed; and this aperture _ alone was left 
partly for the sake of snffermg the holy air 
of the cave to escape into the mosque and 
be scented by the faithful ; partly for .he 
sake of allowing a lamp to be let down by a 
chain, which we saw suspended at the 
mouth, to burn upon the sacred cave. We 
a=ked whether it could not be lighted now. 
"No," they said "the saint likes to have a 
lamp at night, but not in the fuU day-light. 
With that gliraDse into the dark void we 
and the world without must for the present 
be satisfied. Whether any other entrance is 
known to the Mussulmans themselves must 
be a matter of doubt.' Gomp. Imp. Bible. Diet. 
vol. i. pp. 724-726. _ _ 

MA'CB0X{2 Mace. x. 12). The surname of 
Ptolemee or Ptolemeus, an officer of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes. , 

MAD MADNESS. Various words occur 
in'^the original which are so rendered m our 
version. Occasionally excitement, ungo- 
vernable frenzy, or fierce ^rrath is implied 
(Dent, xxviii. 28, 34 ; 2 Kings ix. 11 ; Luke 
vi 11 ; Acts xxvi. ll). But sometimes actual 
insanity is meant d Sam. xxi. 13-15 ; 1 C<)r. 
xiv 23). And once it is connected with de- 
moniacal possession (John x. 20) ; but see 



1 Demoxiac. Madness is supposed in the 
east to open the mind, which loses its rignt 
estimation of ordinary things, to superna- 
tural influence. Hence the insane are looked 
on with a kind of reverence. Perhaps this 
belief has been fostered by the practice of 
violently and madly gesticulating in idola- 
trous worship (see 1 Kings xix. 26-28). It 
might tend to secure to David when simu- 
lating madness an escape from Philistia. 

MA'DAI (jniddle land). One of the sons 
of Japheth (Gen. x. 2 ; 1 Cbron. i. 5). He 
was the progenitor of theMedes; Media pro- 
bably signifying the empire of the middle, 
because it was believed to be in the centre 
of Asia. See Media. 
MADFABUN (1 Esdr. v. 58). 
MA'DIAN (Acts vii. 29). The Greek form 
of Midiau. , .„ 

M AD'MANNAH (a dung-Tiill). A town m 
the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 31 ; 1 Chron. 
ii 49). It is probably the modern eZ-Jfi"?/a2/, 
about fifteen miles south-south-west of 
Gaza (Wilton, The Negeb, pp. 209-211). 

MAD'MEN (id.). A town in the country 
of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 2). But it may be 
doubted whether the word here is a proper 
name : in a somewhat-similar passage (Isau 
XXV. 10) our translators have rendered it as 
an appellative. * ^ 

MADME'NAH (id.)— 1. A place to the 
north of Jerusalem, and at no great dis- 
tance (Isai. X. 31).— 2 (XXV. 10, marg.) : see 
preceding article. _ 

MA'DON iconiention). A city, apparently 
in the north of Palestine, which, with its 
king, was conquered by Joshua (Josh, xi.l, 
xii. 19). . ^ 

MAE'LVS (1 Esdr. ix. 26). Miamm (Ezra 

^ MAG'BISH (a gathering). The children 
of Magbish returned from captivity with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 3(J). Probably it was 
the name of a place. It is omitted m the 
corresponding Ust of Neh. vii. _ 

MAG'DALA (toiocr). A town in Galiiee, 
in all probability identical with Migdal-el 
(Jo=h. xix. 38). It stood close upon the 
western shore of the lake at the southern 
end of the plain of Gennesaret, about an 
hour and a quarter north of Tiberias (Matt. 
XV 39) It was the birth-place of Mary, 
hence called Magdalene (Mark xvi. 9). The 
modern village el-Mejdel is described as a 
wi-etched hamlet of a dozen low huts, hud- 
dled into one, and the whole ready to tumble 
into a dismal heap of black basaltic rubbisn 
(Thomson, Tlie Land and the Book-, p. 420). 
' The town,' says Dr. Buchanan, ' must have 
been eminently picturesque, built on its 
little plat of level ground, with steep rocky 
heights folding round it behind, aud the 
broad lake spreading out before it. While 
the overhanging hills would intercept the 
view from it to the south aud west, the 
prospect on the other two sides must have 
b'^en extensive and fine. Northwards its 
own little nlateau breaks out almost imme- 
diately into the broad and luxuriant plain 
of Gennesaret, whose gracef ally-curving 
shore and silver strand, fringed with its 
e:rev garland of magnificent oleanders, is 
laved bv the crystal waters of the lake. 
Beyond this noble plsin, the niountanis of 



549 



23t!3T0 f^noIxjT^tfge. [magic, magicians 



Galilee swell away up in successive ranges 
to a height of from three to four thousand 
feet above the level of the lake : and, in the 
midst of their highest peaks, Safed, the 
supposed " city set. en an hill," lifts its con- 
spicuous head. Along the shores of the 
lake, which from Gernesaret trend away in 
a north-easteriy direction, the eye, looking 
from the ancient Magdala, would light first 
on Capernaum, stretching from the summit 
of the rock on which it was " exalted to 
heaven," down to the very brink of the 
lake, next on Bethsaida, then on Chorazm, 
and a little way farther on would meet the 
mouth of the Jordan, where it rushes into 
the lake ; beyond which it would rest finally 
on those rugged mountains— that "desert 
place"— where Christ fed the multitudes 
with a few loaves of bread. Such was the 
country from which Mary of Magdala fol- 
lowed Jesus to Jerusalem, with those other 
pious women who " ministered unto him of 
their substance "' (A^oies of Cler. Furlough, 
p. 375). 

MAGDALE'NE. An inhabitant (female) 
of Magdala. See Mary, 2. 

MAG'DIEL (praise of God). One of the 
dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 43 ; 1 Chron. 
i. 54). 

MA'GED (1 Mace, v, 36). See Maked. 

MA'GI. The original term designating 
the eastern sages who paid their homage 
to the infant Jesus at Beth-lehem (Matt. ii. 
1-12). These magi must be carefully distin- 
guished from the sorcerers or magicians 
to whom the same appellation was some- 
times given (Acts xiii. 8). We find tho 
term used in the Old Testament (Jer. 
xxxix. 3), where Rab-mag is the prince- 
magus, the chief of the sacerdotal caste 
among the Chaldeans. Originally one of 
the Median tribes to whom the sacred min- 
istrations belonged, the magi held a high 
position in theMedo-Persian empire. They 
were the nriests, the prophets, the scholars 
of the nation, indicating the holiness of 
their functions by an exact cleanliness of 
body. They were held in high respect by 
the sovereigns, and frequently took part in 
political business and revolutions. Their 
religious system, which had become de- 
based, is said to have been reformed i)y 
Zerdasht or Zoroaster. Respecting this 
sage the most contradictory opinions have 
prevailed. Winer {Bihl. BWB., art. 'Ma- 
gier') is inclined to place him in the latter 
part of the seventh century before Christ. 
Some give him an undefined antiquity ; and 
others bring him down to a comparatively- 
late period. See D'Herbelot, BiUioth. Orient, 
arts. ' Magius,' ' Zerdascht' ; Prideaux, Con- 
nect., vol. i. pp. 176-207 ; Gibbon, Bed. and 
Fall, chap. viii. vol. i. pp. 333, 334, note, edit. 
1838. The magi were divided into three 
orders : herbeds, or disciples ; mobeds, or 
masters ; and destiLr-mobeds, or complete 
masters. They had also three classes of 
temples, the lowest, in which the sacred 
fire was maintained only in a lamp, the 
next where it burned upon an altar, and the 
highest where the chief of the magians 
resided. They were distinguished by a pecu- 
liar dress or insignia— a girdle, called costi ; 
a sacred cup, havan, used for libations; 



and a bundle of twigs, denominated ftarsom, 
held together by a band. It would seem 
that after the example of the Medes, a 
similar sacerdotal caste existed among 
other oriental nations. Thus we find them 
in Babylon (Dan. i. 20, ii. 2). Possibly these 
might have had a Median origin. Be this, 
however, as it may, such orders of men 
were to be found in various countries, de- 
generating often, it is likely, into mere 
astrologers and soothsayers, such as are 
stigmatized by Greek and Roman writers. 

Of the actual place of residence of the 
sages to whom the sign of Messiah's birth 
was vouchsafed we know nothing : it has 
been said that they were from Persia, from 
Arabia, from Assyria. But they must cer- 
tainly be supi^osed of that class which, as 
above remarked, was originally Medo-Per- 
sian. And the Persians were ' distinguished,' 
says Dr. Mill, 'from all the other great 
ruling nations of antiquity, as well by the 
comparative purity of their religion, as by 
their uniform gentleness, and often dis- 
tinguished favour, to the people of God 
under their sway. To that nation's general 
abhorrence of idolatry, in all its grosser 
aspects, the magian order mainly contri- 
buted ; an order whose study of the powers 
and principles of nature was fitted to attain 
the best knowledge of God within the 
reach of the Gentiles of old ; whose wor- 
shipful invocation of fire, air, and the rest, 
ever carefully distinguished those elemen- 
tary powers from the supreme Deity ; and 
vv'hose error respecting the origination of 
e\il beings from Ahriman, and his share 
with Ormuzd in the formation of the world, 
was unaccompanied, in their most ancient 
authorized books, with any of that ascrip- 
tion of independence to the evil principle 
which imparts the chief malignity to that 
error' (Observ. on Appl. of Pantheist. Princ.. 
part ii. chap.iii.sect. i. pp. 308, 309). We ma:} 
therefore acknowledge the divine wisdom 
in making choice of these sages, compara- 
tively free from heathen pollution, as the 
representatives of the Gentile world to 
whom to annoimce the expected Messiah : 
see Star in the East. At a later period, 
the Persian magi, fearful of losing their 
privileges, violently persecuted the Chris- 
tians (Sozom., Hist. Feci, lib. ii. cap. viii., 
&c.). 

MAGIC, MAGICAL ARTS, MAGICIANS. 
Magic was an art of deeper significance 
and power than astrology or divination, 
from which it must be carefully dis- 
tinguished. They were exercised in dis- 
covering future events : by magic it was 
supposed that future events might be 
influenced. 

It was practised among various nations 
of antiquity. There was a magic element 
in the Persian religion of Zoroaster (Dol- 
linger's Gentile and Jew in the Courts o} the 
Temple of Christ, transl., book vi. 2, vol. 1. 
pp. 380, &c.). So with the Egyptian reli- 
gion, where the gods were not only wor- 
shipped, but threatened, in ordei to_ compel 
them to a certain course of action. In 
the Egyptian system of therapeutics, too, 
there was a magical character {ibid. 5, p. 
481). The same principle may be traced m 



MAGIDDOl 



550 



Chaldea, where the object was not merely 
to forecast the destiny hy observing the 
heavens, hut to fix it by sacrifice and 
incantation/so as to re-act upon the stars. 

The Greeks and Romans similarly had 
sacrifices and rites of secret observance, 
to which the special power was attributed 
of making the gods subservient to the will 
of men. Such were the Roman rites of the 
dead, formulaB of prayer, and evocation of 
the gods. According to the Pythagorean 
notion, all beings with souls are homo- 
geneous. Hence the spirit of man can act 
directly on higher natures, and attract 
them into the circle of its existence and 
requirements. And then, as it was sup- 
posed that men possessed a double soul, 
the nobler emanating from the Deity, and 
a natural one, in affinity with other natural 
beings, a magic power could, it was con- 
ceived, be exercised on nature. 

It was not generally the supreme gods 
that might be thus acted on. There were 
demons, inhabitants of the air, having 
passions in common with men; and to 
these It was that magical rites apphed. 
And the art was denominated white or 
black, according as good or malicious de- 
mons were addressed. In Greece magic 
was connected with the worship partly of 
deities of foreign origination, and partly 
of those subterranean ones to whom the 
demons were subject as ministering spirits. 
The practice of magic might be publicly 
avowed, if persons did not intend thereby 
to injure others. But usually it was at- 
tended with dark and mysterious usages. 
Then there were human sacrifices, magical 
rites being connected therewith. And the 
object was evil. Thus persons were to be 
struck with disease, or madness, or loss 
of memory; of which Cicero gives an in- 
stance {Brutus, 60). Love-potions were_ of 
this kind. And what were called Ephesian 
and Milesian words had the highest reputa- 
tion for efficacy. The former were charac- 
ters engraved on the pedestal, girdle, and 
cro^vn of the Ephesian Artemis, or Yenus, 
meaning ' darkness, light, earth, year, sun, 
true sounds.' They were graved also on 
stones or rings worn as amulets. Similar 
to these probably were the 'books, or 
written forinulee, brought together and 
burnt at Ephesus (Acts xix. 19), the value 
being calculated at 1,770L Comp. Gibbon, 
Decl. and Fall, chap. xxv. vol. iv. pp. 238-242. 

Necromancy was connected with the 
magical worship of demons, invoking and 
appeasing the manes of those who had died 
a natural death. Theurgy was magic of the 
highest character. It professed to commu- 
nicate not with lower and mediate beings, 
but with the most exalted gods, to make 
them subservient to the desires of those 
who practised it (DoUinger, uM siipr., book 
viii 2, 5 7, vol. ii. pp. 210-216). 

The Egyptian magicians do not appear to 
have practised magic in the sense in \yhich 
it has been explained. They were inter- 
preters of dreams (Gen. xli. 8), diviners, and 
professed by their incantations to secure 
happine&s to the soul in another life. Little 
need be said on their opposition to Moses 
and Aaron. They were successful in deceiv- 



ing Pharoah on three occasions (Exod. vii. 
11 12 22, viii. 7), and then, trying again, 
they failed as). We can hardly suppose that 
they effected more than a clever juggle. 
MAGIB'DO (1 Esdr. i. 29). Megiddo. 
MAGISTRATE. The word is sometimes 
used in our translation in a general sense 
for those possessing legal authority (Tit.iii. 
1). The 'magistrate' in Judges xviii. 7 is, 
literallv, possessor of dominion, or posses- 
sor of wealth, according to Gesenius, refer- 
ring not to a ruler but to a people. The 
word thus translated in Ezra vii. 25 is fre- 
quently elsewhere rendered ' judges,' as m 
Deut. i. 16 ; Judges ii. 18. The magistrates 
of Luke xii. 11, 58 are properly rulers. We 
find as:ain the term in our version of Acts 
xvi. 20, 22, 35, 36, 38, a place which seems 
to require some explanation. First, the 
general name 'rulers,' or authorities, is 
emploved (19) ; and then these are after- 
wards* more particularly specified as being 
•magistrates,' strategoi. They were the 
Roni^an colonial officers, properly called 
duumviri, analogous to and sometimes 
claiming the more venerable title of praetors. 

MAGOG (region of Gog). A tribe of the 
sons of Japheth (Gen. x. 2; 1 Chron. i. 5). 
Nothing more is said of Magog in the histo- 
rical books of scripture, but we can gather 
some notion of the greatness of the people 
intended from the magnificent descriptions 
of Ezekiel (Ezek. xxxviii., xxxix.). That 
prophet, predicting events which perhaps 
have not yet been accomplished, describes 
Gog of the land of Magog as sovereign over 
vast regions. Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal 
are his subjects: Persia, Ethiopia, and 
Lybia attend him : Gomer and Togarmah 
are at his beck. And with mighty will this 
ruler of Mas:og comes down upon the land 
of Israel ; but there his innumerable le- 
gions shall perish. St. John uses the same 
language. The nations of the earth, who, 
deceived by Satan, are to gather as the sand 
of the sea against the beloved city, and be 
destroved bv the last awful fire that shall 
flash down from God's eternal throne, are de- 
nominated Gog and Magog (Rev. xx. 8, 9). 
Without attempting to interpret these 
prophecies, we may see in them sufficient 
grounds for determining the quarter to 
which we must look for Magog. There can 
scarcely be a doubt that the Scythians are 
intended, those wild and almost-numberless 
tribes which peopled Asia from the Cauca- 
sus and the sea of Asoph to the Caspian on 
towards India. Ancient writers speak of 
their extended conquests. They defeated 
Cvaxares kin e of Media; and Asia was at 
their feet. They flowed like a torrent 
through Palestine towards Egypt ; but were 
bribed by the Egyptian king Psamraetichus 
to proceed no farther. For twenty-eight years 
their sway continued, till at length Cyaxares. 
about 600 B.C., drove them back. Such are 
the accounts which historians record 
(Herodotus, lib. i. 103-106). It must have 
been God's peculiar mercy which protectee 
the Jews. For we find no notice of any 
dama£?e to Judea. The king of Magog 
svould seem to have been ordinarily called 
Gog ; but in later times Gog and Magog are 
coupled as nations. 













551 Mtblt '^mMttS^t. [malachi 




1 
i 


MA'GOR-MISS'ABIB (/ear round-aboid). 1 
A symbolical name given to Pasliur for bis ( 
conduct to Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. xx. 3, 
4). See PASHUB, 1. , ■, ^ 4 

MAG'PIASH {moth-killer). One who sealed 1 
the covenant (Neh. x. 20). < 

MAH'ALAH {disease). A descendant . 
(female?) of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 18). 

MAHALAL'EEL {praise of God).— I. One 
of the ante-diluvian patriarchs (Gen. v, 12, 
13, 15, 16, 17; 1 Chron. i. 2).— 2. A descendant 
of Judah (Neh. xi. 4). 

MA'HALATH {a stringed instrument, a 
A daughter of Ishmael whom Esau 
married (Gen. xxviii. 9). She is called also 
(xxxvi. 3) Bashemath, which see.— 2. One 
of the wives of Rehohoam (2 Chron. xi. 18), 
a grandchild of David. 

MA'HALATH,MA'HALATH-LEAN'NOTH 
{a stringed instrument for singing). Words 
found in the inscription or title of Psal. 
Ixxxviii. Mahalath occurs alone in the title 
of Psal. liii. Different interpretations are 
given ; but it is prohahly a direction to the 
chief musician that the psalm was to he 
played on an instrument, for singing, that 
is, with a vocal accompaniment. 

MAH'ALI {siQkly) (Exod. vi. 19). See 
Mahli, 1. 

MAHANA'IM {camps). A place so named 
because there the angels (or camp) of God 
met Jacob and his camp or caravan when 
he was returning from Padan-aram (Gen. 
xxxii. 2). It was on the east of the Jordan, 
to the north of the Jabbok, and lay on the 
frontier of Gad and tiie half-tribe of Ma- 
nasseh,heing in the territory of the former, 
hut afterwards assigned to the Levites 
(Josh. xiii. 26, 30, xxi. 38 ; 1 Chron. vi. 80). 
It was at Mahanaim that Ahner established 
Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. ii. 8, 12, 29) : here were 
David's head-quarters during Absalom s 
rebellion (xvii. 24, 27, xix. 39 ; 1 Kings ii. 
8) ; and this was the seat of one of Solomon's 
commissariat officers (iv. 14). There are 
some ruins existing called Mahnah, in the 
Jebel Ajlun, near the banks of the Jabbok, 
which probably mark the site of Mahanaim. 

MA'HANEH-DAN {camp of Dan). A place 
behind Kirjath-jearim, just within the bor- 
der of Judah, so called because the Danites 
pitched there when on their march to 
surprise Laish (Judges xviii. 10). Proba- 
bly the same place is meant in xiii. 25 : see 
marg. ^ ^ , 

MAHARA'I {impetuous). One of Davids 
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 28 ; 1 Chron. xi. 30, 
xxvii. 13). He was a descendant of Zerah, 
or Zarah, son of Judah. 

MA'HATH {grasping).— I. A Levite ot 
the family of Kohath (1 Chron. vi. 35).— 2 
Another Levite of same family, or perhaps 
the representative of no. 1, in the time oi 
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12, xxxi. 13). 

MA'HAVITB. The designation of Eliel 
one of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 46) : it 
is not known whence he derived it. 

MAHAZI'OTH {visions). A Levite of the 
sons of Heman, a chief of one of the divi 
sions of the singers (1 Chron. xxv. 4, 30). _ 

MA'HER-SHA'LAL-HASH'-BAZ {hastznc 
to the spoil he speeds to the prey). The sym 
bolicalname given to the son of the prophe 
Isaiah, to indicate the rapid march of th 


ing of Assyria upon Samaria and Damascus 
Isai. viii. 1, 3). ^ 

MAH'LAH {disease). One of the five 
laughters of Zelophehad, who had their 
ather's inheritance, but were to be married 
)nly within their own tribe (Numb. xxvi. 
i3, xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 11 ; Josh. xvii. 3). 

MAH'LI {sickly).— I. A Levite, son of 
Merari (Numb. iii. 20 ; 1 Chron. vi. 19, 29, 
jLxiii. 21, xxiv. 26, 28 ; Ezra viii. 18). He is 
called Mahali in Exod. vi. 19.— 2. A grand- 
son of Merari (1 Chron. vi. 47, xxiii. 23). 

MAH'LITES. A family of Levites, de- 
scendants of Mahli, 1 (Numb. iii. 33, xxvi. 

^MAH'LON {sickly). One of the sons of 
Elimelecli. He was the first husband of 
Ruth, and died in the land of Moab (Ruth i. 
•2,5, iv. 9, 10). 

MA'HOL {dancing). A man whose sons 
were exceeded by Solomon in wisdom (1 
Kings iv. 31). Some consider the word an 
appellative, and would translate ' sons of the 
dance,' or choir. • 

MAIA'NEAS (1 Esdr. ix. 48). Maaseiah 
(Neh. viii. 7). 
MAID-SERVANT. See Servant 
MAIN-SAIL (Acts xxvii. 40). The word 
translated main-sail is that which m an- 
cient vessels was attached to the fore-mast : 
it should therefore be rendered fore-sail. 
See Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of bt. 
Paid, diss. iii. pp. 184, &c. See also Ship. 

MA'KAZ {end). A place mentioned as 
forming,with some towns on the borders ot 
Dan and Judah, one of Solomon's commis- 
sariat districts (1 Kings iv. 9). 

MAKE-BATES (2 Tim. in. 3, marg. ; Tit. ii. 
3, marg.). An old word signifying stirrers 

MARKED (1 Mace. v. 26). A strong city of 
Gilead, called also Maged (86). It has not 
been identified. • s * 

MAK'HELOTH {assemhUes, choirs). A 
station of the Israelites in the wilderness 
(Numb.xxxiii. 25, 26). t, ^ ^ a ^u^r 

MA-'K'WEDK^ {place of shepherds). A city 
in the low country of Judah, to which 
Joshua pursued the Amorites after the 
victory before Gibeon (Josh. x. 10, 16, 17, /i, 
28, 29, xii. 16, XV. 41). There is a graphic 
account of the discovery of the tve Ca- 
naanitish chiefs in the cave close by, their 
execution, and the storming of the town, in 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 20, 21. 

MAK'TESH {a mortar). It is questionable 
whether this is a proper name, especially 
as it occurs with the article (Zeph. 1. 11). It 
seems to have been applied to one of the 
valleys in or near Jerusalem, from its re- 
semblance to a mortar. Some think it the 
valley of Jehoshaphat : others, as Hendei- 
' ISnT believe it with more probability {M^nor 
Prophets, vv. 331,3.32) the Tyropoeon. which 
was the locality of the bazaars, where the 
merchants carried on their business : comp. 
latter part of Zeph. i. 11. 
MAL'ACHI {messenger of Jehovah). A pi o 

- nhet of whose history we know nothing. 
Eome ha7e doubted whether Malach i was 

7 really a proper name, or merely used to ac- 

- signate an unnamed person c(>m"';f > 

t by God to deliver his '"cssago Ai ci^^^^ 

- various strange conjectures ha\ c f ollo^v ed . 




i 

1 
1 





MALACm, THE BOOS. OP] ^XtK^llt^ (it 552 



as that lie was an angel, or that he was 
Ezra. Such speculations do not deserve 
serious notice. 

The time when this prophet lived may be 
approached with tolerable certainty. The 
temple-service was performed (Mai. i. 10, 
iii. 1-10). The people had married strange 
wives (ii. 10, 11) ; and this was wliat ivehe- 
miah complained of (Neh. xiii. 23-29). There 
was a backwardness in bringing in the ap- 
pointed tithes and offerings (Mai. iii. 8-10) ; 
and this Xehemiah, on his second visit to 
Jerusalem, remedied (Xeh. xiii. 10-12). We 
may from all this fairly conclude that 
Malachi was contemporary with Jfehemiah ; 
and it has been generally believed that his 
prophecy must have been delivered while 
that eminent person was a second time 
governor of the Jews. Bleek, however, 
after some other critics, contrasting the 
mention of offering to the governor (Mai. 
' i. 8) with Kehemiah's declai'ation that he 
had taken no such offerings (]!seh. v. 14-19), 
would place Malachi somewhat earlier 
{Einleitung in das A. T., pp. 566, 567), 
while a Persian administered the govern- 
ment. 

MAL'ACHI, THE BOOK OF (B.C. 436-420). 
This book is rightly placed last of the pro- 
ductions of the minor prophets. Both 
chronologically considered and also from its 
contents, it appropriately closes the Old Tes- 
tament canon, and is the last solemn utter- 
ance of the prophetic Spirit under the ear- 
I lier covenant. Thenceforward the voice of 
I prophecy was heard no more till the fore- 
' runner of Messiah here predicted opened 
the second volume of revelation. 

After the return from Babylon, when the 
Jews had re-peopled their city and re-built 
their temple, abuses crept in. The priests 
were negligent : the people were worldly 
and complaining. Accordingly Malachi was 
commissioned to reprove both priests and 
people, and to invite them to reformation 
by promises of blessing and warnings of 
awful judgment. His book is not marked 
out into distinct messages or sections. It 
has been supposed, therefore, that the pro- 
phet has collected and compressed in it the 
substance of his various utterances. Be 
this as it may, we can i^roperly separate 
it iuto three parts, in the first of which, as 
Keil says {Einleitung, § 107), there is set 
forth the loving, fatherly, forbearing, and 
pitiful mind of God towards the covenant- 
people ; the character of Jehovah in the 
second as the only God and Father ; in the 
third as the just and final Judge of his 
I people. More particularly in I. (i. 2 — ii. 9) 
the prophet, contrasting the state of Judah 
with that of Edom, which then lay waste, 
shows how groundless were the niurmur- 
ings of the Jews against the Lord, as 
though he loved them not. He next re- 
proves them, priests and people, for their 
neglect of God's service, and for the blem- 
ished offerings they brought, and then, re- 
minding the priests of the grace of their 
original appointment, he threatens them 
with shame and punishment. In II. (ii. 10- 
16) he censures intermarriage with stran- 
gers, and divorce of lawful, i. e. Hebrew 
wives. In III. (ii. 17— iv. 6), against com- 



plaints as if God did not regard men's con- 
duct, and would never arise to judgment, 
the prophet foretells the coming of Mes- 
siah and his forerunner, to purify the sons 
of Levi, and inflict a curse unless they re- 
pented. Reproofs and consolatory promises 
are interspersed ; for the day of the Lord 
would separate between the righteous and 
the wicked. He concludes with enjoining 
the strict observance of the law, since no 
fresh prophet should arise till the fore- 
runner already spoken of, who should go 
before Messiah in the spirit and power ol 
Elijah, to introduce a new dispensation. 

This book is prosaic in style, but by no 
means destitute of force and elegance. Re- 
ference is made to it in theJfew Testament 
(Matt. xi. 10, xvii. 11, 12 ; Mark i. 2, ix. 12. 
13 ; Luke i. 17, vii. 27 ; Rom, ix. 13). 

Besides the commentaries on this prophet 
included in those on the minor prophets 
generally. Dr. Moore's Prophets of the Res- 
toration, New York, 1856, may be mentioned. 

MAL'ACRY (2 Esdr. 1.40). Malachi the 
prophet. 

MAL'CHAM (tlieir king).—l. A Benjamite 
(1 Chron. vlii. 9).— 2. (Zeph. i. 6). The word 
is perhaps here used for an idol generally", 
worshipped by idolaters as ' their king.' Or 
it may refer to Moloch or Molech specially : 
see Moloch. 

MALCHI'AH (Jehovah's king^.—l. A Le- 
vite of the family of Gershon (1 Chron. vi. 
40). — 2. One who had married a foreign 
wife (Ezra x. 25).— 3. Another who had 
similarly transgressed (31) ; apparently the 
same with the Malchijah of Keh. iii. 11.— 
4, 5. Two who helped to repair the wall 
of Jerusalem (14, 31). — 6. One who stood 
with Ezra at the solemn reading of the law 
(viii. 4) ; perhaps the same with Malchijah 
(xii. 42).— 7. A priest (xi. 12) ; most pro- 
bably the person mentioned in Jer. xxi. 1, 
where Melchiah, xxxviii. 1 : see Malchi- 
jah, 1.— 8. An officer into whose dungeon 
Jeremiah was cast (6). 

MAL'CHIEL {GocTs king). A descendant 
of Asher (Gen. xlvi, 17; I^^umb. xxvi. 45; 
1 Chron. vii. 31). 

MAL'CHIELITES. A family of Asher 
descended from Malchiel (Xumb. xxvi. 45). 

MALCHI'JAH (Jehovah's king\—l. A 
priest (1 Chron. ix. 12). It is probably he 
that was the head of one of the courses (xxi v. 
9), and his representative that sealed the 
covenant (Xeh. x. 3), also called Malchiah 
(xi. 12) : see Malchiah, 7.-2. One who 
took a foreign wife (Ezra x. 25).— 3. A person 
who aided in repairing the wall of Jerusa- 
lem (Neh . iii. 11). He is also called Malchi:ih 
cEzra X. 31) : see Malchiah. 3. — L One who 
took part in the solemn dedication of the 
wall (Jseh.xii. 421. 

MALCHI'RAM (king of altitude). One of 
David's descendants a Chron. iii. 18). 

MALCHI'-SHUA (king of help). One of the 
sons of king Saul (1 Chron. viii. 33, ix. 39, 
X. 2). He is also called Melchi-shua (1 Sam. 
xiv. 49, xxxi. 2). 

MAL'CHUS (reigning). The high priest's 
servant, whose ear Feter cut off (Matt, 
xxvi. 51 ; Mark xiv. 47 ; Luke xxii. 50 ; John 
xviii. 10). 

MALEL'EEL (Luke iii. 37). The Greek 



553 'MWt WiXlGMttyQt* [max 



form of Mahalaleel, the ante-diluvian pa- 
ti-iarch. 

MALLO'THI (perhaps my fulness). A 
Levite,head of a course of singers (1 Chron. 
XXV. 4, 26). 

MALLOWS. The word so translated , 
(Job XXX. 4) appears to he the sea-purslain, 
Atriplex halimus : it is likened to the rham- 
nus (a white hramhle) hut has no thorns : its 
leaf is similar to that of the olive, hut 
wider: it grows near the sea-coast, and 
ahout hedges ; and the tops of it are eaten 
when young. It is, however, collected for 
food only hy the poor. Carey (_The Book of 
Job) translates, ' cropping purslain on the 
shruh.' 'These mallows,' says Dr. Thomson, 
who takes a somewhat-different view, ' are 
a coarse kind of greens, which the poor hoil 
as a relish for their dry bread. I have often 
seen the children of the poor cutting them 
up under the hedges and hy the bushes in 
early spring; so that this rendering seems 
natural and appropriate to us who reside in 
the country ; and therefore I accept the 
rendering without noticing the arguments 
of learned critics against it ' {The Land and 
the Book, pp. 610, 611). 

MAL'LUCH {reigning).—!. A Merarite 
Levite (1 Chron. vi. 4).— 2, 3. Two who 
had married foreign wives (Ezra x. 29, 32). 
—4. A priest who returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel. His representative in 
the days of Joiakim was Jonathan, and he 
or the head of his family or course sealed 
the covenant (Neh. x. 4, xii. 2, 14, where he 
is called Melicu).— 5. One of the people who 
sealed the covenant (27) : he may be identi- 
cal with No. 2, or 3. 
MA^IAI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 44). 
MAM'MON {wealth). A Chaldee or Syriac 
word used by our Lord in uttering two 
several admonitions. In the one (Matt. vi. 
24) he would intend the embodiment of 
a carnal worldly possession-loving spirit, 
which necessarily unfits a man for the high 
service of God, and for the noble inheritance 
of his kingdom. No one can serve, entirely 
belong to, two such opposite masters: he 
must take his choice, one or the other. In 
the second place (Luke xvi. 9, 11) mammon is 
more explicitly wealth, called ' mammon of 
unrighteousness' because it is the substance 
of a system, the money-getting system, 
which never could have existed had original 
righteousness not been lost. Wealth is not 
evil in itself, but it is the occasion of much 
evil. It may, however, be used for a good 
purpose, and with a happy result. It may 
procure friends. It may bring the blessing 
of those that were ready to perish upon 
him who rightly employs it. Whereas he 
who misuses it, wastes it, turns it to evil, 
can never expect to have the true riches 
confided to him. He has failed in the 
preparatory trial : he has lost the prize. 

MAMNITANAI'MUS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). 
Apparently corrupted from the two names 
Mattaniah, Mattenai (Ezra x. 37). 

MAM'RE {fattening, fat). An Amoritish 
chieftain, who, with his brothers, Aner and 
Eshcol, was in alliance with Abraham (Gen. 
xiv. 13, 24). His name appears to have 
attached to some of his possessions. Thus 
we have the plain, or rather oak-grove, of 



Mamre (xiii. 18, xviii. 1); and simply Mamre, 
which comes to be a mere local appellation, 
and is said to be Hebron (xxiii. 17, 19, xxv. 9, 
XXXV. 27, xlix. 30, 1. 13). 

The oaks of Mamre are distinguished 
from Mamre itself : according to old tradi- 
tion they were at some distance from He- 
bron, in the direction of Jerusalem, at a 
place where there are said to be some ves- 
tiges of antiquity. A fine evergreen oak 
still remains, called the oak of Abraham ; 
but it has no pretension to be of the age of 
that patriarch. 

MAMU'CRUS a Esdr. Ix. 30). Malluch 
(Ezra X. 29). 

MAN. There are at least four Hebrew 
words which are in our version translated 
' man ' : dddm, implying reddish-brown, the 
man whom God first created: it signifies 
also man generically male and female, and 
collectively the race ; ish, with its feminine 
ishdh, including perhaps the idea of exis- 
tence, and connected with endsh, which, 
however, some suppose a diflerent word ; 
geber, meaning strong ; and methtm, used 
only in the plural, mortals. 

When God originally formed man, it was 
after his own image and in his likeness 
(Gen. i. 26, 27, v. 1) ; bodily shape being not 
thereby intended but moral qualification. A 
very excellent creature was man, invested 
with extensive dominion, placed in a fitting 
habitation, and supplied with sources of 
enjoyment, which, had he kept the law of 
his being, would have ensured his happi- 
ness fi. 28, ii. 8). Doubtless there would 
have been intimate union between him and 
his Creator, He was not at once complete 
in knowledge, and he would have learned 
more and more of Him whom to know is life 
eternal, whose works and providence would 
have sufiiciently illustrated his great cha- 
racter. And this advancement, and the 
obedience he rendered, would have been 
delightful. Whether this earth would have 
been always man's habitation, or whether 
he would have been removed, prepared by 
his residence and behaviour here, to a 
higher sphere, we cannot tell. His condi- 
tion had a shf)rt and sad termination: he 
transgressed God's command ; and suffer- 
ing and death were the consequence of sin. 
' God made man upright ; but they have 
sought out many inventions ' (Eccles. vii. 
29). Into the theological questions of the 
fall of man, and the means of recovery 
mercifully provided by Jesus Christ, it is 
not intended to enter here: these topics 
have been somewhat touched in other ar- 
ticles : see Atoxeme>'t, Propitiation. 

But there are matters which have called 
forth much discussion— the antiquity of 
man upon the earth, and the problem whe- 
ther the nations have all descended from a 
single pair, of which something must be 
said. It can be but brief : the full discus- 
sion would demand a volume. 

According to the systems of chronology 
generally adopted, even in their more 
lengthened form, the creation of man was 
not by the Mosaic account more than six 
or seven thousand years ago: see Chrono- 
logy. But this period, it is alleged, is not 
long enough to explain the phenomena of 



man] 



554 



the present state of the world, more es- 
pecially if we are to imagine mankind! 
sprung from one pair. The differences of 
type between difEerent races must have 
required immense duration to establish 
them as we see* them established ; and we 
find them on ancient monuments two or 
three thousand years old depicted pretty 
nearly as they now are. Again, the lan- 
guages in use, which can be traced up to 
very few, possibly even to one, could not, it 
is said, have reached their present diver- 
gence, except in the course of almost-in- 
numerable ages. Moreover, relics have been 
found, implements the work of mens 
hands and human bones, in localities and 
embedded in strata where they must have 
lain from a date long prior to that to which 
our chronology reaches. Startling conclu- 
sions have hence been drawn ; the more so 
because some investigators have left the 
bible testimony entirely out of their calcu- 
lation : they have reasoned on the prmcr 
pies and from the. data above referred to, 
and have not confronted these with the 
sacred record-a proceeding about as sensi- 
ble as if in a judicial enquiry probabilities 
alone were weighed and obscure hints re- 
lied on whilst living evidence with much 
to say 'for illustration were not even al- 
lowed to speak. There are others, indeed, 
who have acted in a more becoming 
manner ; and some of these, interpreting 
scripture passages differently from the 
ordinarily-received mode of exposition, de- 
clare that the vast antiquity of man and the 
distinct varieties of human species are not 
ill their view opposed to the great doc- 
trines of revelation : see McCausland, 
Adam and the Adamite, ^ ^ , 

Now it must be observed, first of all, that 
differences of type are assumed to proceed 
at the same rate through the long chapter 
of the world's history. Laying out of sight 
for a moment the scripture narrative of tlie 
three branches into which mankind were 
divided after the flood, different regions 
being in God's providence assigned for 
their habitations, and also the presumable 
conclusion that he would speedily fit each 
for its respective condition of life, we may 
well ask whether all analogy is not against 
an uniform rate of change. Take man, take 
animals generally, in their ordinary life. 
How rapid and strange are the changes and 
developments of infancy and youth, how 
slow the alteration in maturer years. SuD- 
iect an individual to the influence of a 
strange climate : its effects are considerable 
at first : but let him live through these, let 
his body be brought, so to speak, into unison 
with what surrounds him, let him bec_ome 
acclimatized-and how trifling iii effect 
comes to be the previously-disturbing in- 
fluence even through long years The 
vegetable world will furnish other illustra- 
tions. Under the guiding hand of the 
husbandman changes are readily produced, 
which the unassisted powers of nature, to 
adopt common phraseology, would perhaps 
never accomplish. Are we to deny, then, 
that the finger of God is at all upon his 
works? It is as unphilosophical as it is 
dangerous to reason from progress under 



conditions which we can understand to 
progress under conditions of which we 
know literally nothing. And well might 
the Creator ask such a reasoner as he did 
the less presumptuous Job, when puzzled 
only about the anomalies of providence, 
' Where wast thou when I laid the founda- 
tions of the earth? declare, if thou hast 
understanding .... have the gates of 
death been opened unto thee? or hast 
thou seen the doors of the shadow of 
death ? ' (Job xxxviii. 4, 17). The influences 
of climate, soil, and temperature, taken 
in connection with the reasonably-greater 
effects they would produce, when the tribes 
of the earth were only taking those po- 
sitions, which with comparatively-little 
change they have now occupied for many 
centuries, are not insufficient to accountfor 
the divergence we now witness. This is 
corroborated by the contrasts often now 
seen in the same family. 

The argument from the variety of lan- 
guages is not much more forcible. Lan- 
gua'^es are now in a state of flux, of rapid 
flux And yet in the civilized parts of the 
world where there is a standard litera- 
ture change seems almost precluded. If, 
for example, our own tongue has so 
altered that the English of four hundred 
years ago is now well-nigh unintelhgible, 
with how much greater ease, with what ac- 
celerated swiftness, must an unwritten 
tongue, floating in the rude conversation 
of wild tribes, be modified, enlarged, con- 
tracted, give birth to fresh and strange 
dialects. Modern examples are not wanting 
to illustrate this. In Burmah, it is said, 
people that have migrated to a distance 
have lost their own language in two or 
three generations. And we are assured 
that a dictionary of a central American 
tongue, carefully compiled, became nearly 
useless in ten years. In the face of such 
facts who can reason from the variations 
of language to the vast antiquity of man, 
more especially when the finger of God 
was, as the sacred testimony assures us, in 
this matter also put forth ; he who made 
man's mouth for adequate cause disposing 
that mouth rapidly to modify its utterance, 
changing, very possibly, not merely tli£ 
words and syllables, but the very type of 
language itself ? See La^jgtjage, Tosgues, 
Confusion of. , ^. 

The argument, taken from the discovery 
of implements or human remains in posi- 
tions which seem to indicate an immense 
antiquity, is at first sight very formidable. 
But there are many considerations which 
show that it is necessary to receive conclu- 
sions deduced from such discoveries with 
extreme caution. For instance, something 
has been found deeply imbedded in alluvial 
soil, the accretion of which is proved to be 
now advancing at a certain rate. Consider- 
ing the rate as uniform, it is calculated that 
so many thousand years must have elapsed 
since the deposits began to form over the 
sub'^tance in question. But who is to assure 
us that this rate is uniform? And cases 
have occurred in which the antiquity 
claimed has been clearly demonstrated to 
be erroneous. Thus, some pottery in the 



555 



Nile deposits was at first imagined by the 
explorers to be 13,000 years old : it has since 
been proved of modern date. The bones, 
again, of extinct animals, have been found 
in connection with the traces of men : it is 
assumed that men must have existed at an 
earlier date to be contemporaneous with 
the animals. But why should not the con- 
clusion rather be that the animals existed 
at a later era to be contemporaneous with 
men? And, after all, does the juxta-posi- 
tion prove that the men and the animals 
were contemporaneous? Dr. Duns perti- 
nently observes that, ' where traces of man 
are met with, many of the bones are broken. 
The use of bones in the chase, and in the 
manufacture of flint implements, is illus- 
trated by the habits of some of the Esqui- 
maux tribes even in our day. Sir Edward 
Belcher informs us that they use pieces of 
horn in the preparation of their flint wea- 
pons. Is it not in the highest degree pro- 
bable that these bones of huge mammals 
would be eagerly sought for by the tribes 
who have left traces of their presence m 
gravel heaps and in caves? Instead, then, 
of holding that the animals lived at the 
same time as the men, it would be much 
more in keeping with the facts before us 
to hold that the men had found these bones, 
and had taken them to the places to which 
they resorted' {BiU. Nat. Science, vol. i. 
pp 527, 528). Other remains which are sup- 
posed to testify to the great antiquity of 
man furnish but the same uncertain kinds 
of proof. When stone implements are 
found, it is concluded that they were used 
by races more ancient than those who had 
metallic implements. But we know that 
metallic and flint utensils have been used 
together. Certainly the children of Israel 
in the wilderness were acquainted with 
metals ; and yet their knives for the solemn 
circumcision, when they had crossed the 
Jordan, were of flint (Josh. v. 2). The con- 
clusions deduced, then, are conjectural ; and 
it is observable, as a proof of uncertainty 
in the evidence relied on, that different 
philosophers compute differently from the 
same premises ; nay, that the same philo- 
sophers draw at different times different 
conclusions from the same data. See for 
illustrations a thoughtful article on Sir 0. 
Lyell's ' Antiquity of Man,' in the Quarterly 
Review, Oct. 1863, pp. 368-417 ; also Wood s 
LeUer on Theory of Devel, and Antiq. of Man, 
1865, pp. 18, 19. 

In opposition to arguments such as those 
which have been noticed, we have, besides 
the scripture record, to place the fact that 
history ascends but a very few thousand 
years. Some nations, indeed, claim a vast 
antiquity ; but, when their annals are sifted, 
the result is— and it is very remarkable that 
in different lands and among different na- 
tions there should be such agreement— that 
their chronicles and traditions begin at a 
period not greater than four or five thou- 
sand years ago 1 It is not likely that men 
existed for fifteen or twenty thousand years 
leaving no trace but a few bones or some 
weapons, and that then they made a sudden 
start, and filled the earth with monuments 
of their intelligence and histories of their 



deeds, to which we can with confidence 
ascend, while all beyond is but the black- 
ness of darkness which may be felt. 'When 
we are asked,' says Mr. Birks, ' in the total 
absence of all historical evidence, in direct 
opposition to the teaching of the scrip- 
tures, and on the strength of conjectures 
on the date of two or three skulls, or some 
hundreds of rudely-shaped flint-heads in 
the valley of the Somme, to add ten or 
twenty thousand years to these ages of 
moral gloom and darkness, our heart and 
understanding, if not perverted and os- 
sified by false science, recoil instinctively 
from the monstrous demand. . . . The 
licence is still bolder and more intolerable, 
when two or three skulls and skeletons, 
and some scores of rude implements, found 
in districts still uncivilized only two thou- 
sand vears ago, become the pretext for in- 
terpolating the world's history with three 
or four hundred generations of utter bar- 
barism and heathenish darkness, of which 
all trace and memory has long since passed 
away. Such speculators degrade the course 
of Providence iuto a moral chaos, deeper 
and more melancholy than the natural con- 
fusion out of which the present world 
arose' {Scientific Theories on the Origin of 
Man, p. 86). 

It is just possible, by supposing omis- 
sions in scripture pedigrees, that the great 
antiquity of man upon the earth may be 
allowed without absolutely contradicting 
the sacred record. But there is another 
branch of enquiry which comes, if some 
modern theories be adopted, into more di- 
rect collision with what inspired men have 
told us. The plain teaching of the scrip- 
ture is that our race, now so multitudinous, 
sprung from a single pair; that there is 
therefore a bond of brotherhood between 
all nations ; that in consequence of the 
transgression of the original parents all 
have shared the same degradation, and can 
obtain recovery only through the mediation 
of that divine Person, who, taking flesh, 
allied himself to the whole human race, and 
became thereby afit and adequate Mediator 
between God and man (Acts xvii. 26 ; Pvora. 
V. 12-19). It is true that great ingenuity 
has been exercised in putting a different 
meaning upon the passages just referred 
to, and those of similar import, and m 
picking out expressions from the bible 
which are said to intimate that races be- 
sides the children of Adam exist upon the 
earth. Among those who have so argued 
are in past times Peyrere, a French Cal- 
vinist, in his Prce-Adamitoi, 1655, and of late 
years R. S. Poole, in the Genesis of the Earth 
and of Man, and McCausland, in his work 
already noticed. But such ingenious expo- 
sitions are, to say the least, very dubious ; 
and it will therefore be controverted by 
very few that scripture declares against 
plurality of races. Now it has been main- 
tained that men vary so much m habit, 
constitution, intellectual power, co our, 
bodily conformation, that they cannot have 
all descended from the same parents. There 
are other theories, indeed, which have 
found some favour, and which "jiJ^"^ c 
placed in contrast with this, such as the 



man] 



theory of development, which supposes i 
being to hare advanced in the course of i; 
ages through gradually-ascending types, 1 
so that the most glorious specimen of hu- 1 
manity, endowed with vast physical power i 
and rare qualities of mind, is hut the far- ( 
descended child of some scarcely-sensitive ] 
and soulless thing— or that other hypo- ] 
thesis which finds in what is called the < 
principle of natural selection an influence ■ 
which tends to diversify species to such an : 
extent, that creatures far apart in all that 
constitutes variety are imagined to pro- : 
ceed from the same source. These theories 
can be only noted here : discussidn of their 
merits must be sought elsewhere (e.g. see 
Duns, M&i siipr., pp. 539-568). 

It may be well, however, cursorily tonoti ce 
the grounds on which believers in scripture, 
like McCausland, rest their hypothesis. He 
receives strictly the bible chronology. But 
he dwells ou the arguments from geology, 
archasology, history, language, and ethno- 
logy, as showing a great antiquity of men 
upon the earth. The creation of Adam then, 
which was at no far-distant era, he regards 
as the creation of the Caucasian stock, the 
highest type of man. And the history of 
this stock he supposes, to the exclusion of 
the rest, to be treated of in scripture. Re- 
jecting, in short, the antiquity of the 
Adamic family, he maintains its diversity 
from other families. It is by no means in- 
tended here to treat the evidence which 
Is adduced as mere phantasy. Doubt- 
less much deserves serious consideration. 
The strongest part of it, perhaps, is that 
based on the phenomena of language. Dr. 
McCausland argues that the inartificial 
Turanian tongues must be much older 
than the more highly-finished Semitic dia- 
lects. He concludes therefore that the 
peoples who use these Turanian tongues 
have existed far longer than the Semitic 
race, and he confines the confusion at Babel 
within the Semitic and Japhetic circle, be- 
lieving that those who have spoken other 
languages were not affected by it. Now 
his conclusion is diametrically opposed to 
that of Max MiiUer, whose high authority 
is in favour of the common origin of lan- 
guages. But then Max Muller demands 
a longer period for the present diversity to 
grow than the usually-received chronology 
will allow. The observations previously 
made of the pi'oved rapid changes in lan- 
guage may well tell upon this part of the 
question. And it has been already noted 
that varieties are known to flow from the 
influence of climate and other causes upon 
descendants from the same stock. Well 
and thoroughly should facts of this kind 
be weighed ; and the different conclusions 
arrived at by competent enquirers must, it 
is right to say again, teach us the greatest 
caution against hastily embracing any plau- 
sible hypothesis. 

But there are, certainly, very plain and 
weighty reasons for the descent of all men 
from the same stock, which have been thus 
summed up by Dr. Dana in his valuable 
Manual of Geology, Philad. 1863:— 'The one- 
ness of species is sustained by the following 
considerations : 1. The fact of an essential 



identity among men of all races in physical 
and mental characteristics. 2. The capa- 
bility of an intermixture of races with con- 
tinued fertile progeny. The inferior race, 
in case of mixture with a superior, may 
dwindle, the people becoming from their 
position discouraged, debased, and in their 
poverty and superstition an easy prey to 
disease ; and it may possibly die out, as the 
weaker weeds disappear among the strong- 
growing grass : such decay is hence no 
evidence that there is a natural limit to the 
fertility of " mixed breeds," as some have 
urged. 3. Among mammals the higher 
genera have few species, and the highest 
group next to man, that of the ourang- 
outang, contains only eight ; and these eight 
belong to two genera.— five of them to the 
genus Pithecus of the East Indies, and three 
to the higher genus Troglodytes of Africa. 
Analogy requires that man should here have 
pre-eminence. If more than one species be 
admitted, there is scarcely a limit to the 
number that may be made' (part iii. 5, 
p. 584). 

The capability of man to spread himself 
and lire in all the regions of the earth is 
very noteworthy. Some have been disposed 
to doubt the fact, and to imagine that men 
of one clime could not permanently establish 
themselves in another. There is a complete 
answer to this. The Jewish race, a stand- 
ing illustration of the truth of prophecy, 
are a standing proof also of the capability 
mentioned. Demonstrably of old seated in 
one extremity of Asia they are now spread 
over every continent, accustomed to every 
climate, suited to every varying mode of 
life. 

The reader must be reminded that philo- 
sophical theories are frequently changing. 
Let him never be allured by any of them, 
however specious, to doubt the bible reve- 
lation. That stands upon proof so large 
and satisfactory that we may well be sure 
that, even if discoveries we cannot at pre- 
sent comprehend are made, they will ulti- 
mately be found not discordant with God's 
voice in his word. The humble student of 
that word will wait for fuller light in pa- 
tience and in faith. 
1 It was a crowning work when man pro- 
I ceeded from the creative hand. 'Man,' says 
Dr. Dana (pp. 573, 574), ' was the first being 
th'at was not finished on reaching adult 
■ growth, but was provided with powers for 
I indefinite expansion, a will for a life of 
. work, and boundless aspirations to lead to 
! endless improvement. He was the first 
L being capable of an intelligent survey of 
[ nature and comprebension of her laws ; the 
: first capable of augmenting his strength 
I by bending nature to his service, rendering 
; thereby a weak body stronger than all pos- 
: sible animal force ; the first capable of de- 
• riving happiness from beauty, truth, and 
goodness, of apprehending eternal right, of 
[ looking from the finite towards the infinite, 
I and communing with God his Maker. Made 
; in the image of God, surely he is immea- 
i surably beyond the brute. . . . The suprc- 
- macy of the animal in nature, which had 
r continued until now, here yields, therefore 
1 i to the supremacy of the spiritual . . . And 



557 



[manasseh 



the earth subserves her chief purpose in 
nurturing this new creation for a still more 
exalted stage, that of spiritual existence.' 

It is rerelation which discloses the last 
noble destiny of men. Redeemed from 
the degradation of the fall by the conde- 
gcension of the Son of God, they shall par- 
take his glory. The mind cannot now, in- 
deed, conceive its splendour, nor can human 
tongue adventure to describe it. Even in- 
spiration falters here. ' It doth not yet 
appear what we shall be ; but we know that, 
when HE shall appear, we shall be like him ; 
for we shall see him as he is ' (1 John iii. 2), 
How fatal the ruin of those who miss by 
unbelief and sin this excellent consum- 
mation. 

It may be well here to notice a few of 
the scripture phrases into which the word 
'man' enters. A 'man of God' is some 
holy servant of God(Deut.xxxiii.l ; Judges 
liii. 6, 8 ; 1 Sam. ii. 27 ; 1 Kings xiii. 1, 4-8, 
11, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29, 31 ; 2 Chron. viii. 14 ; 
1 Tim. vi. 11). The 'old man' is the un- 
renewed heart; the 'new man' the holy 
nature imparted by the working of the di- 
vine Spirit (Rom. vi. 6; Eph. ii. 15, iv. 22, 
24; Col. iii. 9, 10). In the 'man of sin 
(2 Thess. ii. 3) sin is personified. For ' son 
of man ' see the article under that title. 

MAN'AEN {consoler}. A Christian teacher 
in the church at Antioch, foster-brother of 
Herod Antipas the tetrarch (Acts xiii. 1). 

MANA'HATH (rest). A descendant of Seir 
the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chron. i. 40). 

MANA'HATH {id.). A place mentioned 
only in 1 Chron. viii. 6, probably in Benja- 

"^MANA'HETHITES (1 Chron. ii. 52, 54). 

These may be the inhabitants of the place 
above jnentioned; but there is an uncer- 
tainty about the meaning : see Hatsi-ha^i- 

MENTJCHOTH. 

3IANASS'EAS a 'Elsdr.ix. 31). Manasseh 
(Ezra X. 30). „ 

M \NASS'EH (who makes forget). 1. The 
elder son of Joseph born in Egypt of his 
wife Asenath before the predicted years of 
famine cam« (Gen. xli. 50, 51). Very little 
is recorded of the personal history of Ma- 
nasseh. When Jacob's death drew near, 
Joseph carried his two sons, Manasseh and 
Ephraim, then young men upwards of 
twenty, to receive the blessing of their 
graudsire. Jacob's eye-sight was well-nigh 
gone ; but he guided his hands in such a 
way as to lay the right on Ephraim's, the 
left upon Manasseh's head, and, in spite 
of Joseph's remonstrance, while declaring 
that the seed of the two should multiply as 
the abundant fishes of the Nile (xlviii. 16, 
marg.), and that as Ms sons they should be 
the heads of two distinct tribes in Israel, 
he foretold that Ephraim should be greater 
than his elder brother Manasseh (xlviii.). 
The same prophecy is reiterated in the last 
words of Moses : ' They are the ten thou- 
sands of Ephraim ; and tbiey are the thou- 
sands of Manasseh ' (Dent, xxxiii. 17). 

It is not very clear how many sons were 
born to Manasseh. By a concubine he had 
Machir, the head of several families of the 
tribe, whose children ' were brought up on 
Joseph's knees' (Gen. 1. 23 ; l Chron. vii. 



14). In the enumeration in Numb. xxvi. 
29-33 : comp. Josh. xvii. 2, eight families 
are mentioned, besides one afterwards 
absorbed among the rest because it con- 
sisted only of females ; but of the heads 
of these families some are evidently grand- 
sons or great-grandsons of the patriarch. 
In the first census the tribe had multiplied 
to 32,200 : its place in the encampment was 
to the west of the tabernacle, and it followed 
on march the standard of Ephraim, next to 
that tribe and before the kindred one of 
Benjamin (Numb. i. 34, 35, ii. 18-24). In the 
later census just previous to entering 
Canaan, the Manassites were 52,700, consi- 
derably exceeding the Ephraimites (xxvi. 
34, 37). Kalisch {Comm. on Old Test. Gen., 
p. 711) reasonably accounts for this by the 
supposition that the younger branches of 
the house of Joseph attached themselves 
sometimes to one and sometimes to another 
of the two great divisions of their father.s 
posterity (Gen. xlviii. 6). 

As the Israelites drew near the end of 
their wanderings, and when the districts 
west of the Jordan ruled over by Sihon and 
Og were being subdued, the tribes of Reu- 
ben and Gad, who possessed much cattle and 
saw that the land of Gilead was a place for 
cattle, desired that Moses would assign 
them their inheritance there, engaging to 
aid by a large auxiliary force the conquest 
of western Canaan (Numb, xxxii. 1-32). 
Part of the tribe of Manasseh were joined 
with them. They seem to have been bold 
warlike men, delighting . in adventure, 
who attacked and conquered the difficult 
country to the north, with the singular re- 
gion of Argob (33, 39-42 ; Deut. iii. 13-15 ; 
Josh, xvii.' 1). This, then was the territory 
of trans-Jordanic Manasseh: it extended 
from Mahanaim northward, including half 
Gilead, and the kingdom of Bashan (xiii. 
2&-31), a country described by travellers as 
for the most part beautiful in its aspect, 
diversified by mountains, hills, and valleys, 
and fertile for the subsistence of those who 
were settled in it. Of the cities belonging 
to it Golan, Ashtaroth, and Edrei are parti- 
cularly mentioned, of which the two former 
were made Levitical cities, Golan being also 
a city of refuge (xx. 8, xxi. 27 ; 1 Chron. vi. 
71). 

The other half of the tribe crossed the 
Jordan, and had their inheritance (ten parts) 
in close proximity to that of Ephraim. It 
stretched across from the Jordan to the Me- 
diterranean, the southern frontier running 
from Asher, which some suppose not the 
territory of the tribe so called, but a town 
by Michmethath facing Shechem, to En- 
tappuah, and so on by the river Kanah to 
the great sea. South of this line the coun- 
try was Ephraim's, north it was Manasseh s 
(Josh. xvii. 2-10). The northern frontier is 
not so well defined. It appears to have 
been intermixed with Issachar and Asher, 
as if Manasseh had been pushed out beyoiia 
its proper limits ; for the cities mentioned 
as belonging to Manasseh, Beth-shean, 
Ibleam, Dor, En-dor, and Megiddo are 
specially said to have been territorial y 
situate in Issachar and Asher. Perhaps the 
solution of the difficulty is to be found in 



manasseh] 



558 



the complaint that the descendants of 
Joseph made to Joshua that they had not 
sufficient room, and his charge to them to 
extend themselves Into the woodland and 
mountain-country (11-18 : comp. 1 Chron. vii. 
29). Of the cities of the half-tribe Taanach 
and Gath-rimmon (xxi. 25) or Aner and 
Bileam (1 Chron. \i. 70) are said to have 
been assigned to the Levites. 

Several eminent men arose out of Ma- 
nasseh ; and there are many notable events 
recorded in ^vhich the tribe took part. 
Tbus we have a reference to the ' gover- 
nor«"out of :Machir' in Deborah's triumphal 



11, 12). After the captivi^^j it would seem 
that some of them settled in Jerusalem 
(1 Chron. ix. 3). 

2. The ancestor of that Jonathan the Le- 
vlte, whom Micah consecrated as priest for 
his house of images, and who afrerwards 
was priest to the northern Danites (Judges 
xviii. 30). The word Manasseh is peculiarly 
written in the original ; and it is supposed, 
with much probability, that Moses was 
really meant. 

3. One of the kings of Judah, son of 
Hf^zekiah, who succeeded his father at 
tweiv-" years of age (being born after Heze- 



odp r Judges v U). Gideon was a native of ! kiah's recovery from his great sickness), and 
wes4rn!lanas eh; but on occasion of his j reigned fifty-five years, 696-641 B c, It is 
victory thejealousymanifested itself which ' — --^-^ ti.. .avi.pr vp«r. nf hi^rPiam 



was conceived by Ephraim against the 
kindred tribe. It was allayed for the tmie 
bv Gideon's prudence (vi.-viii.) ; but perhaps 
this contributed to the slaughter of his 
familv after his death, and favoured the 
erection of the kingship in Shechem, an 
Ephraimitish city, in the person of Abime- 
lech, whose mother was of Ephraim. Great 
stress, we find, was laid on Abimelech's 
being of kin to the men of Shechem (ix. 1-6). 
Jair and Jephthah were eastern Manassites ; 
and, when the old grudge of Ephraim re- 
xixed, the latter judge signally punished 



evident that in the earlier years of his reign 
this prince must have been under the 
guidance of the nobles of Judah; and we 
mav well suppose it an evil guidance. "When 
therefore he took the reins of government 
into his own hands he reversed as far as 
possible his father's righteous policy : he 
built up again the high places, reared 
shrines to Baal, worshipped the host of 
heaven, and placed altars to them in the 
temple courts : he passed his son through 
the fire, and used enchantments, and, in 
short, committed every possible abomina- 
tion, making his people worse than the 



rhnr h'au"-htv tribe (x '3-5, xi., xiL). A con- very heathen. He also shed much innocent 
MerS}e=bSy of Mfnasseh apparently dis- blood, and caused if the f^if Jjadition 
contented with Saul, joined David when he | may be believed, the prophet Isaiah to be 
appeared in the ranks of the Philistine | sawn asunder, 
army shortly before the fatal field of Gilboa ; ' 



and he was soon reinforced by more as he 
marched to Ziklag, an opportune aid against 
the rovins bands who had assaulted and 
plundered^'Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 20, 21). Ma- 
nasseh submitted to Ish-bosheth ; but.when 
that ill-fated prince had perished, and 
Abner, the pillar of his kingdom, was no 
more, then, with all Israel, multitudes of 
both the eastern and western Manassites 
repaired to Hebron to make David king 
over the whole nation (31, 37). In the 
happier times of the Hebrew monarchy, 
the trans-Jordanic Manassites, who were 
valiant men, 'increased.' we are told, ' from 
Bashan unto Baal-hermon and Senir, and 
unto mount Hermon' (v. 23, 24 : comp. 18-21). 
David had officers there as well as in the 
western territory (xxvi. 32, xxvii. 20, 21) ; 
and Solomon placed bis commissaries in 
this eastern region (1 Kings iv. 13, 19). But 
they transgressed against the God of their 
fathers, and were carried away captive by 
the kings of Assyria (l Chron. v. 25, 26). It 
is more pleasing to see someof thenoticesjof 
the western Manassites. Many of them left 
idolatrous Israel, and joined Asa of Judah 
in his efforts at reformation (2 Chron. xv. 9): 
manv of them also humbled themselves, 
and accepted Hezekiah's invitation to the 
passover (xxx.l, 11, 18): they broke down the 
images also in their own territory (xxxi. 1), 
and showed themselves, a remnant of them, 
obedient in the days of Josiah (xxxiv. 6, 9). 
Men of other tribes were joined with them ; 
but in all the revivals we find the name of 
Manasseh. Still there was no thorough and 
entire repentance : and the bulk of this 
tribe, as well as the rest of Israel, were 
carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings xviii. 



The record of this miserable reign in the 
book of Kings is very short : general state- 
ments are made, but no details are given ; 
and it is one of the darkest records In the 
page of history (2 Kings xxi. 1-16). But in 
the corresponding narrative in Chronicles 
a bright feature is introduced. Manasseh's 
guilt is, as before, fully exposed; but it is 
added that, when he refused to listen to the 
voice of admonition, the Lord brought 
upon him the Assyrian captains, who carried 
him a prisoner to Babylon. This must have 
occurred in the reign of Esar-haddon, who 
held his court for some time at Babylon. 
The statement therefore that Manasseh was 
taken by the Assyrians to Babylon, though 
at first sight it seems to present a difficulty, 
vet turns out on examination in full ac- 
cordance with the truth of history : and 
we have in it a corroboration of the ac- 
curacy and credibility of the sacred writer. 
At Babvlon, in his affliction Manasseh 
humbled himself, an^ sought mercy from 
the Lord. His prayer was heard ; and he 
was restored to his kingdom. He was now 
of a different mind. He redressed many of 
the evils of which he had been the author. 
But alas I evil is very tenacious. The people 
seem to have been indifferent to the 
exertions of their king ; and, as he was suc- 
ceeded by an ungodly son, and Josiah his 
grandson was but a child when he came to 
the throne, matters were till the twelfth 
year of Josiah's reign almost in the samecon- 
dition as during Manasseh'^s wicked course. 
Manasseh. after his return from Babylon, 
added to the fortifications of Jerusalem 
and garrisoned the fenced cities of Judah 
(2 Chron. xxxiii. 1-19). Some have imagined 
that these warlike preparations were made 



559 



milt %mMtXiQt. 



with the view of an alliance with the i a 
Egyptian Pharaoh. This is but conjecture, t 
The annals, however, of this reign being t 
short, critics have specially indulged c 
themselves in speculation concerning the 1 
events of it. But, where scripture is silent, t 
and authentic secular history adds little, t 
there is no good ground for conjecture, e 
Manasseh died, and was buried in a private ^ 
family sepulchre in ' the garden of TJzza i 
(2 Kings xxi. 17, 18 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 20). It j 
is difficult to account for this : it is clear 1 
that it could not be , as some have imagined, ] 
because the king's evil courses were disap- j 
proved by his people : they were only too i 
ready to follow them. . ^ 

4, 5. Two persons who married foreign ( 
wives (Ezra x. 30, 33). ^ - 

MAl^AS'SES.— 1 (Matt. i. 10). Manasseh ; 
the king.— 2 (P^ev. vii. 6). The patriarch. i 
MANAS'SES.—l (lEsdr.ix.33). Manasseh : 
(Ezra X. 33).— 2 (Judith viii. 2, 3). The hus- ' 
band of Judith. . . 

MANAS' Si:S, TBE PEAYEB OF. This is 
a short apocryphal piece intended to ex- 
press the penitent feelings which the king 
might have while justly suffering for his 
sins. That he did so humble himself, and 
pray, and that his prayer was preserved 
among the ancient records of the kingdom 
we know (2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19). But the 
composition now in existence is certainly 
not genuine. For it was written originally 
not in Hebrew but in Greek r it is not 
certainly mentioned by any writer prior to 
the so-called Apostolical Constitutions in 
the fourth century after Christ, and it never 
was accounted canonical by the church. Yet 
it embodies pious thoughts : it is found in 
the Codex Alexandrinus, and, though al- 
lowed to be spurious by the church of 
Rome, is in the Vulgate. It is, however, not 
known by whom the Latin translation was 
made ; nor can the date of the original be 
determined with any exactness. 

M^NAS'SITES. The descendants of Ma- 
nasseh (Deut. iv. 43 ; Judges xii. 4 ; 2 Kings 
X. 33). 

MANDRAKE. A plant which was sup- 
posed to promote fecundity. Reuben had 
found mandrakes in a field, and brought 
them to his mother Leah. Rachel, seeing 
them, and anxious for children, requested 
them of her sister, and obtained them on a 
certain condition (Gen. xxx. 14-16). Various 
legendary stories are told of the mandrake, 
for which see D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient. 
arts. 'Abrousanam,' 'Asterenk;' Kalisch, 
Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 537-539. It is clear 
that the plant intendedblossomed in spring, 
that the flowers had a strong scent, that 
the fruit ripened in May, the time of wheat- 
harvest in Padan-aram, that these man- 
drakes were not common, else Rachel would 
have had no reason for bargaining with 
Leah, and, further, that they were found in 
Palestine (Sol. Song vii. 13). Now the 
Atropa mandrctgora, called also Mandragora 
vernalis, appears to answer these conditions. 
•The root,' says Kalisch, 'is white, mostly 
forked, but straight and thick, having some 
resemblance to the human form, about four 
feet long, unwholesome, and of repulsive 
BmeU : the leaves are of a lively green, oval. 



about one foot long, four to five inches 
broad, with an undulating border: the 
flowers are small, whitish-green (purple, ac- 
cording to Ginsburg, The Song of Songs, pp. 
183, 184), bell-shaped, blossoming in spring, 
and exhaling a strong but fragrant odour : 
the fruit is yellow, of the size of a small 
egs, pleasant both to sight and smell, filled 
with seeds, and ripens in the month of 
May. ... It is freely eaten by the natives 
as wholesome, genial, and exhilarating, is 
believed to strengthen affection, and em- 
ployed for the preparation of love-philtres.' 
Mandrakes still grow near Jerusalem, and 
in various parts of Syria. I)r. Thomson saw 
them near Hebron, and on the loAver ranges 
of Lebanon and Hermon {Tlie Land and the 
Book, pp. 576, 577). The mandrake is nearly 
allied to the Atropa belladonna, deadly night- 
shade. There is an interesting account of 
it in Duns' £ibl. Nat. Science, vol. 1. pp. 
430-436. 

MA'iSTEH (part, portion). See Money, 
Weights. 

MANGER (Luke ii. 7, 12, 16). By this 
word is probably to be understood one of 
those recesses described in the article Ixx, 
which see. 
MA'NI (1 Esdr. ix. 30). Bani (Ezra x. 29). 
MAN'LIUS (2 Mace. xi. 34). The name of 
a Roman ambassador, said to have written 
a letter to the Jews. This letter is with 
reason considered a fabrication. 

MAN'NA {portion, or what ?). The name 
given to the food supernaturally supplied 
to the Israelites during their abode in the 
wilderness. Many writers have endeavoured 
to account for the production of this sub- 
stance, and have believed that they recog- 
nized it in the exudations of certain plants, 
still collected and known as articles of 
commerce. But, if we are to take the 
scripture narrative as recording real events, 
we must admit that the manna provided 
for the Israelites was something entirely 
different from natural products. Their 
surprise when they first saw it, the regu- 
larity and immense quantity of the supply, 
. the preservation oL some of it for the in 
spection of future generations, are facts 
\ which the theory of the ordinary exuda- 

■ tions from trees or bushes fails to interpret. 
It is useless, therefore, to give a descrip- 
tion of substances which certainly could 

■ not be the manna of Israel. Let the fol- 
lowing extract from Dr. Robinson suffice. 

' When he was at the convent on Sinai in 
1839, the superior, he says, ' put into our 
' hands a small quantity of the manna of the 
peninsula, famous at least as being the suc- 
' cesser of the Israelitish manna, though not 
^ to be regarded as the same substance ... It 
- is found in the form of shining drops on 
I the twigs and branches ... of the " turf a," 
1 Tamarix gallica marmifera, . . from which it 
1 exudes in consequence of the puncture of 
3 an insect, . . the Coccus manniparus. ... It 
I has the appearance of gum, is of a sweetish 
taste, and melts when exposed to the sun 
7 or to a fire.' ' Chemical analysis . . showed 
3 that the manna of the tamarisk of Sinal 
r contains no manmw susceptible of crystal- 
s lization, but is merely an inspissated sugar. 
, The manna of the Hebrews was essentiall: 



560 



manoah] 



different from this. ' And, even could it be 
shown to he the same, still a supply of it in 
sufficient abundance for the daily consump- 
tion of two millions of people would have 
been no less a miracle' iBibl. Ees., vol. i.pp 
115, 116, 590). 

God, indeed, in his miraculous working, 
seems often to intensify some natural 
power, so that nature is the ground as it 
were of miracle. Thus the food supplied by 
our Lord to the 4,000 and the 5,000 was not 
some strange aliment, but fish and bread 
just like those of which there was already a 
small provision. Still this by no m.eans de- 
tracts from the supernatural character of 
what was done. And so, whether or no the 
manna given to the Hebrews resembled 
what is now called manna, it was not the re- 
sult of ordinary laws : the finger of God was 
manifest in its production. 

Manua is mentioned as first given when 
the Israelites were in the wilderness of Sin. 
It was found in the morning after the dew 
evaporated : it lay like the hoar-frost on the 
ground, the size of coriander-seed, and the 
colour of bdellium : it was to be gathered at 
once before the sun melted it. Each person 
was to collect for his household at the rate 
of an omer (about three quarts) a head ; so 
that, according to the size of a family, more 
or less was taken. It was used as meal and 
made into cakes ; the taste of it being like 
oil, or wafer-cakes made with honey. All 
was to be consumed the day it was gathered, 
else it corrupted; but the day before the 
sabbath a double quantity was to be 
brought in, and then it lasted without cor- 
rupting for two days. An omer of it was 
long preserved as a memorial in the sanc- 
tuary, testifying God's power and willing- 
ness to give food for the subsistence of his 
people in the most apparently-destitute 
circumstances. The supply of manna lasted 
till after the Israelites at Gilgal had eaten 
of the old corn of Canaan (Exod. xvi. ; Numb, 
xi. 4-9 ; Josh. V. 10-12 : see also Deut. viii. 
3 ; ISTeh. ix. 20 ; Psal. Ixxviii. 24, 25 ; Heb. 
ix. 4). 

Our Lord, referring to the manna, declares 
himself the true bread from heaven (John 
vi. 31-35, 48-51, 58). With regard to the 
' hidden manna ' (Rev. ii. 17), abp. Trench 
considers this as pointing to Christ after 
his ascension. He is hidden from his 
people's sight, but shall not remain hidden 
for ever, and even now he gives them pre- 
libations of that feast they shall hereafter 
partake of {Comm. on Ejpistles to Seven 
Churches, pp. 124, 125). 

MANO'AH {rest). A Danite, the father of 
the famous Samson (Judges xiii., xvi. 31). 
Little is told of him save in connection 
with Samson's birth. He most probably 
died before his son, whose ' brethren ' and 
the ' house of his father' are said to have 
buried him. 

MAN-SLAYER (Numb.xxxv. 6, 12 ; 1 Tim. 
i. 9). See Cities of Refuge, Murder. 

MANTLE. See Dress. That mentioned 
in Judges iv. 18 was probably a kind of 
thick coverlid, such as is ordinarily used 
now by the Arabs for a bed, one doubled to 
lie on, another thrown over the sleeper. 

MANUSCRIPTS. It is proposed in the 



present article to give a brief notice of 
biblical manuscripts generally, with a more 
particular description of a few of the most 
valuable now in existence. 

Before the invention of printing, copies 
of the scriptures, as of other books, were 
multiplied in writing : see Writing ; and 
volumes so written are called manuscripts, 
and these are either auhographs, by the 
original penman, or apographs, copies made 
from those originals. All the manuscripts 
at present existing are apographs ; the 
originals having perished. Many, however, 
of those we possess of the scriptures are of 
very great antiquity. 

The manuscripts to be here described are 
1. Hebrew and 2. Greek. 

1. Hebrew manuscripts are synagogue 
rolls and private copies. The first are 
those used in the synagogue worship. They 
are written with great exactness on the 
skins of clean animals, specially prepared, 
and fastened together with strings also 
taken from clean animals. They are in the 
square Chaldee letters, without vowels or 
accents ; and as they are of a considerable 
length they are rolled round cylinders, so 
as to afford facility in displaying any por- 
tion required. The writing is in columns, 
presenting, so to speak, separate pages to 
the eye of the reader as he unrolls the 
manuscript. Some of these synagogue rolls 
contain the Pentateuch. The haphtaroth or 
prophetic sections read in the service, and 
the megilloth or five books, viz., Solomon's 
Song, Ruth, Lamentations, Bcclesiastes, and 
Esther (read, the Song at the passover, 
Ruth at the feast of weeks. Lamentations 
on the 9th of Ab when the temple was both 
times burnt, Ecclesiastes at the feast of 
tabernacles, and Esther the 14th and I5th 
of Adar at the feast of Purim) are on 
separate rolls. The private manuscripts are 
in books, folio, quarto, octavo, or duo- 
decimo, written on vellum, parchment, or 
paper. Some of these are in the square 
Chaldee. and some in the rabbinical cha- 
racter. They have vowels and accents, 

CJassiflcations have been made of Hebrew 
manuscripts. There are the Spanish, to 
which oriental manuscripts are n-early 
allied, the German, and the French and 
Italian intermediate between Spanish and 
German. The Spanish copies are said to 
follow the Masoretic order in the arrange- 
ment of the books ; the letters are regular, 
square, and well-proportioned : in German 
copies the; Talmudic arrangement is ob- 
served ; and the characters are ruder and 
more inclined, with pointed corners. In 
French and Italian manuscripts the cha- 
racter is somewhat smaller, more round 
than pointed. The Jews distinguish be- 
tween what they call the Tarn, and the 
Welshe character: the first has sharp-pointed 
corners and perpendicular coronulm (little 
ornaments called taggin) on certain con- 
sonants, and is said to be used in German 
and Polish manuscripts : the second, not so 
ancient, has rounder strokes in the letters ; 
the coronulcB ending in a thick point : this 
mode of writing was in use in Spain and 
the east. The Spanish manuscriiits are 
most highly valued by the Jews. The 



561 



classification just described is somewhat 
uncertain: the characteristics that have 
been noted are but general, and a vast 
variety of exceptions and particular 
marks have been given by critics, for 
which their works must be consulted. It 
is, further, difficult to determine the age of 
Hebrew manuscripts. Sometimes, indeed, 
a date is inscribed ; or external circum- 
stances may afford some testimony. But, 
where internal marks alone present them- 
selves, the utmost caution is required in 
judging of the antiquity and goodness of a 
manuscript. It may, however, be said that 
existing manuscripts are all, more or less 
fully, of a Masoretic cast ; and consequently 
they exhibit substantially the same text. 
Even those obtained from the east are of 
this class. Thus the celebrated roll of the 
Pentateuch, procured hy Dr. Buchanan 
from the black Jews in Malabar, was pro- 
bably transcribed from a Spanish manu- 
script; and those brought to England from 
the Jewish settlement at K'ae-fung-foo in 
China appear to have the Masoretic text. 

Kennicott, and De Rossi, and of late 
Pinner, are the critics who have laboured 
chiefly in collating Hebrew manuscripts. 
Two or three of the older ones which they 
examined shall be briefly described. The 
Codex Laudianus in the Bodleian library 
(No. 1 in Dr. Kennicott'slist) is on vellum: it 
consi&^s of two folio parts. The letters are 
moderately large, plain, simple, elegant, and 
unadorned: the points, it would seem from 
the colour of the ink, were added at a later 
date. Some of the letters, obliterated by 
the lapse of ages, have been written over 
a second time ; and yet some of these are 
becoming a second time invisible. Dr. 
Kennicott assigns this to the tenth cen- 
tury, De Rossi to the eleventh, A very 
ancient codex in quarto was examined by 
De Rossi (numbered by him 634). It is but 
a fragment, containing Lev. xxi, 19 to 
Numb. i. 50. The vellum on which it is 
written is decayed by age : the character is 
intermediate or Italic, approaching to that 
of the German manuscripts. De Rossi 
assigns it to the eighth century. In the 
collation made by Dr. Pinner at .Odessa, 
of manuscripts which are now deposited 
in the imperial library at St. Petersburg, 
there is mention of a Pentateuch roll 
on leather (which he marks No. 1). It is 
complete. It has neither vowels, nor ac- 
cents, nor Masorah ; but the rules of the 
Masorah are complied with ; and the words 
are separated. The form of the letters 
differs much from that now in use. It has a 
subscription stating that it was corrected in 
the year 580 a.d. ; and Pinner believes that 
this statement is accurate. If so, it is the 
oldest Hebrew manuscript known to exist. 
It was brought from Derbend in Daghes- 
tan. Among the manuscripts examined 
by Dr. Pinner are some with vowels shaped 
differently from those to which we are 
accustomed. It has been thought that the 
system they present had its origin in 
Babylonia. It may be added that seventeen 
manuscripts are known to exist of the 
Samaritan Pentateuch ; six of which are 
in the Bodleian, and one in the British 



Museum. This last, procured by archbishop 
TJssher, is complete on 254 pages of vellum. 
It is in a good state of preservation, a leaf 
of fine paper having been placed between 
every two leaves of vellum. It was written 

1362 A.D. 

2. Greek manuscripts of scripture are 
either of the whole bible or of the New 
Testament. The form of the letters varies. 
Sometimes they are all capitals ; and 
manuscripts so written are called uncial. 
These, generally speaking, are the oldest ; 
while cursive writing, in which the letters 
run on, being often joined, with no capitals 
except as initials, belongs to a later age. 
This appears to have come into use in sa* 
cred documents in the tenth century. 
Greek manuscripts are in the square form ; 
and, though doubtless rolls like the Hebrew 
existed in very early times, none of these 
have been preserved. The most ancient 
manuscripts are without accents, spirits or 
breathings, or any separation of words; 
though by the beginning of the flf th cen- 
tury,'' and probably earlier, a dot was used 
to divide sentences. The older manuscripts 
are generally Imperfect : a few have origi- 
nally contained the whole bible ; others the 
New Testament ; and others only particular 
books or portions of it. Sometimes the 
original writing has been almost or alto- 
gether obliterated, and fresh matter has 
been Introduced : these manuscripts are 
called codices palimpsesti or rescripti, that 
is, re-written. And, when the text is ac- 
companied by a version, the manuscripts are 
termed codices bilingues, or double-tongued. 
These are generally Greek and Latin ; and 
in a very old manuscript the Latin trans- 
lation is likely to be that in use before the 
time of Jerome. 

The Codex Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian 
manuscript, is one of the oldest and most 
celebrated. It was presented by Cyrillus 
Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, to 
Charles I„ in 1628, and has been preserved 
since 1753 in the British Museum. It has its 
name from its having been brought (it is said) 
by Cyrillus from Alexandria. Ic is on thin 
veUum, and consists of four folio volumes, 
the first three containing the Old Testament 
and apocryphal books, with certain odes or 
hymns, while the fourth comprised the New 
Testament, the epistles of Clement to the 
Corinthians, and the psalms ascribed to 
Solomon. But these psalms are gone ; and 
only a few lines remain of the 2nd epistle 
of Clement. The writing on each page is 
in two columns ; and there are about fifty 
lines in a column. The Old Testament is 
defective in part of the Psalms. In the New 
Testament there are the following chasms. 
Matt. i. 1— XXV. 6 ; John vi. 50— viii. 52 ; 
3 Cor. iv. 13— xii. 6, This manuscript was 
designated by "Walton as Codex A for 
shortness : it was afterwards called A by 
critics ; and other uncial manuscripts have 
consequently been noted asB, C, &c.; while 
small letters are used for cursive manu- 
scripts. The Alexandrian MS, was probably 
written in Egypt : this is to a certain extent 
corroborated by an Arabic note upon it, 
which, though comparatively modern, is by 
no means recent, and which seems to 
() O 



manuscripts] 



562 



attrftute it to one Tliecla a martyr. But 
this may mean no more than that the part 
of the *New Testament with which the 
manuscript begins, is the lesson for Thecla's 
day. The date may reasonably he supposed 
the later part of the fifth century. The 
New Testament was published from this 
manuscript in f ac-simile by Dr. Woide in 
1786, folio, and in ordinary Greek characters 
by Mr. B. H. Oowper in 1860, Svo. A fac- 
simile of the Old Testament was completed 
in 1828 by the Rev. H. H. Baber. In order 
to give the general reader a notion of the 
way in which this manuscript is written, the 
following very literal translation of John i. 
1-7 is subjoined :— 



now in the university library at Leipsic, 
was obtained by Tischendorf in 1844, and 
edited by him in 1846. This fe-agment— 
forty-three leaves— included part of Chron- 
icles, and other historical books, also part of 
Jeremiah. The Codex Sinaiticus, it is so 
called, is of special value as containing, the 
New Testament entire : it contains also the 
so-called epistle of Barnabas, and pan of the 
Shepherd of Hermas; and considered as 
belonging t© the fourth (if not the third) 
century. A noble edition of It has been 
published by Dr. Tischendorf at the ex- 
pense of the emperor of Russia. 

One more celebrated manuscript may be 
mentioned, the Codex Cantabrigiensis. or 



Inthebeginningwasthewordandt-sewordwas 

withgd-andgdwastheword 

hewasinthebeginning^ithgd 

allweremadebyhimandwith 

otjthimwasimadenoto^? e thing- 

th at wasm adeinhimxif-gwas- 

andthelifewasthelightofmn 

andthelightindarknessshin 

ethandthedarknessdidnotitcompre 

HEND- THEREWASA'MNSE 
N TFROMGOD WH 0 SENAME T7J.5f 
IOHN-THISP-Ei250iVOAME 
ASAWITNESSTHATHEMIGHTTESTI 
FYCONCERNINGTHELIGHTTHATA 
LLMIGHTBELIEYETHROUGHHIM- 



The Codex Vaticanus, or Vatican manu- 
script, is another most precious relic of an- 
tiauity. It also Is written on vellum m 
uncial characters, in quarto, with three 
columns on each page, and is preserved m 
the Vatican library at Rome. It contains 
the Old and New Testaments, but is im- 
perfect, wanting Gen. i.-xlvi., and Psal. cv.- 
cxxxvii., and Heb. ix. 15 to the end of that 
epistle, also the pastoral epistles, and the 
entire book of Revelation. This last book, 
however, has been added, as well as tiie 
latter part of the epistle to the Hebrews, in 
a recent cursive hand, which has also fined 
up the chasms in the Old Testament. The 
faded letters, too, have generally been re- 
touched by a careful modern penman. There 
are reasons for believing that the Vatican 
manuscript was written in Egj-pt, most 
probably before the middle of the fourth 
century. It has been repeatedly but im- 
perfectly collated by various critics ; but 
no fac-simile of it has ever been produced. 
Cardinal Mai's edition, printed some years 
before, was published in 1857 ; the New 
Testament again in 1859 ; but his text is 
rather grounded on the Vatican than an ac- 
curate representation of the manuscript 
itself. . , .J. 

A third most precious uncial manuscript 
has been but lately brought to liftit It 
was procured by Dr. Tischendorf m 1859, 
from the convent of mount Smai, and has 
been purchased for the imperial library at 
St Petersburg. It originally contained the 
Old and New Testaments. A fragment, 



Codex BezoB, presented to the university of 
Cambridge in 1581 by Theodore Be^^a. It Is 
a Greek-Latin manuscript, containing the 
four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. 
It must also once have bad at least the 
catholic epistles, there being now belonging 
to it a fragment of 3 John. There are 
several imperfections ; and, besides, sixty- 
six leaves are torn, or mutilated. The 
Greek portions entirely wanting are Matt. 
I. 1-20, Yi. 20 — ix. 2, xxvii. 2-12; John i. 
16— iii. 26 ; Acts viii. 29— x. 14, xxi. 2-10, 
16-18, xxii. 10-20, 29 to the end. And a later 
hand has added Matt. iii. 7-16 ; Mark xvi. 
15-20 ; John xviii. 13— xx. 13. There are also 
in the Latin chasms and portions supplied. 
This manuscript was probably written in 
the sixth century ; but it is not considered 
of great critical value ; as the Greek text 
appears to have been altered, and readings 
perhaps introduced from some Latin 
version. A fac-simile edition of this manu- 
script was published in 1793, under the edi- 
torial care of the Rev. Dr. Kipling, and at 
the expense of the university, in two 
volumes folio. 

Of course the account of manuscripts 
above given is of the briefest character; 
but it may afford the general reader some 
notion of the precious remains from which 
the printed text of the scripture is derived, 
and by means of which scholars are con- 
tinually endeavouring to re-produce still 
more faithfullv, by careful examination and 
correction, the holy books as they came 
forth from the the hands of their respective 



563 



[mask 



authors. For fuller accounts of manuscripts, 
and the principles of textual criticism, re- 
ference must he made to other works. Such 
are Home's Introduction, vols, li., iv. ; Da- 
vidson's Biblical Criticism ; Scrivener's In- 
troduction to the Criticism of the New Tes- 
tament, 1861. 

MA'OCH (breast-bandt oppressor 1) The 
father of Achish king of Gath (1 Sam. xxvii. 
2), called also Maachah (1 Kings ii. 39). 

MA'ON (habitation). A name found in the 
genealogies of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 45), de- 
scribed as the ' father,' I.e. settler of Beth- 
zur. 

MA'ON (id.). A town in the mountains 
of Judah, south-east of Hebron (Josh. xv. 
55 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 2) : in its neighbourhood 
was the wilderness of Maon (xxiii. 24, 25). 
The ruins now called Ma'in are on the 
summit of a hill, about seven miles from 
Hebron. 

MA'OIsriTES. An Arabian tribe men- 
tioned (Judges X. 12) in conjunction with 
the Amalekites. They were probably the 
Mehunims whom TJzziah conquered (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 7), and perhaps they are meant in 
1 Chron. iv. 41, where our version has ' habi- 



Hebrews. We find it several times men 
tioned (1 Chron. xxix, 2 ; Sol. Song v. 15) ; 
and the word used in these places signifies 
a white stone, and may be a generic term 
including fine and shining stones, as well 
as that which we understand by the term 
'marble.' It would seem, as marble is not 
found in Palestine, that David imported it. 
See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Marmor.' 
Marble is also mentioned in Esth. i. 6 ; Rev. 
xviii. 12. The variegated marbles of Shu- 
shan were doubtless procured in Persia it- 
self. Remains of marble columns still exist 
at Jerusalem. 

MARCHESH'VAN (possibly ebullition). 
See Months. 

MAR'CUS (Col. iv. 10 ; Phil. 24 ; 1 Pet. v. 
13). See Mark, 

MABDOCHWUS.—l (1 Esdr. v. 8). Mor- 
decai (Ezra ii. 2).— 2 (Rest, of Esth. x. 4, xi. 
2, and elsewhere). Mordecai, the relative of 
Esther. 

MARE'SHAH (place at the head, or, possi- 
bly, possession, iyiheritance). A name found 
among the genealogies of Judah (1 Chron. 
li. 42). Mareshah (perhaps identical Avith 
Mesha) of the family of Caleb appears 



tations.' They might be the inhabitants of to have been one of the settlers in He- 
a place now called McCan in Arabia Petr^a, bron. 

- - " ' MARE'SHAH (?U). 



to the south of the Dead sea, on the route 
from Damascus to Mecca. 



A city in the plain 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 44). It was 



MA'RA (sad). The name which Is-aomi fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 8), and 

considered more suitable to her than her was the scene of the defeat of Zerah the 

own (signifying my pleasantness) after her Ethiopian by king Asa (xiv. 9, 10 : see also 

bereavements and return in sorrow to 1 Chron. iv. 21 ; where probably this town, 

Beth-lehem (Ruth i. 20). See Naomi. | rather than a person, is meant ; 2 Chron. 

MA'RAH (bitterness). A station in the xx.37 ; Mic. i. 15). Josephus speaks of it as 

wilderness to which the Israelites came being possessed by the Idumeans, and say 



after three days' journey when they had 
passed the Red sea. There they found a 



it was plundered by Judas Maccabeus. 
After several vicissitudes it was re-built 



bitter or brackish fountain of which they and fortified by Gabinius, bnt was again 
could not drink. But, when they murmured, destroyed by the Parthians in their irrup- 
Moses, at God's command, cast a tree into lion against Herod (Antiq., lib. xii. 8, §6, lib 
the waters ; and they were supernaturally xiv. 4, § 4, 5, § 3, 13, § 9). 
made sweet (Exod.xv. 22-26 ; Numb, xxxiii. 1 It is said to have been two miles from 
8,9). Maralris supposed to be the same with Eleutheropolis ; and at that distance from 
the modern 'Ain Eowdrah; where there is Beit Jibrin Robinson believes he saw its 
still a salt and bitter fountain. The basin ruins on a remarkable Tell (Btbl. Bes., vol, 
of it lies in a kind of rocky mound, com- 1 ii. pp. 67, 68), 



posed of the deposits of the water during 
the lapse of ages : it is six or eight feet in 
diameter, and the water two feet deep. 
There are stunted palm-trees and bushes of 
the shrub OhurkUd about ; but no tree now 
can cure the bitterness. It was not the 



MAB'IMOTH (2 Esdr. I. 2). Meraioth 
(Ezra vii. 3). 
MAB'ISA (2 Mace. xii. 35). Mareshah. 
MARISHES (Ezek.xlvii.il). Marshes. 
MARK. 'John whose surname was Mark' 
(Acts xii. 12) was the son of Mary, a woman 



virtue of the wood but the divine power i of piety who lived at Jerusalem, where the 



that effected the change. Opinions, however, 
differ as to the identification of Marah ; and 
perhaps travellers have been mistaken in 
looking out for a place where the waters 
continue still bitter. The supernatural 
healing of them might, it is likely, be per- 
manent. 

MAR'ALAH (trembling, perhaps earth- 
quake). A place on the border of Zebulun 
(Josh. xix. 11). 

MARAN'-ATHA (the Lord cometh). An 
Aramaic expression which St. Paul added 
to the censure on those that loved not the 
Lord Jesus Christ, to enforce the duty of 
being ready for his coming (1 Cor. xvi. 22). 

MARBLE. Marble is a limestone rock, of 
a constitution so fine as readily to take a 
«rood polish. It was early known to the 



disciples occasionally assembled at her 
house for prayer, and was sister to Barnabas 
(Col. iv. 10). He is also called Marcus. 

St. Peter styles Mark his son (1 Pet. v. 13); 
which is generally taken to mean that he 
was converted by that apostle. Mark left 
Jerusalem for Antiocli with Paul and Bar- 
nabas (Acts xii. 25), and afterwards accom- 
panied them on their first missionary jour- 
ney (xiii. 5). He did not, however, attend 
them long, but, for some reason not fully 
explained, left them at Perga and returned 
to Jerusalem (13). This subsequently gave 
occasion to a dispute between the two 
apostles; for, when they were planning a 
second journey, Barnabas wished for Mark 
as a companion, and Paul objected: tliey 
therefore separated ; Mark sailing with his 



MARK, THE GOSPEL OF] CljJ ^XtH^XiVV! OC 



564 



uncle to Cs^prus C^v. 36-39). At a later 
period lie was again with Paul during his 
first imprisonment at Rome (Col. iv. 10) ; 
and a communication had heen made re- 
specting him to the Colossian church, per- 
haps to say that he had fully recovered that 
apostle's confidence. And this was more 
plainly expressed when St. Paul again de- 
sired his presence at Rome (2 Tim. iv. 11). 
We find him also with Peter (1 Pet. v. 13), 
with whom he is said to have travelled, and 
to have heen his amanuensis. 

Nothing further of him is recorded m 
the scripture ; hut we may identify him 
with the author of the second Gospel, and 
may readily believe ecclesiastical history 
which tells us that he was the first hishop 
of the church in Alexandria. Whether he 
died a natural death or by martyrdom is un- 
certain. 

MARK, THE GOSPEL OF, The univer- 
sal consent of the ancient church ascribed 
the second Gospel to John Mark ; so that 
no reasonable doubt can be entertained in 
regard to the authorship. It has also been 
said that he wrote under the superinten- 
dence of St. Peter. What, however, we are 
exactly to understand by this may admit 
of question, especially as the testimonies 
of ancient writers on the point are not 
altogether consistent. If Mark was, as 
there is good reason to believe, Peter's 
companion, aud, as he has been called by 
Irengeus (.Adv. Hcer., lib. iii. 1), his ' inter- 
preter,' it is likely that he would derive 
from him the account of events at which 
that apostle was present. His selection, 
too, from the materials might be in some 
measure guided by his habits of inter- 
course with Peter. Hence possibly the mi- 
nuteness of detail of various occurrences 
which Peter witnessed, and hence, too, it 
has been supposed, the way in which, with- 
out any gloss or palliation, Peter's faults 
are chronicled. We can hardly go farther : 
we can hardly suppose that Mark only wrote 
(as Baruch did from Jeremiah's month) 
what Peter dictated. 

The arrangement of this Gospel appears 
to be: I. A short introduction noticing the 
mission of John Baptist (i. 1-8). II. The 
public ministry of Christ, his discourses 
and actions in Galilee, prefaced by an ac- 
count of his baptism (9— ix. 50). III. Our 
Lord's last journeyings towards Jerusalem, 
with the narrative of his passion, death, 
resurrection, and ascension (x.— xvi.20). 

There can be no doubt that the original 
language of this Gospel Avas Greek ; though 
there are several Latinisms, and some 
writers of the Romish church have vainly 
attempted to maintain the theory of a 
Latin original. Simplicity and conciseness, 
with almost-picturesque vividness of detail, 
are the characteristics of St. Mark's pen. 
This is evident if we compare the parallel 
accounts of the same events, e.g. Mark ix. 
14-29 with Matt. xvii. 14-21 ; Luke ix. 37-42. 
But this Gospel is by no means, as some 
have imagined, a mere epitome of that by 
St, Matthew. The relation, indeed, which 
the three termed Synoptic Gospels bear 
to one another it is not easy exactly to 
decide. Some notice of this topic will be 



found in the article Gospels ; and it is suffi- 
cient to say here that the materials of our 
Lord's history, known as they must have 
been to the apostles, and the companions 
of apostles, would naturally form the simi- 
lar groundwork of every narrative, which 
each evangelist would use according to his 
main purpose. The intention of St. Mark 
was to write for Gentile readers. Thus 
tbere are frequently interpretations of 
Hebrew or Aramaic words, as in Mark v. 41, 
vii 11, 34, and explanations of Jewish cus- 
toms, as in 3, 4, which would have been 
unnecessary for Jews. With this pur-pose 
he selected and modelled, under divine 
guidance, and probably, as has been said, 
under Peter's eye, the work he has pro- 
duced. As to the time and place of compo- 
sition nothing can be affirmed with cer- 
tainty. It is most frequently assigned to 
63 or 64 A.D., and may perhaps have been 
written at Rome. 

It must be added that there is some 
reason to doubt whether the closing part 
of chap. xvi. (vv. 9-20) is from the evange- 
list's pen. Some important manuscripts do 
not contain it ; and the diction is thought 
to present an appreciable difference from 
that of St. Mark. Hence several eminent 
critics believe it to have been added subse- 
quentlv. Bp. EUicott, however, is of opinion 
that, though written at a later period, it was 
fi-om St.Mark himself {Hist. Lect, pp. 26,27, 
note). And Bleek, looking at the extreme 
improbability that the work would be left 
incomplete by ending at Mark xvi. 8, and 
the fact that the piece in question is in the 
most ancient versions, and is cited by early 
writers, as Irenjeus and Hippolytus, ex- 
presses his belief that it is a genuine 
portion of the Gospel (Einleituvg in dasK.T., 
p 292). But, even if we decide that these 
verses were added subsequently and by 
another hand, it by no means follows that 
they are without authority or uninspired, 
any more than the verses annexed to 
Deuteronomy, which record the death of 
iNIosGs, 

As to commentators upon this Gospel, the 
reader will naturally consult those who 
have written on the New Testament gene- 
rally. 

MARKET. According to the oramary 
acceptation of the terra, a market is a 
public place and fixed time for the meeting 
of buyers and sellers. To be legal it must 
have been founded by charter, or existed 
bv immemorial usage. It is usually kept 
one two, or more days, a week : when held 
occasionally a few times in a year it is a 
fair. Markets and market-places are men- 
tioned in scripture, though not exactly m 
our technical sense of the word. In the Old 
Testament the ' markets ' of Tyre are spoken 
of (Ezek. xxvii. 13, and elsewhere) ; but it 
may be questioned whether the word so 
rendered should not be translated 'mer- 
chandize' (marg.). See FAIRS. In the New 
Testament we have frequent mention of 
markets. For the purposes of trade 
dealers must naturally resort to some 
specified place; and this among the Jews 
seems to have been at the gates of cities. 
Here those who were in want of employ- 



^tl3l^ mUfliDl^tfS^* [MARRIAGE 1 


ment would be found. Hence the labourers 
of our Lord's parable are said to baye 
stood 'idle In the market-rlace' (Matt. 
XX 3). It was at points of public con- 
course that the Pharisees were most likely 
to receive the salutations which tney 
loved (xxiii. 7 ; Mark xii. 38 ; Luke xi. 43, 
XX 46) We are not, therefore, to under- 
stand 'the coming 'from the market 
(Markvii.4) as necessarily from the place 
of commerce, but from any place the 
streets, or elsewhere, which might be 
deemed in public. It was natural that the 
traders in the same commodities would pe 
found in the same ^oc^^l^j : l^ence the 
notion of a 'sheep-market (John v. 2), 
though more probably ' the sheep-gate is 
intended (Neh. iii. 1, 32, xii. 39), through 
which the sheep passed for the temple- 
'^ervice The ' market-place ' must some- 
times be understood of the forum, where 
the Roman magistrates administered jus- 
tice (Acts xvi. 19). The ' market,' or agora, 
where St. Paul disputed at Athens, was 1)6- 
tween the Areopagus and the Museum hill. 
In modern eastern cities the places of trade 
are the bazaars, or streets of shops, gene- 
rally covered walks. . ^.^ 
il/j.E'MOTa' (1 Esdr. viii.62), Meremoth 

(Ezra viii. 33). ^ ^ • ^ a 

MA'ROTB.(pitterness,hiUer fountains). A 

place mentioned only in Mic. i. 12. It was 
probably in the western part of J uaan. ^ 
MARPtlAGE. ' An honourable estate m- 
. stituted of God in the time of man's inno- 
cency . . It was ordained for the procrea- 
tion of children, to be brought up m the 
fear and nurture of the Lord, and to the 
praise of his holy name. ... It was or- 
dained for a remedy against sm, and to 
avoid fornication; that such persons as 
have not the gift of continency might 
marry, and keep themselves undefiled 
members of Christ's body It was or- 
dained for the mutual society, help, and 
comfort, that the one ought to have of the 
other, both in prosperity and adversity 
(Marriage Service'). • • i 
Unquestionably it was God's original 
purpose that one man should have one wnfe 
(Gen ii 24). This, if it were doubtful be- 
fore 'our Lord sufficiently explains (Matt 
xix 4 5 8; Mark x. 6-8) ; and it is illustrated 
by the nearly-equal proportion of the sexes 
in the population of countries m which 
enumeration has been made. In the early 
history of the world we find comparatively- 
few cases of polygamy. That of Lamech m 
the line of Cain is mentioned before the flood 
(Gen iv 19) ; and possibly it may have been 
one feature of the disorganization occasion- 
ed by the intercourse of ' the sons of God 
with 'the daughters of men' (vi. 2 4) Noah 
and his three sons who were with him m 
the ark had each but one wife (vii. 13 ; 1 Pet. 
iii 20 ; 2 Pet. ii. 5). But afterwards we And 
a plurality of wives ; at first it would seem 
one or more concubines being taken m ad- 
dition to the wife (Gen. xvi. 3, xxii. 24) 
see CONCUBINE ; and by degrees wives were 
multiplied (xxix. 23, 28, xxxvi. 2,3 ; Judges 
viii 30 ; 1 Sam. i. 2 ; 2 Sara. iii. 2-5, v. 13), till 
polygamy reached, so far as scripture his 
tory informs us, its worst development lu 


Solomon, wno was imitated, though with 
somewhat-greater moderation, by his de- ; 
scendants, other princes of the house of 
David (1 Kings xi. 3 ; 2 Chron. xi. 21, xiii. 21). 
It was the fall of man which directly led to 
this great evil. At first woman was the 
help-meet and equal of man, bone of his 
bones, flesh of his flesh (Gen. ii. 23), sub- 
ordinate indeed (1 Cor. xi. 7-9 ; 1 Tim. ii. 
12, 13), but not in subjection. The sentence, 
however, passed upon Eve intimated what 
would be the lot of her daughters m a 
fallen world (Gen. iii. 16) ; and certainly in 
the east, and in heathen and Mohammedan 
countries generally, we see how this pre- 
diction has been fulfilled, females being 
regarded as slaves. Such a notion leads 
naturally to the possession of as many so- 
called wives as the inclination or means of 
a man may incite and enable him to pro- 
cure The woman is thus not the com- 
panion and the counsellor of the man, but 
a mere chattel to be dealt with according 
to his pleasure; and domestic comfort is 
under such circumstances unknown. The 
gospel has restored woman to her proper 
place : it has defined her due relation to the 
man, and it has admirably drawm out the 
respective obligations of the sexes, show- 
ing how marriage signifies a nobler union 
CEph. V. 22-33) ; so that, had Christianity no 
other claims upon us, for this alone it must 
be regarded as a blessing to the world. 

We find the contracting and the dissolu- 
tion of marriage regulated by certain laws. 
When man was first created, while popu- 
lation was scanty, there must have been 
intermarriage with the very nearest rela- 
tives. And this was in later times sanc- 
tioned, in order to preserve the families of 
God's servants free from idolatrous mixture 
(Gen. xxiv. 3-6, xxvi. 34, 35). There was 
not, so far as we read, any distinct regula- 
tions on this matter till the giving of the 
law to the Israelites. The old principle was 
of course embodied in the statutes then 
delivered, that God's chosen people should 
not contract marriages with godless nations 
(Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16 ; Deut. vii. 2-4) ; and, 
besides, certain degrees of affinity and con- 
sanguinity (put upon the same footing) 
were named, within which it was not law 
ful to marry (Lev. xviii. 6-18, xx. 11, 12, 
14-21). It is not necessary to dwell on 
these prohibitions : there is but one of 
of them on which men are now disagreed 
among us ; it being questioned whether the 
marriage with two sisters is altogether 
forbidden, or whether (polygamy being 
allowed) marriage Avith the second sister 
was unlawful only while the first was yet 
alive. Certainly the plain construction of 
the Hebrew text favours the latter altera- 
tive ; and so the Jews interpret it. The 
Christian church, however, which has 
based its list of prohibited degrees on the 
Mosaic law, has generally declared against 
the marrying under any circumstances oi 
twn cictprt; hv oup man There were various 
Other Mosaic regulations, such as those 
which secured the rights of a slave marked 
to her master (Exod. xxi. 7-11), of a captive 
(Deut. xxi. 10-14), of the olfsprmg of a wife 
less loved than another (15-17), &c. Heir 



i 



I 

i 



marriage] 



566 



esses vrere to mariT witliin their own trihe 
(I^umb. xxxTi. 8, 9). Priests were not to 
take wives divorced or of l^ad character ; and 
the high priest must marry only 'a virgin 
of his own people' (Lev. xxi. 7, 14). A 
warning, too, was given, too little (as we 
have seen) regarded, that, when a king 
should reign in Israel, he was not to 
nmltiplv his wives, lest hy them his heart 
should he turned away from God (Dent, 
xxvii. 17). . , . , ^. 

The tendency of the Mosaic legislation 
was, while it did not forhid, to check poly- 
gamv.to encourage humane and considerate 
treatment of women, and to promote purity 
of life. And, though the spirit of the law 
was not always acted up to, and men availed 
themselves of its literal permissions, yet 
doubtless there were in Palestine many 
happv and godly households. In which a 
sinsl'e wife, knitted in love to her husband, 
held her due place, while a dutiful progeny 
cheered their parents' hearts. We have a 
glimpse of such a home at Shuuem, where 
Elisha was welcomed (2 Kings iv. 8-37) : 
we have it described by the Psalmist 
(Psal. cxxviii.) ; and by none more vividly 
than bv Solomon, who so little exemplified 
it in his own case (Prov. v. 15-19, xxxi. 
10-31\ Some have imagined that inter- 
marriage with foreigners was more objected 
to in later than in earlier times of the 
Hebrew commonwealth. But the law, as 
we have seen, was always the same, pro- 
hibiting marriage with nations like the 
Canaanites altogether, and restricting it 
with other peoples, such as the Moabites 
and Esvptians, more or less, according to 
the longer or shorter time in which their 
children could enter into the congregation 
of the Lord (Deut. xxiii. 3, 7, 8). Few Is- 
raelitish women would match with such ; 
but there was comparatively no objection 
to an Israelite marrying a woman of those 
tribes, who would very possibly be at once 
aproselvte. And the early instances we have 
of both these are few, and seem to be ex- 
ceptional, as the union of Ruth with Mahlon 
first and with Boaz afterwards (Ruth iv. 
g-l''), and of the man of Tyre with the He- 
brew woman from whom sprang Hiram 
(1 Kiuss vii. 13,14). Whereas after the cap- 
tivity the marriages with ungodly nations 
were so numerous as to have debased the 
whole Jewish stock, and depraved their 
verv languase. Hence the striugent mea- 
sures adopted by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 
ix., X. ; Neh. xiii. 23-29). 

Ordinarily, by one of the laws already re- 
ferred to, a man was forbidden to marry his 
brother' wife. But there was a remarkable 
exception. If any one died childless, his 
brother was to take his wife ; and the seed 
thence born was to be reckoned as belong- 
ing to the dead man. This, called the 
levirate law (the Latin word Zerzr meaning 
a brother-in-law), was in force before the 
time of Moses (Gen. xxxviii. 8, 11) : it was 
probably restricted in the Mosaic code 
to the case of two brothers dwelling to- 
gether If the obligation was refused, a 



and mariT the widow. Thus Boaz and the 
kinsman nearer to Elimelech and Mahlon 
were neither of them the dead man's 
brother; and, though Boaz complied with 
the custom in its more extended operation, 
no stigma would have attached to him had 
he declined it. Neither does it appear that 
the son born of his marriage was reckoned 
to Mahlon, but in his own line (Ruth iv.). 
The levirate law has been found to prevail 
among various eastern nations, modified, 
however, occasionally. It was on a some- 
what-similar principle that the harem of a 
deceased monarch was held to fall to his 
successor (2 Sam. iii. 7, xii. 8; 1 Kings ii. 
22). 

Such is a brief view of the contracting of 
marriage among the Hebrews ; for its dis- 
solution see Divorce. 

In regard to the customs and ceremonies 
of marriage, it would appear that parents 
generally selected wives for their children, 
not, however, necessarily without their 
consent ; and sometimes they made pro- 
posals at their sons' suggestion (Gen.xxiv., 
xxviii. 1. 2,xxxiv. 4, xxxviii. 6 ; Judges xiv. 
1, 2). When the proposal was made, the 
woman's family deliberated upon it, and 
it might be that her consent was asked; 
but it was of course expected that she 
would acquiesce in the determination of 
the seniors (Gen. xxiv. 50-58, xxxi v. 6-18). 
If the advantages of rank or position were 
on the woman's side, the first motion might 
come from her parents (Exod. li. 21 ; 
1 Sam. xviii. 17-21). Sometimes, too, we 
find a king providing a wife for a favourite 
or minister (Gen. xli.~45). When a marriage 
was settled, presents were made in order to 
the espousals. Thus Abraham's servant gave 
'jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and 
raiment' to Ptebekah, and also 'precious 
things' to her mother and her brother (xxiv 
53). And so Shechem offered, if he might but 
have Dinah for his wife, any dowry that 
should be demanded for her, and any gift to 
her relatives (xxxi v. 12). This custom ia 
alluded to in Exod. xxii. 16, 17: Deut 
xxii. 29 ; the female who was married undei 
the circumstances there mentioned being 
still entitled to dowry. In certain cases 
when the intended husband was unable to 
give the customary presents, service of 
some kind was substituted (Gen. xxix. 
18-20, 27; 1 Sam. xviii. 25-27). But occa- 
sionally a father endowed his daughter 
(Josh. XV. 16-19; Judges i. 12-15; 1 Kings 
ix. 16\ The espousal or betrothing was a 
formal agreement made with oaths by 
duly-empowered parties on each side 
(Ezek. xvi. 8), the bridegroom, however, 
not being necessarily present, but repre- 
sented by his friend. A woman after be- 
trothment was considered actually a wife ; 
sn that her incontinence was punished as 
adultery (Deut. xxii. 23, 24^ ; though it 
would seem, in later times, the full penalty 
of the law was not always exacted : for 
Joseph, who had been led to suspect Mary, 
intended merely to divorce her in a quiet 

„ ^ . way (Matt. i. 18, 19). The woman still con- 

pprtiin di^^race see^med to attach to the | tinned in her father's house (Judges xiv. 
hrntbpr fDeut XXV 5-10). A more distant i 8) before she was taken to her husband, 
relative miffht'then redeem ths inheritance ' This, so far as we read, was for no specified 



567 'MihU mm^l^^Qt* [mahhiagb 


length of time ; thougli in later days it is ? 
said to have been a year for virgins, and a 
month for widows. During the interval 
the organ of communication was the hride- 
groom's friend (John iii. 29). 

The actual marriage, though prohahly 
accompanied with blessings pronounced 
(Ruth iv 11, 12), and some ratification ot 
the hetrothment oaths, consisted mainly m 
the taking of the wife to her l^usband s 
house, with the accompanying feast. Both 
were sumptuously arrayed. The bridegroom 
placed a kind of tiara on his head (Isai. Ixi. 
10), on which was a nuptial wreath or crown 
(Sol. Song iii. 11), and used delicate per- 
fumes (6). The bride bathed and anointed 
Lerself (Buthiii.3; Ezek. xvi. 9, xxiii 40 , 
and was attired with a veil (Gen. xxiy. 6o), 
the symbol of her subordination, probably 
a large light robe enveloping the person; 
• also fvith some article of dress which was 
never forgotten (Jer. ii. 32), most likely a 
Rirdle She also had a nuptial chaplet : her 
robes 'were white and fine (Rev. xix. 8); 
brocaded and curiously wrought (Psal. xlv. 
13 14) : and she was decked with gems and 
lewelry (Isai. xlix. 18, Ixi. 10). And thus 
with her maiden companions she expected 
The bridegroom (Matt.^xxv 1). He on his 
part had ' companions,' or children of t le 
bnde chamber' (Judges xiv. 10 ll;.Ma t. 
X 15). And at a fixed hour, often m the 
evening, they set out in procession to fetch 
the bride, either to the bridegroom's house, 
or someplace where he had prepared the 
feast. Music, lights, and every demonstra- 
- tion of joy accompanied the tram (Psal xlv. 
IsTjer vii. 34, xvi. 9 ; Matt. xxv. 1, 3,4, 7) : 
f?iends joined them ; and they sat down with 
Sadness to the banquet, at which dresses 
S ceremony were sometimes presented to 
the guests (Gen.xxix. 22; Judges ^iv 10 , 
Matrxxii. 2-11; John ii. 2). The festival 
lasted seven days, occasionally longer, and 
was enlivened by various amusements 
Sudges xiv. 12-18). Now the bridegroom 
had t?ee access to his wife ; and the ]oy of 
his friend was ' fulfilled ' (John iii. 29). And 
then there wasthe conducting of the new y- 
married pair to the chamber which Sara- 
Ton Ssgusted at the betrayal of his riddle, 
had at fil-st declined (Judges xv. 1) : m this 
phni-nher a canopy, in our version ' closet, 
S^ks set UP (Joel ii. 16); and all thewhUe 
ufe bride was veiled;. so that Jacob not 
discover the substitution of . Leah for 
Rachel till the morning (Gen. xxix. 2o). 

It was the duty of a husband to •cheer up 
his wife he had taken ; for the first year, 
therefore, after marriage, or, if after betro- 
thS he had not received her into l|is house 
he was excused from military service D cut 
XT 7 xxiv 5). The punishment of adultery 
was death; and there were means of ascer- 
Taining incontinence before or after mar- 
riage- but a husband bringing a false 
SiSe against his wife in the first case was 
reTedlSforbidden ever to divorce her 
(Numb. V. 12-31; Deut. xxu. 13-Ji). bee 

^In^heNew Testament we find marriage 
Dlaced upon the highest grounds. Our 
£ord cor?ed^ some of the niistaken notions 
which were prevalent (Matt. xxii. 2o-30) 


md the apostles have delivered precepts 
m the reciprocal duties of husbands and 
svives (Eph. v. 22-33 ; Col. iii. 18, 19 ; 1 Pet. 
ii. 1-7). St. Paul,while commending matri- 
mony, advises for prudential reasons to 
ibstainfrom it in time of persecution (1 
Dor. vii.). But there is nothing in the 
Christian scriptures to indicate that it is an 
unholy or polluted state for any class of 
persons. Rather it is pronounced ' honour- 
able in all' fHeb. xiii. 4) ; and the prohibi- 
tion of it is described as one of the dark 
signs of the last perilous times (1 Tim. iv. 3). 
The regulation that a bishop and a deacon 
must be the husband of one wife (iii. 2, 12 ; 
Tit. i. 6), has been variously interpreted, as 
meaning not a polygamist, not married after 
divorce, not contracting under any circum- 
stance a second marriage. It is needless to 
attempt here to decide the question ; but it 
may in passing be said that the correspond- 
ing rule in regard to widows who were to 
be taken into the ecclesiastical society (1 
Tim. V. 9) seems to point to the last-named 
interpretation. For an account of the 
marriage rites observed in the ancient 
Christian church, the reader must be re- 
ferred to Bingham {Orig. Eccles., book 

"^^riie Jewish writers multiplied and re- 
fined upon the scriptural precepts and cus- 
toms in regard to marriage. No particular 
notice can be taken here of the regulations 
to be found In the Talmud. But a brief 
description may properly be given of the 
marriages of modern Jews. 

Betrothment is formally made in pre- 
sence of the friends of both parties. A 
contract is then read, bywhich a certain sum 
is to be forfeited should either of the be- 
trothed fail to complete the marriage. A cup 
is next broken as a symbol of the covenant 
entered into ; and there is usually a feast. 
This betrothment may be six or twelve 
months, more or less, prior to the actual 
wedding. For the marriage notice must be 
given to the proper functionaries ; and on 
the Friday evening before the ceremony 
the chazan, or reader, chants a suitable com- 
position ; while the next day, the sabbath, 
the intending bridegroom is called up to 
the reading-desk, where a portion of the 
law is read to him. On the wedding-day 
the parties remain at home in the morning ; 
those who are most religious fasting, and 
reading a part of the service for the day of 
atonement. In the afternoon the bride- 
groom,with two male friends, and the bride, 
veiled,with two female friends— these being 
the parents or other very near relatives- 
meet in the synagogue, where ten adult 
persons must be present. The respective 
friends then lead the bride and bridegroom 
under a canopy of silk or velvet, two 
yards square, which is supported by four 
poles. The rabbi next takes a glass of wme 
in his hand and says, * Blessed art thou, 0 
Lord, our God, King of the universe, the 
Creator of the fruit of the vine. Blessed 
art thou, 0 Lord, our God, King of the uni- 
verse, who hast sanctified us with thy 
commandments, and hast forbidden to us 
fornication, and hast prohibited to us the 
betrothed, but hast allowed to us those 



maesena] 



Cl&e Cm^uri? at 



668 



wlio are married to us by means of the 
canopy and the wedding ring. Blessed art 
thou, 0 Lord, the sanctifler of thy people 
Israel, by the means of the canopy and wed- 
lock.' The bride and bridegroom taste the 
wine : then the latter places the ring on the 
bride's finger, and repeats after the rabbi 
in Hebrew: 'Behold, thou art betrothed 
unto me with this ring, according to the 
rites of Moses and Israel.' The rabbi after- 1 
wards reads the marriage-contract, which : 
is in Chaldee, aloud. The c/iasa/i then takes ^ 
another glass of wine, and pronounces a I 
longer benediction. "When this is ended, ! 
the bride and bridegroom taste the wine ; 
and an empty glass is laid on the floor, 
which the bridegroom breaks by stamping | 
on it. The ceremony is concluded by all 
present crying mazal tov, 'good luck' (Mills' j 
British Jews, part i. chap. i. pp. 24-28). ] 

The rite of marriage is beautifully applied 
in scripture to indicate the blessed union , 
betwixt God and his people ; and illustra- : 
tions are hence furnished of the won- 
derful forbearance he exercises towards 
them (Isai. lir. 5 ; Jer. iii. 1, 14 ; Hos. ii. 19, 
20). In the ]Srew Testament we hare the 
same idea, magnifying the love of the 
Redeemer to his saints (Eph. r. 25-27 ; 
Rev. xix. 7-9). And the highest strain 
is reached when, man and wife being as it 
is said one flesh, the Lord and his chosen 
are 'one spirit.' But the union here is not 
the whole. The glory of that future 
blessedness, when Christ receives his ran- 
somed and purified church into his eternal 
kingdom, is pourtrayed by the image of a 
bridal feast. Then there is joy unutterable; 
and the bond of that conjunction shall not 
be broken (xxi. 2). 

MAR'SEXA (icortlnj). One of the seven 
princes in the Persian court (Esth. i. 14). \ 

MARS-HILL (Acts xvii. 19, marg., 22). 
See Areopagus. 

MART (Isai. xxiii. 3). See :Maiik:et. i 

MAR'THA (bitterness ? lady ?). One of the 
blessed family atBethany whom Jesus loved, 
and with whom he deigned to hold familiar 
Intercourse. Martha has been supposed the 
elder sister, as the house is called hers, and 
she undertook the special charge of enter- 
taining the Lord (Luke x. 38-42), Some 
have imagined that she was the wife or 
widow of Simon the leper ; which would 
account for the place where Mary anointed 
Christ l>eing termed his house (Matt. xxvi. ; 
6, 7 ; Mark xiv. 3 ; John xii. l-3\ Martha 
was of more stirringmind and active habits 
than her sister Mary ; she was cumbered 
about much serving, when Mary, in her deep 
still love, sat humbly listening at Jesus' 
feet; but her faith was strong, and she 
made a noble confession of it when she met 
the Saviour on his way to raise her brother j 
Lazarus ; though even her expectation 
reached not to the mighty work he was 
about to do (xi. 1-46). Nothing certain is , 
known of her later history. I 

MARTYR. This is a Greek word occur- 
ring freguently in the New Testament, and 
generally rendered 'witness.' Thus it Is 
found signifying a witness in a judicial \ 
sense (Matt, xviii. 16, xxvi. 65). It hence ; 
denotes generally one who witnesses, and j 



who therefore does or can testify to the truth 
of what he knows or has seen (Rom. i. 9 ; 
1 Thess. ii. 10 ; Heb. xii. 1), and is specially 
used of those who witnessed what Jesus did 
(Litke xxiv. 48). In this sense, as knowing 
the truth of the gospel, and teaching or con- 
firming it, Jesus Christ himself is called 
' the faithful witness ' (Rev. i. 5). But such 
witnesses in the face of opposition might 
have to seal their testimony with their 
blood, that is, to be martyrs in our sense of 
the word (Acts xxii. 20 ; Rev. ii. 13, xvii. 6). 

MART {rebellion). A name which appears 
to be identical with Miriam in the Old Tes- 
tament. It was borne by many distinguished 
persons. 

1. Mary the mother of Jesus (Matt. i. 16). 
Of the Virgin's personal history we know 
little. Bv some it is supposed that she was 
the daughter of Heli, descended from Da- 
vid according to the genealogy given by St. 
Luke (iii. 23-31) : see, however. Genealogy. 
A notion was entertained by some of the 
fathers that Maiy, cousin to Elisabeth the 
wife of the priest Zacharias, was of the 
tribe of Levi (August., Be Consens. Evang., 
lib. ii. 4, torn. iii. pars ii. col. 28, edit. 
Bened.) : it is more probable that she was 
near of kin to Joseph, to whom, when no 
doubt young, she was espoused. Her resi 
dence was at Nazareth; and before the 
marriage was completed she was visited by 
the an sel Gabriel, who announced that she 
shouldlDe the mother of that exalted Being, 
the Son of the Highest, whose kingdom 
should be set up in the world to have no 
end. This— to be the parent of' Messiah- 
was the honour for which every Hebrew 
female longed. Joy, then, there must have 
been in Mary's breast ; but yet the news 
came in a shape incomprehensible. She, like 
her country-people, did not imagine that 
Messiah would be more than a man. The 
anarelic messenger inspired her with awe; 
and she could not tellhow, ere her marriage, 
she was to become a mother. It was not the 
hesitation of unbelief, but rather of devout 
amazement : and, when she was reminded 
of the infinite power of God, she meekly 
accepted the message. Her hasty journey 
to the hill-countiy of Judah followed ; and, 
on the salutation of the cousins, Mary 
poured forth that rich strain which has 
ever since been one of the joj-ful chants in 
which the church celebrates the deeds of 
her Lord : Mary also, be it remarked, re- 
joicing in him as her Saviour i^Luke i. 26- 
56\ We must suppose that it was after her 
return to Nazareth that her pregnancy was 
known to Joseph, a matter of sad cogita- 
tion to him, till he too was warned from 
heaven that God was now fulfilling his an- 
cient promise (Matt. i. 18-25). 

Messiah was to be born at Beth-lehem 
(Mic.v. 2). And now mark the wonderful 
providence of God. By a series of events— 
the decree of Augustus, the enrolment 
throughout Palestine of persons according 
to their lineage, the journey taken at a criti- 
cal time— the prophecy was accomplished ; 
and at Beth-lehem, in a humble stable, 
Marv gave birth to the Redeemer of the 
world. And there was joy in heaven, 
thousrh earth was not ready to welcome her 



569 



[mart 



King (Luke ii. l-'20). Mary was of thought- 
ful mind. She did not at once grasp all the 
glorious things v/hich the birth implied; hut, 
as events followed, such as the presentation 
in the temple, when she was warned of the 
bitter pang which she would feel (21-40), 
the visit of the eastern sages with their 
gifts, the flight into Egypt and return to 
Nazareth (Matt, ii.), and, later, the won- 
drous conversation with the doctors, when, 
in reply to her anxious enquiry, Jesus told 
her that he must he about his Father's busi- 
ness (Luke ii. 41-52), deep cogitations would 
naturally arise ; and she ' pondered,' we are 
told with regard to several of these incidents, 
she ' pondered ' them 'in her heart.' The scrip- 
ture does not gratify curiosity : we, there- 
fore, know not how the Holy Child grew up, 
what were his infantine, what his youthful, 
occupations. But all were passing before 
Mary's eyes ; and to a thoughtful and devout 
nature like hers lessons of astonishing 
import must have been presented, and the 
day must have been indeed longed for 
when he should be manifested to Israel. 

That time came ; and Mary was in all pro- 
bability a widow ; for we do not again read 
of Joseph. The husband of her youth no 
more, she must have clung with yet-in- 
tenser love and expectation to her Son. Of 
her behaviour in respect to his baptism we 
hear nothing ; but, when he had returned 
to Galilee, and a little body of disciples were 
attending him, and there was a marriage at 
Cana, she, who had doubtless heard of the 
public testimony borne by John, thought 
herself authorized in appealing to him when 
the wine for the guests fell short. Surely 
tie will be ready to exert, if I ask him, his 
extraordinary power. The reply was deeply 
suggestive. ' He did not,' as Dr. Alf ord on 
the place says, ' perform his miracles from 
regard to human affinity, but solely from 
love and his object of manifesting his 
glory. . . . but first among those to be 
taught this was she herself, who had 
tempted him to work a miracle from that 
regard. It has perhaps not been enough 
noticed that in this answer the Lord de- 
clares his period of subjection to her as his 
earthly parent to be at an end. Hence- 
forth his thoughts are not her thoughts. 
At twelve years of age, he answers " thy 
father and I " by " my Father :" now he is 
to be no longer before the world as Mary's 
Son, but as sanctified by the Father and 
sent into the world' (corap. EUicott's Hist. 
ieci.,lect. iii. p. 121, note 1). But, though 
there was a tone of reproof in the Lord's 
reply, it did not extinguish Mary's expecta- 
tion. Her charge to the servants showed 
that she still believed— and the event corro- 
borated her belief— that some word of 
power would be spoken (John ii. 1-11). 
And there was no lack of filial love evinced. 
He kindly accompanied afterwards his 
mother and his brethren— cousins, most 
likely, for Mary bore no other children : see 
James, 2— to Capernaum (12). 

It is but rarely that Mary is subsequently 
mentioned. She, with some other of his rela- 
tives, tried once to interrupt his incessant 
labours. She thought he spared himself 
too little : he had not time to take neces- 



sary sustenance : his mind would be orer- 
balanced. But in his answer there was a re- 
proof again conveyed. Pointing to his disci- 
ples, he declared that every humble servant 
of his Father had honour equal to that of her 
who bare him in her womb. It was not carnal 
relationship, it was spiritual union that was 
the closest tie (Matt. xii. 46-50 ; Mark iii. 20, 
21, 31-35 ; Luke viii. 19-21). To the same pur- 
port was his answer to a certain woman on 
another occasion (xi. 27, 28). With the 
exception of a reference to her by his own 
Galilean countrymen (Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark 
vi. 3) we hear nothing more of Mary till the 
crucifixion. 

How far she shared the joy which rang 
through Jerusalem on his triumphal entry 
we know not. Where she was the last fatal 
night of his passion and apprehension we 
know not. Whether she was among the 
listeners at his trial and condemnation we 
cannot tell ; or whether she was with affec- 
tionate friends tryung to cheer her during 
those hours of agonizing suspense when 
the sword was indeed piercing her soul. But 
she could not be kept from his cross. She 
stood by— who can conceive with what 
emotion ? — while the life-blood dripped 
from his limbs, and the wild execrations 
of the maddened priests and people howled 
around. The beloved disciple was there 
too. And then passed that unutterable 
touch of tenderness, when the Lord 
solemnly committed his mother to that 
disciple's care, to be ever after a son to her. 
Immediately, it appears, John withdrew 
her from the awful scene (John xix. 25-27), 
We are not told whether she saw Jesus 
when he was risen ; and only once more does 
her name occur : she was with the body of 
disciples after the ascension waiting for the 
fulfilment of promise in the out-pouring of 
the Holv Spirit (Acts i. 14). 

Such is all the authentic history we have of 
the ' blessed among women'— a very woman 
in every trait of her character, but taught, 
as no other woman was, the hard lessons 
which were to guide her to her Son's eternal 
kingdom. Some of them were joyful ; and 
some were very grievous ; but she learned 
them thoroughly, till she loved the Lord J e- 
sus as her Saviour far more than as her Son. 

The legendary tales which have been told 
of Mary (Jewish, Mohammedan, medieval) 
need not be repeated here ; nor the sad steps 
traced by which she has been exalted by 
many to an almost-equal mediatorship with 
Christ. ' Blessed' she was, but not sinless 
or divine. Yet fond superstition soon 
began to deck her with undue attributes ; 
and the honour paid her increased till the 
monstrous doctrine was broached of her 
immaculate conception, a doctrine which, 
censured by Bernard (who maintained one 
equally corrupt. Ad Canon. Lvrjd. Epist. 
clxxiv., torn. i. cols. 169-172. edit. Bencd. 
1690) only because it had not then the 
sanction of the Romish see, has m our day 
(Dec. 8, 1854), been solemnly promulgated as 
to be henceforth an article of faith to tiio 
Romish church, r +u„ 

2. Mary Magdalene was also onc^ of tne 
women who stood by the Saviours cross 
(Matt.xxvii.5G). There can be little reaaou- 



masaloth] 



Kvt^^MVV of 



670 



able doubt that Miis Mary was sp called from I in Acts ii. 14. Her story, too, has been 



tne place ot her birth or residence, Mag- 
dala. by the lake of Galilee. Grievously had 
she once been afflicted, possessed with 
seven devils ; but the Lord had healed her 
(Mark xvi. 9 • Luke viii. 2) ; and she with 
grateful love afterwards attended on him, 
and— for she seems to have been a person 
of property— ministered to him of her sub- 



augmented by baseless legends. 

3. Mary the mother of James and Joses 
(Matt, xxvii. 56, 61, xxviii. 1 ; Mark xv. 40, 
47, xvi. 1) must have been identical with 
Mary the wife of C-leophas or Clopas (John 
xix. 25), and the sister— elder no doubt — of 
Mary the Virgin. It is not extraordinary 
that two sisters should bear the same name : 



stance It is an old notion to identify her : examples of this occur now ; and when, as 
with the woman who was a sinner who an- in the east, mothers weie distinguished by 
ointed Christ'? feet in Simon the Pharisees the name of their sous (e.g. 'Marj- the 



house, bathins them with tears and wiping 
them with her hair (vii. 37-50). But there is 
positively no real evidence of the identity ; 
and probability is decided against it. 

Mary Maedalene stood, as above noted, 
bv the cross. And after the Lord's death 
her care was not ended. She watched where 



other of Jesus ') there was little danger of 
confusion. Besides, most frequently the 
two sisters Mary are differently called in the 
original; the Virgin Men iam, the other 
Maria. It is likely that after Joseph's death 
the two families formed one household. 
This will account for the mode of speaking 



thev laid the bodv (Mark xv. 47) : she sat in Matt. xiii. 55, 56. This Mary showed her 

prostrated with sorrow over-against the love to Jesus by her attendance at his cross 

«eriilchre when the funeral was over (Matt, and at his tomb. 

xxvii 61) She also bousht sweet spices 4. Mary of Bethany, the loving and be- 
that "on the morrow after the sabbath loved one— very pleasant are the records 
she mieht anoint him (Mark xvi. 1). And we have of her. Preposterous attempts, 
verv earlv in the morning she went to the indeed, have been made to identify her with 
garden There were othefwomen with her ; the sinner of Luke vii. 37 ; but it is useless 
but she outstripped her companions, and to refute notions which common sense re- 
arrived ere the twilight ended (John xx. 1). pudiates. And some have imagined her not 
Findino- that the stone was removed, she the Mary of x. 38-42. But surely it is one 
ran back to the citv and told Peter and John character, the meek and quiet woman, easily 
what had happened ; and thev hastened to distinguishedfromtheTirgm, so thoughtful 
the tomb to satisfv themselves and then but somewhat presuming on her maternity, 
returned to their home (2-10). 3Iarv, how- from the Impulsive lady of Magdala, from 
ever who had followed them back, lingered the active mother of James and Joses. 
weepiu°- at the spot. She looked into the Mary of Bethany is ever still, sitting with 
=epnlchre and saw a vision of angels, to listening ear at Jesus' feet, to the annoyance 



whose enquiry she sobbed out her com- 
plaint, 'Thev'have taken away my Lord.' 
B:elpless and dead as she believed him to be, 
he was her Lord still. In her grief she 
tuiTied awav ; and there was Jesus standing. 
But she did not recognize him. Perhaps 
she was well-nigh blinded with her tears ; 
and to his question she replied, thinkiu; 



01 her notable sister Martha, overwhelmed 
with grief when her brother Lazarus died, 
and not stirring from her place till Martha 
had whispered that Jesus was come, then 
rising only to go and fall down before hlra 
with the touching plaint, 'Lord, if thou 
hadst been here, my brother had not died' 
(John xi. 1-46). She evinced her deep love 



him to be the gardener, that she would take for Christ by pouring very precious oint. 
awav the bodv if she were but told where it ment over both his head and his feet (Matt, 
wa^ ' Jesus 'saith unto her, Mary.' O the xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv 3-9; John xu 1-8). 
ecstatic iov of that moment! ' Rabboni,' And then we hear of her no more. Sheia 
«he exclaimed -it is, it is mv Lord, not dead not enumerated among the company that, 
but alive asain'; the gloiw of his resurrection stood by the cross. She was, no doubt, 
flashing at once in all its wondrous reality weeping at home. i • 

into her mind. With bewildered love she 5. Mary the mother of John Mark, in 
trie=;tocla=phim. ' But it must not be : re- whose house at Jerusalem the disci- 
lation^ now are solemnlvchanared.... With pies were assembled praying when Peter 
mv«teriou=; words, full of holv dUnity and was supernaturally rescued from Herod s 
maie=tv vet at the same time of most ten- prison (Acts xii. 12). She must have been 
derlY-implied consolation, the Lord bids her sister to Barnabas (Col. iv. lO^. 
refrain The time, indeed, will come when, i 6. MaiT, a Christian at Rome to whom 
under higher relations, love eager and de- : St. Paul sends affectionate greeting (Bom. 
mon^trative as that now shown to the risen, ; xvi. 6\ 

mav ^hereafter unforbiddenly direct itself j MAS'ALOTH0.'SIkcc.\x.2). Aplacenear 
to the ascended Lord. But that time is not ! Arbela in Galilee. There has been no certain 
now' (EUicott, Hist. Led., lect. viii. pp. 3S6, I identification of it. 
387) She mav so, he further tells her, and | AtASTTTTT, a tt 



announce the happy tidings to those whom 
he graciouslv called his brethren (John 
XX 2-18\ It would seem that this appear- 
ance of Christ to Mary Magdalene Avas the 
first (Mark xvi. 9) : see Ellicott, ibid, pp., 3?9- 
392 ; and comp. Home's Introd., vol, ii. edit. 
Ayre, pp. 4S2, 483. 

We read no more of this Mary. But she 
«-as doubtless one of the women mentioned 



MAS'CHIL. A word found in the titles of 
Psalms xxxii., xlii., xliv., xlv., lii., liii., liv., 
Iv., Ixxiv., Ixxviii., Ixxxviii., Ixxxix., cxlil. 
The same word occurs in xlvii. 7, where our 
version renders it 'with understanding.' 
It means a didactic poem, or perhaps 
sometimes merely a poem, or song. Some, 
however, would take it to imply a melody re- 
quiring skill for the proper execution of it 
MASH idraicn out ?). A people descended 



571 



[matred 



from Aram of the line of Shera (Gen. x. 23), 
Their original seat was prohably near mount 
Masius, now KarjaBaglilar, which separates 
Mesopotamia from Armenia. Thence it has 
been supposed that tbey emigrated into 
Asia Minor, and settled in the country 
called, with a slight variation of name, 
Mysia. But this must be regarded as in a 
degree conjectural. In 1 Chron. i. 17 the 
name is given less accurately Meshech. 

MA'SHAL {entreaty). A town in the 
tribe of Asher (Josb. xlx. 26, where Misheal), 
afterwards assigned to the Levites (xxi. 30, 
where Mishal ; 1 Chron. vi. 74). It was not 
,r from mount Carmel. 
ifA,SJ'ASa Esdr. V.34). 
MAS'MAN (1 Esdr. viii. 43). Shemaiah 
(Ezra viii. 16). 

MASON (2 Sam. v. 11 ; 2 Kings xu. 12, 
xxii. 6 ; 1 Chron. xlv. 1, xxii. 2 ; 2 Chron. 
xxiv. 12 ; Ezra iii. 7). See Architecture, 
Handicraft. 

MASO'RAH, MAS'ORETES. The word 
Masorah signifies tradition, and designates 
a collection of notes made upon the Old 
Testament, supposed to have been derived 
from verv ancient times. The Masoretes 
were those who collected these notes ; and 
the Hebrew text settled according to them 
is called the Masoretic text. 

After the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
the wide dispersion of the Jews, various 
schools of literature were established by 
them, in which tlie holy books were care- 
fully preserved, studied, and taught. One 
of the most noted of these schools was that 
of Tiberias, which Jerome mentions as ex- 
isting in his time (Free/, ad Comm. in libr. 
Paralip.). The doctors of it busied them- 
selves from the sixth century in gathering 
all the critical and grammatical observa- 
tions they could find, which might con- 
tribute to fix the reading and the interpre- 
tation of scripture. These observations 
were handed on through successive ages, 
whence the name Masorah ; and by some an 
incredible antiquity was ascribed to them, 
from at least the time of Ezra. They com- 
prised traditional definitions, precepts, cor- 
rections of the text ; and, when these were 
committed to writing, it was felt necessaiT 
also to settle the pronunciation by vowel- 
points and accents. The pronunciation itself 
was not new : it was simply a new mode of 
expressing it which was then introduced, 
and which was developed into the elaborate 
vowel-system at present adopted in He- 
brew reading. The Masoretic notes were 
mainly critical, bearing upon the ortho- 
graphy, the grammar, and the explanation 
of the text which they were to accom- 
pany. The Masoretic doctors marked the 
number of the sections and verses of diffe- 
rent books, with the middle verse in each. 
They further noted the verses in which 
something was supposed to be forgotten, 
the words which they thought changed, the 
letters which they deemed superfluous, the 
different readings of words redundant or 
defective, the letters that were out of their 
place, or inverted, with a vast variety of 
such minute particulars ; and they professed 
to give the number of times each Hebrew 
letter occurs in the bible. These Masoretic 



notes were written both separately and also 
on the margin of manuscripts of the sacred 
books. They were sometimes in full, and 
sometimes abridged, M^ith more added at 
the end of the text ; and, according to their 
length and position they were differently 
characterized as the ' great,' the ' little,' the 
'textual,' and the 'final' Masorah. The 
great Masorah was first printed in Bomberg's 
rabbinical bibles : the little is included in 
most Hebrew bibles. 

The Masorah is of value for textual criti 
cisra. We can judge from it of the state of 
the text in the early centuries after Christ : 
we see also with what care the Jews pre- 
served the sacred oracles entrusted to them ; 
for when these doctors supposed a reading 
was false they did not venture to alter it, 
but simply added in the margin that which 
they considered preferable. And many of 
these marginal suggestions deserve great 
respect. For example, in Psal. c. 3, for ' not 
we ourselves,' the Masoretes propose ' his 
we are;' by the change of but a single 
Hebrew letter, with no difference of pro- 
nunciation. Our translators have intro- 
duced many of these Masoretic notes into 
the margin of our version, as in the example 
just given. 

A great deal of information in regard to 
the Masorah may be found in Walton's 
Prolegom. in BiU. Polygl., viii. pp. 261, &c. 
edit. Bathe, 1777. 

MAS'PHA. —1 (1 Mace. iii. 46). Mizpeh in 
Benjamin.— 2 (v. 35). Probably Mizpeh in 
Gilead. 

MASPv-E'KAH (vineyard of noble vines). 
The seat of one of the early kings of Edom 
(Gen. xxxvi. 38 ; 1 Chron. i. 47). 

MAS'SA (a lifting up, a gifti patience t). 
One of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 14 ; 
1 Chron. i. 30). His descendants may have 
been the Masani in Arabia Beserta. 

MAS'SAH {temptation). A place where 
the Israelites murmured for w-ant of water. 
It would seem to be identical with Rephi- 
dim, and that the name was imposed be- 
cause there the people tempted God by 
questioning his power and presence (Exod. 
xvii. 7). See Meribah, 1. The events at 
Massah are frequently afterwards referred 
to (Beut. vi. 16, ix. 22, xxxiii. 8). 

MASSFAS (1 Esdr. ix. 22). Maaseiah 
(Ezra X. 22). 

MASTER. The head of a household (Gen. 
xxxix. 20 ; Psal. cxxiii. 2 ; Mai. i. 6 ; Eph. vi. 
5, 9 ; Col. iii. 22, iv. 1). A chief man or 
public instructor (Luke vi.40 ; John iii. 10 : 
comp. Matt, xxiii. 8, 10). Hence our Lord 
was frequently addressed by this title (xxii. 
16, 24, 36). 

MASTIGK-TBEE (Hist. Sus. 54). The tree 
intended is the Fistacia lentiscus, mastich- 
tree, producing a fragrant resin. There is 
in the original Greek a play on the words 
schmos and schisei, the first signifying the 
tree, the latter (55) the cutting. 

MATHANFAS (1 Esdr. ix. 31). Matta- 
niah (Ezra x. .30). 

MATHU'SALA (Luke iii. 37). The Greek 
form of Methuselah. 

MAT'REB (jn-opelling). The mother at 
Mehetabel, wife of Hadar, a king of Edom 
(Gen. xxxvi. 39 ; 1 Chron. i. .'viX 



MATRl] 



572 



MAT'RI (rain of Jeliovah). A Benjaraite 
to who&e family Saul belonged (1 Sam. x. 
21) 

MAT'TAN (a gift).— I. A priest of Baal, 
slain at the deposition and death of Atha- 
liah (2 Kings xi. 18 ; 2 Chron. xxni. 17).— 
2. One whose son in Jeremiah's tune is 
reckoned among the princes (Jer. xxxvni. 

^^MAT'TANAH (id.). A place through 
which the Israelites passed hetween the 
wilderness and the borders of Moab (Numb, 
xxi. 18, 19), to the south-east of the Dead 
sea. ,^ , . 

MATTANI'AH (gift of Jehovah).— 1. A son 
of Josiah, made king by Nebuchadnezzar 
(2 Kings xxiv. 17) bv the name of Zedekiah : 
see Zedekiah, 2.-2. A Levite (1 Chron. ix 
15 ; Neh. xi. 17, 22) : he may be the same 
with the person mentioned in xii. 8, 25, 35. 
—3. The head of one of the divisions of 
the singers (1 Chron. xxv. 4,16).— 4. A Levite, 
whose descendant Jahaziel prophesied m 
the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xx. 14). 
—5. Another Levite in the reign of Heze- 
kiah (xxix. 13) .-6, 7, 8, 9. Four persons 
who had married foreign wives (Ezra x. 26, 
27, 30, 37).— 10. A Levite (Neh. xiii. 13). 

MAT'TATHA (id.). A grandson of David, 
one of our Lord's ancestors (Luke iii. 31). 

MAT'TATHAH (id.). One who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife (Ezra x. 33). 

MATTATHI'AS (id.).—l, 2. Two persons 
in the line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 
25, 26). 

MATTATEI'AS.-l (1 Esdr. ix. 43). Mat- 
tithiah (Neh. viii. 4).— 2. The head of the 
Maccabean family (1 Mace. ii. 1, and else- 
where). From him began that determined 
resistance to Syrian tyranny, which issued 
in the establishment of the independence 
of the Jews uuder a dynasty of princes of 
his family. See Maccabees, the Family 
OF Maccabeus.—^. A Jewish captain (xi. 
70)— 4 The son of Simon Maccabeus (xvi. 
14);_5.' An envoy to Judas Maccabeus from 
Nicanor (2 Mace. xiv. 19). 

MATTENA'I (gift of Jehovah).—!, 2. Two 
persons who had married foreign wives 
(Ezra X. 33, 37).— 3. A priest in the time of 
Joiakim (Neh. xii. 19). 

MAT'THAN (g^)- One of our Lords 
ancestry (Matt. i. 15). He is probably the 
same with Matthat, 1. See Ge^^balogy. 

MATTHANFAS (1 Esdr. ix. 27). Matta- 
niah (Ezra x. 26). ^ 

MAT'THAT (gift of Jehovah).—!, 2. Two 
persons in the list of our Lord's ancestors 
(Luke iii. 24, 29). 

MATTHE'LAS (1 Esdr. ix. 19). Maaseiah 
(Ezra X. 18). 

MAT'THEW (probably a contracted form 
of Mattathiah, gift of Jehovah, or, as some 
think, identical with Amittai, true, faithful). 
One of the twelve apostles of our Lord. He 
was called also Levi, and was the son of 
Alpheus (Mark ii. 14; Luke v. 27), whether 
of the same who was father of James (Matt. 
X. 3) is quite uncertain. He appears to 
have resided at Capernaum, where he was a 
revenue-officer or publican (see Publican). 
He was occupied with his duties when Je- 
sus first called him. He immediately 
obeyed, and prepared a feast in his house, 



certainly to do honour to the Lord, but 
nerhaps also by way of farewell to his old 
associates, who thus were brought, not 
without murmuring of the Pharisees, to 
hear the gracious words of the great Master 
(ix. 9-13). Some have professed to doubt 
whether Matthew and Levi were the same : 
to such bishop Ellicott's note (Hist. Lect, pp. 
171, 172) is a sufficient reply. Matthew's 
name appears in every list of the apostles, 
in the second group; and it is worth no- 
tice that in his own Gospel he retains the 
name of his despised calling, ' Matthew 
the publican ' (Matt. x. 2 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke 
vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13). 

Of his personal history nothing further 
is recorded in the sacred volume; and the 
accounts of his later life given by various 
ecclesiastical writers, as they are contradic- 
tory, are entitled to very little credit. For 
some notice of them see Winer, Bihl.BWB., 
art. ' Matthaus.' _ . 

MAT'THEW, THE GOSPEL OF. This 
has always occupied the first place in the 
order of the Gospels, and consequently of 
the books of the New Testament. 

It has been keenly disputed in what 
language this Gospel was originally com- 
posed ; this question, therefore, one of the 
most important in regard to the origin of 
the book we possess, shallbe first examined. 
There are three hypotheses, that St. Mat 
thew wrote in Hebrew, or rather the Ara- 
maic dialect, believed to have been at the 
time the common tongue of the inhabitants 
of Judea ; that he w^te in Greek, so that 
we have his veritable composition ; and 
that he published two equally-authori- 
tative works, nerhaps at or nearly at the 
same time, the one in Hebrew,the other 
its counterpart in Greek. Of this last 
theory, avowedly a compromise between 
the two former, by men who felt them- 
selves unable to reach a real decision, little 
need be said. It has literally no evi- 
dence in its favour : it is but a conjecture, 
and as a conjecture it may be dismissed. 

There are eminent critics, who hare 
taken vast pains with the investigation, 
ranked on either side; some maintaining 
the Hebrew original, others as strenuously 
arguing for the Greek. Any determination, 
therefore, which may here be made must be 
stated with modesty. , . 

If we adopt the first-named opinion, it 
necessarily follows that the present Greek 
Gospel is but a version, by whom or when 
made we have no means of knowing ; nei- 
ther, as the original has perished (for no 
Hebrew Gospel is extant), have we the ad- 
vantage of testing its faithfulness. The 
proofs alleged are the overwhelming— so it 
is thought— testimony of the early fathers. 
These are enumerated as Papias, Iremsus, 
Origen, Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epi- 
phanius, Jerome, Augustine, Chrysostom, 
and others ; whose words it is not neces- 
sary to cite in a work like the present. 
Their testimonies have long ago been 
sufficiently sifted by Dr. Whitby in his 
Freface to the Gospels, sects, v. vi. vii. It 
may be said of them that they are uncer- 
tain and confused, and, besides, that they 
are grounded only upon hearsay. For none 



573 



of these writers pretend that they had seen 
the Hehrew Gospel, till the time of Jerome; 
and the volume he describes differed widely, 
as will presently be shown, from the Greek 
composition we possess. How, then, can we 
rely upon such testimonies, which would go 
to prove that a book of sacred scripture was 
written in a language so unsuited to its 
purpose that it had speedily to be re-placed 
by a translation.while it, the inspired work, 
fell at once into oblivion ? the Peshito Syrlac 
version, made probably but about a century 
after Christ, being, it is acknowledged on all 
hands, from the Greek. There is no parallel 
to this. The original of every other sacred 
composition has- been carefully preserved. 
Why this extraordinary exception ? 

But let us look a little farther. Is the 
Greek Gospel a translation ? Does it present 
those noticeable features which so generally 
convince a reader at once that he has not 
the original before him ? On the contrary, 
the flow of the language of this Gospel,with 
Hebrew idioms certainly, but in a style far 
unlike the Hebraized Greek palpable in the 
Septuagint version of books of the Old 
Testament ; the Hebrew words, such as Raca 
(Matt. V. 22),which certainly would not have 
been left in an unknown tongue, when the 
very object of translating, if the composi- 
tion be translated, was to render it intelligi- 
ble to Greek readers ; above all, the use of the 
Septuagint in quotations from the Old Tes- 
tament—these are but some of the formida- 
ble objections which those who consider the 
Greek Gospel a version must have to meet. 
It is well known that the citations in the 
New Testament generally follow the Sep- 
tuagint, occasionally only deserting it, 
when faulty, for the original, and varying 
sometimes from both the original and the 
Septuagint, when it seemed good to the 
inspiring Spirit to give a fuller develop- 
ment to the ancient word. This is perfect- 
ly intelligible if the apostles wrote m 
Greek : they would naturally adopt for the 
most part the version in the hands of 
those they wrote for, and understood by 
them. But can any reasonable man ima- 
gine that Matthew writing in Hebrew 
would not (more especially when reporting 
our Lord's speeches) use the original, but 
would in preference translate back from 
the Septuagint? Or can any man imagine 
that, if Matthew used the original, his 
translator would so far depart from the 
model before him as to introduce the Sep- 
tuagint renderings ? It cannot, therefore, 
be admitted that our Greek Gospel is merely 
a version. Besides, all ancient authorities 
refer to it, and use it as the divine word. 
How could they so have used it, had it 
been bat a translation? And, moreover, 
why should Matthew write in Hebrew? 
For Jewish readers especially, it is replied. 
Why, then, was not the epistle to the He- 
brews composed in Hebrew? The fact is, 
and weighty proofs of it have been brought, 
that Greek was as well understood m Pa- 
lestine in our Lord^s time as Hebrew, and 
that there are strong reasons for believing 
that Christ and his apostles, and the Jews 
in general, more especially in public 
speeches and religious addresses, were in 



IMATTHE^ 



the habit of using Greek. This has been 
elsewhere argued : see Gospels (pp. 341, 
342) ; and what is there maintained may be 
corroborated by the opinion of bishop 
Thirlwall, that ' Greek was the medium of 
intercourse between the Romans and the 
Jews .... and that, on the whole, the 
number of those who knew no other 
language was greater than that of those 
who understood only the vernacular tongue 
of Palestine' {Introd. to Schleiermachef a 
Essay on Luke, p. ci.). 

And as to the Hebrew so-called St. Mat- 
thew's Gospel of which Jerome speaks, it is 
evident by what he says that it differed 
widely from the genuine Greek. It had 
additions, alterations, omissions : it was 
used by the Ebionites and Kazarenes, de- 
generate Christian sects, and was In all 
probability the untrustworthy document 
known, besides other names, as the ' Gospel 
according to the Hebrews.' 

If the reader feels that the observations 
here offered have any weight, and that the 
evidence tends to prove the authority of 
St. Matthew's Greek Gospel, he may be re- 
minded that It is only a sketch of the 
discussion which can be given in this place, 
and that the arguments might be made 
abundantly more conclusive. 

The references already given to early 
writers prove that the Gospel of St. Matthew 
was received very anciently in the Chris- 
tian church. And authors earlier than any 
yet mentioned have given us their testi- 
mony. Though Polycarp and Clement of 
Rome do not distinctly name it, they yet 
have left in their writings allusions to St. 
Matthew's Gospel, and sentences taken 
from it. It has indeed been asserted by 
some, who admit generally its authority, 
that the first two chapters are a spurious 
addition. ' But,' says bishop Ellicott, ' when 
we remember (1) that they are contained in 
every manuscript, uncial or cursive, and in 
every version, eastern or western, that 
most of the early fathers cite them, and 
that early enemies to Christianity appealed 
to them (Orig., Gels., i. 38, ii. 32) ; when we 
observe (2) the obvious connection between 
the beginning of chap. iii. and the end of 
chap, ii., and between iv. 13 and ii. 23 ; and 
when we remark (3) the exact accordance 
of diction with that of the remaining chap- 
ters of the Gospel, it becomes almost as- 
tonishing that even d v'riori prejudice 
should not have abstained at any rate from 
so hopeless a course as that of impugning 
the genuineness of these chapters. To 
urge that these chapters were wanting in 
the mutilated and falsified Gospel of the 
Ebionites (Epiph., Rcer., xxx. 13), or that 
they were cut away by the heretical Tatiau 
(Theodoret, Hcer. Fab,, i. 20), is really to 
concede their genuineness, and to bewray 
the reason why it was impugned' {Ilist. 
Lect, p. 57, note 1) : see also Mill {Myth. In- 
terp. of the Gospels, part ii. chap. u. sect. i. 

^^The^' time when St. Matthew wrote his 
Gospel is uncertain : some critics place it as 
early as 37 a.d. ; and some carry it down as 
late as 64. Looking at all the probabilities 
of the case we may, without fixing an exact 



MATTHIAS] 



574 



year, assign it to a time between 40 and 
50. There can be little doubt tliat the 
apostle wrote in Palestine. His object was 
to place before his countrymen a narrative 
of the words and actions of Jesus, whom he 
exhibits specially as the Messiah for whom 
the nation looked. The diction is Hebrais- 
tic ; the style plain and perspicuous. The 
teaching of our Lord is made very pro- 
minent in this Gospel ; so much so that the 
record of Christ's actions is commonly sub- 
servient to the fuller exhibition of his in- 
structions : but through the whole we ob- 
serve the development of the two-fold title 
of the first verse, ' Son of David,' ' Son of 
Abraham.' 

It IS no mere fancy to discover a certain 
relationship between St. Matthew's original 
occupation and his mode of arranging his 
materials. He had been a man of business, 
engaged in accounts ; and from such a one 
we might expect careful grouping and 
orderlv combination. Hence he appears 
sometimes to disregard exact chronological 
sequence : at least the order of events dif- 
fers much in St. Matthew from the order of 
St. Marli and of St. Luke. He has gathered 
into groups the discourses of our Lord 
and the attending circumstances cMatt. v., 
vi., vii.). He has put together a collection 
of miracles (viii., ix.3, and has arranged the 
parables w^ith such consummate wisdom 
that each in the place in which it is set 
adds force and clearness to the rest (xiii.). 
There are many particulars, too, untouched 
by the other evangelists, which are deli- 
vered with special effectiveness by St. 
Matthew— the consolatory promise, for 
example, with which he concludes (xxviii. 
18-20). 

Mr. Westcott, in his useful Introduct. to 
the Study of the Gospels, pp. 327-329, has 
constructed an elaborate scheme or analysis 
of the contents of this Gospel. It may be 
consulted with advantage by the student ; 
but perhaps a more simple and brief dis- 
tribution will be better suited to the general 
reader. We mav, therefore, note four 
parts— I. The descent, birth and infancy 
of Jesus (i., ii.). II. The events preparatory 
to our Lord's public ministiy, including 
the preaching of the Baptist, and the bap- 
tism and temptation of Jesus (iii. 1— iv. 
II) III. The discourses and actions of Jesus 
in Galilee, bv which his Messiahship was 
demonstrated (iv. 12— xx. 16). IV. The 
transactions relative to Christ's passion, 
death, and resurrection (xx. 17— xxviii.). 

Commentaries on St. Matthew's Gospel 
are found in those on the ^^ew Testament, 
or the Gospels collectively ; but the valuable 
exposition of Dr. J. A. Alexander, 1861 (un- 
fortunatelv not finished^ may be here re- 
commended to the reader's notice. 

M \TTHI'AS (gift of Jehovah). One of our 
Lord's disciples, possibly of the number of 
the -^eventv, who was chosen by lot to be an 
apostle in the place of Judas Iscariot (Acts 
i. 23-26). No other particulars of his history 
are certainly known. Various traditions 
describe him as preaching in Ethiopia, or 
in Colchis, and being there martyred ; or, 
according to yet another account., as 
preacbins in Judea and being stoned bj 



the Jews. See Winer, Bibl RWB., art. 
' Matthias.' 
MATTRI'AS a Esdr. ix. 33). Mattathah 

(Ezra X. 33\ 

MATTITHI'AH {id.).—l. A Levite of the 
family of the Korahites, wno had charge of 
things made (for the offerings) in pans 
(1 Chron. ix. 31).— 2. A Levite porter ap- 
pointed to play the harp (xv. 18, 21, xvi. 5). 
— 3. A son of Jeduthun, chief of one of the 
courses of singers (xxv. 3, 21) : he may have 
been identical with 2s o. 2.-4. One who had 
taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 43).— 5. Per- 
haps a Levite, who stood by the side of Ezra 
when he read the law Qseh. viii. 4). 

MATTOCK. There are two Hebrew words 
nearly allied which are rendered ' share' 
and 'mattock' in our version of 1 Sam. iii. 
20. These are two agricultural cutting in- 
struments, of which one is thought to 
denote the plough-share, and the other the 
coulter. The plui-al, occurring in 21, ' mat- 
tocks,' of both words is alike. In Isai. vii. 25 
the word translated 'mattock' is probably 
I a weeding-hook, or hoe. 

MAUL. A mace or war-club (Prov. xxv. 
18). But in 2 Chron. xxxiv. 6, marg., where 
; the word appears in our version, ' mattocks ' 
i being in the text, it is CLuestiouable whether 
: any implement is meant. It might be 
better to translate ' with ' or ' in their ruins.' 
' The cities of the northern kingdom had 
been desolated ; but the altars still subsist- 
, ing in these wasted places Josiah destroyed. 
! MAUZ'ZIM (fortresses) (Dan. xi. 38, marg.), 
I In the text of the place referred to we have 
' the god of forces.' There have been many 
conjectures as to the meaning, and the 
' deitv intended. Several are enumerated In 
' Barnes' Xotes on Daniel, vol. ii. pp. 268, 2 , 
edit. 1853. The suggestion of Gesenius that 
it was a Syrian god obtruded upon the Jews, 
perhaps Jupiter Capitolinus, for whom 
Antiochus built a temple at Antioch (Livy, 
■ Hist., lib. xli. 20), is as feasible as any. 
MAZITFAS (1 Esdr. ix. 35). Mattithiab 
(Ezra X. 43). 

MAZ'ZAROTH (prognostications, presa- 
gers?). This word is most likely another 
form of Mazzaloth (influences), which occurs 
in 2 Kings xxiii. 5, rendered 'the planets ' in 
the text, ' twelve signs or constellations' 
in the margin. Mazzaroth is found in Job 
xxxviii. 32 (' the twelve signs,' marg.). The 
name may have been given from the popu- 
lar belief in the influence of the constella- 
tions over the destiny of men, thus pre- 
I figuring future events. That by Mazzaroth 
' or Maz^zaloth are meant the signs of the 
zodiac there can be little doubt. The 
authoritv of the Targums and of later Jewish 
i writers fullv confirm this supposition. 
I MEADOW (Gen. xli. 2, 18). The original 
I word so translated in this place is Egyptian, 
i It must mean some kind of water-plant, 
' anv green thing growing in marshy ground. 
In" Judges xx. 33 our version, 'meadows,' 
i must be incorrect. There are said to be no 
meadows about Gibeah. Some waste place 
1 may be intended ; or, by a slight change 
' of punctuation, the word would denote a 
cavp. , ^ 

j ME'AH (a hiaidred). A tower of Jeru- 
I salem in the time of Kehemiali (Xeh. iii. 1, 



575 



|_]VIEASl;lcfS 



sii. 39). It is supposed to haye stood some- | 
where to the north-east of the city. 

MEAL, MEALS. The meals of the He- 
brews were not so exactly distinguished by 
special names as ours are. The principal 
meal was possibly ths evening one (Luke 
xiv. 16-24 ; Johnxii. 2 ; Rev. xix. 17). Winer 
doubts this, and contends that in an agri- 
cultural population the chief meal would 
more likely be that in the earlier part of the 
day iBM. BWB., art. 'Mahlzeit'). Joseph 
certainly invited his brethren to eat with 
him at noon (Gen.- xliii. 16, 25) ; but this 
might be according to the Egyptian custom. 
The behaviour of Abraham and Lot to the 
angels proves little, Abraham entertained 
them in the heat of the day, Lot in the 
evening (xviii. 1-5, xix. 1-3). TJnauestion- 
ably there was a meal ordinarily eaten be- 
fore noon (often called dinner). This we 
find in the harvest-field of Boaz, of which 
the master himself partook, and after which 
the labour was resumed (Ruth ii. 14, 15). 
But then the harvest-feast was in the 
evening (iii. 2, 3, 7). The feast made for 
Jethro was obviously in the evening ; for 
Moses is said to have sat through the whole 
day judging the people (Exod. xviii. 12-14). 
The promise of a miraculous supply of food 
for Israel in the wilderness makes a remark- 
able distinction, ' At even ye shall eat flesh, 
and in the morning ye shall be filled with 
bread,' referring to the quails and the 
mauna, as if in the evening the meal would 
be more substantial (xvi. 12). The time, 
also, when the first passover was eaten, and 
at which it was ever after to be celebrated 
(xii. 6, 8 ; Lev. xxiii. 5), points to the same 
conclusion ; as, still further, do the com- 
mencing and close of the fast of the seventh 
month at even (32). Moreover, as families 
are separated through the day wben occu- 
pied in their ordinary business (Psal. civ. 
23), it is only in the evening that they are 
all likely to be gathered for their chief 
meal (cxxviii. 3). The morning feastings 
(1 Kings XX. 16; Isai. v. 11), may be con- 
sidered as exceptional cases. These are 
the principal notices on which Saalschiitz 
relies as tending to prove that the most 
substantial meal among the Hebrews was 
that eaten in the evening {Arch, der Heb., 
cap. 54, vol. ii. pp. 138, 137). They are not 
quite decisive ; and we may well suppose 
tbat, while generally there were two meals 
(Luke xiv. 12), their relative importance, as 
with ourselves,varied according to the time, 
and the circumstances of individuals. 

It is also uncertain whether it was cus- 
tomary for the female part of the household 
to eat with the males. Several passages 
may be produced in favour of the practice 
(e.g. Ruth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. i. 8 ; Job i. 4) ; also 
the command of the law pre-supposes it 
(Deut. xvi. 11, 14). Yet the Levite's concu- 
bine does not seem to have joined her hus- 
band and father at their meal (Judges xix. 
6) : Absalom invited only his brothers 
(2 Sam. xiii. 23) ; and, while the sons are 
spoken of as around the table (Psal. cxxviii. 
3), the wife is not included. Martha also 
did not sit at the table at the supper of 
Bethany (John xii. 2). The case of Ahasu- 
erus's feast (Esth. i. 9), occurring in Persia, 



proves nothing in regard to the custom of 
Jews. Perhaps, as wine was drunk at the 
later part of or after a meal, females if pre- 
sent might soon retire. And indisputably the 
care of preparation seems to have belonged 
especially to the women (Gen. xviii. 6, 9 ; 
Luke X. 40). 

For the nature of the viands see Food. 
Tt appears to have been customary to place 
separate portions before such person ; and 
those who were most honoured had the 
choicest and largest portions (Gen. xliii. 34 ; 
1 Sam. i. 4, 5, ix. 23, 24). This is a modern 
oriental practice. See BAifQUET. 

In earlier times the Hebrews sat at meals 
(Gen. xxvii. 19 ; Judges xix. 6 ; 1 Sara. xx. 
24, 25, 27), but subsequently they reclined 
(Amos vi. 4, 7), and the custom of the Greeks 
and Romans In this respect prevailed. 
From this custom some of the incidents 
related in the gospel history are readily ex- 
plained (Luke vii. 37, 38). And as several 
lay on a single couch (generally three) the 
head of one rested on the breast of another 
(John xiii. 23, 25). It was usual to wash the 
hands before and after meals (water being 
poured from an ewer upon them (2 Kings iii. 
11), sometimes also in the interval of 
changing the dishes. This, which was ne- 
cessary for cleanliness, as the food was 
taken with the fingers, seems to have been 
insisted on by the Pharisees as a ritual 
observance ; and hence our Lord's discoun- 
tenancing of it -on more than one occasion 
(Matt. XV. 2, 20 ; Mark vii. 2-4 ; Luke xi. 38). 
A blessing was asked upon the meal (1 
Sam. ix. 13 ; Luke ix. 16 ; John vi. 11), and 
thanks were returned at the close ; Jewish 
writers grounding this on Deut. viii. 10. 
On the sabbath the first meal would seem 
to have been not till after the synagogue 
service at mid-day (see Josephus, De Vita 
Slid,, § 54). 

The modern eastern customs at meals 
illustrate many of the circumstances re- 
corded in scripture. Thus it is common to 
double up bits of thin bread into a kind of 
spoon and dip them in the dish: comp. 
John xiii. 26, and see Thomson, The Land 
and the Book, pp. 126-128. The Jews now 
consider the table at meal-time as repre- 
senting the altar of the temple, and the 
dishes as the offerings. Hence the table 
must be spread with a clean cloth, and salt 
laid upon it (Lev. ii. 13). Bread must be 
eaten with every regular meal ; and cer- 
tain graces and washings are prescribed 
(Mills' British Jews, part i. chap. iii. pp. 58, 
59) 

ilE'ANI (1 Esdr. v. 31). Mehunim (Ezra 
ii- 50). 

MEA'RAH (a caye). A place ' beside the 
Sidonians ' (Josh. xiii. 3). It may not, how- 
ever, be a proper name, but may denote 
some well-known cave. See Wmer, Bihl 
iZTFi?., art. 'Meara.' 

MEASURE, MEASURES. There aie 
measures of length and measures of capa- 
city. Measures of length have genera ly 
been taken from the proportions ot tne 
human body. Thus we have the dif^'t or 
finger's breadth ; the palm or hand-breadth, 
or breadth of four fingers ; the spa" or 
reached between the thumb and the 



measure] 



576 



little finger extended ; the cubit or length 
from the elbow to the point of the middle 
finger ; also the loot. 

There is great uncertainty in reducing 
Hebrew measures to English. The follow- 



ing tables of measures of length and capa- 
city, from Home's Introd., Yol. iii. pp. 573, 
574, must be taken therefore more as an 
approximation than as an exact determi- 
nation : — 



1. Hebrew Measures of Length reduced to English Measure. 



A digit 




Eng. 

feet, inches. 
0 0-912 


inches. 
•7938 


4 1 A palm 




3-1752 


12 1 




9-5257 


24 1 


6 1 




19-0515 


96 1 


24 1 




114-3090* 


144 1 


36 1 


12 1 6 1 1-5 1 Ezekiel's reed. . . 10 11-328 


192 1 


48 1 


16 1 8 1 2 1 1-3 1 An Arabian pole . 14 7*104 




1920 1 


480 1 


160 1 80 1 20 1 13-3 1 10 1 A schoenus or 

measuring line 145 11-04 






* (This column is from Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1739.) 





2. Lo7ig Measures. 



A cubit 




Eng. 
miles. 


paces. 
0 


feet, 
1-824 


400 1 






145 


4-6 


2000 1 






729 


3-0 


4000 1 




1 


403 


10 


12000 1 






153 


3-0 


96000 1 


240 1 48 1 24 1 8 1 A day's journey (uncertain) 


. 33 


172 


4-0 



1056 paces are reckoned to the mile, five feet to the pace. The Roman mile was 1618 yards 
3. Measures of Capacity for Liquids, reduced to English Wine Measure. 



A caph 






gal. 

0 


pints. 
0.625 


1-3 


A log . 




0 


0-833 


5-3 


41 




0 


3-333 


16 1 


12 1 


3 1 A hin 


1 


2 


32 1 


24 1 


6 1 2 1 A seah .... .... 


2 


4 


96 1 


72 1 




7 


4 


960 


720 1 


180 1 60 i 30 1 10 1 A cor, or cores, chomer, or liomer 


75 


0 



In Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1742, two tables of these measures are given, 
between which the writer professes himself unable to decide. In one the homer is 
rated at 86-696 gallons in the other 44-286. 

4. Measures of Capacity for Tilings Dry, reduced to English Corn Measure. 

pecks, gnl. pints. 




0 


0 


0-1416 


0 


0 


2-8333 


0 


0 


51 


1 


0 


1 


3 


0 


3 


16 


0 


0 


32 


0 


1 



cor, or cores . 



The batus (Luke xvi. 6, marg.) was equivalent to the bath or ephah : the bushel (Matt. 
V. 15 ; Mark iv. 21 ; Luke xi. 33) was about a peck : the choenix (Rev. vi. 6, marg.) was 
nearly one quart ; the firkin (John ii. 6) 8 galls. 7-4 pts. ; the sextarius (Mark vii.4, marg.) 
or Testes, was probal)ly equivalent to the log, but in the place referred is not taken for 
any particular measure. 



For other tables see Moxet, "WEiGnTS. 



577 



[mbdia 



MEASURING REED cEzek. xl. 3, xlii. 16- 
19). See tables above. 

MEAT, MEATS. This word as it occurs 
in our version Is frequently used for food 
in general (Lev. xxii. 11, 13 ; 1 Sam. xx. 5, 
34; 2 Sam. iii. 35, and elsewhere), or for 
what is allowed to he eaten, proper for sus- 
tenance (Gen. i. 29, 30, ix. 3). More specially, 
though perhaps sometimes indicating, as in 
our ordinary employment of the term, flesh- 
meat(xxvii. 4,7, 31), it is almost exclusively 
applied to vegetables or vegetable products. 
Thus a meat-offering was a kind of cake 
made of flour and oil (Lev. ii.\ 

A controversy arose in the early church 
respecting meats, the flesh of victims,which 
had been offered to idols ; whether this 
might lawfully be eaten by Christians. It 
was evidently a matter of expediency. The 
flesh Itself was not polluted ; and much 
that had been so offered was exposed for 
sale in the ordinary market, and was found 
generally on men's tables at their meals. 
Hence St. Paul lays down the rule that 
Christians might lawfully buy what was for 
public sale, or placed before them by their 
acquaintances, without asking questions, 
but, if they were specially told that the meat 
had been offered to an idol, or if the con- 
science of a brother (even though he might 
be weak) was likely to be offended, they 
should abstain, and not give cause for scan- 
dal. The same principle was laid down in 
the council of Jerusalem. Christians in the 
sight of JeAVs, who would be sure to take 
exception, should not eat meats offered to 
idols (Acts XV. 20, 21, 29 ; Rom. xiv, 20, 21 ; 
1 Cor. viii. 4, 7-10, x. 19, 25-33). See Food. 

The word ' meat ' is sometimes used flgu- 
ratively (John iv. 32, 34). 

MEAT-OFFERING. See OFFERINGS. 

ISmBJJl^l'BAl {building of Jehovah). One 
of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 27). See 

SIBBECHAI). 

MECHER'ATHITE. The designation of 
one of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 36) : it 
is not known whence derived. 

ME'nABA (1 Mace. ix. 36). Medeba. 

ME'DAD (love). One of the men on whom 
God bestowed the Spirit in the wilderness, 
and who with Eldad prophesied in the camp 
(Numb. xi. 26, 27). 

ME'DAN (conterdion). One of the sons of 
Abraham and Keturah (Gen, xxv. 2 ; 1 Chron. 
i. 32). The district which his descendants 
occupied has not been ascertained. 

MEDE, MEDES, MEDIAN. The inhabi- 
tants of Media (2 Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11 ; 
Ezra vi. 2 ; Esth. i. 19 ; Isai. xiii. 17 ; Jer. 
xxv. 25, li. 11, 28 ; Dan. v. 28, 31, vi. 8, 12, 15, 
ix. 1, xi. 1 ; Acts ii. 9). See Media. 

ME'DEBA {ivaters of quiet). A place or 
district east of the Jordan, the frontier of 
the territory of Reuben. It would seem 
that it originally belonged to Moab, but 
was afterwards held by the Amorites 
(Numb. xxi. 30 ; Josh. xiii. 9, 16 ; 1 Chron. 
xix. 7). In later times it was recovered by 
the Moabites (Isai, xv. 2 : comp. 1 Mace. ix. 
36). Ruins of it exist, still called MMeba, 
on a rocky hill near Heshbon. 

ME'DIA. A large region in Asia lying 
between Persia, Armenia, and Assyria. It 
was separated from Persia on the south by 



a desert : on the west the boundary was the 
mountains of Zagros, and the chain pro- 
ceeding thence to Ararat : the Araxes 
limited It northwards ; while on the east it 
reached to the desert, the Caspian gates, 
and the mountains south of the sea. In 
length it might be from north to south 550 
miles, and in breadth from 250 to 300. It 
comprised, according to Rawlinson, the 
modern provinces of Jrafc Ajemi, Persian 
Kurdistan, part of Luristan, Azerhijan, and 
perhaps Talish and Ghilan. Anciently 
Media was divided into Media Magna and 
Media Atropatene. The former was moun- 
tainous and fertile in the west, rocky and 
bare towards the east. It Included the 
Niseean plains, famous for a breed of horses, 
and corresponded to Irak Ajemi, with parts 
of Kurdistan and Luristan. Media Atropa- 
tene, which had its name from a satrap, 
Atropates, who established himself as 
monarch there when Alexander overthrew 
the Persian empire, corresponded to Azer- 
Mjan, and perhaps Talish and Ghilan. It is 
a high tract, fertile and well-watered. 
Tabriz, the summer residence of the kings 
of Persia, is its capital. In each of the two 
divisions of Media was a chief city called 
ECBATANA, which see. Another principal 
town was Rhages or Raga. 

The Medes must be supposed descended 
from Madai, of the sons of Japheth (Gen, 
X. 2), Over their early history much ob- 
scurity hangs. Perhaps in very ancient 
times they were powerful, and they are said 
to have conquered Babylon. Later, how- 
ever, they appear in a subordinate position, 
though not perhaps actually incorporated 
with the Assyrian empire, yet oppressed and 
plundered by the Assyrians, who planted 
military colonies among them. Herodotus 
represents them as revolting early, and 
ultimately taking Nineveh, and establish- 
ing an extensive monarchy. But his story 
cannot be implicitly credited (see Raw- 
linson's Ilerod., vol. i. pp. 408, 421, 422). In 
its main outline it may be true ; for indis- 
putably the Medes took Nineveh, perhaps 
about 625 B.C. ; and Cyaxares their king 
reigned over a vast expanse of country, As- 
syria, Persia, Media, Armenia, and other 
countries, from the Halys to the Caspian 
gates, and from the Caspian and Black seas 
to the Persian gulf. But this dominion did 
not last. The Persians under Cyrus defeated 
them ; and he is said to have captured their 
king Astyages. Thenceforward the Medes 
made a part of the Persian empire ; not as 
subjected to a yoke, but rather as a kindred 
race with the Persians, Sometimes Indeed 
they struggled for independence : revolts 
occurred, but these were suppressed by 
Darius Hystaspis and Darius Nothus. 

The earliest notice we find of them in 
scriptui'e is when, after the conquest of 
Samaria, the Assyrian king removed soma 
of the Israelites into Median cities (2 Kinga 
xvii. 6, xviii. 11). This was probably in 
pursuance of the policy elsewhere noted 
see Assyria, It was afterwards predicted 
that the Medes would take part in tlic de- 
struction of Babylon (Isai. xiii. 17, 18, xxi. 2; 
Jer. li, 11, 28) ; a prediction exactly accom- 
plished, as we read in Daniel (Dau. y. 28, Si)" 



MEDIAX] 



578 



Poc=-- --.i^IIiifiliad suSered at the hand 

of t£- I " - :i iings. atid were therefore 

actu&-^i "1 s-: -:rit of revenge (Jer. xxt. 

25^ The jLied->Persian kingdom is alluded 

to in Dan. riii. 3, 4, 20, and continnallv the 

two nations are spoken of as in union CEsth. 
, i. 3, 14. 18, 19, X. 2 : Dan. ri. 8, 12\ The 
'■ palace or roval residence, Achmetha or 
I Echatana,, in Media, is also mentioned 

(Ezra Ti. 2) : it had heen the seat of go- 
vernment under Cyrus. . 
The Medes were brave and excelled m 

the use of the how. Their dress was flowing 

and of rich colours; and they were fond of meholali. 

decoratins themselves with ornaments. ! MEJlL J.-^ii 

In their religion they admitted the ex- 
stence of two opposing powers of good and 



A person whose grandson attempted to 
alarm yehemlah (2seh. vi. 10). 

MEHE'TABEL iid.^. The wife of Hadar, 
one of the kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 39 ; 
1 CTiron. i. 501. 

]yi:B:i'DA {junction?). One whose de- 
scendants, :S'ethinim, returned from capti- 
vity with Zeruhhahel (Ezra ii. 52 ; Xeh. vll 



isiEHITc (price). A man of Judali's posr 
terity (1 Chron. iv. 11). 

MEHO'LATHITE a Sam. xviii. 19; 2 
Sam. xxi. 8). A native or resident of Abel- 



ilESr'J.AJEL (smiUen of God). A de- 
scendant of Cain (Gen. iv, 18). 
MEHU'MA^ (faitnful). One of the 



^l^^SlS-SiJk^^^i^^ I eunnchs orTiamWrlelns at the court of 

modified, and changed into Magianism or i Ahasuerps (Esth. 1. 10). _ . . 



worship of fire and the other elements. 



MEHCXQI (li-aMtations). Certain per- 
Amon- their7u=tW= it mav he noted that sons, Is-ethinim, who returned from capti- 
4?^?eft thTir dead^o ie devoured hy birds vity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 50^_are desig- 
and beasts of prey (;Herod., lib. i. 140). _ 
ME'DIAi^ (Dan. v. 31). The designation 



of Ifarius. also called the Mede (xl. 1). 

MEDIATOR. One who interposes be- 
tween two parties in order to bring them to 
asreement. or to a common purpose cGal 



nated ' chUdren of Mehunim.' They were 
probably not Israelites. The word is 
written ^lieunim in 2seh. vii. 52. 
MEHr'XmS a'<?-) (2 Chron. xxvL 7). See 

MAO'ITES. 

ME-JAR'KO:^^ iiraters of yeJtowness^. A 



S^lsC^lut *f "fes^^it^ rte ; Place m the so.th ol Jndai, M.al.uea alter 
^^Aifa-ic^'giveVSfm a Tim* T^S^ j Gibeonu-e, j.ho Mped to repair tte waU ol 



See ATOXE3IES 

^^^^mcS-^'iA^:inS% : Jer. =x.l8:! re^ioJs-Siong- our Lord', ancestry (Luke 



Ezek. xivii. 12). See Phtsicia:? 
word is sometimes used flguraiively 



The 1 iii. 24. 28^. 
Sin is 1 MELCHI'AH (id.) (Jer. xxi. 1). See 



Bpoken of aV a disease (Isai. i. 5, 6\: the I :Mai.cb:ia3:, 7. Aralchiah 
remedvfor itis therefore called a medicme. MELCSIAS^l 
[ M^'E.VA a Esdr. v. 32). Mehlda ,Ezra , .Ezra ^ vl^E^dr. ^. 

n.D2\ ^ , (>-eh. viii. 4i. 

ifELCH'IEL .'Judith vi. 15). 
MELCHI'SEDEC (Heb. v. 6, 10, vt 20, Tii. 
1, 10, 11, 15, 17, 21). The Greek form of 
Melchlzedek. 

ilELCHI'-SHrA {king oflielp). One of the 
sons of kin 2 Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49, xxxi. 2). 
SeeMALCHi-SHrA. ^ . 

MELCHJ'ZEDEK (king of righteousness). 
The priest-kiue of Salem who met Abraham 
returning from the slauglit^r of the eastern 
kines and blessed him (Gen. xiv, 18-20). 

Ingenious men have endeavoured to dis- 
cover that Melchizedek was somebody else ; 
their conjectures, if they were not (some of 
them especially) irreverent, might be araus- 
ms. There has been a doubt as to the place 
where this personage reigned. Salem, how- 
ever, is generally supposed to be Jerusalem, 
which lav in Abraham's line of march. 
See Salem. It may be safely concluded 
that, thoush reignins in Canaan, Melchi- 
zedek was" not of one of the depraved 
and idolatrous Canaanitish tribes. Miss 
Corbaux, in her interesting disquisition on 
the Rephaim, a distinct race, supposes that 
Salem was the central seat of their autho- 
itv, and that the king who reigned there 
was the supreme head of their nation, to 
whom the different tribes were subordinate. 
If Melchizedek were a mere local chief, ir 



MEGID'DO, MEGIDTDON (j>lace of troops'). 
A citv (Meelddon, in Zech. xii. 11, the sur- 
roundine: district, called ' the valley" being 
alluded tVi, anciently the seat of a king con- 
quered bv Joshua (Josh. xu. 21). It was 
locallv in the territory of Issachar, but was 
assigned to Manasseh (xvii. 11 ; 1 Chron. 
vii 29\ though not at once subdued by that 
tribe (Judses i. 27'>. Megiddo lay on the 
south-western border of the great plain of 
Esdraelon, just where it begins to rise to- 
wards the low range of wooded hills whi^h 
connect Carmel with the mountains of Sa- 
maria. The neighbourhood has always 
been a noted battle-field. Here fought the 
kings, ' bv the waters of Megiddo' (Judges 
V l'9\ the Kishon being probably meant. 
It wa^ one of the places which Solomon 
fortified (1 Kines ix. 15) : and the region 
round was one of his commissariat districts 
(iv 12). Hither Ahaziah king of Judah fled 
CKing'ix. 27) : and it was here that Josiah 
was mbrtallv wounded by Pharaoh-nechoh 
(xxiii. 29. 30 : 2 Chron. xxxv. 22-24\^ The 
modem name of Megiddo is el-Lejjun, de- 
rived, it would seem, from Legio ; so the 
Romans caUed the place on the site of the 
ancient citv. It is well situated, with an 
abnndajit supply of water, amid rich pas- 

^"jtEHE'TABEEL (whom God docs good to). 



679 



is difficult to see why the king of Sodom, 
an Emim prince, and why Abraham should 
pay iiim the deference they did. 'But the 
moment the important fact comes in by 
way of explanation, supported by sufficient 
extrinsic evidence, that the king of Salem 
was the supreme chief of the entire nation, 
and the local chiefs of tribes were his sub- 
ordinates, the whole transaction becomes 
perfectly intelligible, because we under- 
stand the mutual relation of all the parties 
concerned in it. As feudal lord of the land, 
in which Abraham had settled, Abraham paid 
him this tribute. As head of the national 
body to which the Emim belonged, the chief 
of the Emim sanctioned it. As head of the 
state in religious as well as in temporal 
concerns, according to the primitive patri- 
archal order, Melchizedek received the tri- 
bute, both as a votive offering of gratitude 
from the givers for the rescue of the goods, 
and as an acknowledgment of his lordship 
over the goods rescued' (Journ. of Sacr. 
Lit., July 1852, p. 314). 

Melchizedek is propounded by the Psalm- 
ist as a type after which Messiah v/as to 
hold his priesthood (Psal. ex. 4). The writer 
of the epistle to the Hebrews, taking up 
this ancient utterance, amplifies it and ap- 
plies it to Jesus (Heb. v. 10, vi. 20, vii.). He 
declares the dignity of Melchizedek greater 
than that of Abraham, from whom he re- 
ceived tithes and whom he blessed. And, 
as the king of Salem, whose name is signi- 
ficant, as well as that of the city where he 
reigned, appears just once in sacred story, 
no genealogy being given of him, no record, 
of his death, so herein is that yet nobier 
King pre-signified, who had ' neither begin- 
ning of days nor end of life.' By the 
Aaronic priesthood the official character of 
Christ was specially typified, in that he was 
to make an atonement for the sins of men, 
and with his own blood, as they with the 
blood of slain animals, enter into that 
holiest place of which the sanctuary was a 
figure, to perform his work of intercession 
in his Father's presence. But by the cha- 
racter of Melchizedek rather Christ's person 
was represented, his supreme dignity, his 
priestly kingship ; just as we find it pre- 
dicted that he, the ' Branch,' should be * a 
priest upon his throne' (Zech. vi. 12, 13). 
Some have believed that in the bread and 
wine brought forth by Melchizedek the 
eucharistic symbols were prefigured. But 
great care must be taken not to press such 
interpretations too far. For some remarks 
on the relation of Abraham to Melchizedek, 
see Fairbairn's Typol. of Script, book ii. 
chap, vi. 5, vol. i. pp. 312-314. 

MEL'OOM {their king) (Jer. xlix. 1, 3, 
marg.). See Milcom, Moloch. 

MEL'EA (full, fulness 1). One of our 
Lord's ancestors (Luke ill. 31). 

ME'LECH (king). A descendant of king 
Saul (1 Chron. viii. 35, ix, 41). 

MELI'CU (probably a corruption of Mal- 
luch, reigning) (Neh. xii. 14). See Mal- 

LUCH, 4. 

MEL'ITA. An island in the Mediterranean 
Bca, on which the vessel in which St. Paul 
was being carried prisoner to Home was 
wrecked (Acts x:x:viii. 1). 



[melita 



It is questioned whether this island is the 
present well-known Malta, or whether it is 
not rather Meleda in the gulf of Venice, 
which also bore anciently the name Melita. 
Many respectable writers have advocated 
the last-named opinion. Their principal 
reasons are these. The Melita of the Acts 
was in the sea called Adria. But this the 
sacred historian does not affirm. He simply 
says that the ship was ' driven up and down 
in [more properly driven through] Adria' 
(xxvii. 27) ; and, as it is admitted that the 
middle basin of the Mediterranean was 
called the sea of Adria, and that by authors 
hardly posterior to St. Luke, the argument 
is of little weight. They urge, further, that 
the islanders are called 'a barbarous 
people ' (xxviii. 2) ; which appellation they 
think never would have been given, espe- 
cially by a Jew, to the civilized inhabitants 
of Malta. But the word was used just as St. 
Paul uses it in Kom. i. 14 : those who were 
not Greeks were barbarians. Besides, when 
people did not understand each other's 
speech, each would be a barbarian to the 
other (1 Cor. xiv. 11). It is also said that 
there are now no vipers in Malta, whereas 
in Meleda, a damp and wooded island (Acts 
xxviii. 3), they abound. The answer is that 
there is proof that Malta was anciently 
wooded, so that we cannot ' conclude 
from its present state that it did not an- 
ciently harbour vipers. Again the disorder, 
it is said, of the father of Publius (8) was 
not likely to be prevalent in a dry and 
rocky island like Malta. But it has just 
been observed that Malta was anciently 
well wooded : it was not, therefore, so dry 
a locality then. Once more, it is urged that 
the sailors could hardly have been ignorant 
where they were (xxvii. 39), if they were 
upon the coast of an island so well-known, 
so much in the way of navigators, as Malta. 
It may be rejoined that it is not surprising 
that they did not recognize a part of the 
coast some distance from the great harbour. 

The reasons then against Malta are not 
sufficient. But there is what may be called 
positive proof in favour of it. Being off 
the south coast of Crete, at 'the Fair 
Havens,' a south wind would have carried 
the vessel to the harbour of Phenice (12, 
13). But suddenly the wind Euroclydon, 
blowing nearly E.N.E., burst forth, driving 
them close to the island Clauda. Here they 
took up their boat, lowered their gear, and, 
fearing they should be driven to the Syrtis 
on the African coast (14-17), they brought 
up the ship to the starboard ; and thus their 
course would be direct for Malta. Now 
from Clauda to the Maltese shore is 476 
miles. Experienced naval men believe that 
a vessel under tile circumstances described 
would drift about 36^ miles in 24 hours. In 
about 13 days and one hour the 476 miles 
would be run over. And St, Luke eays it 
was the fourteenth night when they nearcd 
the coast (27), Further, there is a bay in the 
island of Malta, called St, Paul's bay, the 
traditional scene of the wreck, wliicli 
exactly answers the description given ))y 
St, Luke. The soundings are the same, 
first 20 and then 15 fathoms (28) to a vessel 
coming in the direction supposed. Then 



MELONj 



680 



there Is a rockv shore on whicli they ■^vould 
hare been driren, had they not anchored 
(29), which they conld well do, there heing 
good holding-ground there. There is, he- 
=ide=, a creek with a sandy heach (39) and a 
place of two seas (41). We can hardly 
imaffine demonstration more complete. 
TheVhole matter has heen carefully inves- 
tis-ated hy Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, from 
whose satisfactory volume, Tlie Voyage and 
Shipwreck of St. Paul, 2nd edit. pp. 94, &c., 
160, &c., the preceding observations have 
been condensed. The apostle performed 
some miraculous cures, experienced great 
kindness from the inhabitants, and left the 
island after a sojourn of three months (Acts 
xxviii. 7-11). 

Malta lies to the south of Sicily, from the 
nearest point of which it is 5S miles distant. 
Its greatest length is 17i miles ; its greatest j 
breadth, 9i. There are some other small 
islands in the srroup, of which Gozo is the 
largest. Yaletta is the seat of government. 
Alalta was colonized by the Phcenicians and 
afterwards by the Greeks. The Cartha- 
sinians obtainedpossession of it 402, and the 
Romans 242 B.C. In modem times it passed 
to the emperor Cliarles T., who in 1530 A.D. 
granted it in full sovereignty to the knights 
of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, lately 
expelled from Rhodes. They kept it till 
1798, when it was surrendered to the 
French. The English obtained possession 
of it in 1800, and held it in military posses- 
sion till 1814, when it was formally acknow- 
ledged a British dependency. The popula- 
tion is about 120,000. 

MELOX. The Israelites are said to have 
murmured for the melons which they had 
been used to eat in Egypt (Xumb. xi. 5). 
These were most likely the water-melons, 
Ciicurbita citrulhis, called by the Arabs, 
with but a slight variation from the origi- 
nal Hebrew, butteekh. Dr. Thomson {TJie 
Land and the Book, p. 508) says that they 
abound in the neighbourhood of Em Khalid 
to the north of Jafia, whence vast quanti- 
ties are taken by boat to Beiriit, and other | 
towns alonsr the coast. The soil is dry and 
sandv, into which the plant thrusts its 
short root, water apparently being absorbed 
bv the leaves at night ; and the fruit is large 
and full of a most delicious juice. 

It ' STOWS,' says Kitto (Pirt. Bible, note on 
Numb. xi. 5), 'abtmdantly in the Levant 
and in Egypt. The fruit is about the size 
of the common pumpkin, which it very 
much resembles in appearance. The inte- 
rior is a pulp of a blooming red, abounding 
with a copious irrigation of peUucid juice : 
and thus it becomes both meat and drink at 
the same time. A traveller in the east, 
who recollects the intense gratitude which 
the gift of a slice of melon inspired, while 
journeying over the hot and dry plains, or 
one who remembers the consciousness of 
wealth and security which he derived from 
the possession of a melon, while prepared 
for a day's journey over the same plains— 
he will readily comprehend the regret with 
which the Hebrews in the Arabian desert 
looked back upon the melons of Egypt.' 

MEL'ZAR {master of wine, chief butler). 
All ofBcer in the court of Babylon, specially 



charged with the care of Daniel and his \ 
three companions (Dan i. 11, 16). But the : 
word is rather a title of office than a proper j 
name. 

3IEJtririUS (2 Mace. xi. 34). A person 

called a Roman ambassador, who is said, 
with Manlius, to have -RTitten a letter to 
the Jews : see ]\L42yLirs. ! 

MEMTHIS {the place of PM<x'h,the place of ■ 
the good god, i.e. Osiris). A very ancient 
and celebrated city of Egypt, called in He- 
brew Moph (Hos. ix. 6, where in our version 
' Memphis ') and Xoph (Isai. xix. 13 ; J er. il. ; 
16 ; Ezek. XXX. 13, 16). It lay just at the i 
northern end of the narrow ^sile valley, on ; 
the left. i.e. the western, bank of the river ] 
\cc0rdin2: to the tradition, Menes the j 
founder obtained a site for his city by dam- | 
mins up a branch of the Nile and restrain- 
I ing the water to a new channel which he 
du2-. Memphis was surrounded with 1 
mounds and erahaukments to protect it 
asainstthe inundations of the river; and 
these served also for security against hos- 
tile attacks. It would seem to have heen 
the capital of those Pharaohs who reigned 
in Lower Esrvpt in the times of the patri- 
archs : and it was their territory in which 
Abraham, Jacob, and the Israelitish tribes 
sojourned. Under Psammetichus this city 
became the metropolis of the whole of Egypt, 
and it srew and flourished as the southern 
Thebes^declined, Under Persian rule, and 
the sQvemment of the Ptolemies, Memphis 
(the~"centre of the Memphitic nome or pro- 
vince) continued the chief city ; hut the 
foundation of Alexandria was fatal to its 
prosperity. Even in Strabo's time, thougia 
still large and populous, many of its great 
buildinss were faUing into decay. And, 
when at length Cairo rose in its neighbour- 




EleTation and section of a portion of the Sera- 
peion, Memphis. From Marriette's 'lA Seia^ 
peum de Memphis.' 
hood, Memphis rapidly declined, and its 
site is now only marked by ruins near the 
villase of Minyet Bahlneh or Mitraheny. 

lu^the time of its prosperity Memphis 
must have been a noble city, 150 stadia in 
circuit. Among its noticeable buildings 
was a famous temple of Phtah (correspond- 
ing to the classical Vulcan and .\pis1s5aid 



681 



[men-stealeb 



to have been specially honoured'here. His 
temple also was one of the most noted 




Ground-plan of Serapeion, showing a portion of 
one of the galleries, with tombs and sarcophagi 

Structures of the city. There was besides a 
Serapeion or temple of Serapis, iu wliick 




Interior of gallery. 

the sacred cubit and other symbols used for 
measuring the inundations of the river 
were kept. 




Interior of tomb. Sarcophagus, containing 
mummy of sacred bail. 

Memphis was a busy city. Various manu- 
factures were successfully carried on here. 



That of glass was particularly celebrated; 
and its products highly valued at. Rome 
From the acacia trees in the neighbour- 
hood planks, and masts of boats, handles of 
weapons, and various articles of furniture 
were constructed. 

MEMU'CAN idicjnijied 2 reducer 1). One 
of the princes at the court of Ahasuerus 
(Esth. i. 14, 16, 21). 

MEN'AHEM {consoler). The son of Gadi, 
who, having slain Shallum king of Israel, 
reigned in his stead ten years, 771-760 B.C. 
He was an ungodly and cruel king. In his 
reign Pul king of Assyria came against the 
land ; but Menahem obtained his protec- 
tion by the payment of a thousand talents 
of silver (2 Kings xv. 14-22). 

ME'NAN. One of our Lord's ancestors 
(Luke iii. 31). 

MENE', MEXE', TE'KEL, UPHAR'SIN 
(numbered, numbered, weighed, and dividing). 
The inscription which the awful hand 
traced upon the wall in Belshazzar's sight, 
whilst he was carousing with his nobles. 
None of his wise men could interpret the 
words. They might indeed see what wa.s 
written, but they could not attach a meaning 
thereto, or understand the prognostication. 
But, when Daniel was brought in, divinely 
instructed he read the mystic characters, 
assigned the prophetic meaning to every 
word, and showed the impious prince that 
his doom was pronounced. And 'on that 
night was Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans 
slain' (Dan. v.). See Belshazzar. Peres, 
it may be added, is the same with Tphar- 
sin ; the last word being the participle ac- 
tive plural with the copulative conjujiction, 
the former the participle passive. 

MENELA'US (2 Mace. iv. 23-50, v. 5, 15, 23, 
xiii. 3, 4). An usurping high priest, who 
purchased the dignity from Antiochus Epi- 
phanes 172 B.C., but was ultimately put to 
death by Antiochus Eupator about 163 B.C. 

MENES'TEEUS{2 Mace. iv. 21). 

MENI' (/aie, fortune, possibly the planet 
Venus). This has been supposed to be tlie 
name of an idol, worshipped together with 
Gad (see Gad, 3) by the Jews in Babylonia 
(Isai. Ixv. 11, marg.). And it would seem 
that there was an idol of nearly the same 
name which the Arabian tribes between 
Mecca and Medina adored under the figure 
of a stone : see Winer, Bibl RWB., art. 
' Meni.' But Henderson believes that the 
reference is rather to the worldly Jews of 
the restoration than to the time of the 
captivity. Such persons acknowledged no 
god but riches, and regarded human affairs 
as governed by chance. The prophet, there- 
fore, having denounced those who made a 
libation (as Jerome says the Egyptians did 
on the last day of the year, viz. a table of 
provision and a cup of sweet wine with 
water) to destiny, declares by an elegant 
paronomasia, ' I will even destineyoM to the 
sword.' See Henderson, ZsauJi, p. 462. So 
Ewald translates,'. . . . und der Bestlm- 
mung Mischtrank einsclienkt, cuch hes- 
timme ich dem Schwerte ' {Die Proph. de;i 
A.B.,Yo\. ii.p. 481). 

MEiSi -STEAL Ell. Kidnapping or re- 
ducing men to slavery was strictly for^ 
bidden by the Mosaic law (ExoU. xxl. 16 



JIENTrCHiJ 



582 



Sz^!?«'=^ :'Si''iii'()"dith Till. 1. XTl. 7). The 

SS'i.en m tse te«. auieU.. without scendan^^^^^^^^ 



tuinult. 

MEXIT'CHITES a Chron. ii. 52, inargj. 
See HATSi-HAiiiiEXUcnoTH, Ma>,-aiie- 

THITES. 

MEO'^'EXIM, This word occurs _ as _a 
proper name in our version ot Judges ix. 37 : 
in the margin, however, it is translated. It 
might "be more justly rendered ' the oak of 



the census was taken in the wilderness, the 
number of their males above a month old 
was 6.200, of those between thirty and fifty 
3,200 (iii. 34, iv. 44). They were divided into 
two great families, the Mahlites and the 
Mushites (iii. 33), and they were to pitch on 
the north side of the tabernacle. Ethan or 
Jeduthun was an eminent Merarite. To 



l"?d v neT" rprobab ;.ome^ JiTfamSy-^as entrusted tie care ot the 

me ui\ luei. , iJi^uoa ^^^^^^^ ^.^.^'^^.^^^ ^^^^ , boards, bars, pillars of the tabernacle, and 

their appurtenances, with the pillars, sock- 



in connection with which divination had \ boards, bars, pillars 
been nracti^ed their appurtenances, . _ 

AIEO'XOTHAI (my dwellings). One of the ets, pins, and cords of the stu-roimding court 
de'^cendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 14). 1 (iii. 33-37, iv. 29-33, vii_. ^)^^J}en Israel e_nter^ 
AIEPH: VATH (splendour, perhaps lofty \ ed Canaan, twelve cities m the teri-itorie* of 
pZace)! A cTtv in the territory of Reuben ' Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun were allotted to 
• ^ "-erwards assigned to the the sons of Merari (Josh. xxi. /, 34-39, 



( Josh. xiii. IS), afterward 
Levites (xxi. 37 ; 1 Chron. vi. 79). It was at 
a later period in the possession of the Moab- i 
ites (Jer. xlviii. 21\ ' 
MEPHIBO'SHETH (extermination of 
idols).—l. A son of Jonathan, called also 
Merib-baal (1 Chron. viii. 34, ix. 40). He was 
five vears old at the time of the catastrophe 
of Gilboa, when his nurse fled away with 
him, but stumbled and caused him thereby 
an incurable lameness. After some years, 
David, finding that Jonathan's son yet lived, 
restored to him the family possessions, and 
granted Mephibosheth a constant place at 
the roval table. On Absalom's rebellion, 
Mephibosheth remained at Jerusalem, and, 
according to his servant Ziba's statement, 
hoped that the convulsions of the time 
miffht pave the way for his accession to the 
throne. David, therefore, instantly con- 
fiscated his estates. But, on the king's re- 
turn to Jerusalem, Mephibosheth met him 
with marks of mourning, which he declared 
he had shown throughout the rebellion, 
and said that Z'iba's accusation was untrue. 



1 Chron. vi. 63^ 77-81 ; there being, however, 
some variation in the accounts). There are 
notices of them in later times in 44-47, xxiv. 
26-30, XXV. 3, xxvi. 10, 11 : 2 Chrou. xxix.l2, 
xxxiv. 12 : Ezra ^nii. 18, 19. 

MERATHA'IM (double retellioji). The 
' land of Merathaim ' is a symbolic name for 
Babvlonia (Jer. 1. 21) ; or, possibly it is to be 
taken literally, land of double rebellion, that 
in which first the Assyi'ians and then the 
Babvlunians oppressed God's people. 

MERCHA>"T. The word very generally 
used for merchants signifies those who 
travel about for the purpose of trading 
(Gen. xxiii. 16, xxxvii. 28 ; Ezek. xxvii. 21, 36). 
So we have ' the king's merchants' (1 Kings 
X. 28 ; 2 Chron. i. 16), those who made 
journeys in order to purchase merchandise 
for the king. The term is also used of 
vovasers, traders by sea (Prov. xxxi. 14 ; 
Isai. xxiii. 2 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 13). Trade was 
generally carried on in early times by 
travelling caravans. See CoioiEECE. 
' MERCU'RirS, identical with the Greek 



iHs evident howeVer, that David was not i Hermes (the speaker). One of the lieathen 
a toge her satfsfied ; fo'r, though he revoked : deities fabled to be the son of Juicer and 
the decree of confiscation, he made Mephi- 1 Mala. He was supposed to Pie^icie over 
bosheth and Ziba equal shareholders in the : eloquence atid merchandise and to be the 
e^^tates (2 Sam. iv. 4, ix., xvi. 1-4, xix. 24-30, > messenger of the gods. Bainaba=, and Paul 



xxi. 7).— 2. One of the sons of Saul by his 
concubine Rizpah, delivered by David into 
the hands of the Gibeonites, and hanged by 
them (8, 9). 

ME'RAB (iyicrease). The eldest daughter 
of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49), promised to David, 
but given to Adriel in marriage (xviii. 
17 19). 

MERAI'AH (rebellion against Jehovah). 
A priest in the days of Joiakim (Xeh. 
xii. 12). . ^ . 

MERAI'OTH (rebellions).— I. A priest m 
the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. vi. 6, 7, 52; 
Ezra vii. 3).— 2. Another priest of the same 
line (1 Chron. ix. 11 ; ^'eh.xi. ll).-3. One of 
those priests who went to Jerusalem with 
Zerubbabel (xii. 15) : he is called also Me- 
remoth (3). 

ME'BAN (Bar. iii. 23). Some country, it 
is uncertain what, through or from which 
caravans of merchants passed. 

MERA'RI (bitter, unhappy). One of the 



were taken by the people at Lystra for 
Jupiter and Mercury (Acts xiv. 11-13). 
Ovid has a storv of these two deities wan- 
dering in the adjacent country of Phrygia 
(2Ietam., lib. viii. 626, 627). ^ ^ ^ 

MERCY. A blessed attribute of God, 
which he wonderfully showed in not per- 
mitting man's fall to be irrevocably 
fatal, but devising a means whereby, with- 
out violence to his justice, sinners might 
be forsiven (Exod. xx. 6, xxxiv. 6, 7). Tc 
accomplish this the great work of redemp- 
tion was effected by the Lord Jesus Christ 
(Gen. iii. 15; John iii. 16\ It is in Christ 
that mercy and truth meet together, 
righteousness and peace embrace each 
other (Psal. Ixxxv. 10) ; and mercy is now 
extended to guilty men who approach 
God through faith in Jesus. There is no 
limitation. The blood of Jesus Christ can 
cleanse from all sin (1 John i. 7). Mercy 
also is a Christian grace, which Christ s 



583 



followers must cultivate (Matt. v. 7; Eph. 
iv. 32). 

MERCY-SEAT. The cover or lid of the 
ark of the covenant : it was to be made of 
gold, two cubits and a-half in length and a 
cubit and a half broad. At the two ends 
were to be cherubim of beaten gold, their 
faces looking towards each other, and their 
wings stretching forth to cover the lid over 
which rested the visible glory of God, who 
was thus said to dwell between the cheru- 
bim (Bxod. XXV. 17-22, XXX. 6, xxxi. 7, 
xxxvii. 6-9 ; l Chron. xxviii. 11 ; 2 Chron. v. 
7, 8; PsaJ. Ixxx. l, xcix. 1). Upon the 
mercy-seac and before the mercy-seat the 
high-priest was to sprinkle the blood of the 
sin-offerings on the day of atonement (Lev. 
xvi. 11-16). The Hebrew word for mercy- 
seat is derived from a verb signifying to 
' cover ' sin, i.e. do it away by some expia- 
tory act, the idea implied being that of 
atonement. And the Septuagint translators 
have rendered it by a Greek word denoting 
' propitiatory;' the propitiation taking place 
upon it. The author of the epistle to the 
Hebrews adopts this word (Heb. ix. 5) ; and 
the same is used in Rom. iii. 25 ; a kindred 
word being found in 1 John ii. 2, iv. 10. 
The blood of Christ is of propitiatory virtue, 
so that through faith in him men may come 
boldly to the throne of grace, the mercy- 
seat of heaven (Heb. iv. 16). 

ME'RED (rebellion). A descendant of 
Judali, who married (at what date we know 
not) Bithiah, Pharaoh's daughter (1 Chron. 
iv, 17, 18). 

MERB'MOTH (heights').— I. A priest after 
the captivity (Ezra viii. 33), who helped in 
repairing the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 4, 
2V —2. One who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 36).— 3, A priest who returned with 
Zerubbabel, whose descendant or represen- 
tative sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 5, xii. 3) : 
he is called Meraioth in 15. 

MEBE'MOTH (1 Esdr. viii. 2). Meraioth 
(Ezra vii. 3). 

ME'RES (worthy). One of the seven 
princes at the Persian court (Esth. i. 14). 

MER'IBAH (strife).~l. One of the names 
given by Moses to the place where a foun- 
tain of water issued from the rock. This 
was in the desert of Sin ; and the place was 
called Massah because the people tempted 
the Lord, and Meribah because they strove 
with Moses (Exod. xvii. 1-7).— 2. Another 
place near Kadesh where, many years after, 
water was also miraculously produced, nam- 
ed for a similar reason. This was in the de- 
sert of Zin (Numb. xx. 13, 24). It was on this 
last occasion that Moses and Aaron were 
guilty of the fault for which they were 
excluded from Canaan. In order to dis- 
tinguish the two, the last-named place is 
generally called the 'water' or 'waters of 
Meribah ' (xxvii. 14 ; Deut, xxxii.5l, xxxiii. 
8 ; Psal. Ixxxi. 7, cvi. 32 ; Ezek. xlvii. 19, 
xlviii. 28, where Meribah-kadesh, marg.). 
In Psal. xcv. 8 the word is translated ' pro- 
vocation,' and Massah ' temptation.' 

MERIB'-BAAL (contender against Baal). 
(1 Chron. viii. 34, ix. 40). See Mephibo- 

SHETH. 

MER'ODACH (death, slaughter, according 
to some, little man, in endearment). A Baby- 



[merom 



Ionian idol (Jer. I. 2), sometimes identified 
with the planet Mars, to which, as being 
the god of blood and slaughter, human 
sacrifices were offered. The honour in 
which this deity was held is illustrated by 
the fact that the names of several Assyrian 
and Babylonian monarchs were compounded 
with Merodach ; as Merodach-baladan, Evil- 
merodach, mentioned in scripture. The 
names Bel or Bil and Merodach are some- 
times coupled as denoting a single god, who 
appears to have been worshipped sometimes 
under one title, sometimes, with perhaps 
a difference of attributes, under the 
other. Rawlinson believes that Bel-mer- 
odach corresponds to the Greek Zeus or 
Jupiter, the great source of power and 
blessing, and also identifies him astro- 
nomically with the planet Jupiter. 

MER'ODACH-BAL'ADAN (Merodach, 
worshipper of Bel?). A king of Babylon 
who sent ambassadors to Hezekiah after 
his sickness, to enquire of the wonder (the 
shadow receding on the dial) that liad been 
done (2 Chron. xxxii. 31 ; Isai. xxxix. 1). In 
2 Kings XX. 12 the name is Berodach-bal- 
adan. This king appears to have been the 
Mardocempalus of Ptolemy. He reigned 
from 721 B.C. for twelve years, and then was 
dethroned and banished by Sargon. In about 
seven years, however, he obtained power 
again, and reigned for six months, but was 
dethroned a second time by Sennacherib : 
his sons and grandsons made head against 
the Assyrian supremacy down to the time 
of Esar-haddon. 

ME'ROM (height). The name of a lake 
through w^hich the Jordan runs in the 
higher part of its course. It was by ' the 
waters of Merom ' that Joshua encountered 
and crushed the confederacy of the northern 
tribes of Canaan (Josh. xi. 5, 7). The lake is 
not again mentioned in scripture ; but we 
know that many events of importance— 
the victory of Abraham, the seizing of 
Laish by the Danites, the death of Shebaat 
Joab's demand— must have occurred in its 
neighbourhood. By Josephus it is called 
Samechonitis (Bell.Jud., lib. iv. 1, § 1) : it is 
now the HUleh. To the north of it is a 
marshy plain, through which various tribu- 
tary streams which form the Jordan per- 
meate. The lake itself is, according to 
Porter (Handbook for Syria, vol. ii. p. 435), 
about 4i miles long, and 3^ broad across the 
north end, but it runs to a point southward, 
v/here the Jordan leaves it. The plain and 
marsh above are about 10 miles square. Dr. 
Thomson describes the HQleh, both plain 
and lake, as of unrivalled beauty, but soli- 
tary, and the access to the water somewhat 
difficult : ' It is quite impossible to get to 
the lake except on the east side and along 
the south-western shore, From the utter 
desertion of this region it has become the 
favourite resort of water-fowl ; and they 
have it all to themselves. No boat is ever 
seen on the tranquil bosom of the Huleh : 
no hunter disturbs them here. The plain 
down to the exit of the Jordan is level as a 
floor; and much of it is carpeted with tlie 
softest richest sward in all the east. One 
feels tempted to leap from the saddle, and 
gambol and roll about on it like a little 



i meeoxothite] 



584 



child. The lake ends in a triangular marsh, 
the lareest part of which is on the eastern 
Lank of the river. It is an impenetrable 
junsle of ordinaiT cane, mingled vrith that 
' peculiar kind called tiabeer, from ^vhose 
stems the Ai-ahs make coarse mats for the 
walls and roofs of their huts. This cane is 
the prominent and distinctive production 
of these marshes, "both at the north and 
south end of the lake. . . It imparts a sm- 
gular appearance to the whole marsh, as it 
ten thousand thousand brooms were waving 
over it. Through this jungle the Jordan 
creeps slusgishly for half a mile, and then 
glides tranciuilly between green sloping 
banks for another mile to Isir Benat Ya- 
kob. . . The Huleh, plain, marsh, lake, and 
Eurrounding mountains, is the finest hunt- j 
ins-sround in Syria. . . . Panthers and ; 
leopai-ds, bears and wolves, jackals, hyjenas, 
and foxes, and many other animals are . 
found, sreat and small, while it is the very i 
P"-radise of the wild boar, and the fleet | 
gazelle. As to water-fowl, it is scarcely j 
an exaggeration to affirm that the lower j 
end of ^the lake is absolutely covered with j 
them in the winter and spring. Here only ; 
have I seen the pelican of the wilderness ' i 
(Tfie Land and the BooJc, pp. 259, 260\ | 

MERO'XOTHITE. A designation given , 
to Jehdeiah and Jadon a Chron. xxvii. 30 ; \ 
Neh. iii. : it is r.or ki: ;wu whence derived. < 

AIE'E.OZ r r' : ' a i 'ace in the north of j 
Palestine, v:l_ ^ . :::ints refused to join 

Barak again 

23''. It has not been identifleo. 

:ME'RrTH a Esdr. v. 24;. Immer (Ezra 
li. 37). 

ME'SECH (Psal. cxx. 5\ See 3Ie5HECH, 1. 
ME'SHA [delLVcrancc . —1. A. king or 
iloab, who, having been tribu:ary to Israel, 
rebelled after the death of Ahab. He was 
attacked and besieged by Jehoram in alli- 
I ance with Jehoshaphat (.2 Kings iii. 4-27). 
The account of the sacrifice he offered has 
been variously interpreted. According to 
Keil, the kine of :!J:oab offered his own 
son : and thebesiegers, fearing the anger of 
God which they had incurred by giving o^c- 
casion to : " ' " 



Mesha may be the western limit of the tribes 
of Joktan' the modern Moosa. 

ME'SHACH {guest of the king, or, as some 
suppose, ram). The Chaldee name of Mi- 
shaei, one of the young Jews captive with 
Daniel in Babylon (Dan. i. 7, ii. 49, iii. 12-30;. 

ME'SHECH (ft draicing out, possession). 
1. A son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2 ; 1 Chron. i. 5). 
His descendants were the Moschi, a Col- 
chian people, whose territory extended along 
the south-eastern shores of the Black sea, 
between the sources of the Phasis and those 
of the Cvrus, and was bounded on the south 
by the wooded chain of high AJ-menian 
niountains now called Tehiidir. Meshech 
and Tubal are frequently mentioned to- 
gether, forming apart of the great Scythian 
dominion : they may be considered as re- 
presenting the whole region of northern 
Armenia, ''from the sources of the Tigris 
and the Euphrates to the Black sea (Ezek. 
xxxii. 26, xxxviii. 2, 3, xxxix. 1). They are 
described as trading in the Tyrian markets 
with copper aiid slaves (xxvii. 13). See 
Tubal. In Psal. cxx. 5 Meshech or Mesech 
appears to be used flgui-atively for a heathen 
or ungodlv people.— 2 (1 Ohrun. 1. 17). See 

ilASH. 

MESHELEMI'AH (whom Jehovah repays, 
or treats as his friend'). One of the Levite 
porters a Chron. ix. 21, xxvi. 1, 2, 9) : in 
xxvi. 14 he is called Shelemiah. 

MESHEZAB'EEL idelivered of God).—l. 
The grandfather of one (MeshuUara) who re- 



'-z'ot Si^era ^ Judges v. ! paired the wall of Jerusalem (Xeh. in. 4).— 
■- - " I 2. A person who sealed the covenant (X. 21). 

' —3. A descendant of Judah (xi. 24) ; perhaps 
i identical with Xo. 2. 

' MESHIL'LE:iIITH (those icho repay) a 
Chron. ix. 12), caUed also Meshiilemoth 
■ (^'eh. xi. 13). 

MESHIL'LEMOTH (,id.).—l. An Ephrai- 
mite (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).— 2. A priest of the 
course of Immer (Xeh. xi. 13) called also 
(1 Chron. ix. 12^ Meshillemith. 

AIESHO'BAB \^returned). A descendant of 
Simeon a Chron. iv. 34\ 

AIESHUL'LAM (friend, i.e. of God).— 1. 
The grandfather of Sbaphan the scribe In 
5 reien (2 Kings xxii. 3).— 2. One of 
the sons of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 19\— 3. 
A descendant of Gad (v. 13).— 4. A Ben- 



hiiman sacrifice, reFreated to ! Josiah's reign (2 Kings xxii. 3), 



then- own country {Comm. on Kings, trans, . 
vol. ii. pp. 363, 364\— 2. A son of Caleb 



the brother ^of ' Jer^meef a Chrom ii742). [ jamite chief (viii. l7).-5. Another Benjamite 
^ T- . -o^^ TT ^ TT i dx. 7). probably identical with the one men- 



I (IX. ... 

I tioned in [Neh. xi. 7. — 6. 
Benjamite (1 Chron. ix. 



Another, 

One in the 




ment 
men_ _ 

unto Sephar (and 
of Arabia' (Gen. x. 3.. , Before the Tigris 
reaches the Persian c^ ilt. it edvides at the 
confluence of the Karun .Pasatlgris) and 
the Shat-al-Arab, into two branches, en- 
closinsr the island Mesene. This is Mesha ; 
and the boundary extends from the north- 
western point of the Persian gulf towards 
Sephar t^see Sephar) to the south-west till 
it reaches that range of peaks, ' the moun- 
! tain of the east,' which is known as the 
I mountains of Xejd, intorsocting central 
Arabia, from the vicinity of Mecca and 
Medina to the Persian gulf (Kalisch, 
Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., \\ 283). Or 



Chron. xxxiv. 12\— 10. A chief man whom 
Ezra sent to prevail on Levites to join his 
caravan ;.Ezra viii. 16'. —11. One who helped 
Ezra in the enciuiry as to unlawful marriages 
(X. 15^ : he may be identical with No. 10.— 
12. A person who had married a foreign wife 
(,29\— 13. One who joined in repairing the 
wall of Jerusalem (Xeh. iii. 4, 30, vi. IS).— U 
Another who so helped oii.6\— 15. Onewha 
assisted Ezra in the reading of the law (viii. 
4)._H3. A priest who sealed ihe covenant 
7^ —17. A chief of the people who also 
sealed (20).— IS, 19. Two priests in the days 
of Joiakim (xii. 13, 16).— 20. A Levite porter 



585 



[MESSIAH 



(25) —21. One ^vlio took a part in the dedica- 
tion of the wall of Jerusalem (33). 

MESHIJL'LEMETH {id. fern.). The mo- 
ther of king Amon (2 Kings xxi. 19). 

MESO'BAITE. A designation given to 
Jasiel, »ne of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 
47) : its origin is unknown. 

MESOPOTA'MIA (in the midst of rivers'). 
A country deriving its name from its posi- 
tion between the great rivers Euphrates 
and Tigris. 

In its largest extent it must he considered 
as comnrehending the region from 31° to | 
38^ 20' north latitude, and from 39^ 20' to 
47° 30' east longitude, ahout 700 miles in 
length, hut of a very variable breadth from 
20 to 240 or 250. From its being so nearly 
surrounded by rivers it is now called by the 
Arabs Al-Jezirah, the island. In the upper 
part it is mountainous ; but the rest of the 
country is a great plain intersected about 
the centre by the Sinjar hills, a chain run- 1 
ning east and west. Above this range tne ; 
plain is elevated, and in spring is covered 
with verdure, though parched in summer ; 
v/hile among the hills the land is cultivated 
and fertile, and supports a considerable 
population. The southern plain is alluvial, [ 
little above the level of the rivers, by which , 
it is frequently overflowed. It might, how- ■ 
ever, be easily drained and made again by 
human labour the garden it once was. The 
ruins of great cities scattered over the sur- 
face testify to the vastness of the ancient 
population. The Greek name Mesopotamia 
does not appear to have been given to this 
countrvtill after the Macedonian conquest. 

It is the north-western part of the region 
just described which is supposed to be the 
Mesopotamia of scripture, a rich and plea- 
sant country, extending as far southward 
as the river Khabour ; the land where Abra- 
ham's kindred dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 10), a dis- 
trict of which was called Padan-aram, 
whither Jacob fled to the city of Haran 
(xxviii. 5, 7, xxix. 4) ; the country from 
which Balaam came (Deut. xxiii. 4) ; whose 
king, Chushan-rishathaim, oppressed Israel 
(Judges iii. 8-10) ; and from whence troops 
were hired to oppose David (1 Chron. xix. 
6 : comp. Psal. Ix. title). This country be- 
come afterwards part of the Assyrian and 
then of the Babylonian empire. It was 
subject to the Persian kings : conquered by 
Alexander, it was subsequently ruled by 
the Syrian monarchs, and in later times was 
alternately under B-oman and Parthian 
sway, till ultimately relinquished to the 
Parthian or Persian rule. Of the most 
noted cities in Mesopotamia there may be 
mentioned Orfa, Harran, NisiUn, and Diar- 
lekr, believed to be the ancient TJr, Haran, 
Isisibis, and Amida. 

But it must be said that it is very ques- 
tionable whether this Mesopotamia is the 
land so called in our version of the Old 
Testament. The Hebrew name is Aram- 
naharaim, ' Syria of the two rivers.' And 
there are reasons which make it probable 
that this region lay not far from Damascus, 
between the rivers which watered that 
country. Stephen appears to distinguish 
Charran or Haran from Mesopotamia, the 
'Country described above (Acts vii. 2, 4) ; 



and it is simply impossible that Jacob, ob- 
liged to travel slowly with his great caravan 
(Gen. xxiii. 13, 14), could have hurried from 
beyond the Euphrates to Gilead, a distance 
of not much less than 400 miles, in ten days 
(xxxi. 20-23). Either there is an error in 
the number of days mentioned, or Haran 
was nearer to Gilead. It may be further 
said .that it is more reasonable to suppose 
Ch«u3han-rishathaim a neighbouring chief 
than a sovereign far away beyond the 
Euphrates. The conclusion, therefore, of 
Dr. Beke, who believes that he has found 
Haran close to Damascus, is not unreason- 
able. See Haran. 
MESSEJN'GER. See FooTiiAN, Foee- 

MESSI'AH. A Hebrew word signifying 
' anointed,' identical in meaning with the 
Greek Christos, used as the peculiar desig- 
nation of that Great One, for whom the 
world was long taught to look, and who in 
the fulness of the time appeared, God's Son 
made of a woman (Gal. iv. 4). In the Old 
Testament the word is with scarcely an ex- 
ception translated in our version And it 
is needless to say that used in its literal 
sense it is frequently applied to persons set 
apart by unction for some official duty- 
kings, for example, who are called the 
Lord's anointed (e. g. 1 Sam. xxiv. 6 ; Lam. 
W. 20). It was also extended sometimes to 
those who metaphorically were anointed, 
that is, peculiarly honoured and regarded 
as God's own chosen ones, as the patriarchs 
(Psal. cv. 15). 

But there is evidently a series of predic- 
tions running through almost the whole of 
the Old Testament, specially referring to 
one individual person — not styled indeed at 
first the anointed or Messiah, but who gra- 
dually came to have this attribute assigned 
him, till the expectation of the Jews based 
upon these old prophecies agreed so to call 
the coming Deliverer. It was consequently 
the great object of the gospel to vindicate 
the claim of Jesus to the Messiahship, by 
affording proof that he was the One to 
whom the finger of prophecy pointed. 
Of course he was not termed ordinarily 
Christ, while yet there were question- 
ings as to his right to be so considered 
(John i. 20, 25, 41, iv. 29,42,vi. 69, vii. 26, 41, 
42, and elsewhere). But, when this truth 
was fully established, and the disciples 
continuaUy asserted it (Acts ix. 22, xviii. 
28), then the name was applied, as it still is, 
to the Lord Jesus almost as a surname. 

Jesus repeatedly declared that Moses and 
the prophets wrote of him (Luke xxiv. 44 ; 
John V. 46). And so we find that just after 
the fall a cheering assurance was given of 
a Seed of the woman who should bruise the 
serpent's head (Gen. iii. 15). This promise 
was taken up and made more particular by 
the declaration that in Abraham and his 
seed all thefamilies of the earth should be 
blessed (xii. 3, xxii. 18). Afterwards it be- 
came yet more defined in Jacob's prophetic 
blessing upon Judah (xlix. 10) : it is em- 
bodied in Balaam's remarkable prediction 
(Numb. xxiv. 17), and is repeated as tlie 
coming of a prophet by Moses to the Israel- 
ites in the wilderness (Deut. xvlii. 15, 183. 



MESSIAS] 



58« 



and "bTNatlian to David as the establisliing 
of his' throne for ever (2 Sam. vii. 16). It is 
impossible to give here even an outline 
of similar predictions scattered thickly 
through the sacred hooks, some in special 
terms speaking of the coming One's being 
anointed: a few references only can he 
noted. See Psal. ii., xvi., xxii., xL, xlv., 
ex. ; Isai. vii. 10-16, ix. 1-7, xi., xlii., liii., Ixi.; 
Jer. xxiii. 5, 6; Mic. v. 2; Mai. iii. 1-4. 
These and similar predictions had raised in 
the Jewish mind a firm persuasion that One 
should come, to he of the lineage of David, 
and to he horn in Beth-lehem. The people 
generally looked for him : the more devoted 
humhly waited for the consolation of 
I<sraeL And it may he well to remark, as 
hearing upon the date of a prophecy to he 
almost immediately referred to, that the 
most eager and general expectation of his 
speedy appearance was not in Maccahean 
times, hut in a later age- just, in, fact at the 
time when Jesus was born. Modern writers 
have chosen to deny the applicability of 
some of the passages referred to, and have 
described the expectation of the Jews as 
based upon mere vague longings after a 
time of restoration. But, if we are to beheve 
our Lord himself and the first expounders of 
his religion, thev were definite prophecies 
(Matt. xxvi. 54 ; Mark ix. 12 ; Luke xviii. 31, 
xxii 37 ; John v. 39 ; Acts ii. 16-31, xxvi. 22, 
23 • Eph ■ iv. 8 ; 1 Pet. i. 11). And, seeing 
that there is such a particularity in many 
of these predictions, as to the place of 
Messiah's birth, the family from which he 
should descend, the treatment he should 
meet with, &c., it is for objectors to ex- 
plain how, if there were no real prophecy, 
but merely general anticipations, aU these 
should converge to a special point and a 
definite time, awakeningnot merely the firm 
hopes of the Jewish nation, but spreading 
from them into the Gentile world (see Au- 
berlen, Der Propli. Daniel und die Offenb. 
Johannis, pp. 147, 148), and should have had 
such a marked correspondence with the 
history of Jesus. The theory broached by 
some, that Jesus persuaded him self that the 
scriptures testified of him, and skUfuUy 
appropriated some particular expressions 
and descriptions, involves when fairly in- 
vestigated far greater difficulties than the 
orthodox faith of the church that he ' was 
made man, and was crucified also for us 
under Pontius Pilate : he suffered and was 
buried, and the third day he rose again ac- 
cording to the scriptures.' 

There is one remarkable prediction not 
hitherto referred to, of which some notice 
must be here taken— the seventy weeks of 
the prophet Daniel (Dan. ix. 24-27). Certain 
critics dispute the authority of the book of 
Daniel, and believe it the production of a 
later age. Of this nothing more shall now 
be said, than that it is highly improbable 
that a Maccahean writer (for to that date, 
the composition. If not genuine, is to be 
attributed) would have introduced such a 
prophecy, not in accordance with the ex- 
pectation of his times-the matter has been 
already discussed : see DaJTIKL, the Book 
OF And very discordant are the interpre- 
tations sasigned to the passage. Of course 



those who discredit the authority of the 
book are obliged to deny the application to 
Jesus ; and consecLuently some have reckon- 
ed backwards and some forwards, every way, 
any way but that which, to say nothing of 
sound criticism, common sense could ap- 
prove. 

Fow it is obviously impossible to attempt 
a sketch of these different interpretations, 
and to discuss their respective merits, for 
which a considerable book would scarcely 
afford room. It must be enough to point 
out what the plain reading of the prophecy 
demands, and then to state briefly what 
facts appear adequately to fulfil it. 

A period of seventy weeks— weeks of 
years— is named. They are to commence 
from a commandment or permission to re- 
store and re-edify Jerusalem. They are di- 
vided into three parts, seven weeks, sixty- 
two weeks, and one week. At the close of 
the sixty-two weeks Messiah is to appear 5 
in the middle of the succeeding one week 
the sacrifice and the oblation to cease ; 
and that week is to end with the establish- 
ment of everlasting righteousness. Dr. 
Goode, in his lately-published TTarhur- 
touian lectures. Fulfilled Prophecy, has 
elaborately investigated the question (note, 
pp. 276-316). Adopting substantially the same 
view with Auberlen (ubi supr. pp. 125, &c.), 
he takes as the starting-point the decree of 
Ai-taxerxes Longimanus (Ezra vii.), issued 
in the fifth month and seventh year of hia 
reign. This was a decree just according 
with the description in Daniel. It may be 
supposed to have been issued January 457 
B.C. Jerusalem was restored: the walls 
were rebuilt ; and the state re-established 
in troublous times ; and about forty-nine j 
years (seven weeks) elapsed while under ! 
Ezra and Nehemiah the affairs of the Jews , 
were administered and settled. If 434 
years (sixty-two weeks) be added, we are 
brought to Januarj^ 27 A.D.,which Dr. Goode, ; 
placing the birth of our Lord about the end 
of the year 5 B.C., supposes would be the 
epoch of his baptism, that is his entrance 
on his public ministry, his appearance in an i 
official capacity to Israel. In the middle 
of the week, somewhat upwards of three 
years more, we arrive at his crucifixion, : 
when, by the offering of the true sacrifice, ! 
the figurative oblation had its real end. i 
And at the close of the week, on the mar- : 
tvrdom of Stephen, December 33, or Janu- ! 
arv 34 A.D., the gospel fully established was 
set forth in its glorious power of having 
made an end uf iniquity, not to Jews only, 
but to those who had been aliens from the 
commonwealth of Israel (Acts viii. 1, 4). 
For the proofs of these positions the reader | 
must be referred to Dr. Goode's book : only j 
the outline, as before said, can be here j 
given, ^ 1 

MESSI'AS (John i. 41, iv. 25). The Greek 
form of Messiah. 

METALS, METALLURGY. The procuring 
and use and working of metals must have 
been known in the very early ages of the 
world (Gen. iv. 22). Some account of these 
arts have already been given : see Handi- 
craft, pp. 352, 353. And notices will be 
found of the metals mentioned in scripture 



587 



[metjzai 



under their respective headings. But it 
may he well to ofEer here a compendious 
general view of the metallurgy of the He- 
brews, mentioning the metals with which 
they were acquainted, and the sources from 
which these were obtained. Such a view 
there is in the Journ. ofSacr. Lit, Jan. 1862, 
pp. 257, 258, to which the reader may he re- 
ferred. 

Gold is the most precious of the metals. 
The first mention of it is in the description 
of Eden (Gen. ii. 11, 12), where it is said 
that the land of Havilah yields ' good ' gold; 
the purity and plentifulness of the metal 
varying in the different localities from 
which it was obtained, viz. Ophir (Job xxii. 
24, xxviii. 16 ; Psal. xlv. 9, and elsewhere), 
Parvaim (2 Chron. lii. 6), Sheba and Raa- 
mah (1 Kings x. 10 ; Ezek. xxvii. 22). These 
countries were doubtless South Africa, Ara- 
bia, and India. And it is very possible that, 
as Spain produced gold, some of the pro- 
duction of that land might be had at Tar- 
shish. Gold was used for sacred utensils, 
furniture, in gilding and overlaying, in the 
manufacture of ornaments, &c. But, 
though it is early reckoned among the 
riches of a wealthy man (Gen. xiii. 2), it 
does not appear to have been till much 
later times employed as we now employ it, 
for money. 

Silver is first spoken of in Abraham's 
days, in the place just noted, and else- 
where (e.g. XX. 16). Though not made into 
coin, it was used in commerce, apparently 
by weight, for bargain and sale (xxiii. 15, 
16). It was also employed for furniture, 
sacred utensils, and ornaments (Exod. xii. 
35, XXV. 3, xxvi. 19, 21, 25 ; Numb. vii. 84, 85, 
X. 2). In Solomon's days, so great was the 
wealth that poured into Israel, silver was 
httle valued (1 Kings x. 21). This metal 
was obtained generally from the same 
countries which supplied gold, also from 
Lydia, Thrace, perhaps Egypt and Lebanon. 
It is mentioned as an article of conmierce 
between Tarshish and Phoenicia (Ezek. 
xxvii. 12). 

Iron was known to the antediluvians 
(Gen. iv. 22). This metal does not appear to 
have been so extensively used by the He- 
brews as copper ; and indeed doubts have 
been entertained whether it was really 
known in very early times ; the word so trans- 
lated being supposed to intend some other 
metal. ,But such doubts have been set at 
rest by 'modern discoveiies ; as iron articles 
have been found at Nineveh, and Egyptian 
paintings unmistakably prove its use in 
Egypt. It Is mentioned in Lev. xxvi. 19 ; 
Job XX. 24, and elsewhere. Steel is also 
spoken of, e.g. in 2 Sara. xxii. 35 ; Jer. xv. 12. 
But the word so rendered is that elsewhere 
translated brass, signifying probably cop- 
per. The Tyrians had iron from Spain and 

. Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 12, 19). It has also 
been procured in Lebanon round Hashbeiya, 
in the Hauran, in Arabia : an ancient iron- 
working has been discovered in Egypt ; also 
there was an 'iron mountain' west of the 
Jordan (Joseph., Bell. Jud., lib. iv. 8, § 2) ; 
and Kurdistan, Pontus, Cappadocia, &c., 
would supply it. 
Copper was early discovered. The word 

! „ 



ordinarily translated 'brass' in our ver, 
sion, though sometimes denoting bronze; 
i certainly often means copper (Gen. iv. 22- 
Deut. viii. 9, and elsewhere). It was exten>. 
sively diffused through Greece, Asia Minor, 
Syria near Aleppo, the Arabian desert, the 
peninsula of Sinai, and other countries 
(Ezek. xxvii. 13), and, as a means was known 
of hardening it, doubtless by some alloy, it 
was in very common use for utensils, wea- 
pons, &c. 

Lead is first mentioned in Exod. xv. 10- 
It was probably used in solder, for refining, 
for inscriptions.by pouring the molten metal 
into the cavities made by graving letters 
on stone (Job xix. 24), and no doubt for 
weights (see Zech. v. 7, 8). The Tyrians had 
it from Tarshish (Ezek. xxvii. 12) ; and it 
inight also be procured in Lebanon, Sinai, 
the country between the Nile and the Red 
sea, Kurdistan, &c. 

Tin is spoken of in Numb. xxxi. 22 ; Isai. 
1. 25 ; Ezek. xxvii. 12. It is very possible 
that the supply at Tyre from Tarshish 
might be obtained originally from Britain. 

Of mercury the scriptures do not say any- 
thing. Cinnabar is said to exist near Hash- 
beiya. The knowledge of antimony has 
been inferred from 2 Kings ix. 30, 

Thus it will appear that the Hebrews 
were acquainted with the principal metals ; 
but that they drew their supplies mainly 
from other countries, specially by means of 
Phoenician commerce. The mineral wealth 
of Syria and Palestine seems to have been 
less developed than that of districts so 
near as the Sinaitic peninsula. Yet mining 
operations are alluded to (Jobxxviii. 1-11) ; 
and there must have been considerable 
knowledge of the processes of smelting the 
ore, calcining, refining, founding, graving, 
&c. (Exod. XX. 5, xxxii. 2-4, 20 ; Isai. i. 25, xl. 
19, 20, xliv. 12 ; MaL iii. 3). See for further 
information Napier's Ancient Workers and 
Artificers in Metal, 1856. 
METE' BUS (1 Esdr. v. 17). 
METH'EG-AM'MAH (bridle of the metro- 
polis). Gesenius does not consider this a 
proper name. There is an Arabic proverb, 
' I give thee not my bridle,' i.e. I do not 
subject myself to thee. Hence the meaning 
of the sacred writer may be, David took the 
bridle of the mother-city (probably Gatb) 
out of the hand of the Philistines (2 Sam. 
viii. I'* : i.e. he subdued the metropolis of the 
Philistines. The parallel passage (1 Chron. 
xviii. 1) would seem to confirm this view : 
David ' took Gath and her towns out of the 
hand of the Philistines.' 

METHU'SAEL (man of God). One of the 
descendants of Cain (Gen. iv. 18). 

METHTJ'SELAH {man of the dart). On 
of the antediluvian patriarchs : he was the 
son of Enoch and grandfather of Noah, and 
died, according to the ordinary computa- 
tion, in the year of the deluge, aged 969 
(Gen. V. 21-27 ; 1 Chron. i. 3). 

MEU'NIM Qiabitations) (Neh. vii. 52). See 
Mehuntm. 

MEU'ZAL (Ezek. xxvii. 19, marg.). It is 
questionable whether or no this is a proper 
name. Gesenius would translate it ' some- 
I thing spun,' i.e. thread, yarn ; and De Wetto 
agrees. But most critics, alteriug a vowel 



seezahab] 



688 



of the Heljrew ^ord (lor wiiicli there is 
some authority), translate 'from Tzal, 
which is the ancient name of Sanaa, the 
metropolis of Yemen. See Tzai.. 

AIE'Z\HAB (v:aters, i.e. lustre, 0/ gold). 
The erandfather of Mehetahel wife of Ha- ; 
dar, \ king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 39 ; 1 | 
Chron. i. 50). ^ , ^ i 

MI'AMIX (from the rigid hand).—l. One 
•who had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 25). 
—2. A priest who returned to Jerusalem 
with Zerubbahel and Jeshua ([Xeh. xii. 5 He 
is also called ilijamin (x. 70), and :^iniamin 
(xii. 17, 41). 

MIB'HAE. (clioicest). One of David s war- 
riors (1 Chron. xi. 38). 

MIB'SA:M {sweet odour)—!. One of the 
sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxr. 13; 1 Chron. 1. 
29) —2. A descendant of Simeon (iv. 25). 

MIB'ZAH ( a fortress). One of the dukes 
of Edom (Gen. xxxyi. 42 ; 1 Chron. 1. 53). 

MI'CAH {ivho like Jeliovali ?).-l. A man of 
mount Ephraim who set up images in his 
house, and hired a wandering Levite to he 
his priest. All were stolen from him hy a 
troop of lawless Danites (Judges xtu., 
xviii.). This transaction must have occurred 
In eariv times, as there is reason to helieve 
that the Levite was the grandson, at least 
no distant descendant, of Closes.— 2. One of 
Reuben's posterity (1 Chron. v. 5).— 3. The 
son of Mephiljoshech (viii. 34, 35, ix.40, 41) : 
he i* called ALicha in 2 Sam. ix. 12.— 4. A 
Levite of the family of Asaph (1 Chron. ix. 
15), called Micha in Xeh. xi. 17, 22, and Mi- 
chaiah in xii. 35.-5. A Levite, the son of 
Uzziel a Kohathite (1 Chron. xxlii. 20) : his 
name appears as Michah in xxiv. 24, 25.— 
6 The father of one of Josiah's officers 
(2 Chron. xxxlv. 20), called :^ichaiah m 
2 Kings xxii. 12. 

7 The sixth of the minor prophets 
according to the order in our bibles. 
Scarcely anything is known of Micah's his- 
tory. He is styled ' the ^lorasthite ' (3Iic. 1. 
1), no doubt from the place of his birth 
Moresheth-gath (14), a small toym in the 
district of Gath. From the inscription, we 
learn that the prophet lived in the days of j 
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah ; and this is 
corroborated by the mention of him in Jer. 
xxvi. 1 8. In this last-named place Micah is 
Baidto have delivered a certain prophecy in 
Hezekiah's reisn. But this has puzzled 
some modern "'critics, who declare that 
they cannot understand why, if Micah 
prophesied also in the reigns of Jotham 
and Ahaz, they were not also mentioned. 
The inscription, therefore (Mic.i.l), must, 
they say, be inaccurate. It is useless to 
reason with men who stumble in so plam a 
matter. Still more ridiculous is the charge 
brought bv Bieek {Eirdeitnng in das A.T., 
p 539) against the authors of Kings and 
Chronicles, that they confound this prophet 
with Micaiah, the faithful prophet who ap- 
peared before Ahab, because they record 
Micaiah as saying ' Hearken, O people, eyery 
one of you' (l Kings xxii. 28 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 
27), the words with which Micah the Moras- 
ihite begins his prophecy (Mic. i. 2) ! 

MI'CAH, THE BOOK OF, 750-700 B.C. 
Attempts have been made to divide this 



of different parts. But this cannot he satis- 
factorily done. It is true that we can assign 
with certainty the prediction (Mic. ii.l2) to 
the time of Hezekiah (Jer. xxvi. 18), and, as 
that sovereign commenced his reformation 
immediately upon his accession to the 
throne, we must believe that the denuncia- 
tions asrainst idolatry (Mic. v. 13, 14, vi. 16) 
were delivered at an earlier date, under 
either Jotham or more probably Ahaz. Stih 
no accurate apportionment can be generally 
made. Indeed, there is an unity in the 
composition which would lead us to sup- 
po=e that the prophet had collected his 
utterances and arranged them into one 
connected whole in the hook he has trans- 
mitted to us. . -, 1 V 4- ^ 

The structure of it is curiously elaborated. 
There are three sections, i., ii. ; iii.— v. ; vl., 

\n ' each begins with the same word ' Hear 
and each closes with a promise of 



Attempts nave uet-u lua^o u,^ v^. . .v.- ; v, 

book according to the supposed chroiology | 4-G). 



'Strength and salvation to God's people. 
And there is a kind of parahel development 
Thu5 in the first section Judah is threatened 
that the deadly blows which are soon to be 
dealt out on Samaria should reach to the 
gates of Jerusalem (i. 9, 12). There is also 
the deliverance of the covenant people 
from their distress predicted, and a vic- 
torious bursting out of captivity (u. 12, 13). 
In the second section the prophecy assumes 
a graver aspect : the actual destruction of 
Jerusalem with the ruin of the temple is 
proclaimed, and the exile in Babylon (in. 
1'' iv. 10\ while the promise also rises 
his-her, and describes positive salvation 
through the supremacy of Messiah (iv., v.). 
The third section is altogether of a hortatory 
cast iKeil, Eiideitung , § 94). . 

Micah was contemporary with Isaiah ; 
and his book comprises a summaiy of the 
prophecies delivered by the last-named seer 
concernins Messiah and the final blessed- 
ness of God's covenant people. Occasionally 
the one repeats the other : e.g. comp. Isai. li. 
"-4 with Mic. iv. 1-3. The style in some 
de°-ree resembles that of Isaiah: it is 
forcible, pointed, and concise, fi-equently 
animated and sublime. The tropes, varied 
according to the nature of the subject, are 
very beautiful. Two predictions contained 
in this book may be particularly noticed, j 
The first relates to Samaria (1. 6), a city • 
beautiful for situation, the crowned hill o. 
Ephraim, adorned with sumptuous palaces. 
Yet the stones thereof should be poureo 
down into the valley. And modern travel- 
lers describe tlie exact accomplishment. 
There are the fragments of massy columns, 
the foundations thereof discovered, and 
the stones rolled down into the vahey— a 
living witness to the truth of the prophetic 
word. Another utterance is yet more re- 
markable. Earlier prophecy had noted the 
Seed of the woman, the descendant of Abra- 
ham, of Isaac, of Jacob,intheline of Judah, 
from the family of David ; and here (v. 2; 
his birth-place is designated by name-- 
Bfth-lehemEphratah ; so that, when Herod 
enquired of the chief priests and scribes' 
wliere Messiah should be born, they un- 
hesitatingly replied in Beth-lehem, and 
referred him to this prediction (Matt. 11. 



589 mhU WiXXClMttiQt* 



Ccinmentaries on Micali are included in 
those on the Minor Prophets. 

MICAI'AH (id.). The son of Imlah, a 
faithful prophet, who predicted in vain to 
Ahab tlie fatal termination of his expedition 
against Ramoth-gilead (1 Kings xxii. 8-28 ; 
2 Chron. xviii. 7-27). He delivered his 
warning in the form of a remarkable vision, 
in which the weighty lesson is conveyed 
that God blinds judicially those who have 
shut their eyes and ears to his monitions, 
letting them be deceiv^ed by lying spirits. 
Some have conjectured that Micaiah was 
the unnamed prophet of 1 Kings xx. 35-42). 

MI'OHA (id.)— I (2 Sam. ix. 12). See 
MiCAH, 3.-2. A Levite who sealed the cove- 
nant (Neh. X. 11).— 3 (xi. 17, 22). See Mi- 

OAH, 4. 

MFCS A (Judith vi. 15). A person said to 
be of the tribe of Simeon. 

MI'CHAEL (who like God?).—l. Father of 
the spy selected from the tribe of Asher 
(Numb. xiii. 13).— 2. A Gadite (1 Chron. 
V. 13).— 3. An ancestor of the preceding (14). 
—4. A Levite of the family of Gershon 
(vi. 40).— 5. A chieftain of Issachar (vii. 3). 
—6. A Benjamite chief (viii. 16).— 7. A Ma- 
nassite captain who joined David at Ziklag 
(xii. 20).— 8. The father of the ruler of 
Issachar in David's time (xxvii.18). — 9. One 
of the sons of king Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 
xxi. 2).— 10. The father of one who joined 
Ezra's caravan (Ezra viii. 8). 

11. One of the chief angels ; sometimes 
called prince and archangel (Dan. x. 13, 21, 

xii. 1 ; Rev. xii. 7). In these places it m.ay 
be that the name is used symbolically. 
Many are disposed to view the being, who 
is described as the special defender of the 
Jewish church, and as leading the armies 
of heaven against the dragon and his forces, 
as no other than the Son of God. But there 
is another mention of Michael more per- 
plexing. He is said to have contended with 
the devil ' about the body of Moses,' and to 
have brought no railing accusation, but to 
have said ' The Lord rebuke thee ' (Jude 9). 
Various legends there are, professing to ex- 
plain this statement ; some of which are 
mentioned by Dr. Alf ord. The Greek Test., 
note on Jude 9. The question is whether 
the apostle was describing a literal fact, or 
whether 'the body of Moses' might not in- 
tend the Jewish law, or the Jewish church ; 
just as Christian believers are termed ' the 
body of Christ' (1 Cor. xii. 27). If this in- 
terpretation be admitted, there is doubtless 
an allusion to Zech. ill. 1, 2. But the matter 
oifers only a choice of conjectures. 

MI'CHAH (who like Jehovah f) (1 Chron. 
xxiv. 24, 25). See Micah, 5. 

MICHAI'AH (id.).—l. The father of one 
of Josiah's officers (2 Kings xxii. 12), called 
also Micah (2 Chron. xxxiv. 20).— 2 (2 Chron. 

xiii. 2). See Maachah, 3.-3. One of Je- 
hoshaphat's officers (xvii. 7).— 4 (Neh. xii. 
35). See Micah, 4.-5. A priest who took 
part in the dedication of the wall of Jeru- 
salem (41).— 6. An officer in the reign of 
Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 11, 13). 

MI'CHAL (who as God?) The younger 
daughter of king Saul, who was bestowed 
in marriage on David (1 Sam. xiv. 49, xviii. 
20, 27, 28). She assisted David to escape 



[midian 



when her father sent officers to apprehend 
him (xix. 11-17). She was given, after David 
had fled, in marriage to Phalti or Phaltiel 
(XXV, 44), from whom at David's demand she 
was taken by her brother Ish-bosheth and 
restored to her rightful husband (2 Sam, iii, 
13-16). But a change had probably passed 
upon the two, David and his wife, Michal 
perhaps regretted Phaltiel ; and she seems 
to have inherited Saul's bitter temper. On 
the occasion of the festive rejoicing at the 
bringing of the ark to Jerusalem, she was 
displeased at the part the king took, and 
as a judgment was childless (vi. 16-23 ; 1 
Chron. xv. 29). It is likely therefore that 
Merab (which some MSS, have) may be the 
right reading in 2 Sam, xxi. 8. 

MIG'HEAS (2 Esdr. i. 38). The prophet 
Micah. 

MICH'MAS (something hidden) (Ezraii. 27 ; 
Neh. vii. 31). A form of 

MICH'MASH (id.). A town to the eastward 
of Beth-aven, and south of Migron, not far 
from Gibeah. It must have been a place of 
military importance (1 Sam. xiii. 2, 5, 11, 16, 
23), more especially as there was a narrow 
pass between sharp rocks, through which 
the road passed (xiv. 4, 5, 31 ; Isai. x. 28, 29).. 
Some of the inhabitants returned after the 
captivity, and appear to have again settled 
in their ancient habitation (Ezra ii. 27 ; Neh. 
vii. 31, xi. 31). Michraash is now a desolate 
village, Mukhmas, with ruins, near a steep 
ravine, called Wady es-Suweinit, which 
was probably the above-noted pass, where 
some travellers believe that they have 
recognized the rocks Bozez and Seneh, the 
scene of Jonathan's exploit. 

MICH'METH AH (hiding-place). A border- 
town of Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh, 
xvi. 6, xvii. 7). It is difficult so to fix the 
position of Michmethah as to satisfy the 
conditions in the two passages referred to. 
Further investigation is required. 

MICH'M (^rice of Jehovah). A Benjamite 
(1 Chron. ix, 8). 

MIOH'TAM. A title prefixed to Psalms 
xvi,, lvi„ Ivii., Iviii., lix., ix. Some have be- 
lieved that it means 'golden,' i.e, precious 
or pre-eminent. But a more probable in- 
terpretation is that, by the interchange of 
m and &, michtam is equivalent to michtab, 
a ' writing', ' poem ' ; which word is found 
prefixed to Hezekiah's lamentation or 
prayer (Isai. xxxviii. 9). 

MID'DIN (measures). A city in the wil- 
derness of Judah (Josh. xv. 61). 

MID'IAN (strife). One of the sons of 
Abraham by Keturah. He is described as 
having five .sons (Gen, xxv. 2, 4 ; 1 Chron, 
i. 32, 33) ; but little can be ascertained re- 
specting them. Midian must, however, 
soon have multiplied— and this is some pre- 
sumption that Keturah was Abraham's 
concubine in his earlier days— into a tribo 
or nation ; as we find merchants belonging 
to them in the life-time of Jacob conduct- 
ing caravans, together with Ishmaelitea 
(the two tribes it is likely being connect- 
ed by intermarriage), through Palestine 
into Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 28, .36). These 
probably lived to the east of the Jordan, 
near to the Moabitish territory; for a defeac 
of Midian by one of the early Edomitish 



T 





kinff s is said to have been ' in the field of 
Moab' (xxxvi. 35) ; and we sliall afterwards 
see them acting in conjunction wicn tne 
Moahites against Israel. They must have 
been also an agricultural and nomadic 
people, and hare occupied a portion of 
Arabia Petrfea near to Egypt ; for Moses 
fled Into Midian, and married there the 
daughter of Jethro their priest or prince, 
whose flocks he tended, leading and pas- 
turing them among the slopes of Horeb 
(Exod. ii. 15-22, iii. 1 : comp. iv. 18-20, 2/). 
But tbese pastures were perhaps but occa- 
sionally occupied; for the actual settle- 
ments of Midian were somewhat out of tbe 
track of the Israelites when they traversed 
the desert ; as Jethro is represented as com- 
iug (as if from some distance) to Tisit Mo- 
sps and as afterwards departing ' into his 
own land '(XTiii. 1-6, 27). "We may suppose 
then that the bulk of the nation inhabited 
the region extending from the eastward oj. 
Moab and Edom, perhaps along the frontier 
of Palestine, down to the shores of the 
eastern gulf of the Red sea, and that some 
of the wandering branches of it were occa- 
siouallT found in the Sinaitic peninsula 
(see 1 Kings si. 17, 18, with Keil's observa- 
tions, Comm. on Kings, vol. i. pp. 19o, 196). 
On the shores of this eastern gulf the Ara- 
bian geographers have placed the rums of 
a town called 3i"afZya?i. . 

The Midianites joined with Moab m in- 
viting Balaam to curse the tribes of Israel 
(Isumb sxii. 4, 7) ; and when that project 
failed they were more successful in alluring 
the Israelites into debauchery and idol- 
worship (XXV.). For this a fearful vengeance 
^as exacted from 3Iidian (xxxi.). They 
were governed it would seem by several 
chiefs, heads perhaps of separate clans ; and 
thev were apparently under some sort of 
vassalage to the Amoritish king Sihon (Josh, 
xiii 21) : their settlements extending into 
his countrv. In later times, when they 
over-ran Palestine in conjunction with the 
Amalekites, penetrating to the Phihstiue 
plain, and coming with their cattle and 
their tents, as if to establish themselves 
there they were also commanded by a 
number of chiefs or kings. Seven years 
they prevailed against Israel, till Gideon 
was raised up as a deliverer, who so entirely 
defeated them that we read little more oi 
them in the sacred history (Judges vi., vii., 
yjil.)_a victory long after referred to by 
Hebrew writers (Psal. Ixxxiii. 9; Isai. ix. 
4) Their wealth was great, as evidenced 
by the rich booty obtained by Gideon and 
his army. Their commerce is also men- 
tioned (Ix. 6) ; and there is a notice of them 
in the Apocrypha (Judith ii. 26) ; but they 
seem to have been in after times compre- 
hended under the general name of Arabians. 

The Midianites, like the neighbouring 
Moabites, worshipped Baal-peor (:Numb. 

^ MIETIANITES (Gen. xxxvii. 28, 36 : Nutnb. 
x. 29, XXV. 6, 14, 15, 17, xxxi. 2 ; Judges vi.-., 
and elsewhere). Inhabitants of Indian . see 
the preceding article. Little is known of 
them save from the sacred ^v^'i^cvs : see 
D'Herbclot, Biblloth. Oriental, art. Mutian. 
MIDRIFF. The explanation given m 


Exod. xxix. 13, marg. of ' caul' in the text ; 
see Caul, LivEE. 

MIDWIFE, MIDLIVES (Gen. xxxT. 17, 
xxxviii. 28; Exod. i. 15-21). The two 

mentioned in the last-named place were 
probably the superintendents ^of their 
cla^s : if, as some have fancied, parturition 
were so easy that midwives were rarely re- 
quired, and two were sufficient for the He- 
brew nation, Pharaoh's injunction would 
have been useless. The ' stools ' were no 
doubt the chairs still used in Egypt (see 
Lane, Mod. Egypt., p. 503, 5th edit ). 

MIG'DAL-EL {tower of God). A town m 
the territory of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38). 
Yerv probablv identical with Magdala, 
which see. There are, however, other con- 
jectures respecting it. 7^ 

MIG'DAL-E'DAR (tower of the flock) (Mic. 
iv. 8). See EDAU. ^ ^ ^ . „ 
MIG'DAL-GAD (toicer of Gad, i.e. the an- 
cient idol). A city in the plain country of 
Judah (Josh. xv. 37). There is a village 
called el-Medjdel, two miles inland from 
Ashkelon : it may possibly be on the site of 
Migdal-gad. 

MIG'DOL (tower ?).—!. A place near the 
head of the western arm of the Red sea 
(Exod. xiv. 2 ; I^umb. xxxiii. 7).— 2. A city 
on the north-easternborder of Lower Egypt, 
said to be twelve miles from Pelusium. 
Many consider this identical with No. 1 ; 
but it seems more reasonable to believe it 
a different place. A colony of Jews settled 
here after the destruction of Jerusalem 
(Jer. xliv. 1, xlvi. 14) ; and the word is used 
in conjunction with Syene in the extreme 
south, ' from Migdol to Syene ' (Ezek. xxix. 
10, marg., xxx. 6, marg.), to signify the 
whole country of Egypt. The name has 
been thought Egyptian, mtshtol, 'many 
hill«' which Gesenius imagines that the 
Israelites softened into the Hebrew Migdol. 
But this is guestionable ; and there is reason 
to believe that the Egyptians adopted the 
appellation from a foreign source. Migdcl 
was probablv the Magdolus said to be tw^elve 
Roman miles south of Pelusium. _ 

MIG'ROIn (precipice). A place m the 
territory of Benjamin lying, it would seem, i 
between Aiath and Michraash (Isai. x. 28). 
It is questioned whether the Migron where 
Saul had his head-quarters under a pome- 
granate-tre€ could be the same (1_ Sam. 
xiv ^) Winer argues that the position of 
the'Philistiue forces must have prevented 
this, and supposes that the Migron of the 
last-named text was a precipice at the out- 
skirts of the town of Gibeah (Bibl. EWB., 
art. 'Migron'). 

MI'JA^im (from the right 7iand).—l. The 
head of one of the courses of the priests (1 
Chron. xxiv. 9).-2. A priest, perhaps the 
representative of No. l, who sealed the 
covenant (Neh. X. 7). See Miamix 

MIK'LOTH (staves).—!. A Ben]amite Q 
Chron. viii. 32, ix. 37, 38).-2. One of David s 
military officers (xxvii. 4). 

MIKXEPAH (possession of JelioraJi). A 
LeA'ite porter appointed to play on the harp 

^NTli/ALAI (eloquent^' A priest who took 
part in the dedication of the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. xii. 36). 



591 



[mill 



MIL'CAH (a queen, or counsel). — 1. The 
wife of Nalior, Abraham's brother (Gen. xi. 
29, xxii. 20, 23, xxiv. 15, 24, 47) —2. One of 
the five daughters of Zelophehad (Numb, 
xxvi. 33, xxYii. 1, xxxvi. 11 ; Josh. xvii. 3). 

MIL'COM (great king) (1 Kings xl. 5, 33; 
2 Kings xxiii. 13). See Moloch. 

MILDEW. The word so rendered is 
always found in conjunction with one ren- 
dered ' blasting ' (Deut. xxviii. 22 ; 1 Kings 
viii. 37 ; 2 Chron. vi. 28 ; Amos ir. 9 ; Hagg. 
ii. 17). The blasting or blight, as by the 
cutting east wind (Gen. xli. 6), is the cause ; 
and then mildew is the result : the exact 
meaning of the Hebrew word is loaleness, 
yelloivness,t'hetm:mxig yellow from disease. 
It is the same that is used (Jer. xxx. 6) to ex- 
press the ghastly pallor on the countenances 
of those who are surprised by some dis- 
astrous tidings. 

MILE (Matt. y. 41). See Measures. The 
Roman mile was 1,618 yards. The Jews also 
had miles, which are said to have been of 
two kinds, long and short, according to the 
length of the pace, which was different in 
different parts. 

MILE'TUM (2 Tim. iv. 20). The same 
with 

MILE'TIJS. A city of Asia Minor, to the 
south of Ephesus, twenty or thirty miles 
away. It was the old capital of Ionia, though 
Ptolemy assigns it to Caria : it had four 
havens, and was the mother of many colo- 
nies. Thales, Anaximander,and other emi- 
nent men were natives of this place ; which 
had an evil reputation for licentiousness 
and luxury. It was to Miletus that St. Paul 
hastening to Jerusalem summoned the 
elders of Ephesus, that he might give them 
a solemn charge (Acts xx. 15-35). The re- 
mains of this city were probably absorbed 
in the swamp formed by the silting up of 
the Mseander ; but there are ruins still 
visible of the magnificent temple of Apollo, 
and an insignificant village, Palat or Palat- 
sha, stands near the site of Miletus. 

MILK. It is clearfrom scripture that the 
milk not only of cows but also of camels, 
sheep, and goats was in common use (Gen. 
xxxii. 15 ; Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Prov. xxvii. 27 ; 
Isai. vii. 21, 22) ; and such is the custom in 
the east to the present day. Besides the 
word expressing generally milk; fresh milk, 
there is another, usually rendered ' butter' 
in our version, which with few exceptions 
denotes curdled milk : this if kept long 
enough acquires a slightly- inebriating 
quality. Abraham set sour milk and fresh 
milk before his guests (Gen. xviii. 8) ; and 
it was this with which Jael supplied 
Sisera (Judges v. 25). This sour milk under 
the name of leden is still a very common 
beverage, and when properly prepared is 
said to be pleasant and refreshing. Meat is 
boiled in it, instead of in water : it is mixed 
with flour, dried, and carried on a journey 
to be dissolved in water for a drink. A 
fertile land is said to flow with milk and 
honey (Exod. iii. 8, 17; Isumb. xvi. 13, 14; 
Josh. V. 6 ; Joel iii. 18). In one case (Isai. 
vii. 22) butter (the sour milk) and honey are 
said to be the food of the remnant of Israel, 
to signify that the land shall be so desolate 
that the ordinary articles of food would be 



only such as an uncultivated country would 
yield. Metaphorically milk, as the food of 
children, is used to signify elementary 
truths (1 Cor. iii. 2 ; Heb.v. 12) ; and because 
of its simplicity it is also taken to denote 
unadulterated doctrine (1 Pet. ii. 2). 

The prohibition against seething a kid 
in his mother's milk (Exod. xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 
26 ; Deut. xiv. 21) may be noticed here. Dr. 
Thomson thus describes a favourite dish of 
the Arabs : * They select a young kid, fat 
and tender, dress it carefully, and then stew 
it in milk, generally sour, mixed with 
onions and hot spices such as they relish. 
They call it leden immH, " kid in his mother's 
milk." The Jews, however, will not eat it. 
They say that Moses specifically forbade it 
in the precept. . . . which he repeated three 
several times. . . . They, further, maintain 
that it is unnatural and barbarous to cook 
a poor kid in that from which it derives its 
life. This may have been one reason for 
the prohibition. . . . but "kid in his 
mother's milk" is a gross unwholesome 
dish, calculated also to kindle up animal and 
ferocious passions ; and on these accounts 
Moses may have forbidden it. Besides, it 
is even yet associated with immoderate 
feasting, and originally, I suspect, was 
connected with idolatrous sacrifices. A 
great deal of learning has been spent upon 
this passage. . . . but, after seeing the dish 
actually prepared, and hearing the very 
name given it which Moses employs, we 
have the whole mystery explained' {The 
Land and the Book, pp. 94, 95). 

MILL. One of the most simple ways of 
preparing corn for food was by pounding it 
between two stones ; and convenience would 
suggest that one of these should be hollow, 
the other easy to handle. Hence the pesth^ 




^\ omen grinding corn ■With the hancc-nrJ. of 
modern hyria. 



and mortar still not out of use. Bat a 
better contrivance for grinding was the 
mill of which we read much. The hand- 
mills spoken of in scripture are doubtless 
of the same kind as those almost every- 
where seen at this day in western Asisi. 
They consist of two stones, eighteen inohe.v 



millet] 

or two feet in diameter, slightly convex, 
placed one upon the other. The npper_ one 
has a hole in it through which the gram is 
introduced, and a wooden handle by which 
it is turned. The upper stone, the rider, 
was prohahlY that which the woman seized 
by the handle, and, running with it to the 
bkttlement, let it fall on Abimelech s head 
(Judges ix. 53). The lower stone is often 
fixed" in cement, forming a kind of raised 



592 




Section of eastern hand-mill. 



border to receive the meal as it falls ; or a 
piece of sackcloth is laid for this purpose. 
Two women sit facing each other to grind 
both taking hold of the handle,_while uhe 
one who his her right hand disengaged 
pours in the grain as i^t is wanted Women 
now almost invariably grind (Matt, xxiy 
41V captives used to be put to the null 
aud-es xvi. 21). For it is tedious fatiguing 
labouf, accounted fit for only slaves or the 
lowest servants. A terrible significance is 
thus given to the threatening against 
Babylon (Isai. xlvii. 2) ; and the expression 
a^Sxi 5), from the monarch to the maid- 
servant behind the mill, 1% emphatical y 
from the highest to the lowest. Mills weie 
in almost every house, as necessary for 
daily use (comp. Jsumb. xi. 8) : hence the 
merciful prohibition against taking the 
nim-stones in pledge (Dent, xxiv 6) : the 
subsistence of the family would be mter- 
feredwith. ' I heard the ring of this ap- 
TTnratus ' savs Dr. Thomson, ' some time 
Se I saw it, and now understand what 
is meant by the preacher when he says, 
" The tound of the grinding is low, because 
the grinders are few " (Eccles. xn. 4). Jei e- 
miah also saddens his picture of Israels 
desolation by -.'ebuchadnezzar by adding 

that the sound of ^^^^ "^^11-^^°^' r4 rlou 
rea'se (Jer. xxv. 10). And upon Babylon, 
whose king thus stilled the voice of the 
Grinding in Jerusalem, John with apo- 
calvptic thunders, denounced the like deso- 
lation " The sound of a mill-stone shall he 
hea?d'no more at all in thee" (Rev. xviu. 
22) ' (The Land and the Book, p. 526). 

MILLET (Ezek. iv. 9). The word so ren- 
dered is derived from a root signifying in 
Arab c' to smoke.' There can be no doubt 
Siat some species of millet is ;nean<: f 
which several kinds are cultivated n Itah, 
Syria and Egypt. The Tajuc am imhacenm 
cor mon milfet, is plentiful and is used par 
]y as green fodder, and partly for the grain ; 
yhich is of a dark smoky colour, and of 
w ich bread, pottage, &c. are made. Other 
iVndred pla lis, as the Panicum }tahciwi 
Hud the Sorghum vulgare, may be included 
In the general term. They all belong to the 
Important natural or0.ev Graminece. Comp. 
Pict. Bible, note on Ezek. iv. 9. 



MIL'LO (flUi'i^g « rampart, fortress)—!. 
A citadel or fortress in Shechem (Judges ix. 
6 20) : ' the house of Millo' therefore, means 
those who garrisoned the fortress.— 2. A 
castle possibly built by David at Jerusalem, 
enlarged and strengthened by Solomon (2 
Sam. V. 9 ; 1 Kings ix. 15, 24, xi. 27 ; 2 Kings 
xii 20: 1 Chron. xi. 8; 2 Chron. xxxn. o). 
The particular position of Millo is nowhere 
specified. It might be a rampart or bastion 
at the north-west corner of the old city, 
where the natural defences were weakest, 
and where afterwards the tower of Hippicus 
^yas raised. See Winer, BiU RWB., art 
' Millo.' Mr. Grove imagines Millo m tne 
neighbourhood of the Tyropoean valley 
whtch lay at the foot of Zion' (Smith sBict. 
of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 365,366). Comp Keil, 
Comm. on Kings, vol. ii. P. 163. Possibly, as 
the building by David was ' inward, it was 
the filling in by erections of the space then 
existing between Zion and the rest of tne 
city. But no certain conclusion seems at 
present possible. 
MI'XA (Luke xix. 13, marg.). See Moxey. 
MIJnCI^sG (Isai. iii. 16). Spoken _ of _ the 
affected gait of coguettish ladies, tripping. 

MIXD The intellectual part of any one, 
as distinguished from the material sub- 
stance (Isai. xxvi. 3; Matt.xxii. 37). Hence 
i various intellectual powers or modes ot 
' acting, as disposition (Eph. iv. 17, 23), pur- 
' pose (2 Thess. ii. 2), will (Rom. vii. 2o). 
Sometimes the word is apphed to God or 
Christ ; and then it means his counsel or 
purpose (Rom. xi. 34 ; 1 Cor. ii. 16). ^ 

MIXE AIIXIXG. That there was anciently 
a considerable knowledge of the modes of 
procuring metals from the earth is suffi- 
ciently clear from Job xxviii. l-ll. And 
Moses, commending the land into w-hich 
God had promised to bring the Israelites, 
describes its mineral wealth (Dent. viu. 9). 
For some notice of metals in use among the 
Hebrews, and of the localities whence they 
were obtained, see Metals Metallur&t 

MIN'IAMIX (from the right hand).— I. One 
of the Levites appointed by Hezekiah to 
distribute the free-will offerings (2 Chron. 
xxxi 15).-2. (Xeh.xii.17,41). See Mi.nio. 
But different persons may possibly be meant 
in these two places. . . ^ 

MINISTER, MINISTRY. A minister is 
one who acts in subordination to another, 
waiting on him or performing his c,om- 
mandsfThus Joshua is called the 'minister 
of Moses (Exod.xxiv. 13). The word usedh^ 
reference to the duty of a free attendant, 
as distinguished from the condition of a 
servant or slave. This is clearly shown m 
the description of Solomon's court, where 
the ministers and the servants are different 
persons (1 Kings x. 5). The term is applied 
to angels (PsaL ciii. 21, civ. 4 : comp. Heb.i. 
7^ to the priests and Levites as ministering 
in sacred things, and to the Jews generally 
in their harpy state of devoted service to 
Gof] (Isai. 1x1. 6 ; Jer. xxxiii. 21 ; Ezek. xlir. 
11, xlv. 4 : Joel i. 9). , ^, 

There are several Greek words thus ren- 
dered in the New Testament : one, leitourgos, 
signifying the performance of a sacred ser- 
vice, is applied to Christian teachers (Acts 
xiii 2 • Rom. XV. 16), also to Christ (Heb. viu- 



593 



2), and to the tribute-collectors (Rom. xiil. 
6), those that are In authority on earth per- 
forming therein a duty to God (comp. xv. 
27). The word diakonos often signifies 
generally a subordinate officer, or assistant 
(Matt. XX, 26 ; Rom. xii. 7). This name is 
given to Christian teachers, including those 
highest m position, i.e. apostles (1 Cor. iii. 
5 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6, vi. 4, xi. 23 ; l Thess. iii. 2), 
and even to Christ himself (Rom. xv. 8) : 
also to magistrates (xiii. 4), and to false 
teachers (2 Cor. xi. 15). But sometimes it 
intends a particular kind of minister, a 
deacon (Phil. i. i ; i Tim. iii. 8, 12) : see Dea- 
con. There is another word, huperetes, pro- 
perly an under-rower, often rendered ' minis- 
ter.' It seems to involve the idea of personal 
attendance, and is applied to an officer in 
the J ewish synagogues (Luke iv. 20), to the 
subordinates of official persons (Matt. v. 25, 
John vii. 32), and to teachers of the divine 
word (Luke i. 2 ; Acts xiii. 5, xxvi. 16 ; 2 Cor. 
iv. 1), Minister ordinarily now signifies an 
ordained person, and ministry his office. 

MIN'm {divisioni). A province or district 
mentioned only (Jer. li. 27) in conjunction 
With Ararat : it must have been an Arme- 
nian region, perhaps that of the Manavasai, 
near the centre of Armenia. According to 
Sir. H. Rawlinson, Van was the capital. 

MIN'OTTH {allotment ?). A place east of 
the Jordan in the land of the Ammonites, 
m a district rich in grain, which was carried 
then ce to the markets of Tyre (Judges xi. 33 : 
Ezek. xxvii. 17). 

MINSTREL (2 Kings ii^. 15). Properly a 
player on a stringed instrument. In Matt, 
ix. 23 hired minstrels, flute-players, are in- 
tended, who made lamentation for the dead. 
See Btjrial. 

MINT (Matt, xxiii. 23 ; Luke xi. 42). A 
well-known herb, much used in domestic 
economy. The Jews are said to have scat- 
tered it, on account of its pleasant smeU, on 
the floors of their houses and synagogues. 
The species most common in Syria is the 
Mentha sylvestris, horse-mint : this and the 
Mentha arvensis were the kinds best known 
to the ancients. According to Jewish 
writers, mint was one of the herbs to be 
tithed, and subject to the law of the seventh 
year. 

MIPH'KAD (appointed place, nurriberl). 
One of the gates of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 
31). 

MIRACLE. "We read in scripture of many 
wonderful works being performed, which 
are commonly called miracles. It is not 
indeed that these occur in constant series, 
or accompany the whole course of sacred 
history. There are particular times at 
which we find them; and then they ap- 
parently cease ; years, centuries probably, 
rolling on without any notice that what is 
called the ordinary course of nature Avas 
interrupted. The times of miraculous 
energy seem to have been (with few if any 
exceptions) when the church of God was 
brought into conflict Avith the external 
world— crises these when we might fairly 
suppose that, if ever, God would make mani- 
fest his extraordinary power. Thus miracles 
are said to have been wrought by Moses 
when Israel was to be delivered from the 



[mieacle 



Egyptian tyranny and placed in possession 
of Canaan : we read of them again, when 
Israel had nationally apostatized, and the 
worship of foreign false gods had been set 
up by authority under Ahab and his family • 
yet again, when Judahhad been carried into 
Babylon, and God's people stood face to 
face with the mighty heathen despotism 
that ruled there; and once more, when the 
Son of God became incarnate, and was set- 
ting up m opposition to the world's power 
a new kingdom of righteousness which was 
to last for ever. These were aU crises of 
peculiar importance. 

In considering this subject, so far as the 
limits of the present work allow, it may be 
well after deflning miracles to enquire into 
the evidence we have of them : that is to say 
whether we can reasonably believe aUeged 
wonders to have occurred, then whether 
granting the facts to have been as stated! 
they were of supernatural character, and 
afterwards what miracles if established may 
be taken to prove. 

^ We may define a miracle as an event con- 
trary to the ordinary course of things, an 
effect for which natural causes are not alone 
sufficient ; so that God must have inter- 
posed to suspend or modify the common 
laws of nature. Such event or efl'ect pro- 
duced by God's immediate touch or special 
assistance is intended as a proof of some 
particular truth or doctrine, or in attesta- 
tion of the authority or divine mission of 
some particular person. 

Now, if we meet with any extraordinary 
statement in history, our first object should 
be to ascertain whether it is true. False- 
hoods may be devised by knaves and pro- 
pagated in such a way as to impose upon 
the credulous, until being handed on from 
generation to generation they obtain a 
kind of prescriptive authority, and are 
generally accLuiesced in without much 
thought of investigating the source from 
which they were derived. TVe ought to see 
whether the strange facts recorded in 
scripture have any better grounds. If 
they are fables originally put about by 
crafty men, there must have been some 
object in it, some pride to gratify, some 
advantage calculated on. Or, if they are 
the fancies of foolish men, there must have 
been circumstances which gave them cre- 
dit, some singular fatuity in the age, which 
made it easy to be practised on. Let us sift 
a little what we read of the wonderful de- 
liverance of Israel from Egypt, the great 
deeds said to be wrought by our Saviour, liia 
raising of Lazarus for example, his own 
rising from the dead. 

We should first see by whom these events 
are recorded. They were contemporaries 
who wrote the history of them. Moses has 
generally been taken as the author of 
Exodus ; and the evangelists published 
their accounts at the time when Christian- 
ity had its origin. There is thus contem- 
poraneous authority. And the writers wci o 
certainly in a position to know the trutii. 
Moses was the leader of Israel, taking part, 
indeed having the command, in all things 
that were done. The evangelists, too, were 
some of them apostles always about tho 




^^ev^on of Clirist, professing to be eye-^ 
?vUne=5esoi wliat they told: otHersjere 
So^ln 10 136 tlie trusted companions of tlie 
So^tie^ Thev aU had fuU means of m- 
lOTmaUon. Sa, if ^ve look at the general 
Snracter of their histories, vre shaU find , 
tStm ^ell worthy of credit. Many profane 

?nce "eadf? reader to see t^a^.^e - Pe^-^^ 
ing an honest history. This, ^f^^^^f;,^;^ 
neednot hehere dwelt on : soine argumerit. 
are produced for the cre'^J^^^fJ 
tiered ^-iters in the article fecmPTUBE, 
which sTe. It may he further added that 
5 untrue accounts of tMngs are put f oiili 

T^e children of Israel must have known , 
whetSel- ?iey passed ^^--^^t^od through^^^ ! 
Red sea: they were inclined to muimi^ , 
re=i=t -Moses; so that, when he ne- ^ 
quen fv referred to that event, we can 
,ardlv* conceive of their acquiescmg m 
wha^ he sSd if he had given a false colour- 

Srti we can discover, there was no attempt 
S thiO ind Take, f ^ain, some of the re- 
SfaSlwe'tvenr^^ 

historv, such as the raising of La^aiu^, tne ^ 
casting out of de^-ils, the cimng of t^e .ick 
the resurrection of Christ himself, do 
;^>t find -enerallv the facts controverted, 
SSLxpfaine'JawaV. Thus, when the people 
^urDri=ed at what they saw exclaimed_, It , 
never to seen in Israel,' the Pharisees 
Jecla'iS 'He easteth out devUs tniw^^^ , 
the prince of the devils' (Matt. is. dd,^i;^ , 

com4^ would have heen, if the fact re- 
T^orted were untrue, to expose it = falsity, 
fnSeadlf trying to destroy the evidence of 
' truth Later, in regard to the apostles, 
i Ihere is the same confession that a notable 
deld was manifestly done which could not 
' Sr^PiiiPfl r Acts iv 16). An attempt, to he 
surt was [made t J discredit our Lord's re- 
^ur?eSion ; hut the shift resorted to only 
proved t e difficulty in which the chief 
J^;.ro-^t^fplr themselves (Matt, xxvni. ll-lo). 

the facts: and they had certainly the wil 
S convict, if they could, the Christians oi 
mistake or imposture. But we see that for 
™«eries of years, through that whole genera- 
tion the facts were fearlessly appealed to 
hy cirfstlan teachers, appealed to under 



T^^Tlh^ircumstances and in the very 
&ces where exposure of falsehood was 
most easy (Acts vi. 8, vm. 6, .,13,xiV.3, 

^"MatSs'^Jf^ficf -a^^ capable of being 
proved bv proper evidence; and we can 
S=nv fell whether the evidence is of a 
tati^fpctorv character. If witnesses are 
?ra=t worth V men, if they had f uU oppor tuui- 
ties' S k^owingVhat was done, ii there 
wp?e manv of them, if their reports, agree- 
: £'c,'^in ^hl main, are yet so far different 
i S^themode of recording them as to show 
'that Tuev had not planned together to make 
I a tale^f xSev have persisted when persls^ > 

' ence waVfitneerous% 
i ^pop CO would nave been safety, there IS the 

; ?eiT sVrlnJest moral ground for behe^g 
1 thar what thev mamtam la fact, iuere is 
I no ro^m for eVaslon on the suppo^ition^^^ 
' imaverv or of fanatic madness. Indiviaaais 
i SlvTe toaves, and escape detection ; but a 
1 wSble cSs orbody of men wbo hav arne 
' fi-om histoiT a good report can nevei h^e 
■hppn merelv successiul impo=toia= 
me^ mavbfmad for opinions, but not for 
• no band of enthusiasts would agree 
ill «^eiAe=timonv, if it flowed but from the 
SS^fes of a distempered mind. More es 
Sciailv as in the case of the scriptui-e 
1 mS^^l ^e should have to suppose enthu 
^i=ts or deceivers in one age succeeded by 
i slmUar bodils in distant generations, ana 
i vpt in uniting in the same purpose. 
' ^ aixe?fa hive been proposed by which to 
I tP=T the alleged occun-ence of events said 
t?lV miraculous. To try them as facts, to 
^?=tt]fe history which relates these extra- 
I nrdinarv events, let us use some of the 
™=edcSSia. If we find that anything , 
vh£h l3s"oiy reports was a) P^l^}i?f,.?,^f: : 
formed before credible ^i^^f^es ; if (,2) it 
wa= 4n=ible and easy to be observed; if i3) 
Tublic monuments were set up, and some 
n^™d actions constantly performed m 
memorial of the facts thus publicly wit^ 
S^=Ted • and if (4) these monuments were 
?et up a^d these actions and observances 
in^tltut edVat the veiy time when the events 
Sokplace, and were afterwards continued 
wUhout interruption-then it can hardly be 
?iRt the aUesed facts did not occui". II 
^SSe can he mistake or falsehoodhere,how 

CPU we ever depend on any asserted events 
heto- tme ? Xow, leaving the two former of 
thSl Criteria, which have been suf&cieutly 
ouched by what was Previously said, look 
at the application of the la=t two. ine 
Jews have always, as long as then- hist<)ry 
goes back, observed the feast oi the pas«- 
ove? This it is stated, was instituted to 
?Jmmemor4te their wonderful delivei-ance 
from Egypt. It was celebrated first the 
veiT night when the first-born of the 
Svptians were slain, and when the Israel- 
ites were thrust out hy their late masters. 
Who or what could make this People sacred 
ly through all their generations, ?b^eive 
Inch a feast as a memorial of a fact m their 
Wsto?y if no fact of the kind occurred? 
ieaii oir Lord instituted the holy supper 
01? ?lie ni^ht of his passion to commemorate 
S?s dea^h ; and the first day of the week has 
alwavs been kept in honour of his resurreo- 



695 



[mieacle 



ticn, the observance commencing on tlie 
very day : how could these memorials he 
imposed on men, if there were no facts to 
ground them on ? 

It may fairly he said then that there is 
as much, nay, that there is more, historical 
evidence for these remarkable events than 
there is for any accepted statement of 
ancient authors, for the exploits of Alex- 
ander the Great, for example, or for the 
invasion of Britain by Julius Csesar ; and 
men would no more doubt the one than the 
other, if it were not for the apparent im- 
probability of the alleged occurrences. If 
a natural satisfactory solution could be 
found, every man would at once admit the 
facts, instead of supposing that a body of 
writers, ordinarily so grave and relating 
generally such trustworthy histories, were 
all from time to time seized with the un- 
controllable desire of introducing baseless 
wonders into their books, mingling in the 
strangest manner truth with falsehood. It 
is the mode of accounting for their state- 
ments, then,which is the difficulty ; in other 
vv^ords. Are the events vouched for by so 
much evidence miraculous in their nature ? 
Now we must consider both branches of 
the alternative. If it is difficult to allow 
supernatural interference, there is also ex- 
treme difficulty in imagining the statements 
false, particularly when we consider the 
way in which they are made, and the ready 
credence they obtained. The evidence for 
the facts, we have seen, is very strong : hov/ 
can it be disproved or evaded ? 

We must, therefore, encLuire whether the 
events recorded can be miraculous, or 
whether, their occurrence allowed, some 
other explanation may not be given. In 
several of the cases referred to, if the fact 
be as stated, a miracle omist have been 
wrought. If Lazarus, Avho had been dead 
four days and had been actually buried, 
came out of the tomb at Christ's command, 
and went home alive, it was plainly con- 
trary to nature. If Jesus himself, who was 
crucified, and seen to die by assembled 
thousands, was really the next week alive, 
conversing, eating, and drinking with his 
disciples, why, here must have been a 
miracle. And, if no miracle were wrought, 
the testimony on which the belief of these 
two resurrections was grounded must have 
been in some way falsified. Yet we have 
seen how strong, how satisfying for all 
ordinary cases it is. The disciples must 
have known whether they really saw and 
talked with their Master after his death. 
They could not be deceived in such a mat- 
ter. The less, because they evidently did 
not expect him to revive, and were hard to 
be convinced till they actually saw him 
with their own eyes. Now, if he did not 
rise again, there must have been imposture. 
St. Paul acknowledges this. He says that, 
if this miracle were not performed, the 
apostles were 'false witnesses' (1 Cor. xv. 
15). There is no other alternative. And 
what are the grounds for denying that 
there was a miracle ? A miracle, we are told, 
is impossible : no amount of testimony can 
establish the truth of it ; because it is by 
its very definition contradictory to the 



laws of nature, it interrupts the necessary 
sequence of cause and effect. 

But what are these laws of nature ? who 
established them? and from whom have 
they their force ? God in constructing the 
universe was pleased to regulate the go- 
vernment of it according to a certain order. 
Thus there are physical laws, the operation 
of which is patent to our observation ; cer- 
tain sequences regularly attending the same 
efficient causes. This is what is called the 
course of nature. Effects which result 
from the ordinary working of these laws, 
or which are conformable to the established 
order of events, are said to be natural ; 
while palpable deviations from the con- 
stitution of the natural system and the 
usage according to which events occur in 
that system, as they would be termed mira- 
culous, are held to be impossible. 

But why should it be deemed impossible 
for the Deity to suspend the laws which 
only his own will has imposed ? There are, 
indeed, some essential conditions of being 
T/hich, be it reverently spoken, not even 
Omnipotence could abrogate. Thus there 
are self-evident truths, which have nothing 
to do with cause or effect, such as that two 
and two make four. There are mathemati- 
cal processes, by which from certain pre- 
mises necessary conclusions follow. Abso- 
lute contradictions cannot be reconciled. 
Thus, the God of truth cannot lie. There 
are some laws, then, which must be invio- 
lable. But these are altogether distinct 
from the physical laws according to which 
God has chosen ordinarily to limit his act- 
ings. So that the question is not whether 
the necessary conditions of being are vio- 
lated or can be violated, but whether God 
can, and ever does, effect that by an im- 
mediate act of will, which he ordinarily 
effects through some mediate elaboration. 
Surely it would be an unworthy notion of 
the Highest if we imagined him inextric- 
ably tied to those secondary causes to 
which he alone has given their efficiency. 
Men may interfere with— we see it every 
day— the machines they have constructed : 
are we to deny the right or even the 
likelihood of God's interfering with his 
work? There maybe then, Vv'e must con- 
clude, an exceptional mode as well as an 
usual mode of the divine acting— miracle 
as well as the working of natural law. 

No observed uniformity can disprove the 
possibility of this exceptional mode of ac- 
tion. It has been shown that a machine 
could be constructed on such a principle 
that, though a certain sequence should 
occur millions of times, there would come 
at length an interruption. We have an 
illustration of the possible break of uni- 
formity given in Mill's System of Logic : 
' Not all the instances,' he says, ' which have 
been observed since the beginning of the 
world, in support of the proposition that 
all crows are black, would be deemed a 
sufficient presumption of the truth of the 
proposition to outweigh the testimony of 
one unexceptionable witness, who should 
affirm that, in one region of the earth, not 
fully explored, he had caught and examined 
a crow, and found it to be grey.' We can- 





not, tlien, conclude upon tlie TinaltolDle e 
fixity of the so-called laws of natiire,^^^^^^ 
are not rigid statutes to confine tfie nee- i 
dom S a personal God, but ratlier tlie m- 

aB^lxpei^ence'can avail only to tMs poi^, 1 
that testimony, liowever strong is insum i 
cient to estalDUsli an i?pP^o^,^^^^f .^'..^^^o^J 
the testimony he such that its falsehooa 
would he mo/e improhahle than the actual 
ncrnrrence of the facts which it is used to 
estahlisS But on this ground the evidence 
for the scripture miracles cannot he dis- 
proved. Fov ' it may be safely maintained,' 
savs Dr W. Lee, ' that the falsehood of this 
evidence would he more miraculous than 
?he very miracles which endeavoui s t^ 
establish. The testimony of the first Chiist- 
ians was not merely testimony to a doc- 
ti-fne which might deceive the understand- 
ing, or to a dream or vision which niight 
impose upon the imagination-it was the 
testimony of eye-witnesses to an;amber of 
public and notorious facts, of which the 
^ense« had fuU opportunity to judge {Oa 
mracleriS^l, P 85).^ This argument 
be applied to confirm the truth of our Loi d b 
leirrection. Seeing that the disciples, 
i iudo-ed bv theif previous position and con- 
ductfwere most unlikely to begin their ca- 
reer as founders of a new faith 3ust after 
the death of Jesus, seeing that if Jesus (^d 
not ri=e a^ain the impression made on 
fhJse whotad hunted him to death was 
absolutely unaccountable, and the laigest 
re^^Sts were produced by utterly made- 
Quate causes^ we cannot avoid the conclu- 
&on thTit is far more improbable to sup- 
pose the evidence false than to credit the 
Liertfon that Christ rose from the dead. 

'l^eSTS^force in the argument 
that miracles are above our comprehens on 
We mav not be able to understand 7i^t^ an 
event can be immediately Pi'oduced by the 
divine wiU-how, for example, the g eatoi 
formed any material substance. But as 
1 Uttle can we comprehend many of those 
ASilts whilh are brought about by the ela- 
boratkui of means. The Jep^ vre can 
chronicle ; but the process we cannot ex 
plaTn Ai^d we are not bound to suppose 
liat for every material .effect there must 
be a material cause f^trilmbs tMt 
the very motions of our own limbs that 
mfnd can act on matter. How this is we 
InSw not: the thing itself no man disbe- 

But'after all, it is not so much, to those 
who admit the being and POwer of a God 
the possibility as the Pi^o^f ^,^1 Jy f miia 

»^iVt"hl«-t^iVe%^^^^^^^ 
duce s? much general confusion, won c 
throw so to speak, the machinery of tht 
unWer-e so entirely out of gear, as to rende 
rSconceivable that tlie Deity wouW 
the author of such confusion, ihis oojet 
tion is urged in the most exaggerated fo 
R-aiust the notion that the sun stood still 
S rather that the motion of tlie earth wa 
Etaved in the time of Joshua. Now, witb 
oiuarg^ng here whether or no the record 


d wonder was effected by a stoppage of the 
arth's revolution, or whether some power- 
ul refi-action might not have produced 
he required result, it must be snd agamst 
he general principle that such objectors 
irgul altogether fi'om the wrong stand- 
point. A mischievous boy may by inter- 
fering with a single wheel distm-b or rum 
m elborate machine. For he has no com- 
prehensive acquaintance !^ith the whole 
le is unable to compensate for the power 
le suspends. But are we to suppose that 
i,t whf arranged every part of theuniver 
sal fi-ame, and gave to each its proper 
office fitting it so nicely into its leiative 
lf^i^n-t^^t\e,it he touches one point 
forgets or has no power over t^e lest ? To 
recur to Joshua's miracle, it is monstious 
to suppose that if the Deity stayed the 
earth's revolution he would not by the 
same exertion of his power provide agamst j 
the ruin that would doubtless have ensued 
if the machine were stopped by a humaji 
hand. The word that could Produce the 
one effect could as well produce the other 
we may freely acknowledge that^there wiU 
be no needless expenditm-e of PO^^ei » Jm; 
vet hard and easy, it cannot be too fre^ 
quently repeated, have no apphcation to the 
doings of an almighty hand. 

But then it is said that no testimony ever 
has been produced, or can be Produced 
strong enough to countervail the universal 
experience of mankind against muraculous 
interposition. There is reaUy, however, a 
vetuA> principii here. The experience is 
assumed to be uniform only upon testi- 
monv; so that testimony and experience 
cannot be thus pitted one against the 
other. Besides, the experience that is lor 
miracles is destroyed, in order t^o m^e out 
experience against miracles. _ The expeii- 
encf of the apostles and their contempo- 
raries was, they have left on record that 
miracles had been witnessed l^ytuem. So 
that the matter comes to a question of testi- 
mony at last, whether the testimony of 
So^I who declare that miracles were withm 
their experience is to be overborne bj the 
testimony of those who maintain that ex- 
nerience is -against them. And pbseivc . 
these testimonies are not fairly balanced 
unless the affirmative of eye-witnesses is 
met by the negative of eye-witnesses too, 
present at the same time, who could say 
that no miracle could have T-^een performed 
without their perceiving it, and that they 
™not so perceive it. Indeed the experi- 
ence relied on by an objector comes, when 
it is sifted, to be the experience of a single 
individual, who disbelieves what others tell 
him from their experience, because he has 
not seen it with his own eyes, has not had 
exjei'ence of it himself. The legitimate 
I conclusion from such a principle would be 
^ the destruction of all belief save tbat which 
• was forced on a man by the evidence of his 
^ own senses. His own experience is agamst 
: a Sousand things in every-day life, ^vhlcll 
1 he accepts without question upon another s 

credit, and acts accordingly. _ 
s The theories which have been invented 
- to discredit the testimony we have for th^^ 
. occurrence of miracles are m the higLe&t 



697 



degree improbable and unsatisfactory. Tlie 
coarse accusation of wicked fraud is per- 
haps now altogether abandoned : at least it 
is held by none with whom it could be at 
all worth while to argue. Some indeed are 
still inclined to impute piotis fraud, if not 
perchance to Jesus, at least to his disciples. 
It is in this way that they would account 
for the alleged resurrection of Lazarus. It 
was to give credit to the teacher whose in- 
fluence was endangered, and was resorted 
to with the commendable motive of fur- 
thering his salutary projects of reform. 
The glaring improbability of this solution 
need not be dwelt on. How could such a 
deception be practised under the very 
eyes of acute and powerful opponents? 
And, greater marvel still, how, if successful 
at first, was it that the mystery did not ooze 
out or was not betrayed, especially when we 
know that there were false brethren, nay, 
even a traitorous apostle, who put himself 
in confidential communication with the 
priests and rulers, and could have enabled 
them to crush Christianity at once by the 
disclosure of the disgraceful secret? What 
a reward might Judas have obtained from 
the chief priests for such a disclosure ! 

More specious theories are those called 
naturalistic and mythic. According to the 
first of these, the recorded miracles of 
scripture were but natural events, mistaken 
by unphilosophic minds, fired with enthu- 
siastic excitement. This is a somewhat- 
Improbable conjecture for a single case ; 
but, when we come to apply it to one ex- 
ample after another, and suppose the same 
ignorance, the same fanaticism, to have 
concurred in so many different crises, the 
improbability becomes enormous, far ex- 
ceeding any presumed improbability of 
God's miraculous interposition. Archbishop 
Whately has well disposed of such a theory : 
•Some infidels have laboured to prove, 
concerning some one of our Lord's miracles, 
that it might have been the result of an 
accidental conjuncture of natural circum- 
stances; and they endeavour to prove the 
same -concerning another, and so on, and 
thence infer that all of them occurring as a 
series might have been so. They might 
argue in like manner that, because it is not 
very improbable one may throw sixes in 
any one out of a hundi'ed throws, therefore 
it is no more improbable that one may 
throw sixes a hundred times running.' A 
further resort, therefore, has been the my- 
thical theory that the narratives we have 
are legends which have grown up from the 
desire men had to invest Jesus with all the 
attributes and powers which they conceived 
suitable to the Messiah's character. Plainly 
stated, this notion is that the disciples at- 
tached themselves to one (why is not ex- 
plained) who did not fulfil the idea of the 
expected Messiah, and that they repre- 
sented him as doing what Messiah ought to 
do, but what this man did not do. This 
supposition really leaves the disciples in the 
first most important step of their career 
without a motive. It supplies no kind of 
reason why they should have been origi- 
nally drawn to adopt and to recommend 
Jesus as the Messiah. And it is, if possible, 



yet more incomprehensible how, on such a 
theory, a sharp-witted zealous opponent, 
like Saul of Tarsus, could have been induced 
to preach and propagate the faith he once 
laboured to destroy, more especiallv when he 
placed miracle as the ground of belief, and 
acknowledged that, if the alleged wonder of 
Christ's resurrection were not fact, Chris- 
tianity was worthless (1 Cor. xv. 17, 18). 

If we examine the purpose for which 
miracles were performed, we shall find 
that it has been one worthy the cha- 
racter and perfections of God. It has al- 
ready been observed that such divine in- 
terference has usually occurred when the 
church is as it were face to face with the 
world, and when it has been necessaiy to 
show, by the stretching forth of the al- 
mighty hand, that false deities are power- 
less before Jehovah. It is reasonable to 
believe that God would then interfere. But, 
in addition, he has told us again and again 
of his intention to appear at such crises. 
We find him indicating this purpose when 
in the reign of Ahab, while Israel was de- 
moralized and apostate, God declared that 
the Syrians should be defeated because 
they had touched his supremacy, had pro- 
nounced him but the • God of the hills ' (l 
Kings XX. 23, 28). And miracles continually 
illustrate this purpose. Thus it was a trial 
of strength before Pharaoh, the Egyptian 
magicians by their imitations— whether 
real wonders or but impositions it matters 
not for this argument— trying to persuade 
the king that they were equally able with 
Moses and Aaron to wield supernatural 
power. God, therefore, effectually vindi- 
cated his own honour. There was a similar 
defiance when Elijah met the priests of 
Baal. 

And in many other cases the same 
principle may be perceived. In certain 
instances it may not be so evident ; but 
these may well be taken as parts of a whole 
for which generally we can see satisfactory 
reason, though we are not sufBciently 
aware of all the details to apply it to each 
individual case. Besides the great evi- 
dence which the power of performing 
miracles gave to any teacher— and we find 
our Lord appealing to it (John x. 25, 38), as 
did his apostles afterwards (Acts ii. 22, iii. 
16)— there was a present and more particu- 
lar purpose served in each miracle. It was 
an acted sermon, conveying in the most 
forcible manner lessons of instruction 
warning, rebuke, and encouragement. It 
was the voice of God which wouldhe heard. 
And accordingly we see impressions made, 
which no word however solemn was likely 
to produce (e.g. Numb. xvii. 6-13; 1 Sam. 
xii. 16-19 ; Mark i. 33). The power of work- 
ing miracles was the more needful when 
Christianity was first promulgated, be- 
cause those who pretended to supernatural 
powers were abundant at the time, and, un- 
less they were met by really superior divine 
interposition, it would have been difficult 
to persuade men that Jesus was actually 
a teacher sent from God. We see this 
exemplified on more than one occasion. 
Simon Magus had bewitched the people of 
Samaria with his sorceries. It is not neces- 



595 



garr to en^mre here ^lietlier tliese sorce- 
ries ^ere xraudnlent or vrhether thej yere 
pfodnced :ov evil spirits. Tlae iact is plam: 
thev made the deepest impression And 
moit efiectaaUy were they counteracted hy 
the miracles vhich PhiUp vrrought (Ac_l= 
Tiii 6-12\ A similar result followed in 
Cvprus, when Bamahas and Saul met and 
vanquished the false prophet Elymas (xiu. 
6-l'> I "We mar see then that the true pur- 
pose of miracles is to authenticate the 
mission of a teacher. 

But it is not enough forthis to showthax , 
smne super -human power is in exercise : we 
mu=t he assured that the source oi that i 
power is truth. The scripture seems to con- 
template the possihility of lyii^ wonders. 
And it furnishes a simple and sufficient test. 
"Whatever marvellous wort might he 
WTousht. if it contradicted that vrtiich w?.3 
alreadv known to he truth, to he from God, 
it was* to he rejected (Deut. xiu. 1-3 ; ilatt. 
xxiv. 24). Hence, if the d£)ctnne^_he un- 
wonhv, this does not necessarily discredit 
the miracle, hut the revelation it is alleged to 
att.e'^t It is when a doctrine has commended 
itself to the conscience as good that miracle 
seals it as divine truth. Herein is the great 
rurDOse of miracle illustrated. And ver^x 
£as Prof. Hansel said, ' A teacher who 
proclaims himself to he specially senu from 
God, and whose teaching is to he received 
on the authority of that mission must 
from The nature of the case, estahhsh his 
claim hy proofs of another kmd than tho^e 
which merely evince his human ^s^?™ 
and goodness. A super-human authority 
need^to he suhstantiatea hy super-human 
evidence: and what is super-human ismi- 
11 : ' It i= not me tridli of the doctrines, 

- t'rs-' . :'- ^-rify of the teacfier. thai miracles 

- ' ' l_- -^d to prove; and. the authority 

- ' li-.Mi^hed, the truth of the doc- 
-.y.- -'-:-Zj^-tromit. In this manner our 
LordaPDealito his miracles as evidences 
of hls"mission: "The works which the 
Father hath given me to finish, the same 
vrorts that I do, hear witness of me that 

i the Father hath sent me" (John v. o6). it 
i i^ ea=v to sav that we might have known 
Je=uV Christ' to he the Son of God, had he 
manifested himself merely a3__ a _ moral 
teacher, without the witness ci miracles. 
It is easy to say this, hecause i™PO==^- 
hle to proveii' (Ai<?^ to Faali, e^baj i. 28, p. 
35) It is precisely that teaching which 
Sdinarv reason could not have reached 
which requires the authentication of mira- 
clcs-those high truths respecting the per- 
sonal suhsistence of the Deity, and his 
purpose of saving sinners without violat- 
fug his holy justice, which his ordmaiy 
works of creation and providence do not 
declare. He who looks at the magnificent 
framework of the universe may readily 
draw conclusions of the power and Godhead 
of the mighty Former (Rom. 1. 19, 20) , hut 
deeper mysteries, which yet it most con- 
cerns us to know, cannot he learned in thi. 
wav They must he communicated by di- 
rect revelation ; and the revelation which 
communicates them can he proved only h^ 
some special exertion of divine PO^"«;f-, 
that to say that miracles are impossible is 



tn =ay that God cannot make known essential 
truths to his creatures hecause he cannot 
or he will not in the only sufficient way au- 
thpnticate the necessary revelation, give 
adeauate credentials to the teacher he must 

^^h^ere is a worthy and sufficient end, then 
in scripture miracles. Then- proper effect 
i=i to mark clearly the divine taterposition. 
And for this end it was that Moses, that , 
Christ and his apostles, appealed to them, | 
a= we have seen, in proof of their mission. 1 
So tha+- when evidence more abundant and 
convincing than has ever been produced , 
for anv other kind of history proclaims i 
1 that wondrous works were wrought, when i 
I aU the prmciples of reason go to prove 
i that thev were beyond mere human skiiJ, 
! and cannot be explained by the supposition 
i of fanaticism or fraud, and when, to reveal 
■ great and necessary doctrines above but not 
di=cordant from whatever of settled truth 
could be otherwise learned, the finger of 
God must appear, the conclusion is not of 
chUdish fatuity but of the most exalted 
wi=dom. that we have not followed cun- 
niuslv-devised fables in believing and ac- 
knowiedsing the direct interference of 
divine power to establish divine truth. j 
It was noted above that, besides the j 
CTand object in miraculous working, there i 
wpre special beneficial results obtarned : 
n-om them : these are the deep impression 
made at the time on those that witnessed 
' them, the moral lessons of the divine good- 
ness,' compassion, omniscience, &c., con 
vevedbv everr separate mighty work, ho 
that, with scarce an exception, every mira- 
cle was a parable, iUustrating some great 
spiritual truth. It would be highly mter- 
estin? to trace and enforce all these les- 
sons r hut this cannot be done here, it 
mav, however, be weU to present to the 
reader a compendium of o^jr Lord s mira- 
cles, and to make a brief observation tnere- 

^ The following table is taken from Home's 
Irdroduct., vol. i. pp. 552, 553. . 
' 1. "VTater turned into vnne (J ohn u.). 

2. Is'obleman's son of Capernaum healed 

3. PaSing unseen through the multitude 

4. Mh-lcilous draught of fishes (Luke v.). 

5. Demoniac cured (Mark i. : Luke iv.)_._ ^ 
6 Peter's wife's mother cured (:Matt.viii., 

'Marki. : Luke Iv.). ... . . . 

7. Multitudes healed (Matt. vm. ; Mark i. , 

8. Also iiiroughout Galilee (Matt, ir.; 
Marki.). . ,^ , . 

9. A leper healed (Matt. viii. ; Mark l 
Luke v.). , . -i, J nir„*f 

10 The paralytic let down in a bed (Matt. 

ix. : Markii.; Lukev.). ,t i 

11. The impotent man at Bethsaida (John 

!•> The withered hand on the sahhatb 

(Matt. xii. ; Mark iii. ; Luke vi.). 
13. Manif healed (Matt. xii. ; Mark lu.). 
14 Many, and some by mere touch (Luke 



15. Centurion's servant (Matt. viii. ; Luke 
vii.). 



cm mi^bU ^nmit^ut. 



16. The widow's son raised, at Kain (Luke 
Tii.). 

17. Various miracles appealed to (Matt, xi.; 
liuke vii.). 

18. Many healed (Matt. ix.). 

19. A demoniac (Matt, ix; Mark iii. ; 
'Luke xi.). 

20. The tempest stilled (Matt, yiii.; Mark 
iv. ; Luke viii.). 

21. The legion of devils cast out (INIatt. 

viii. ; Mark v. ; Luke viii.), St. Matthew 
says two demoniacs: the others men- 
tion only one. Probably one was more 
remarkable than the other. 

22. The woman who touched his garment 
(Matt. ix. ; Mark v. ; Luke viii.). 

23. The daughter of Jairus raised (Matt. 

ix. ; Mark v. ; Luke viii.). 

24. Two blind men (Matt. ix.). 

25. A dumb demoniac (Matt. ix.). 

26. Power given to the apostles to heal 
(Matt. X. ; Mark vi. ; Luke ix.). 

27. Many sick healed (Matt. xiv. ; Luke 

IX.). 

28. Five thousand fed (Matt. xiv. ; Mark 
vi. ; Luke ix. ; John vi.). 

29. He walks on the sea (Matt. xiv. ; Mark 
vi. ; John vi.). 

30. Ship immediately at its destination 
(John vi.). 

31. As many as touched healed (Matt, xiv ; 
Mark vi.). 

32. Daughter of Syro-phoenician woman 
(Matt. XV. ; Mark vii.). 

33. Deaf and dumb inan (Mark vii.). 
3-i. Multitudes healed (Matt. xv.). 

35. Four thousand fed (Matt. xv. ; Mark 

viii. ). 

30. A blind man cured (3Tark viii.). 

37. The grean miracle of the transfigura- 
tion (Matt. xvii. ; Mark ix. ; Luke ix.). 

38. A deaf and. dumb demoniac (Matt, 
xvii. ; Mark ix, ; Luke ix.). 

39. A fish brings the tribute-money (Matt. 

xvii. ). 

40. The man blind from his birth (John 

ix. ). 

41. The infirm woman restored (Luke 
xiii.). 

42. The dropsy healed on the sabbath 
(Luke xiv.) . 

43. The lepers cleansed (Luke xvii.). 

44. Lazarus raised from the dead (John 
xi.). 

45. Blind Bartimeus cured (Matt. xx. ; 
Mark x. ; Luke xviii.). St. Matthew 
says two blind men. Of whom, doubt- 
less, Bartimeus was the most remark- 
able. 

46. Many Mind and knne (Matt. xx.). 

47. The barren fig-tree destroyed (Matt, 
xxi. ; Mark xi.). 

48. The ear of Malchus restored (:>iatt. 
xxvi. ; Mark xiv. ; Luke xxii. ; John 

xviii. ). 

49. Miraculous draught of fishes after his 
resurrection (John xxi.).' 

To these may be added— 

50. The casting out of seven devils from 
Mary Magdalene (Mark xvi. ; Luke 
viii.). 

51. Christ's own resurrection (INIatt. 
xxviii. ; Mark xvi.; Luke xxiv.: John 

XX.). 



[mibaclb 



The gospel miracles have been well 
classified in "Westcott's Introd. to the Study 
of the Gospels, app. E. pp. 446-449, as ' mira- 
cles on nature,' 'miracles on men,' 'mira- 
cles on the spirit-world,' with many sub- 
divisions. 

The miracles of Christ as thus reported 
present many noticeable features. They 
were numerous ; a multitude more having 
been performed than are described in de- 
tail (John XX. 30, xxi. 25). They exhibit 
great variety: they were wrouglit almost al- 
ways instantaneously, by a word of power, 
without the use of auxiliary means, some- 
times taking their effect at a distance from 
the place in which Christ personally was. 
They were permanent in their results, were 
subjected at the time to keen investiga- 
tion, and convinced a hostile people of the 
truth of them, to such an extent that, 
though there were persons who concealed 
or resisted their convictions, very many in 
consequence attached themselves, to the 
great detriment of their worldly interests, 
in several cases with the sacrifice of their 
lives, to the person and doctrine of tliis 
extraordinary Teacher. They were mira- 
cles, too, of mercy, with no dark malignant 
influence, intended to relieve human suf- 
fering, and to promote the well-being of 
those on vrhom or for whom they were 
wrought. The only apparent exceptions 
were the cursing of the liarreu fig-tree 
with its consequent withering away, and 
the allowance of the devils' entry into the 
herd of swine. Pi.easons good may be 
found for both these, which cannot be de- 
tailed here ; but see DejIo:-7iac, p. 212. 
And the power of working iniracles wa? 
conveyed by our Lord to his followers, was 
repeatedly exercised by them, and was con- 
tinued for a while in the church, how long 
it is the province of ecclesiastical history 
to investigate, rather than of such a boolc 
as the present. It may, however, be remark- 
ed, as a proof of +he existence of miracles 
in the early church, that care was taken to 
check and censure pretended and profane 
wonders (Bingham, Antiq. iiCcZe5.,book xvi. 
chap. V. 6, 7). In all this, especially in the 
plain accounts and circumstances of our 
Lord's miracles, conflrniation will be found 
of the conclusions before drawn. 

It is perfectly true that there have been 
counterfeit miracles, that scnne are narr:i- 
ted by heathen authors, and that abundance 
of them are said to have occurred and to bo 
still occurring in the P^omish church. Many 
of these are so palpably absurd and false, 
that sceptics rejecting them are ready to 
class those of the scripture with them, and 
hence to regard all pretensions to supernatu- 
ral power as equally unfounded. Bp. Douglas 
has fully investigated the subject : he has 
shown that the evidence, the nature, the 
circumstances of such alleged wonder's are 
perfectly diverse from the proofs and de- 
scriptions of the miracles of scripture. To 
his book, TJie Criterion or Bales hy tohich the 
true Miracles recorded in the Neiu Test, are 
distinguished from Spurious Miracles, the 
reader must be referred. 

Several books have been cited in the 
course of this article. A long list of iin- 



mikiam] 



600 



portant works on the subject might easily 
he compiled. But it must suffice to direct 
the reader to Mill, OntheMytli. Interp. of the 
Gospels, part i. sect. vii. ; Birks, Bible and 
Modern Tliouglit, chapp. iv. vii. ; and abp. 
Trench, iVofes on the MracZes, 5th edition, 
1856, in which thirty-three of our Lord's 
miracles are discussed. 

MIR'IAM {rebellion).—!. The daughter of 
Amram and sister of Aaron and Moses 
(1 Chron. vi. 3) ; though, as she is in scrip- 
ture never distinctly called Moses' sister, 
some have imagined that she was hut his 
half-sister. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
'Mirjam.' But this seems an unfounded 
notion (Numh. xxvi. 59). It was she, very 
probably, who was set to watch Moses while 
exposed on the Nile (Exod. ii. 4-10). Miriam, 
called a prophetess, appears after the pas- 
sage of the Red sea as heading the women 
of Israel in that responsive song in which 
the glorious deliverance was celebrated 
(XV. 20, 21). The next occasion on which she 
is mentioned presents a dark contrast to 
that earlier day of joy. Miriam, by whom 
the Lord had spoken, and whom he had 
sent before his people (Mic. vi. 4), unites 
with Aaron in jealous murmuring against 
Moses. Her sin is immediately visited with 
fi-ightful punishment. She is struck with 
leprosy ; and Aaron as the priest has to 
look on his accomplice, and officially pro- 
nounce her unclean ; and consequently for 
seven days, till healed and cleansed by the 
mercy of God, she is excluded from the 
camp (Isumb. xii. ; Deut. xxiv. 9). It must 
have read an impressive lesson to Israel 
that God will by no means spare the guilty. 
'We afterwards hear only of her death and 
burial in the fortieth year after the exodus 
(Kumb. XX. 1). Miriam is said {J osev^., Antiq., 
lib. iii. 2,§ 4, 6, § 1) to have been the wife of 
Hur. See Hub, 1.— 2. One among the descen- 
dants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17). 

MIR'MA (fraud;). A Benjamite (1 Chron. 
Yili. 10\ 

Mm'ROR. The so-called ' looking-glasses ' 
of which we occasionally read (e.g. Exod. 
xxxviii. 8) were metallic mirrors : see 
Looking-glass. 

MI'SAEL.—l (1 Esdr. ix. 44). Mishael 
C^e\^. viii. 4).— 2 (Song of Three Child. 66). 
Mishael, the original name of Meshach 
(Dan. i. 6, 7). 

MIS'GAB {height). The name of a place 
in Moab (Jer. xlviii. 1). It has the article : 
it may therefore be merely ' the height,' or 
the town on the height. Perhaps it is al- 
luded to in Isai. xxv. 12. 

MI'SHAEL {who is what God is ?).—!. A 
Levite, son of Uzziel (Exod. vi. 22 ; Lev. x. 
4) _2. One who stood by Ezra when he read 
the law (Neh. viii. 4).— 3. The original 
name of Meshach (Dan. i. 6, 7, 11, 19, ii. 17). 

MISH'AL {entreaty) (Josh. xxi. 30). See 
Mashal. 

MISH'AIM {swift-going). A Benjamite 
(1 Chron. viii. 12). 

MISH'EAL {entreaty) (Josh. xix. 20). See 
Mashal. 

MISH'MA (a hearing).—!. One of the sons 
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 30).— 
2. A Simeonite (iv. 25, 26). 

MISHMAN'HAH {fatness). A Gadite 



chieftain, who joined David in the wilder- 
ness (1 Chron. xii. 10). 

MISH'RAITES. The designation of some 
family or clan (1 Chron. ii. 53), of which 
nothing certain is known. 

MIST A R {number). One who returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2) : 
he is called also 
MISPE'RETH (Neh. vii. 7). 
MIS'REPHOTH-MA'IM {burnings of wa- 
ter, or burnings by the waters). Some place 
or district, probably not far from Sidon 
(Josh. xi. 8, xiii. 6) ; ' on the north border of 
the plain of Acre,' says Dr. Thomson {The 
Land and the Book, p. 215), ' now called 
Musheirifeh: 

MIST. This word occurs in its literal 
sense of vapour in Gen. ii. 6. Some would 
translate: 'IS'either had there gone up a 
mist.' The intention of the sacred writer i 
is to show how plants and trees came from 
their Maker's hand, without the ordinary 
process which now they undergo : vegeta- 
tion was by the fiat of his will, not reauiring 
as it first showed itself the genial moisture 
which now fosters it. See Bush, Notes on 
Genesis, p. 42. Mist is elsewhere used figu- 
ratively (Acts xiii. 11 ; 2 Pet. ii. 17). 

MITE (Mark xii. 42 ; Luke xii. 59, xxi. 2). 
See Money. 

MITH'CAH {sweetness, probably sweet 
fountain). A station of the Israelites in 
the desert (Numb, xxxiii. 28, 29). 

MITH'NITE. Joshaphat, one of David'3 
warriors, is so called (1 Chron. xi. 43), it is 
not known whence. 

MITH'REDATH {given by Mithra, the sun- 
god).—!. The treasurer of Cyi'us king of 
Persia (Ezra i. 8).— 2. A Persian officer iu 
Samaria (iv. 7). 

MITHBIBA'TBS.—l a Esdr.ii. 11), Mith- 
redath (Ezra i. 8).— 2 (1 Esdr. ii. 16). Mith- 
redath (Ezra iv. 7). 

MI'TRE. The head-dress of the Hebrew 
high priest (Exod. xxviii. 4, 37, 39, xxix.6, 
xxxix. 28, 31 ; Lev. viii. 9, xvi. 4 ; Zech.iii.5). 
See High Priest, p. 381. 

MITTLE'NE. The chief town of Lesbos, 
situated on its eastern coast, with two har- 
bours. It was noted for its beauty, riches, 
and literary renown. Among the natives 
may be named Sappho, Alcseus, Pittacus, 
and Theophrastus. St. Paul touched here 
when vovaging towards Palestine (Acts 
XX. 14). The ancient town has given name 
to the whole island, which is now called 
Mitylini. The modern town is usually 
termed Castro. Some ruins betokening 
the oritrinal splendour still exist. 

MIXED MULTITUDE. It is observable 
that, both when the Israelites left Egypt, 
and when they returned from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, a 'mixed multitude' are 
said to have accompanied them (Exod. xii. 
38 ; Neh. xiii. 3). These people were gene- 
rally the offspring of marriages of the He- 
brews with those among whom they had 
dwelt. They were of neither pure blood nor 
pure faith ; and their presence and conduct 
were found to be injurious (Lev. xxiv. 
10, 11 ; Numb. xi. 4). 

MIZ'AR {smallness). The name of a 
summit, probably belonging to the ridge 
of Antilibanus or Hermon (Psal. xiii. 6). 









1 

j 


601 'Miblt W^mMtiSQt* [moab 




i 

1 
I 

1 


MIZTAH (watch-toiver, lofty place) —l.The 
name given to the place in Gilead where 
Jacoh and Lahan parted, and set up a me- 
morial heap ot stones (Gen. xxxi. 45-55)'.— 
2 a Kings XT. 22 ; 2 Kings xxv. 23, 25 ; 
2 Chron. xvi. 6 ; Jer. xl. 6, 10, 12, 13, 15, xli. 
1, 3, 6, 10, 14, 16 ; Keh. iii. 7, 15, 19). See 
MizPEH, 4.-3 (Hos. V. 1). As there were 
several places of the same name, we can 
hut conjecture which of them is intended 
here. Possibly it may he the Mizpah or 
Mizpeh in Gilead. See Mizpeh, 3. 

MIZ'PEH iicD.—l. A valley or district m 
the region of mount Lebanon, which was 
inhabited by the Hivites (Josh. xi. 3, 8). A 
conjecture has been hazarded this was Ccele- 
syria.— 2. A city in the plain country of Ju- 
dah (XV. 38), perhaps identical with Tell-es- 
Sdfiyeh.—S. A town in. Gilead (Judges x. 17, 
xi 11, 34). It seems to be called more fully 
Mizpeh of Gilead (xi. 29), and is perhaps the 
same with Ramath-mizpeh (Josh. xiii. 26), 
and Ramoth-gilead : see Ramoth, 1. " It 
may also be identical with Mizpah, 1.— 4. A 
city of Benjamin (xviii. 26). Here as- 
semblies of the Israelites were often con- 
vened (Judges XX. 1, 3, xxl. 1, 5, 8 ; 1 Sam. 
vii. 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 16) ; and here Saul was 
elected king (x. 17) : it was fortified by Asa 
(1 Kings XV. 22 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 6), and was 
the place where Gedaliah was assassinated 
(2 Kings XXV. 23, 25 ; Jer. xl. 6, 10, 12, 13, 15, 
xli. 1, 3, 6, 10, 14, 16). It is probably this 
town that is mentioned in Neh. iii. 7, 15,19). 
In several of these places the name is spelt 
Mizpah ; and perhaps it is the Maspha of 
the Apocrypha (1 Mace. iii. 46). Its site is 
supposed to be marked by the ancient rums 
on Neby Samivil, a high point about two 
hours north-west of Jerusalem. But Mr. 
Grove, after Bonar and Stanley, argues with 
much plausibility that it is more likely to 
be Scopus, just close to Jerusalem, 'the 
broad ridge which forms the continuation 
of the mount of Olives to the north and 
east, from which the traveller gains, like 
Titus, his first view, and takes his last fare- 
well, of the domes, walls, and towers of the 
holy city ' (Smith's Diet of the Bible, vol. ii. 
p. 3891.— 5. A town of Moab (1 Sam. xxii. 3) ; 
possibly identical with Kir-moab ? 

MIZ'BAIM (the dual number of a word, 
matzor, signifying a dulioark or fortress. 
This is occasionally used for Egypt, i.e. 
Lower Egypt, though not taken as a proper 
name by our translators : see 2 Kings xix. 
24 ; Isai. xix. 6, xxxvii. 25. But perhaps an 
Arabic derivation must be sought: the 
word in that language signifies a limit, red 
earth, or onud. The term Mizraim being 
dual, must be supposed to mean the tico 
^;(/?/2;is, Upper and Lower). The name of a 
nation or people descendants of Ham (Gen. 
x. 6, 13 ; 1 Chron. i. 8, 11). These appear to 
have settled in Egypt; and from them 
various tribes sprung, going forth (some of 
them at least) perhaps as colonies else- 
where. Several of these tribes are named m 
Gen. X. 13, 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 11, 12 ; the supposed 
location of v/hich must be sought under 
their respective names : see also Earth. 
In the earliest times the Hebrews were ac- 
quainted, we may believe, only with Lower 
Egypt : they then used the singular number 


of the word by which to designate it : 
when they became acquainted with the 
upper province, another Egypt, they i^ed 
the dual number, just as the kingdom of 
Naples and Sicily has been called ' the Two 
Sicilies.' See Egypt. 

MIZ'ZAH (/ear). One of the descendants 
of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 13, 17 ; 1 Chron. i. 37). 

MNA'SON (remembering). A Christian of 
Cyprus, called • an old disciple,' with whom 
Paul and his company were to lodge at 
Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 16), where he seems to 
have had a residence. 

MO'AB {seed of the father, the son from the 
father D The son of Lot by his eldest 
daughter (Gen. xix. 37). Erom the neigh- 
bourhood of Zoar the children of this patri- 
arch must have extended themselves ; Am- 
mon to the more distant north-east country, 
previously inhabited by the Zuzim or Zam- 
zummim; Moab in the districts nearer to 
the Dead sea. These were possessed by the 
Emim, a gigantic people, a branch probably 
of the Ptephaim ; but the Moabites were 
successful in expelling them (Dent. ii. 9, 10), 
and occupied at first a considerable region, 
the uplands east of the Dead sea and the 
Jordan as far as the mountains of Gilead, 
together with the lowlands between their 
own hUls and the river, a region perhaps, 
fifty miles in length and ten or twelve broad, 
the modern Belka and Kerek. It comprised 
three divisions, the ' country ' or ' field ' of 
Moab (Ruth i. 1, 2, 6) to the south of the 
Arnon ; the 'laud' of Moab, the open coun- 
try opposite Jericho to the Gileadite hills 
(Deut. i. 5^1; and the ' plains,' or more proper- 
ly the dry arid district in the Jordan sunk 
valley (?>fumb. xxii. 1). But the Moabites 
were not left in peaceable possession of all 
this region. They were in their turn dispos- 
sessed by the Amorites, coming probably 
from the west of the Jordan ; and this con- 
quest had been achieved not long before the 
arrival of the Israelites in the neighbour- 
hood ; for Sihon, whom they found in pos- 
session, was the king who had so extended 
the Amorite territory (xxi. 26-30). It is no 
wonder that after such losses Moab dreaded 
the approach of the Israelites, lest further 
caiamities should desolate their nation (xxii. 
3-4). Their country was now confined to the 
southern part of the high table-land on the 
east of the Dead sea. It was bounded on the 
north by the Arnon (xxi. 13 ; Judges xi. 18), 
and probably on the south by the 'brook of 
the willows ' (Isai. xv. 7), now Wady el-Ahsi. 
Bat it was compact and readily defensible. 
There were but two or three steep passes 
through the cliffs which overhang the sea ; 
and the hills which swept round on the 
south and east were not easily penetrated. 
It was well watered, with valleys and wide 
plains among its hills : it was fruitful 
(Ruth i. 1 ; Isai. xvi. 8-10) ; and its downs 
afforded abundant pasture (2 Kings iii. 4). 
Ar or Rabbath-moab was the metropolis ; 
and Kir or Kir-haraseth was one of the 
strongest fortresses. See An, Kir-hara- 
seth. 

There was long-continued jealous and hos- 
tile feeling between Moab and Israel. The 
tribes, indeed, were warned in their jour- 
ney towards Canaan not to interfere witl> 




i 
1 
1 





moabitb] 



602 



the Moabites, or appropriate any part of 
their territory (Dent, ii.9) ; and they march- 
ed ronnd through the country to tlie east ; 
but Balak the king either did not under- 
stand or did not trust this peaceful purpose. 
He therefore in conjunction with the Midi- 
anites hired Balaam to curse them (Numh. 
xxii. 2-6). Hence the prohibition, for this 
unfriendliness, against admitting a Moahite 
into the congregation of the Lord to the 
tenth generation (Dent, xxiii. 3-5). The 
curses demanded were changed into bless- 
ings ; but the Moabites were more success- 
ful in debauching the Israelites (though not 
BO guilty herein as Midian), and bringing a 
heavy retribution upon them for the idol- 
atry and immorality into which they had 
enticed them (K'umb, xxv. 1-5). After the 
settlement in Palestine, Moab, in conjunc- 
tion with Ammon and Anialek, subjected 
the southern tribes of Israel, and perhaps 
also part of the trans-Jordanic territory : 
Ehud, however, delivered them after a ser- 
vitude of eighteen years (Judges iii. 12-30), 
During the rest of the period of the judges 
we hear little of Moab, sare that the coun- 
try was a refuge for the family of Elimelech 
during a famine in Israel (Ruth i. 1), and 
that the Moabitish Ruth was introduced 
into that line from which David was de- 



by the king of Babylon (Josephus, Antiq., 
lib. X. 9, § 7). They are just mentioned 
after the return from captivity (Ezra ix. 1) ; 
but they seem to have been subsequently 
absorbed by the Arabians (J oseph., uU supr., 
lib. xiii. 13, § 5). 

The form of government, we may suppose, 
was monarchical, the chiefs possessing 
also considerable i nfluence (mimb. xxii. 8, 
10, 14, xxiii. 6) ; the religion idolatrous, 
Baal-peor and Chemosh being their deities 
(XXV. 1-3 ; 1 Kings xi. 7). 

The desolation of Moab was predicted by- 
several of the prophets (Isai. xv., xvi., xxy. 
10-12; Jer. xxv. 21, xlviii. ; Amos ii. 1-3; 
Zeph. ii. 8-11) ; and the fulfilment is to be 
seen in the present state of the country. 
See Keith's Evidence of Proplieci,', chap, vil. 
pp. 278-290, edit. 1848. 

MO'ABITE, MO'ABITESS (Deut. ii. 9, 11, 
29, xxiii. 3 ; Judges iii. 28 ; Ruth i. 22, &c. 
&c.). Natives of the country of Moab. 

MO AD RAH (festival of Jehovah). A priest 
who returned from Babylon with Zerubba- 
bel (Neh. xii. 17), called also Maadiah (5). 

MOGH'MUB (Judith vii. ]8). A wady 
somewhere in central PalestitLe. 

MO'DIN (1 Mace. ii. 70, ix. 19, xiii. 25, xvi. 
4; 2 Mace. xiii. 14). The native city and 
burial-place of the Maccabean family. It 



scended (iv. 10-22), The relations between i has not been certainly identified. It has 
the two peoples were afterwards more com- 1 been placed at Latrimov KuMd, both withm 
plicated. Saul fought against Moab (1 Sam. i six or eight miles of Lyddov Lydda, and oy 
xiv. 47) : but David confided his parents to some at Soba, seven miles from Jerusalem, 
the Moabitish king while he was in hold' MO'ETS (1 Esdr. vm. 63). A strange 
during Saul's persecution of him (xxii. 3-4) ; corruption of Noadiah (Ezra viii. 33). 
and we subsequently find one of his heroes MO'LADAH (hb-th, Jmectge). A t own m 
a Moabite (1 Chron. xi. 46) ; yet after he was the southern Paru oi Judah to^aids tne 
established on the throne he invaded and Edomitish border (Josh. xv. 26), afterwards 
subdued Moab (2 Sam. viii. 2). No reason is transferred to Simeon ^f^^^ll^^^l^'^-ll; 
assigned for this change of policy ; and the 28). It was inhabited after the retmn f lom 
conjectures which have, been hazarded are captivity (Neh. xi. 26). The ruins of el-Mh, 
baseless. The Moabites seem still to have , nine hours to the south o^ Hebron, appeal 
retained their own king, as a vassal of the to mark the site. See Wilton, The jsecjeh, 
Hebrew crown : after the disruption they pp. 109-114. • , ^ 

were attached to the northern kingdom ; MOLE. A well-known animal of the 
but on the death of Ahab they rebelled (2 , family TalpidCE. The common mole, Talpa 
Kings i 1 iii 4, 5) : and Jehoram, though, EiiropcBa, or vulgaris, has us limbs remark- 
in conjunction with Jehoshaphat and his ably adapted to its habits of burrowing 
dependent the king of Edom, he wasted the 
country, was unable to re-conquer it (6-27). 
The Moabites and Ammonites had previous- 
ly attacked Jehoshaphat, but were entirely 
defeated (2 Chron. xx. 1-25) ; and we find 
them making incursions in the reign of 
Joash into the kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 
xiii. 20, 21) ; but we may reasonably suppose 
them to have been brought under by Jero- 
boam II. (25-28). After the captivity of the 
trans-Jordanic tribes (1 Chron. v. 26) the 
Moabites must have occupied a good deal 
of their territory (Isai. xv. 2, 4, xvi. 8 ; Jer. 
xlviii. 2, 22, 23) ; several of the towns there 
named as Moabite having previously been 
Israelitish, They were probably then in 
possession of all they had formerly lost to 
the Amorites, They joined the Chaldeans 
against Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv, 2), but 
encouraged Zedekiah against Kebuchad- 
nezzar (Jer. xxvii, 3), They rejoiced at the 
fall of Judah (Ezek. xxv. 8-11 ; Zeph. li. 8-10), 
having perhaps made terms with the vic- 
tors, but were themselves about five years 
after the destruction of Jerusalem subdued 



ablv "adapted to its habits of burrowing 
underground. We find the ' mole' classed 
among unclean animals (Lev. xi. 30) ; but 
the word so translated (implying respira- 
tion) is thought to signify the chameleon. 
Possiblv the animal in question may be the 
Chameleo vulgaris. Moles are mentioned 
aeain in our version of Isai. ii, 20 ; but a 
difCerent Hebrew word is used in that place. 
Perhaps rats or mice may be meant ; and 
it is more likely that these should occupy 
deserted places than moles. Indeed travel- 
lers tell us that the forsaken sites of the 
east are 'perforated with the holes of cave- 
digging animals' (P let. Bible, woie o\\ Isai. 
ii."26\ Any such creatures, therefore, may 
verv likely'be comprehended in the term. 

MO'LECH {l<lng) (Lev. xviii. 21, xx. 2-5; 
1 Kings xi. 7 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 10). See Molcch. 

MO'LI (1 Esdr. viii. 47). Mahli (Ezra viii. 
18). 

MO'LI D (begetter'). A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 29). 

MO'LOCH (almost always with the article, 
the ruler). An idol-god, Avhose name is 
sometimes given as Molech (Lev. xviii. 21, 



603 



[money 



XX. 2-5 : 1 Kings xi. 7 ; 2 Kings xxni. 10 ; Jer. 
xxxii. 35; Amos v. 26; Acts Yii.43). It is 

generally identified witti Milcom (1 Kings 
xi. 5, 33; 2 Kings xxiii. 13), Melcom (Jer. 
xlix. 1, 3, marg.), and Malclaam (Zepli. i. 5). 

To tWs idol the Hebrews sacrificed cliild- 
ren in tlie valley of Hinnom. According to 
the rabbins, its image was of brass witli tlie 
head of an ox and tbe members of a human 
hody. It was hollow, and was heated from 
below ; the children to be sacrificed being 
placed in its arms, while drums were beaten 
to drown their cries. It has, however, 
heen questioned whether the children were 
actually burnt or only made to passthroiigh 
the fire for a purification. But that they 
were really destroyed may be gathered 
from several passages of scripture (Psal.cvi. 
37, 38 ; Jer. vii. 31 ; Ezelr. xvi. 20, 21, xxiii. 
37) It is probable, indeed, especially from 
the passages last referred to, that the 
children were not burnt alive, but first put 
to death ; their bodies being then burnt. 
See Keil, Comm. on Kings, transl., vol.ii.pp. 

^%l?e worship of Moloch, as mentiowed in 
the Pentateuch, was practised among the 
Canaanites ; but it is guestionable whether 
it was of Canaanitish origin. Keil, main- 
taining that the Milcom, to whom Solomon 
ljuilt a high place, the abomination of the 
Ammonites, was different from Moloch, 
supposes that the worship of the latter was 
introduced from the Assyrians {vM supr., 
vol. i. pp. 190, 191, vol. ii. pp. 36-38). Ahaz 
certainly appears to be the first who prac- 
tised it in Judah. , n ^ 

Moloch has been identified with Saturn ; 
and points of resemblance have been noted 
in the descriptions of their worship. But 
p-^rhaps it may be more just to regard this 
idol as one of the forms of Baal, the sun- 
god, to whom in Carthage and Numidia 
children were immolated. See Wmer, Biil. 
i2T75., art. 'Mole ch.' 

It may be added that, as the Hebrew 
name of this idol signifies ruler or king, the 
idol may possibly be sometimes meant 
where 'king' appears in our version (e.g. 
Isai. ixx. 33, Ivii. 9). It has hence been 
thought that the worship of it was very 
widely spread in Israel, more so, than at 
first sight might be thought. 

MOLTEN SEA, THE (1 Kings vii. 23 ; 2 
Chron. iv. 2). See Layer, Sea, the 

^^^OwblS a Esdr. ix. 34). Maadai (Ezra 
X 34) 

^ 'money. It would be quite departing 
from the character of the present work to 
introduce a long disquisition on the origin 
of money, the first traces of coinage, and the 
monetary system of ancient nations gene- 
rally For such information other books 
must be consulted. Here it will be more to 
the purpose to point out the notices we find 
in the sacred writings of the use of the 
precious metals as expressive of value or 
for the interchange of commodities. 

The first intimation that we meet with is 
that which speaks of Abraham as ' rich m 
cattle, in silver, and in gold' (Gen.xin. 2). 
This, it will be observed, is just after the 
patriarch's return from Egypt, where he had 



been entreated well and enriched by Pha- 
raoh for his wife's sake (xii. 16). Now the 
Egyptian monuments show us that gold 
and silver were there used in the form of 
rings, and that these rings were placed in 
scales, payments being made by the weight 
of the metal. Abraham therefore, if 
ignorant of it before, would have become 
acquainted with a circulating m.edium in 
Egypt, and might have brought back with 
him some of the forms of gold and silver, in 
other words, the ring-money, which he there 
found. Sometime after he received a pre- 
sent from Abimelech, king of Gerar, of 'a 
thousand pieces of silver ' (xx. 16) according 
to our version. These thousand pieces, we 
may suppose, were of some definite weight. 
Still later we have the purchase of the field 
and cave of Machpelah for four hundred 
shekels of silver (xxiii. 16, 17) ; but that this 
was not coined money and that the shekel 
was simply here a measure of weight is 
evident from the expression used that 
' Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver.' 
Afterwards Jacob bought a piece of land of 
the children of Hamor 'for an hundred 
pieces of money ' (xxxiii. 19). 

The Hebrew word Jcesitah, used here, and 
also in Job xlii. 11, has provoked much diffe- 
rence of opinion. Some have imagined that 
lambs are meant ; and others have believed 
that coined money with the impress of a 
lamb was then current. It is more likely that 
weights in the shape of a lamb were used : 
we know that there were such weights in 
thetorms of lions, bulls, &c.among both the 
Egyptians and Assyrians (see Kesitah); and 
all evidence goes to show that there was at 
that early period no coin properly so called. 
We find soon after another monetary trans- 
action. The sons of Jacob went down into 
Egypt to buy corn, and they tookmoney with 
them. This money is frequently mentioned, 
but with distinct reference to weight (xlii. 
25, 27, 35, xliii. 12, 15, 18, 21-23). Money is 
again spoken of as paid by the Egyptians 
and Canaanites to Joseph for corn ; but the 
circulating medium, whatever it was, does 
not seem to have been very abundant. For 
it was all speedily gathered up ; and then 
barter was resorted to (xlvii, 14-16). Here 
also is presumptive evidence that there 
was no coin, which would most likely in 
the process of ordinary business have been 
again disseminated, instead of coming into 
and remaining in Joseph's hands. Indeed, 
there is little reason to believe that Egypt 
had a coinage till the Persian conquest, 
when coins were introduced, as afterwards 
by the Greeks. In several of the enact- 
ments of the Mosaic law shekels are men- 
tioned, in the imposition of a poll-tax 
(Exod. XXX. 13, 15), in the compensation or 
redemption-money for a vow (Lev. xxvii. 
3-7), &c. The shekel was a measure of 
weight, and, therefore, we may Btill suppose 
that the silver— for it is observable that 
silver and not gold is almost exclusively 
mentioned in monetaiy transactions— was 
told out by weight. 

But, though coins are not as yet ais- 
tinctly named, it is clear that the process 
of buying and seUing must have brought 
the usage pretty nearly to what it wouia 



money] 



604 



be witb a coinage. And there is a singular 
narration in tlie life of Saul wliicli confirms 
this. When Saul was about to consult 
Samuel in regard to the asses which had 
been lost, he paused, hecause he had no 
present ready, without which he could not 
think of waiting on the seer. But his ser- 
vant had ahout him a bit of silver, the 
fourth part of a shekel : and this it was 
agreed should be offered to Samuel (1 Sam. 
ix. 6-S). It is manifest that there was no 
weighing at the time of this transaction, 
and that, whether its weight had been pre- 
viouslv ascertained or not, this little piece 
of silver was to all intents and purposes for 
commercial vala© the same as if it hadheen 
coined. 

This, however, it must be repeated, was 
not coined money ; and it is observable that 



The Syrian king Antiochus VII. granted to 
Simon Maccabeus the power of coining 
money with his own impress (1 Mace. rv. 6). 
This appears to have been 139 e.g. ; but it 
is possible that Simon may have used the 
practice before the permission was formally 
given. Coins of Simon are yet in existence. 
And, though it is true that some douht has 
"been expressed and these coins have been 
attributed to an earlier era, yet on the whole 
the most reasonable conclusion is that to 
Simon first and other Asmonean princes 
after him the most ancient Jewish coinage 
belongs. Subsequently there were coins of 
the Idumean kings, coins issued by the pro- 
curators of Judea under the Roman empe- 
rors from Augustus to Nero, coins during 
the first revolt under Eleazar, those wMcli 
commemorate the capture of Jerusalem 




Shekel. Ascribed to Simon Maccabeus. 



in Assyria and Babylonia clay tablets have 
been found commemorating grants of 
money specified by weight. Probably the 
Lvdians were the first to coin. At all 
events the first idea of impress and actual 
coin is due to them ; while the ^ginetans 



issued by Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 
those of the second revolt under Bar-choche- 
bas, also the imperial colonial coins struck 
at Jerusalem,then called ^lia Capitolina, by 
Adrian and succeeding emperors, and those 
by the Arabian conauerors to 695 a.d. 




Half-sbekel. Ascribed 

must have the credit of completing pieces 
of money according to our notion of it by 
adding a reverse design. Greek coinage 
may, it seems, be carried up to the eighth 
century before Christ ; but purely Asiatic 
cannot be traced so early. It is clear, 
therefore, that coinage could not have been 
known in Palestine till the taking of 
Samaria, 721 B.C. 

On the return from captivity corned 
monev is really mentioned, the ' drams,' 
i.e. daVics of the Persian kings (Ezra ii. 69, 
viii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 70-72) ; and the same word 
occurs in 1 Chron. xxix. 7. See Daric. 
There were coins of Alexander and the 
Syrian monarchs. And afterwards Jewish 
rulers coined money themselves. The first 
notice of this occurs in the Apocrypha, 



to Simon Maccabeus. 

The materials of coins nave most gene- 
rally been gold, silver, copper ; but other 
substances "have been occasionally em- 
ployed, such as iron, tin, lead, leather, 
wood, shells, &c. The Persian daric was 
properly of gold : but there was a silver 
piece, called by the Greeks the sw^os, of 
which 20 went to a gold daric ; consequently 
the ratio of gold to silver at the time was 
as 13 to 1. The names of Hebrew money 
were significant; talent implying circle, 
globe, perhaps aggregate sum, shekel 
weight, bekah division, i.e. half, gerah grain 
or iDean. 

It is to be observed that the legends on 
Jewish coins are in a character nearly re- 
sembling what is now called the Samaritan ; 
and the representations are most probably 



605 



[month 



the pot of manna and Aaron's rod wliicli 
■budded. The gold shekel (answering to 
the foreign daric) weighed 129 grains troy; 
the silver shekel 220, half-shekel 110 ; the 
copper half-shekel 264, quarter 132, sixth, 
88 ; coins not heing, which is also some- 
times the modern usage, always exact m 
relative weight. 

In the New Testament certain coins or 
money, Greek and Roman, are mentioned, 
such as the pound or mina, the stater, the 
didrachma (Matt. xvii. 24, 27, marg.), the 
drachma (Luke xv. 8, marg.), the penny or 
denarius (Matt, xviii. 28), the farthing, 
quadrans (v. 26; Mark xii. 42), assarion 
(Matt. X. 29 ; Luke xii. 6), and the mite, 
lepton (Mark xii. 42 ; Luke xxi. 1). 

The following tables will give the value 
of the Hebrew and other money mentioned 
in scripture as well as it can he reduced to 
our standard; hut the computations of 
iiifferent writers vary :— 



the half-shekel was wanted for the payment 
of the temple tax. Hence money-changers 
established themselves in the city and even 
in the courts of the temple. They received 
a commission on exchanges, about 10 per 
cent., and interest on loans ; and, as we 
may conclude from our Lord's words, they 
were not free from fraudulent practices 
(Matt. xxi. 12, 13, XXV. 16, 27 ; Luke xix. 23, 
45, 48 ; John ii. 13-16). 

MONTH. The ordinary Hebrew word for 
'month' is derived like ours from the 
moon, signifying primarily 'new,' and 
thence ' the new moon.' We find occasion- 
all v the fuller expression ' a month of days ' 
(e.g. Gen. xxix. 14). The length of the 
month therefore was naturally determined 
by lunations, and would seem to have con- 
sisted of alternately 29 and 30 days. There 
is a notice of the month at a very early 
period. From a comparison of vii. 11, 24, 
with viii. 4, five consecutive months must 
£ s. d. 



Gerah 

10 I Bekah . 



2 I Shekel 



1200 I 



120 I 



60000 I 6000 I 3000 | 



60 I Maneh 

50 I Talent 



0 0 1-36875 

0 1 1-6875 

0 2 3-375 

6 16 10-5 
342 3 9 



Daric, translated * dram ' (1 Chron. xxix. 7, and elsewhere) 

Gold shekel 

Talent of gold 



1 5 
1 16 
. 5475 0 



Mite 

2 I Farth ing (quadrans) 

4 1 Farthing iassarion) 

To] Fenny {denarius^drachma) 



40 t 



) I 20 I 



320 I 



160 ! 



40 I 



2 I Didrac hma 

Stater=shekel 0 



41 



Mina, or pound 
Among the important works treating on 
HebreAV coinage may be named De Saulcy s 
Numismatique Judaique, and F. Maddens 
JcivisTi Coinage, 1864: to the last-named 
work this article is much indebted. _ 

MONEY-CHANGER. Before coined 
money was introduced, pieces of metal of a 
certain weight were necessary for the pur- 
poses of commerce : these were probably 
stamped, to show that they were genuine 
and of full weight, ' current money with 
the merchant' (Gen. xxiii. 16). Bnt they 
must of course be from time to time again 
weighed; and therefore the Israelites 
usually carried scales about with them, a 
practice very common in the east at the 
present day. It is also common to have the 
money weighed and examined py a factor, 
whose special business this is. Such a 
factor would also exchange coins of one 
species for those of another. And, as per- 
sons came from a distance and from other 
countries to worship at Jerusalem, they 
would naturally bring the money current 
in their respective localities ; and it would 
be a convenience to them to get this 
exchanged for that which was current m 
Jerusalem. Besides, the particular com of 



31. 2s. 6d., otherwise calculated 4 13 
have comprised 150 days ; and each there- 
fore must have contained 30 days. But the 
whole period of Noah's dwelling in the ark 
appears to have been 365 days ; for the day 
of the month on which he left is not the 
same (14) with that on which he en- 
tered it (vii. 11). Hence, though the months 
were lunar, there was probably some know- 
ledge at the time of a solar year. How the 
months were arranged, or in what way 
days were then intercalated to make the 
lunar and the solar years agree, we are not 
able to determine. ^ . ^ 

In later times we have sufllcient proof 
that Hebrew months were lunar, because 
the cycle of religious feasts was regulated 
by the changes of the moon. The new 
moon itself was the signal for certain ob- 
servances (Numb.x. 10, xxviii. 11, 15 ; 1 Sara. 
XX 24) ; and the passover, the first of the 
great annual festivals, after which the 
others followed in specified order, depended 
on the time of the full moon. Originally 
the new moon was watched for, and the 
announcement of it formally made. But, 
though this watching might be continued 
through Jewish history, it is evident 
that there were calculations to determine 



Cr^a^urg Bt 606 



moon] 

the day before-hand; as Jonathan and 
David hoth mention when it would occur 
(5, 18). 

There were twelve months in the Hebrew 
year (1 Kings iv. 7) : consequently, in order 
to make their time conformable to the re- 
currence of the seasons, an additional 
month was occasionally added at the year's 
end. The exact order in which this inter- 
calation was made is not known. The 
modern Jews introduce it seven times in a 
cycle of nineteen years : (Mills' Brit Jeios, 
part ii. chap. 6, p. 152). Their present 
calendar was settled by rabbi Hillel about 
S60 A.D. : see Prideaux, Connection, vol. i. 
p. 156, note 8. 

It is likely that the months were origi- 
nally distiaguished according to their num- 
bers and not by special names, unless we 
except the first of the ecclesiastical year, 
called Abib (Exod. xiii. 4). Subsequently 
names were attached, sometimes given in 
addition to the number of the month. Thus 
the first month is termed Nisan (is'eh. ii. 1 ; 
Esth. iii. 7) ; the second Zif (1 Kings vi. 
1, 37) ; the third Sivan (Esth. viii. 9) ; the 
sixth Elul (Neh. vi. 15) ; the seventh 
Ethanim (1 Kings viii. 2) ; the eighth Bui 
(vi. 38) ; the ninth Chisleu (ISTeh. i. 1 ; Zech, 
vii. 1) ; the tenth Tebeth (Esth. ii. 16) ; the 
eleventh Sebat (Zech. i. 7); the twelfth Adar 
(Esth. iii. 7, viii. 12, ix. 1, 15, 17, 19). Other 
names are found in Jewish writers, as the 
second Jyar or Ijar, the fourth Tammuz, 
the fifth Ab, the seventh Tisri, the eighth 
Marchesvan. The intercalated month is 
Veadar. It is observable that the month 
Bui is mentioned in a very ancient Phoe- 
nician inscription, found a few years ago 
on the lid of a sarcophagus (Thomson, Tlie 
Land and the Book, p. 138). 

Of course there is some difficulty in 
making the Hebrew months correspond to 
those in our calendar, twelve of which very 
nearly make up a solar year. This may be 
illustrated by the fact that in 1853 Isisan 1 
fell on March 30, Nisan therefore nearly an- 
swering to our April ; whereas in 1863 
Isisan 1 fell on March 21, and in 1865 on 
March 28. We may best reach a definite 
conclusion by the observation of the 
seasons in Palestine. Now travellers in- 
form us that barley harvest is, even in the 
hot neighbourhood of Jericho, not till about 
the middle of April. But the first-fruits 
were to be presented Nisan 15, or just after 
(Lev. xxiii. 5-11, 15). Hence that mouth 
must have coincided rather with our April 
than, as some would have it, with our 
March ; and the intercalation must have 
been managed so as to bring up the month 
to that time. The Jewish months may 
therefore be arranged : 

1. KisanorAbib, corresponding to April. 

2. Jj-ar or Zif, corresponding to May. 

3. Sivan, corresponding to June. 

4. Tammuz, corresponding to July. 

5. Ab, corresponding to August. 

C. Elul, corresponding to September. 

7. Ethanim or Tisri, correspouding to 
October. 

8. Bui or Marchesvan, corresponding to 
Noveoiber. 

9. Chisleu. corresponding to December. 



10. Tebeth, corresponding to January. 

11. Sebat, corresponding to February. , 

12. Adar, corresponding to March. 

13. Veadar, Intercalated. 

In the Apocrypha we have the mention of 
two months, Dioscorinthius and Xanthicus 
(2 Mace. xi. 21, 30, 33, 38). Xanthicus in the 
Macedonian calendar corresponded to the 
Jewish Msan ; and Dioscorinthius or Dios- 
coros was probably the Macedonian Dystrus, 
which immediately precedes Xanthicus. See 
Prideaux, Connection, vol. ii. pp. 186, 187; 
Wiseler, Clironol. Synops. p. 448. 

MOOIsr. We find this secondary planet 
very early mentioned as appointed to be the 
great light-bearer of the night (Gen. i. 
14-18), ruling, so to speak, among the stars, 
and testifying to the glorious power of thf 
Creator (Psal. viii. 3, 4, cxlviii. 3). The He- 
brew years were lunar years ; and the cycle 
of their feasts was regulated by the moou 
(see Ecclus. xliii. 6-9). The day of the new 
moon was one of these feasts (Isai. i. 14), 
announced by the sound of trumpets (JTumb. 
X. 10 ; Psal. Ixxxi. 3), and, according to 
Jewish authority, by beacon-fires, and cele- 
brated with special sacrifices (Numb, xxviii, 
11-15 : comp. 1 Sam. xx. 5, 24-27 ; Ezek. xlvi. 3). 
It would seem that trade was unlawful on ! 
this festival (Amos viii. 5). In the kingdom 
of the ten tribes people resorted, possibly 
for public instruction, to the prophets at 
the new moon (2 Kings iv. 23). 

The worship of the heavenly bodies was 
one of the corruptions which we find largely 
prevalent in ancient times, an influence 
over the fortunes of men being attributed 
to them. Thus the moon was honoured 
(Job xxxi. 26, 27) under various names (see 
ASHTORETH, DiAifA), generally with some 
relation to the sun, which was believed to 
be the active generative principle, while 
the moou, commonly regarded as feminine, 
was deemed the passive productive power, j 
The Israelites were warned against imi- 
tating this idolatry (Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 3), but [ 
in vain : they burnt incense to the moon ' 
(2 Kings xxiii. 5; Jer. viii. 2); and their 
women especially adored her as the ' queen 
of heaven,' offering her cakes, probably 
honey-cakes (vii. 18, xliv. 17-19, 25), a kind 
of oblation usual in moon-worship else- 
where (Winer, BiN. BWB., art. 'Mond ' ). 

The moon-light has been supposed to 
exercise a baneful influence upon both ani- 
mate and inanimate creation (Psal. cxxi. 6). 
Eastern people have had exaggerated notions 
of this ; and an explanation of it has been 
attempted, as owing merely to the change 
of temperature ; the nights being chill, 
while the days are warm (Gen. xxxi. 40). 
But there seems no reason to doubt that 
some unfavourable power, however it may 
be accounted for, is attributable to the 
beams of the moou. 

The moon is sometimes introduced in 
scripture into a comparison for beauty (Sol. 
Song vi. 10), and sometimes is symbolically 
used (Joel ii. 31 ; Matt. xxiv. 29 ; Rev. vi. 12, 
xii. 1), probably for the ecclesiastical, as the 
sun for the civil state. 

MOOSFAS (1 Esur. ix. 31). Possibly Maa 
seiah (Ezra x. 3u\ 

MO'IIAD (Josh. vii. 5, marg.) The ren 



607 



[moses 



dering of tlie text is very likely more accu- 
rate, 'in the descent.' 

MO'RASTHITE. The designation given 
to the prophet Micah (Jer. xxvi. 18 ; Mic. 

1. 1) as heing probahly a native of Moe,e- 

SHETH-GATH, Wllich SeO. 

MOR'DEOAI (little man, or worshipper of 
Mars).—1. One who returned from Babylon 
with Zeruhhabel (Ezra ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7).— 

2. A Benjamite, whose ancestor had been 
carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar 
with Jehoiachin. Mr. Galloway, however, 
has an ingenious argument to prove that 
Mordecai himself was made captive in the 
first year of Nebuchadnezzar, and third of 
Jehoialdm {Isaiah's Test, for Jesus, 1864, pp. 
403-40G). He consequently maintains that 
Esther was the wife of Astyages, and grand- 
mother of Cyrus. But this supposition is 
not tenable, as it disregards the fact that 
the Persians were then the ruling nation, 
being named before the Medes (Esth. i. 

3. 14, 18, 19). Mordecai adopted and 
brought up his uncle's daughter Esther. 
Ilef using to pay obeisance to Haman, he 
provoked that jealous courtier to plot the 
destruction of the Jews : but by God's pro- 
vidence the design was defeated. Mordecai 
had rendered great service to the Persian 
king by discovering a conspiracy against 
his life ; and the honour paid him for this 
was the first step of the advancement which, 
through the influence of Esther, now queen, 
he reached as one of the chief ministers 
of the king (ii.— x.). At the feast of 
Purim, while curses are invoked against 
Kaman, blessings are pronounced upon 
Mordecai. Lord A. 0. Hervey is inclined to 
believe him identical with Matacas or 
Natacas, mentioned by Ccesias (De Bebus 
Pers., edit. Mtiller, 1844, pp. 50, 51) as a chief 
favourite of Xerxes (Smith's Diet of the 
Bible, vol. ii. p. 420). 

MOR'EH {teacher).— 1. There was an oak- 
grove near to Shechem ; for the word should 
be rendered ' oak,' not ' plain,' as in our ver- 
sion (Gen. xii. 6 ; Deut. xii. 30) ; which it has 
been thought took its name from a Ca- 
naanite called Moreh, as the oak-grove of 
Mamre from Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13).— 2. 
A hill in the plainof Jezreel (Judges vii. 1). 
Possibly Je&ei ecl-Dithy, the ' Little Hermon.' 

3I0RE'SHETH-GATH ^possession of Gath). 
A place most likely very near to Gath, the 
birch-place or residence, it is thought, of the 
prophet Micah (Mic. i. 14) ; whence he was 
called (1) the Morasthite. Dr. Thomson 
seems inclined to identify it with Mareshah, 
and to regard it as just a suburb of Gath 
itself {The Land and the Book, pp. 564, 565). 
See Gath. But others are disposed to doubt 
the identification. 

MORI' AH {tlie chosen of Jehovah, or 
manifestation of Jehovah?). The name of a 
region to which Abraham was command- 
ed to go, and on one of the hills there 
offer his son Isaac for a burnt-sacriflce 
(Gen xxii. 2). On mount Moriah also 
Solomon is said to have built the temple at 
Jerusalem (2 Chron. iii. 1). It therefore lay 
on the north-east of Zion, overlooking the 
valley of the Kidron, or of Jehoshaphat, 
and is at present crowned by the mosciue of 
Omar. See Jehusalem. It has, however, 



been disputed whether the Moriah of Abra- 
ham be identical with that of Solomon ; and, 
chiefly because the 'place' is said to have 
been seen 'afar off' (Gen. xxii. 4), while 
Moriah at Jerusalem is not visible at any 
great distance, it has been urged that Ge- 
rizim better fulflls the conditions of the 
narrative, and must have been the spot on 
which Isaac was bound for sacrifice. But 
this conclusion is hardly tenable. For, be- 
sides that the journey from Beer-shebato 
Gerizim could not well have been accom- 
plished in the specified time (see Geeizim), 
it is evident that the expression 'afar off' 
cannot imply a considerable interval. For 
at the point where the place was seen Abra- 
ham left his attendants, and loaded Isaac 
with the wood, taking himself the fire and 
the knife. Gerizim is seen miles away.; and 
it is inconceivable that the patriarch and 
his son should toil along, burdened as they 
were, for several miles. The most probable 
belief therefore is that the scene of Abra- 
ham's sacrifice was on the spot where after- 
wards the temple stood, not far apart from 
that on which our Saviour suffered. 

The composition of the word Moriah, in- 
cluding Jah or Jehovah, furnishes proof 
that the name Jehovah was known to the 
early patriarchs. Objections have of course 
been urged ; and it has been stoutly main- 
tained by some scholars that ' Jah' does not 
enter into the word. A philological question 
cannot be discussed here. It must be suf- 
ficient to say that those who are most en- 
titled to be heard, though they differ some- 
what in the interpretation of the former 
portion of the term Moriah, agree that its 
ending is ' Jah.' See Kalisch, Covun. on Old 
Test. Gen., pp. 445, 446. Kalisch himself 
prefers interpreting, ' thy instructor is Je- 
hovah.' 

MORNING. See DAY. 

MORNING-STAR. See STAR, MORNING. 

MORTAPi, (Numb. xi. 8 ; Prov. xxvii. 22). 
See Mill, Puntshments. Dr. Thomson 
says a large stone mortar is found in every 
house in Palestine, and that it is commonly 
used to bray wheat in to make kibby, a fa- 
vourite Arab dish {Tlte Land and the Book, 
p. 94). 

MORTAR, MORTER. See LiME, Slimb. 
Bitumen, moistened clay, and a composition 
of lime, ashes and sand, are generally used 
in the east as cement or mortar. Stubble or 
straw is sometimes intermixed. 

MOSE'fRA {bond) (Deut. x. 6). Apparently 
the same with 

MOSE'ROTH (bonds). One of the stations 
of the children of Israel (Numb, xxxiii. 30, 
31). Evidently it must have been near to 
mount Hor, where Aaron died. See Hor. 

MO'SES {dsrawn out of the water, or pro- 
bably, as having an Egyptian origin, loater- 
savek). The son of Amram and Jochebed, 
of the family of Kohath, of the tribe of 
Levi, He was born in Egypt at a time when 
the Pharaoh was endeavouring to check 
the growth of the Israelite population. At 
first his parents concealed him ; but con- 
cealment became soon too hazardons ; and 
Jochebed, we may be sure with a heavy 
heart, placed her babe in a little bulrush- 
ark, and exposed him on the Nile. His 



CxTa^ttrp of 608 



MOSES] 



sister Miriam, however, proLaWy a grown 
girl, was set to watcti. And just then, in 
God's providence, tlie king of Egypt's 
daughter came with her maidens to "bathe. 
She espied the little ark among the flags, 
and had it brought to her. The infant was 
beautiful, and it wept. Pharaoh's daughter 
had compassion ; and Miriam, at once era- 
bracing the opportunity, proposed to bring 
a Hebrew nurse. She brought Jochebed, 
who received her ovm. child from the prin- 
cess, with a charge to tend it carefully. Joy 
indeed there was then in that household. 
And when Moses grevv^he was carried again 
to the king's daughter, who adopted him as 
her own son (Exod. ii. 1-10, vi. 16-20 ; Acts 
vii. 20, 21 ; Heb. xi. 23). 

' Moses was learned,' we are further told, 
' in all the wisdom of the Egyptians ' (Acts 
vii. 22). "We must consider what ^uch an 
account implies. It has been urged against 
the truth of scripture that writing was not 
jinown at that early age. But no scholar 
would venture to make such an assertion 
now. What was ' the wisdom of the Egyp- 
tians'? Was it oral teaching? 'The art' 
of writing, saysDr.Bartlett, ' was practised, 
and most abundantly, in the very nation 
among whom the Hebrews dwelt for some 
hundreds of years. The ancient Egyptians 
were a race of indefatigable writers. They 
inscribed or marked every thing that ad- 
mitted of it, from a temple, an obelisk, a 
pyramid, or a tomb, to a brick, a sarco- 
phagus, a bracelet, or a seal-ring. Every 
thing was done in writing. In all pictorial 
representations the scribe was ubiquitous. 
In levj-ing soldiers, scribes write down the 
names : they count, in the king's presence, 
the severed hands of the slain : they present 
to him the amount of weapons, horses, and 
other booty. The scribe notes down 
weights, in the markets and the jeweller's 
shop alike : he records for the steward all 
the products of the farm, sheep, goats, asses, 
oxen, cows, geese, goslings, and even eggs. 
No bargain of conseauence, says Wilkin- 
son, was made without a written voucher' 
iBiUioth. Sacr., Oct. 1863, p. 803). Moses, 
then, must have been well acauainted with 
writing, and he must have been in the habit 
himself of wi'iting, unless we suppose him 
an exception to all around him. It is very 
important to bear this in mind. 

The scripture says little of Moses during 
his residence at court ; but tradition is 
copious. He is described as mastering aU 
branches of learning, and also as heading 
the armies of Pharaoh against the Ethio- 
pians (Joseph., A?ifi(Z-5 lih. ii. 10, § 2). Certain 
it is that splendid prospects were spread 
before him. And, if he had chosen to sepa- 
rate himself from his own people, and to 
renounce his fathers' God, and to grasp * the 
pleasures of sin,' he might have had his illl 
of worldly honour : he might, perhaps, have 
wielded the Egyptian sceptre, and have 
founded a new dynasty of Pharaohs. But 
he was influenced by a nobler principle. He 
was aware of the promise of God to visit 
Israel, and he expected its accomplishment. 
'By faith Moses, when he was come to 
years, refused to be called the son of Pha- 
raoh's daughter, choosing rather to suffer^ 



aflaiction with the people of God, than to 
enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season, 
esteeming the reproach of Christ (such as 
Christ suffered) greater riches than the 
treasures in Egypt ; for he had respect unto 
the recompeuce of the reward' (Heb. xi. 
24-26). It is not unlikely that some special 
proposal of dignity and power was made to 
him, which, for his temper was character- 
istically unambitious, he formally de- 
clined. 

Be this, however, as it may, he had some 
perception that by his hand God might de- 
liver Israel. And accordingly he interfered, 
when he saw an Egyptian maltreating an 
Israelite. He slew the oppressor, and ex- 
pected his brethren to rise at the signal 
(Acts vii. 25). But their spirit was broken ; 
and he was reproached for his deed ; and 
the reigning Pharaoh, hearing of it, deemed 
it necessary to nip any symptoms of in- 
subordination in the bud; so that Moses 
had to flee for his life out of the land. He 
wandered away to Midian and there fed the 
flocks of Jethro, the chief of one of those 
tribes that dwelt by the eastern gulf of the 
Red sea. 

The Midianitish prince gave Moses one of 
his daughters, Zipporah by name, to wife. 
It is probable that she was earned, so to 
speak, by service ; just as Jacob had served 
Laban for Rachel. Very likely, therefore, 
some years elapsed before tbe marriage, 
more especially as one at least of the sons 
was but young when Moses at the end of 
forty years quitted Midian (29, 30). It was 
at the divine command that he returned 
to Egypt. For, tending his sheep by Horeb, 
he was startled by a strange sight. A 
bush (which some call an acacia) was on 
fire, and yet was not consumed. Moses was 
stepping aside to examine the wonder, when 
an awful voice forbade him, commanded 
him to put off his shoes upon ground made 
holy by the visible symbol of the divine 
Presence, and announced to him that he 
was to go to Pharaoh and demand the re- 
lease of the Israelite bondmen. Moses' lead- 
ing characteristic again displays itself. He 
was not ambitious enough to desire the high 
pre-eminence. Forty years had cooled the 
ardour he might once have felt; and there- 
fore he repeatedly excused himself, on ac- 
count of his want of influence and ins slow- 
ness of speech. But he was told that the 
Lord, who pronounced to him his solemn 
covenant-name, would be with him : certain 
signs were given him to assure him ; and it 
was promised that his eloquent brotlicr 
Aaron should accompany him as his spokes- 
man, and that even now, warned also by a 
divine message, he was on his road to meet 
him (Exod. iii., iv. 1-17). Moses no longer 
hesitated : returning to Jethro, he desired 
leave to depart, and took his wife and sons 
to go into Egypt. In a camping-place on 
the road a circumstance occurred which it 
is not very easy to understand. One of the 
party, Moses or a son, most likely the latter, 
was seized with a mortal disease. Some 
connection was understood between this 
and the neglected rite of circumcision. 
Zipporah at once circumcised the child, ex- 
claiming in her apprehension, *A bloody 



609 



[moses 



husband art thou to me.' But the disease 
WHS mollified : still the mother repeated her 
words. Perhaps, as the threat was just he- 
fore recorded that the first-horn of Egypt 
should perish, there might he some sym- 
holic reference to the delivery of those of 
Israel, yet so as by hlood. It is probable 
that afterwards Zipporah and her sons were 
sent back to Midian. Moses proceeding on 
his way would pass by Horeb, and there he 
met his brother Aaron ; and the two entered 
Egypt prepared for their high mission, and, 
having gathered the elders of their people, 
convinced them that they were sent to them 
by God (18-31). 

It was a sublime attitude in which Moses 
now stood, demanding of the haughty Pha- 
raoli the release of Israel. We find at first 
occasional misgivings; but ere long, con- 
vinced that Jehovah's might would really 
be put forth, he insisted on his demands, and 
in ominous words described the miseries 
which resistance would inflict on Egypt, 
and the ultimate destruction of their bravest 
and their best. No wonder, when he had 
discomfited the magicians, and when at his 
word plagues, such as neither they nor their 
fathers had felt, fell upon them— no wonder 
that this 'man Moses was very great in the 
land of Egypt, in the sight of Pharaoh's 
servants, and in the sight of the people ' 
(xi.3}.See Plagues of Egypt. 

At length the last fatal blow was struck ; 
and at midnight a loud universal wail 
rang through the land. • There was not a 
house where there was not one dead.' And 
then Moses, who had prepared his people, 
and had instructed them to celebrate a 
passover in that much-to-be-remembered 
night, placed himself at their head, and led, 
under the guidance of a marvellous pillar of 
cloud which went before them, their long 
files towards the wilderness and the Red 
sea (xii.j xiii.). 

The history of Moses is now, for the most 
part, the history of Israel (see Red sea, 
WANDERING). Still his individuality is 
from time to time displayed. When the 
Egyptians, recovering a little from the 
fearful shock, pursued the tribes to take a 
deadly revenge, and Israel, hemmed in by 
mountains and the sea, and appalled at the 
sight of their late masters, began to utter 
their unmanly complaints, Moses was firm: 
' Stand still and see the salvation of the 
Lord;' and at his lifted rod the waves 
parted : Israel marched through the dry 
sea-bed; and the Egyptian host,'following, 
were drowned. Then Moses burst forth in 
that song of praise, * Sing ye to the Lord ; 
for he hath triumphed gloriously,' than 
which no nobler strain hath ever pealed, or 
ever shall peal from human voice, till that 
day when the last final victory shall have 
added to it a new topis of illustration, and 
the ransomed church by the sea of glass 
and fire shall sing the song, not of Moses 
only, but of the Lamb (xir., xv. : Rev. xv. 
3,3). 

There are some other particulars to be 
noticed. Moses had a hard task in leading 
the perverse Israelites. They soon began 
those murmurings which were repeated 
from time to time through their whole 



journey, and laid the blame of their wants 
on Moses. And then there was an enemy 
ready to attack them. A tribe of Amalek- 
ites set upon their rear, and also fought a 
pitched battle with them. The Hebrew 
troops were placed under the command of 
J oshua ; while Moses accompanied by Aaron 
and Hur ascended a neighbouring emi- 
nence, and held up that rod of God with 
which so many wonders had previously been 
wrought, accompanying the gesture doubt- 
less (as the Jewish interpreters say) with 
prayer for Israel's victory. Joshua pre- 
vailed ; and a sentence was denounced 
on Amalek, that the Lord would have war 
with him from generation to generation 
(Exod. xvi., xrii. ; Deut. xxv. 17-19). 

The manna had been sent and water mi- 
raculously procured while the camp was at 
Rephidim : Jethro, also, Moses' father-in-law 
ca;me to meet him, bringing his wife and 
sons, and gave him wise advice, which had 
the divine sanction, to relieve himself of 
the endless task of personally deciding 
every cause of question which might arise 
among the people, by appointing subordi- 
nate judges. And soon the camp moved on 
to Sinai ; and Moses was admitted to that 
wonderful close communication with Je- 
hovah, entering into the awful cloud which 
tempered and veiled the divine glory, and 
remaining forty days and forty nights there 
while the tables of the moral law were de- 
livered to him, and other statutes pre- 
scribed; Joshua waiting meanwhile in 
some lower place. It was then that the 
foolish Israelites, tired of expecting their 
leader's return, made themselves a god 
after the fashion of an Egyptian idol, 
Moses, apprised of this by Jehovah, hurried 
down the mountain; and when he saw 
the abomination he cast away in hot anger 
the precious tables of the law, which were 
broken, rushed boldly into the midst of the 
infatuated multitude, and, by the assistance 
of the Levites who ranged themselves 
around him at his cry, slew 3000 of the 
Idolaters, and, burning and stamping to 
pieces the god they had made, compelled 
the people to drink the powder of it in 
the water which supplied the camp (Exod. 
xix.-xxxii.). 

We may further note Moses' disinterest- 
edness. The Lord had threatened to de- 
stroy the people, but promised to make of 
Moses' posterity a greater nation than they. 
It was a flattering prospect ; but he inter- 
ceded again and again for Israel, and 
begged that rather than behold their de- 
struction he might himself be blotted out 
of the book of the living. And then came 
that apparently-bold request, ' I beseech 
thee, show me thy glory.' He could not, he 
was told, look upon the full blaze of divine 
splendour ; but he was placed in the cleft 
of a rock, and he heard wonderful things, 
the all-merciful name of Jehovah pro- 
claimed ; and again for forty days and forty 
nights he was in the near presence of God ; 
so that when he descendedhis face (though 
he knew it not) was beaming with re- 
flected brilliance, and till he had thrown a 
veil over it the awe-struck people dared 
not approach him (xxxiii., xxxiy,). Such is 
R R 



rlOSOLLAMj 



the account as given in oar translation; 
but it would seem that the original might 
be more accurately understood as intend- 
ing that Moses spoke to the people with 
uncovered face, and then assumed the 
veil till he vrent again to the Lord's pre- 
sence. So the Septuagint translates ; and 
it accords hetter with St. Paul's reference 
to the history and with the symbolical inter- 
pretation he gives of it (2 Cor. iii. 7, 12-18). 
The veil implied concealment and transito- 
riness : the ministry of Moses was loroken, 
liis teachings occasionally suspended, when 
he resumed the obscuring veil. Far diflei^ 
ent the clear uninterrupted manifestation of 
the gospel revealed in its endless glory (see 
Dr. Alford's note on 2 Cor. iii. 12, 13). It 
seems likelv that the radiance of Moses 
face continued long— at all events to the 
complete establishment of that early cove- 
nant. Blessed are they who have ap- 
proached so near the source of life and 
light, as that their lives shine like lights in 
a dark world. . . ,4.-1 

Manv more cases of opposition and trial 
had Moses from his people. And once his 
very familv murmured against him. His 
wife Zipporah, a Cushite, had lately joined 
him, and she would naturally take a high 
place. Miriam, hitherto the first lady of 
Israel, could not brook what she thought 
her degradation ; and Aaron, too, imagined 
perhap^s his priestly office overshadowed 
by Moses' authority. Moses had not 
grasued at it. He was not, as our version 
has 'it, the meekest, but— we have had 
proofs enous-h— the most tmambitious of 
men. He uiight, perhaps, have yielded; 
but the Lord interposed ; and Aaron and 
Miriam stood two culprits before the Pre- 
sence. 0 wonder ! Miriam is leprous, white 
as snow; and Aaron In his capacity of 
priest has to look on her and to pronounce 
her unclean, one to be expelled with loath- 
ing from the camp. It was a terrible crisis. 
Aaron in sunplicating tones addressed 
Moses ; and Moses prayed to God. Yet 
Miriam the prophetess must be for seven 
davs an outcast (Swmb. xii.). Other events, 
reallv (as before noted) the history of 
Israel, must be passed over ; and then after 
Miriam's death, when the fated years of 
wandering were weU-nigh expired, when 
Canaan was in view,we come to ]Moses' sin. 
The people murmured in Kadesh-meribah 
for wat^r ; and Moses was told to speak to 
the rock. Impatient and almost disbeliev- 
ing he addressed the malcontents in harsh 
laneuaae, and twice smote the rock. The 
miracle was performed; but God had been 
dishonoured; and Moses now must not 
enter the promised land. Deeply, no doubt, 
he bewailed his fault ; and the Lord par- 
doned his servant ; but sin must be pun- 
ished ; and Moses was afterwards a sen- 
tenced man (xx. 1-13). • 

In that last year of the wandering Moses 
gathered up the precepts of the law and m 
earnest exhortation pressed them on the 
people. He reiterated what God had done 
for them : he referred to his own sin : he 
warned them against disobedience ; and m 
inspired song and with special reference to 
v.xe tribes individually he predicted then- 



future destiny. Accurately indeed have his 
predictions been accomplished; and the 
Jews scattered and still a people are a 
standing testimony to the truth of the 
divine revelation. 

And now Moses must die. Still lie shall 
see the fair land he must not enter. The 
glowing prospect lay spread before him as 
with undimmed eye he gazed from Pisgah. 
A blessed inheritance it was ; but he was 
about to enter one more blessed. 'So 
Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there, 
in the land of Moab, according to the word 
of the Lord. And he buried him in a val- 
lev in the land of Moab, over-against 
Beth-peor; but no man knoweth of his 
sepulchre unto this day' (Dent, xxxiv. 
5. 6\ Xo mortal eye must see the great 
legislator of Israel put on immortality. 

Yet once again he appeared on earth, 
when on the mount of transfiguration he 
attended Jesus, and talked with the Divine 
One of that propitiatory death to be accom 
plished, of which the sacrifices he had been 
told to prescribe were lively types (Matt, 
xvii. 3, 4 ; Mark ix. 4, 5 ; Luke ix. 30, 31). 

Iso greater man was ever born of womaa 
than Moses, yet he was but a servant to 
the glorious Lord of whom he testified ' 
(Heb. iii. 1-6). 

Of course tradition has been busy with 
Moses. But legendary stories need not be 
detailed here. The curious reader may re- 
fer, among other sources of information, to 
DHerbelot, BWlioth. Orient, art. 'Moussa 
Ben Amran.' 

Besides the Pentateuch (see Penta- 
teuch) the Jews ascribe ten psalms to Mo- 
ses, Psalms xc— xcix. The first-named of 
these is very probably from his pen ; but 
there is no ground for believing that he 
wrote the others. Some imagine him the 
author of the book of Job ; and there are 
various apociTPlial works bearing his name. 
It must be enough to mention the titles 
of these spurious productions, an ' Apo- 
calvpse' or 'Little Genesis,' the 'Ascension of 
Moses,' the ' Assumption of Moses,' the' Tes- 
tament of Moses,' the ' Mysterious Books 
of Moses.' ,^ , „ 

MOSOL'LAM a Esdr. Ix, 14). MeshuUam 
(Ezra X. 15). ^ , 

MOSOL'LAMOXCX Esdi'. viii. 44). Meshul- 
1am cEzra viii. 16). 

MOTH. The Hebrew word, 'ash, so trans- 
lated, is derived from a root signifying to 
fall away, because moth-eaten garments 
fall to pieces : this occurs in Job iv, 19, xiii. 
23 ; Isai. 1. 9 ; Hos. v. 12, and elsewhere. 
The Greek ses is also so rendered in Matt, 
vi. 19, 20 ; Luke xii. 33. There can be no 
doubt that some species of the genus Tinea 
is intended. In almost all the cases in 
which the moth is mentioned it is in refer- 
ence to its habit of destroying garments. 
Isow it was customary in the east to accu- 
mulate articles of apparel : hence the al- 
lusion is peculiarly apposite. We may 
therefore fairly suppose that the Tinea pel- 
lionella, the clothes-moth (not excluding 
some kindred species), is meant. The 
larva of this insect constructs a kind of 
nest or case of the material on which it 
feeds : comp. Job xxvii. 18, 'He buildeth his 



Gil MM^ MiwMt^Qt* 



house as a moth;' and it is said ta he com- 
mon in Palestine. 

The frailness of man, and decaying na- 
tiTre of his possessions, are often illustrated 
hy a reference to the moth (e.g. Psal. xxxix. 
11 ; James v. 2). 

MOTHER. This term besides ifcs literal 
meaning is applied to any female ancestor 
or superior— as, of individuals, a grandmo- 
ther (1 Kings XV. 10) or more remote relation 
(Gen. iii. 20), a step-mother (xxxvii. 10), a 
political leader or governess (Judges v. 7) ; 
of collective bodies, a nation or mother- 
country (Isai. 1. 1 ; Jer. 1. 12 ; Ezek. xix. 2), a 
chief city (2 Sam. xx. 19). The mother's 
love for her children is sometimes taken 
to illustrate and enhance God's love to his 
people (Isai. xlix. 14, 15, Ixvi. 12, 13). For 
hing's mother see Queen. 

MOULDY (Josh. ix. 5, 12). The word so 
translated properly means 'crumbs.' It 
occurs again in 1 Kings xiv. 3, where our 
version has ' cracknels ': these were, no 

I doubt, a kind of cake v,'hich crumbled 

i easily. See Cracknels. 

• MOUNTAIN, MOUNTAINS. The He- 

, brew word /lar is used as distinguishing a 
mountain from a lower eminence or hill; 
which is gibeali. 'Bar; says Dr. Stanley, 
' is employed both for single mountains, as 
Sinai, Gerizim, Zion, or Olivet, and for 
ranges, as Lebanon. It is also applied to a 
mountainous country or district, as in Josh, 
xi. 16, where "the mountain of Israel" is 
the high land of Palestine as opposed to 
the "valley and the plain"; and in 21, 
XX. 7, where "the mountains of Judah" (in- 
correctly rendered plural) is the same as 
"the hill-country" in xxi. 11. Similarly 
mount Ephraim is the mountainous dis- 
trict occupied by that tribe; which is evi- 
dent from the fact that the mount Gaash 
(Josh. xxiv. 30), mount Zemaraim (2 Chron. 
xiii. 4), the hill of Phinehas (Josh. xxiv. 33), 
and the towns of Shechem, Shamir (Judges 
X. 1), Timnath-serach (Josh. xix. 50), besides 
other cities (2 Chron. xv. 8), were all situ- 
ated upon it.' Dr. Stanley adds the apposite 
note : ' Thus " the Peak," originally the 
name of the highest mountain of Derby- 
shire, is now applied to the whole district' 
{Sinai and Palestine, Append. § 23^ p. 494). 

Of the mountains noted in scripture 
those of Ararat, Sinai, and Hor, Nebo from 
which Moses surveyed the promised land, 
Lebanon, and Anti-libanus of Avhich Her- 
mon is the most prominent summit, Carmel, 
Tabor, &c., may be mentioned; some ac- 
count of each will be found in the articles 
imder their respective names. Mountains 
were places of refuge from war or other 
calamity (Gen. xiv. 10, xix. 17, 30), as fur- 
nishing caves and secret recesses for con- 
cealment: comp. Isai. ii. 10, 19, 21. On 
the tops of mountains sacrifices were custo- 
marily offered and temples erected, as on 
Moriah, and by the Samaritans on Gerizim. 
Hence the censure of idol-worship on moun- 
tains (Ivii. 7 ; Ezek. xviii. 6). 

Dr. Stanley, illustrating the frequent 
practice in scripture of personifying the 
great features of the country, gives the 
following curious table of words so used in 
reference to mountains or hills :— 



[mournikg 



*Head, rosh. Gen. viii. 5 ; Exod. xix. 20 
Deut, xxxiv. 1 ; 1 Kings xviii. 42 (A.V. 
" top " ). Of a bill (gibeali) Exod. xvii. 9, 
10. 

* Ears, azndtn. Aznoth-tabor^ Josh. xix. 34; 

possibly in allusion to some projection i 
on the top of the mountain. I 

• Shoulder, chmph, Deut. xxxiii. 12 ; Josh, I 

XV. 8, xviii. 16 ( " side " ), all referring to 
the hills on which Jerusalem is placed. 
Josh. XV. 10," the side of mount Jearim." 
' Side, tzad (see the word for the "' side " of 1 
a man in 2 Sam. ii. 16 ; Ezek. iv. 4, &c.). j 
Used in reference to a mountain in 1 
Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 34. 

* Loins or flanks, chisioth, Ohisloth-taiDor, 

Josh. xix. 12, and occurs also in the 
name of a village, probably situated on 
this part of the mountain, Ha-chesuh 
loth, i.e. the " loins," Josh. xix. 18. 
' Rib, tzeldh. Only used once, in speaking 
of the mount of Olives, 2 Sam. xvi. 13, 
and there translated " side." 

* Back, sliecliem. Probably the root of the 

name of the town Shechem, which may 
be derived from its situation, as it were 
on the back of Gerizim. 
•Elbow, ammah. The same word as that 
for " cubit." It occurs in 2 Sam. ii.24, aa 
the name of a bilinear Gibeon. 

• Thigh, yarcli&h (see the word for the 

" thigh " of a man in Judges iii. 16, 21). 
Applied to mount Ephraim, Judges xix, 
1, 18, and to Lebanon, 2 Kings xix. 23 ; 
Isai. xxxvii. 24. Used also for the 
" sides" of a cave, 1 Sam. xxiv. 3. 

• The word translated " covert " in 1 Sam. 

XXV. 23 is setlier, from sdthar to hide 

and probably refers to the shrubbery or 
thicket through which Abigail's path 
lay. la. this passage "hill" should be 
"mountain"' (it&i sMpr,, pp. 495, 496). 

MOURNING. Eor the ceremonies of 
mourning on occasion of deaths see Bu- 
rial, pp. 122, 123, Similar signs of grief 
were customary on other occasions of 
public or domestic calamity. Persons 
wept, laid aside ornaments, rent their 
clothes, struck their breasts or their 
thighs, fasted, lay upon the ground, went 
barefoot, wore sackcloth, or black or dirty 
garments, covered their heads or lips, and 
put dust upon them, lay in ashes, pulled 
their hair and their beards, tearing them- 
selves with their nails and making inci- 
sions in their flesh. Some, however, of 
these excesses were forbidden as being con- 
nected with idolatrous practices (Gen. 
xxxvii, 34 ; Exod. xxxiii. 4-6 ; Lev. xix. 27, 
28; Deut, xiv. 1, 2 ; Josh, vii, 6; 2 Sam. iii. 
31, 35, xii. 16, 17, XV, 30; 1 Kings xxi. 27; Ezra 
ix, 5 ; Esth. iv. 16 ; Job i. 20, ii. 8, 12 ; Isai. 
xlvii, 1, 2 ; Jer. xvi. 6, xli. 5 ; Ezek, vi, 11, 
xxiv. 17; Dan. ix, 3 ; Joel i. 13, ii, 15-17 ; Jo- 
nah iii. 5-8; MaL iii, 14, marg, ; Luke xviii. 
13). The regulations in regard to the 
mourning of the priests and the Naza- 
rites are given in Lev. xxi. 1-6, 10-12 ; Numb, 
vi. 7. 

A singular mourning custom still sub- 
sists among the Jews in Jerusalem. At 
the base of the wall supporting the west 
side of the temple area they utter their la- 
mentations. ' No sight,' says Dr. Thomson, 



11 



mouse] 



• meets the eye in Jerusalem, more sadly 
suggestive than this wailing of the Jews 
over the ruins of their temple. It is a very 
old custom; and in past ages they have paid 
immense sums to their oppressors for the 
niiserahle satisfaction of kissing the stones, 
and pouring out lamentations at the foot 
of their ancient sanctuary. With trem- 
hling lips and tearful eyes they sing, "Be 
not wroth very sore, O Lord, neither re- 
niemher iniquity for ever : hehold, see, we 
heseech thee, we are all thy people. Thy 
holy cities are a wilderness : Zion is a wil- 
derness ; Jerusalem a desolation. Our holy 
and our beautiful house, where our fathers 
praised thee, is hurned up with fire; and 
all our pleasant things are laid waste " (Isai. 
Ixiv. 9-11) ' (IVie Land and the Book, pp. 690, 
691). 

MOUSE. This animal was forbidden as 
an article of food to the Hebrews (Lev. xi. 
29 ; Isai. Ixvi. 17). An esculent species of 
dormouse, the Musjaculus of Linnffius,may 
be meant here ; though some suggest the 
]ex'b02., Dipus jaculus. But it is likely that 
the term is generic, including various spe- 
cies. The ravages of field-mice are referred 
to in 1 Sam. vi. 4, 5, 11, 18. There are seve- 
ral kinds of these, of which the Arvicola 
agrestis, short-tailed field-mouse, is said to be 
still very destructive to the harvest in Syria. 

MOUTH. There are some phrases into 
which this word is introduced which may 
require explanation. To speak with any 
one ' mouth to mouth ' (Numb. xii. 8 ; Jer. 
xxxii. 4) means in person, without any 
mediator ; ' with one mouth ' (1 Kings xxii. 
13) with one accord ; ' with the mouth ' or 
with the whole mouth (Job xix. 16), earnest- 
ly, with strength of voice ; to ' put words 
in' another's ' mouth' (Exod. iv. 15) to sug- 
gest to him what to say; to be 'in' one's 
' mouth ' (xiii. 9) to be often spoken of ; 
to ' lay the hand upon the mouth' (Judges 
xviii. 19'^ to be silent; to 'write from' a 
person's ' mouth' (Jer. xxxvi. 4) to write at 
his dictation. A 'mouth' is also put for a 
spokesman, or, so to speak, mouth-piece 
(Exod. iv. 16). There are many similar uses 
of the word, which it is easy to understand. 

MOW, MOWIISTG. Hay is not made in 
Syria as it is with us. The superfluous grass 
is left to wither away. So that probably 
by 'mown grass' (Psal. Ixii. 6) and 'mow- 
ings ' (Amos vii. 1), pastures that haA^e been 
eaten by cattle and are left to grow again 
may be meant, March is said to be the 
only month in which cattle are not at grass 
in Palestine ; ' the beginning of the shooting 
Tip of the latter growth ' may therefore point 
to the early part of April. 

MO'ZA ia going forlli, fountain). — !. A 
descendant of Judah, son of Caleb (1 Chron. 
ii. 46).— 2. One of king Saul's posterity 
(viii. 36, 37, ix. 42, 43). 

MO'ZAH i'id.). A place in the territory 
of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 26). It has not 
been certainly identified. 

MUFFLERS. The word so rendered (Isai. 
iii 19) is derived from a root signifying ' to 
tremble.' It denotes light thin veils, so 
called from their tremulous or fluttering 
motion. They consisted of two pieces, 
Tuiited by clasps near the eyes, and hung 



over the face to protect it from the sun. 
The clasps were doubtless gorgeous; and to 
these perhaps particular allusion may have 
been intended by the prophet. See Hender- 
son, The ProiJhet Isaiah, p. 31. 

MULBERRT-TREE. The name of a tree, 
which signifies 'weepers,' i.e. weeping or dis- 
tilling, is so given in our version (2 Sam. v. 
23, 24 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 13, 14). But, though 
mulberrj'-trees are now found all over 
Palestine (see Sycamine), the tree in ques- 
tion is rather abalsam-tree, distilling white 
'tears' of a pungent acrid taste. Mul- 
berries are mentioned in the Apocrypha 
(1 Mace. vi. 34). 

MULE. A name given properly to the 
offspring of an ass and a mare, but fre- 
quently applied to any description of hybrid. 
Hybrids are not prolific, or only under cer- 
tain limitations. The Hebrews were for- 
bidden to let their cattle gender with ano- 
ther kind (Lev. xix. 19) ; but the prohibition 
does not seem to have been directed al- 
together against the use of such animals, 
but rather against the taking means to pro- 
duce them. Still mules for riding are not 
mentioned before the time of David, when 
they became common (2 Sam. xiii. 29, xviii. 
9 ; 1 Kings i. 33, 38, 44, xviii. 5 ; 2 Kings v. 
17 ; Psal. xxxii. 9 ; Isai.lxvi. 20). They were 
used, it appears, both for domestic service 
and in war, also on state occasions ; one 
being specially appropriated to the king. 
Mules were imported into Palestine (1 Kings 
X. 25 ; 2 Chron. ix. 24), probably from Egypt, 
Armenia, and Persia. We find them men- 
tioned as an article of commerce between 
Togarmah and Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 14). From 
Tvre, therefore, the Israelites could supply 
themselves. The mule is a proverbially- 
patient and sure-footed animal, obstinate, 
but active and highly serviceable. It is 
still much used in the east, and in other 
countries, as Spain, &c. For the alleged 
discovery of mules (Gen. xxxvi. 24) see 
Bberi, 1. Possibly the ' mules ' of Esth. viii. 
10, 14 were swift horses. 

MUP'PIM (perhaps for Shuppim). (Gen. 
xlvi. 21). See Shupham. 

MURDER. A crime of the most heinous 
character, to be visited with the punish- 
ment of death (Gen. ix. 5, 6). This enactment 
was intended to be of lasting force. But, as 
taking the life of another does not neces- 
sarily reach the guilt of murder, in the He- 
brew law notes were given by which to dis- 
tinguish. So that, if the act proceeded from 
hatred or enmity (Numb.xxxv. 20, 21 ; Deut. 
xix. 11), if it was committed presumptuous- 
ly and with guile (Exod. xxi. 14), or premedi- 
tatedly by lying in wait, then it was murder; 
and to be avenged as such. Whereas, if there 
was no previous enmity or hatred, with no 
premeditation or lying in wait, but the 
deed was done by mistake or accident 
(13 ; Numb. xxxv. 11, 15, 22, 23 : Deut. xix. 
4-6), then it was only manslaughter. And, 
though the avenger of blood might, if he 
met him, at once slay one who had so 
taken life, yet cities were assigned as 
places of security to which he might flee. 
There was another provision which must 
be noticed. If any one broke into a house 
by night, tlie owner might take his life; 



613 



[mustard 



but, if it was after sunrise v^hen the thief 
j was killed, the householder, by so avenging 
! a crime of which the proper punishment 
1 was restitution, was held guilty of murder 
(Exod. xxii. 2, 3). Striking a pregnant wo- 
j man so as to cause death was deemed mur- 
; der (xxi. 22, 23) ; so also was the neglect, 
after warning, of securing a vicious animal, 
If it killed any one (29) . Further, if a mur- 
der was committed, and the culprit could 
not be discovered, the city nearest to the 
spot where the body was found was to make 
1 a certain protestation and expiation (Deut. 
! xxi. 1-9), that the landm.ight not be defiled. 
I The mode of putting a murderer to death 
i seems to have been left in great measure to 
: the avenger of blood. But see Pt72?-ishments. 
MURRAIN. One of the plagues inflicted 
upon Egypt (Exod. ix. 3). Tlie original 
word signifies generally 'destruction,' a 
' plague.' See Plagues of Egypt. 

MU'SHI (felt out dy Jehovah). One of the 
sons of Merari, Levi's son (Exod. vi. 19 ; 
Numb. iii. 20 : 1 Ghron. vi. 19, 47, xxiii. 21, 
23, xxiv. 26, 30). 

MU'SHITES. A family of Levi, descended 
from Mushi (Numb. iii. 33, xxv'i. 58). 

MUSIC. We find a very early notice of 
music in scripture (Gen. iv.21). Indeed, it 
is but natural to man to express his feelings 
by some kind of modulated sounds, which 
would be varied according as the emotion 
was joyous or mournful. We may be sure, 
therefore, that from the first infancy of 
the world music was practised, rough and 
simple in its original (Exod. xxxii. 17, 18), 
I to be afterwards refined and regulated. 
I Music, though little is said of its cultiva- 
i tion as a science, is spoken of as the accom- 
i paniment of family celebrations, of leave- 
1 taking or return (Gen. xxxi. 27 ; Luke xv. 
! 25), as the expression of triumph (Exod. 
XV. 1-21; Judges xi. 34 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 6), of 
grief (Matt. ix. 23) as soothing a distem- 
pered mind (1 Sam. xvi. 16-18, 23, xviii. 
10), as customary at revels (Isai. xxiv. 8, 9 ; 
Amos vi.4-6), and conjoined with dan- 
cing ; also as connected with religious ob- 
servances (1 Sam. X. 5 ; 2 Sam. vi. 15; 1 Chron. 
XV. 28), as composing the spirit of a pro- 
phet (2 Kings iii. 15), &c. David made 
regulations for sacred music, appointing 
twenty-four bands of twelve, two hundred 
and eighty-eight in all, under the superin- 
tendence of Asaph, Heman, and Ethan or 
Jeduthun, who were to order the services 
of praise. Provision was made for the in- 
struction and training of musicians ; for 
masters and scholars are specially mention- 
ed ; and there was a body of 4,000 Levites, 
out of whom choirs could be selected (1 
Chron. xv. 16-24, xxiii. 5, xxv.). We may 
conclude that under such guidance the mu- 
sical art attained considerable perfection ; 
and the delight experienced from it is some- 
times alluded to (Ezek. xxxiii. 32). Of course 
in times of sorrow the sweet strains of mu- 
sic ceased (Psal. cxxxvii. 2 ; Lam. v. 14) ; 
and it was peculiarly descriptive of utter 
desolation when the sound of musical in- 
j struments was no more heard in a city (Rev. 
xviii. 22). Some notice is taken in scripture 
of the music of Gentile nations (Dan. iii. 5, 
vi. 13). 



Of the nature of Hebrew music we can 
best judge from that which at present pre- 
vails among the orientals, consisting not 
so much in harmony (as the term is now 
usually applied) as in melody or imison. 
Vocal and instrumental music were com- 
bined (Psal. Ixix. 25) ; and different choirs 
appear to have taken separate parts. Thus, 
on an occasion already referred to, Miriam 
and the women are represented as respond- 
ing to the strain led by Moses. This music 
was doubtless of a monotonous character, 
less pleasing to ears accustomed to modula- 
tions and cadences, but acceptable to east- 
ern taste. 

Musical instruments were of three kinds; 
string>id instruments, wind-instruments, ' 
and instruments of percussion (Job xxi. 
12). Of the first there may be enumerated : 
the harp, sackbut, and psaltery; of the 
second, the cornet, dulcimer, flute, horn, 
organ, pipe, and trumpet ; while of instru- 
ments of percussion, bells, cymbals, and 
tabrets are spoken of. Descriptions of all 
these will be found under their respective 
names. 

There are also some other words connect- 
ed with music, left untranslated in our ver- 
sion : a notice of these too must be sought 
in the special articles dedicated to them. 
Other terms with a general rendering may 
be mentioned here. Such are dacJidvdn ; 
(Dan. vi. 18) ' instruments of music,' possibly 
the meaning is concubines : minntm (Psal. 
cl. 4) ' stringed instruments,' no doubt ac- 
curately translated ; in xlv. 8, where the 
same word occurs, the meaning may be, ■ 
' out of the ivory palaces the stringed in- 
struments make thee glad ; ' 'dsdr (xcii. \ 
3) ' on instruments of ten strings : ' this 
refers to the 'psaltery' which is men- 
tioned just after— a ten-stringed psaltery ; ■ 
shidddh iceshidddth (Eccles. ii. 8), 'musical 
instruments, and that of all sorts,' palan- 
quins or litters are perhaps meant ; shdli- ] 
sMm (1 Sam. xviii. 6) ' instruments of music,' \ 
three-stringed instruments, or possibly tri- 
angles. See, for further information, Winer, ; 
Bim. EWJ3., arts. 'Musik,' ' Musikalische 
Instrumente ; ' Saalschiitz, Arch, der Hebr., 
cap. 27, vol. i. pp. 272-296 ; Dr. Smith's Diet, 
of the BiUe, vol. ii. pp. 442-446. i 

MUSTARD (Matt. xiii. 31, 32, xvii. 20; ' 
Mark iv. 30-32 ; Luke xiii. 18, 19, xvii. 6). This, 
according to thebelief of the late Dr. Roy le, is 
the plant called in Bjrmkhardal, and known 
to botanists as the Salvadora Persica. From 
a small seed it grows into a considerable 
tree, with numerous branches, in which 
birds may shelter. It bears its fruit in 
bunches resembling the currant ; and the 
seeds have a pleasant aromatic taste, much 
like our mustard, being used for the same 
purposes. It has been said to grow abun- ; 
dantly on the shores of the lake of Galilee. 
Duns adopts Dr. Royle's opinion (Bibl. Nat. 
Science, vol. ii. pp. 581, 582) ;but some doubt 
has been recently thrown upon it. Accord- 
ing to late travellers, the Salvadora is rare 
in Palestine ; and our Lord is more likely to 
have taken for his illustration some common 
shrub. Now the Sinapis nigra, common 
wild mustard, grows to a considerable ; 
height. Dr. TLjomson says he has eeen it i 



muth-labben] 



614 



*as tall as the liorse aud Ms rider' (.The 
Land and the Book, pp. 414-416). The seed, 
it is true, is not the smallest of all seeds in 
the world, hut it Avas the least thehushand- 
man was accustomed to sow, and the shruh 
the largest in his garden. It is likely 
therefore that this is the plant intended. 

MTJTH-LAB'BEN (Psal. ix. title). It is 
not easy to tell what is meant hy this ex^ 
pression. Probably the word al, rendered as 
a preposition, ' upon,' should he taken as a 
part of mMh : this may then signify a virgin 
song, or for a chorus of virgins. Labben 
means 'to (Ben) the son.' But Ben is men- 
tioned as a Levite (1 Chron. xv. 18) : perhaps 
he was the precentor (comp, 20). Some have 
fancied that the words are incomplete, and 
that they may have signified 'upon Alamoth 
(comp. Psal. ,xlvi., title) for the sons of 
Korah ' ; hut this is merely a conjecture. 

MUZZLE (Deut. xxv. 4 ; 1 Cor. ix. 9 ; 1 Tim. 
V. 18). See Threshijjg. 

MTN'DUS (1 Mace. xv. 23). A town on 
the coast of Caria. 

MY'RA. A city of Lycia in Asia Minor, 
where the centurion who had charge of St. 
Paul found the ship of Alexandria, in which 
he embarked for Italy (Acts xxvii. 5). The 
city stood upon a hill about Cwenty furlongs 
from the sea ; Andriaca being its port. The 
Greeks still use the ancient name ; but the 
Turks call it Dembre. There are some mag- 
nificent ruins in the neighbourhood. 

MYRRH. A gum resin, celebrated for its 
aromatic properties. It derives its name from 
the Hebrew word m6r, which implies ' flow- 
ing' or 'distilling,' Greek murrlia. The Balsa- 
modendron myrrha, of the natural order Tere- 
hinthacece, is the tree, found in Arabia aud 
Africa, from which myrrh is chiefly procured. 
It exudes from the bark, and is at first soft, 
oily, and yellowish-white : it afterwards ac- 
auires the consistency of butter, and be- 
comes still harder by exposure to the air, 
changing to a reddish hue. In commerce it 
is of two kinds, ' myrrh in tears' and ' myrrh 
in sorts.' Myrrh is frequently mentioned 
in scripture. It was an ingredient in the 
holy anointing oil (Exod. xxx. 23) : it was 
used4n perfumes (Psal. xlv. 8 ; Pro v. vii. 17 ; 
Sol. Song i. 13, iii. 6); in unguents (Esth. 
ii. 12 ; SoL Song v. 5) ; for strengthening 
wine (Mark xv. 23), also in embalming 
(John xix. 39). Myrrh was among the 
offerings made by the eastez-n sages (Matt, 
ii. 11). The best was that which flowed 
spontaneously from the tree. Another He- 
brew word, lot, is translated 'myrrh' (Gen. 
xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11). This, more properly 
ladanum, is at present imported chiefly 
from Greece and the Greek islands. It is the 
produce of the Cistus creticus, the oak-rose, 
a shrub about two feet high, from which 
the ladanum is beaten with a kind of whip, 
furnished with thongs, which when filled 
with the sticky resin are scraped with a 
knife. Sometimes a bow is passed over the 
plant, with the string stretched and covered 
with wool, to which the lad;inum adheres. 
It is used in medicine. See Kalisch, Comm. 
on Old Test Gen., pp. 613, 614. 

MYRTLE. This lAant, Mijrtus communis, 
grows in the east into a tree of twenty feet 
In height. It lias a reddish bark, thick 



pliant branches, smooth oval evergreen 
leaves, punctured with a multitude of trans- 
lucent spots, white or reddish- white flowers, 
standing singly, of which each has a tri- 1 
foliate integument. They come out in May, I 
and produce oval black berries, filled with 
a multitude of white odoriferous grains : 
from these berries an oil, and even a kind 
of Avine, has been extracted. Both flowers 
and leaves have a pleasant smeU. The 
myrtle grows in valleys, and on the banks 
of streams, also on heights. Both for its 
beauty and sweet scent, it was a favourite 
tree among the ancients, and by the Greeks \ 
was considered sacred to Venus. There are ! 
various species, some of which yield an 
edible fruit. The myrtle was an emblem of 
peace and quietude ; hence allusions to it 
are frequently introduced by the sacred 
writers (Isai. xli. 19, Iv. 13 ; Zech. i. 8-11). 
Branches of it were used for constructing ; 
booths and arbours at the feast of taber- ; 
nacles (Neh. viii. 15). Emerson (Emerson 
Tennent), in Letters from the ^gean, 1829, 
says, ' In the Morea I have travelled for 
hours through an uncultivated tract, whilst 
the groves of myrtle formed an almost- ; 
continuous arbour above our heads, 
covered here and there with its delicate 
white flowers, and exhaling at every motion 
the most delicious perfume, whilst its dark 
polished leaves combined coolness with 
beauty. It is such a scene as this that ex- 
plains the phrase of Zechariah, . . . and 
these are trees of the dimensions such 
as I refer to that preserve the consistency 
of the phrase of Isaiah, ' I will plant in the 
wilderness the cedar, the myrtle, and the 
oil-tree " ' (voL i. pp. 112, 113). j 

MY'SIA. The north-western province oi j 
Asia Minor, separated from Europe by the 
Propontis. It was just upon the frontier 
of Asia and Bithynia. This region was f er 
tile in corn and wine, but is now in a neg 
lected condition. St. Paul ]iassed through ; 
Mysia just before he first entered Europe 
(Acts xvi. 6, 7). Troas, a district round the 
city of that name, was sometimes reckoned I 
as belonging to Mysia. ' 

MYSTERY. This word does not mean 
something absolutely hidden and unintel- 
ligible, neither is it used in the sense in 
which it is applied to heathen idolatrous 
doctrines and rites, into which only chosen 
persons were initiated. It is rather a design 
hidden in God's counsels until revealed to 
mankind in and by Chriot : see Alford'snote 
onEph. viii. 9. Hence we find it continually 
employed in the I^ew Testament to indicate 
those gracious purposes aud plans, Avhich 
were by degrees elaborated and illustrated, 
and on which the teaching of our Lord and 
his apostles threw the clearest light, but 
which remained hidden to those who would 
not understand, and who had their minds 
blinded against the truth. Thus the gospel 
is called ' the mystery of the faith,' ' the 
mystery of godliness' (I Tim. iil. 9, 16) 
w^hich mystery is immediately after ex- 
plained to be the revelation and glorious 
work of the Lord Jesus Christ. So the 
calling of the Gentiles and tlieir tmiou into 
one body, God's church, with the Jews, is 
called a myatcry, long hidden, but at last 



615 MhU Mns^Mt^^t. 



made known (Epli. i. 9, 10, iii. 8-10; Col. i. 
25-27). In the same way it is elsewhere used 
for a truth or doctrine, which required elu- 
cidation, and which received it (Matt. xiii. 11 ; 
Rom. xi. 25 ; l Cor. xiii. 2, xv. 51, 52). The 
word is also employed symbolically. Thus 
St. Paul treating of the primary institution 
of marriage introduces the term, because 
the marriage-tie was a figurative represen- 



[nabotm 



tation of that yet-closer union into which 
Christ brings his church, wherein the two 
are ' one spirit' (Eph. v. 31, 32 : comp. yi. 17). 
In prophetical language there is a similar 
use of the word mystery. Thus the ' seven 
stars' symbolized * the angels of the seven 
churches,' and the * seven candlesticks' the 
* seven churches ' (Eev. i. 20 : comp. xviL 
5, 7). 



N 



NA'AM (^pleasantness). A descendant of 
Judah, and son of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 15). 

NA'AMAH {pleasant).—!. The daughter 
of Lamech, of the race of Cain (Gen. iv. 22). 
—2. An Ammonitess, the mother of Reho- 
boam (1 Chron. xiv. 21, 31 ; 2 Chron. xii. 13). 

NA'AMAH {id.). A city in the plain 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41). 

NA'AMAN (pleasantness).—!. A descen- 
dant of Benjamin, sometimes called his son 
(Gen. xlvi. 21 ; elsewhere his grandson 
(Numb. xxvi. 40 ; 1 Chron,. viii. 4, 7), '.Biless 
we are to suppose that two persons are in- 
tended, 

2, The captain of the king of Syria's 
host, whose services to his country had 
been conspicuous ; but he was a leper. 
Hearing from an Israelitish maid that there 
was a mighty prophet in Samaria who could 
heal him, he procured a recommendatory 
letter from his master to the king of Israel, 
who at first thought that a quarrel was in- 
tended. But Elisha desired Naaman to be 
directed to his house, that the power of the 
God of Israel might be vindicated, JSTaaman 
accordingly presented himself with his suite 
at Elisha's door, expecting to be treated as 
a patient of importance. He was mortified 
and affronted when told by message to bathe 
seven times in Jordan. But his wrath was 
appeased by one of his servants : he obeyed 
the command, dipped himself seven times 
in Jordan, and was healed. And now he 
desired to offer presents. He had received 
a wholesome lesson. His pride was abated ; 
and he was convinced that Jehovah was the 
only God. But, with a lingering notion that 
the God of Israel's power was in some 
measure connected v/ith Israelitish ground, 
he asked for two mules' burden of earth to 
erect therewith an altar to Jehovah in his 
own land. To him alone he would himself 
sacrifice, but still he would attend the king 
his master to the house and worship of Rim- 
mon. Elisha's reply has been misunderstood. 
It expressed neither approbation nor disap- 
probation. It was just a commendation of 
the Syrian to the Lord, leaving him to God's 
further guidance and grace (2 Kings v.). 
Naaman's cure is alluded to by our Lord 
(Luke iv.27). 

NAA'MATHITE. The designation of 
Zophar, one of the friends of Job (Job ii. 11, 
xi. 1, XX. 1, xiii. 9). The place from which 
this designation is derived has not been 



satisfactorily ascertained. See Carey, The 
Boole of Job, note on ii. 11. 

NA'AMITBS. A family of Benjamin, de- 
scended from Naaraan (Numb, xxvi, 40). 

NA'ARAH (a girl, handmaid). One of the 
wives of Ashur, a descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron, iv. 5, 6). 

NA'ARAI {id.). One of David's warriors 
(1 Chron. xi. 37), called also Paarai (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 35). 

NA'ARAN {juvenile). A border-place of 
Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 28) ; probably iden- 
tical with 

NA'ARATH (a girl, handmaid) (Josh, xvi. 
7), supposed to be not far from Jericho. 

NA'ASHON {enchanter) (Exod. vi. 23). 
See Nahshon. 

NAAS'SON (Matt. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 32). A 
Greek form of Naashon orNAHSHON, v/hicli 
see. 

NA'ATEUS (1 Esdr. ix. 31). 

NA'BAL {foolish, impious). A man of the 
house of Caleb, who had large possessions 
in Carmel (of Juda,h). He treated David 
very churlishly and was saved from the 
disastrous consequence by his wife Abigail, 
whom David married after Nabal's death 
(1 Sam. XXV., xxvii, 3, xxx. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 2, 
iii. 3). Nabal's character is sufficiently de- 
picted in the history, obstinate, low-minded, 
and sensual, whom even his own dependents 
did not dare to warn of the danger his folly 
had provoked, but a very coward when 
after his debauch he learned from A.bigail 
the whole truth. 

NABABI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 44). Zechariah 
(Neh. viii. 4), 

NA'BATHITES (1 Macc. v. 25). The de- 
scendants of Nebaioth. 

NA'BOTH {fruit, produce) . An inhabitant 
of Jezreel whose sad story is graphically 
related in the history of Ahab's reign. Ho 
had a vineyard which the king coveted, as 
it was hard by his palace, most probably 
just outside tht city-gate. Naboth refused 
to sell or exchange it. Jezebel the queen, 
therefore, devised a wicked plan. She 
ordered a fast to be proclaimed as if some 
heavy guilt were on the city, and then 
Naboth, who as a chief citizen occupied a 
foremost place, to be accused of blasphemy. 
False witnesses having been procured, 
Naboth was convicted, and stoned, and as it 
would seem his sons with him (2 Kings ix. 
26). Ahab then v/ent to Jezreel to seize the 



nabtjchodonosor] ^l)t ^rtaixxv^ at 



616 



vineyard, but was met there by Elijah, who 
pronounced a fearful sentence on him and 
on his house : which struck for a while the 
miserable king with terror, and led to a 
temporary repentance. But the deserved 
vengeance was only suspended. The dogs 
licked Ahab's blood (1 Kings sxi., xxii. 38 ; 2 
Kings ix. 21, 25, 26, 35), and devoured Je- 
zebel ; and their son Joram's dead body was 
cast out upon the very plat of ground which 
had been illegally wi'ested from Ivaboth. 

NABUCHODON'OSOB (1 Esdr. i. 40, 41, 
45, 48) Nebuchadnezzar. The name also 
occurs for some other Assyrian or Babv- 
Innish king in Tob. xiv. 15 ; Judith i. 1, and 

1 elsewhere. 

NA'CHON {prepared). The name given 

i to the threshing-floor by which Uzzah died 
(2 Sam. vi. 6). It is also caUed (1 Chron. 
xiii. 9) Chidoi?, which see. 

j Iv^A'CHOB. {snoHing').—! (Josh. xxiv. 2). A 
Greek form for ISTahor, Abraham's brother. 

i —2 (Luke iii. 24). Abraham's grandfather. 

: See jSTahor. 

j NA'DAB {spontaneous, liberal).— 1. The 
1 eldest sou of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23, xxiv. 1, 9, 
i xxviii. 1 ; Lev. x. 1 ; ISTumb. iii. 2, 4, xxvi. 
i 60, 61 ; 1 Chron. vi. 3, xxiv. 1, 2). See Abihu. 
i —2. The son and successor of Jeroboam I. 
; king of Israel, whose sinful conduct he 
imitated. He reigned two years (954-953 
i B.C.), and while engaged at the siege of 
Gibbethon he and all his house were slain 
by Baasha (1 Kings xiv. 20, xv. 25-31).— 3. 
One of Judah's posterity (1 Chron. ii. 28. 
; 30).— 4. A Benjamite, one of the family 
\ from which Saul descended (viii. 30, ix. 36). 
: NABAB'ATHA (1 Mace. ix. 37). The 
I scene of an attack upon a wedding-party, in 
revenge for the death of John or Joannan, 
one of the Maccabeau family. The locality 
has not been ascertained, 
j ISTAG'GE {illuminating). One of our Lord's 
i ancestors (Luke iii. 25). 
, NAH'ALAL Qpasture). A city of Zebulun, 
I afterwards assigned to the Levites (Josh. 
; xxi. 35) : it is also called Nahallal and 
; Kahalol. It is probably identical with the 
, modern Malul, a village about four miles 

from Nazareth in the plain of Esdraelon. 
J NAHA'LIEL (valley of God). A station 
I of the Israelites on the confines of Moab 
: (Numb. xxi. 19). Mr. Grove thinks it may 
be the Wady Enclieyle (Smith's Diet, of the 
' Bible, vol. ii. p. 456). 

NAH'ALLAL, NAH'ALOL (jmsture) 
I (Josh. xix. 15 ; Judges i. 30). See Xahalal. 
; NA'HAM {consolation). One of Judah's 
j posterity (1 Chron. iv. 19). 
j NAHAMA'NI {compassionate). One who 
j returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 7). The 
name is omitted in Ezra ii. 2. 

NAH'ARAI, NAH'ARI {snorer). One of 
David's warri'ors (2 Sam. xxiii. 37 ; 1 Chron. 
xi. 39). He is said to have been Joab's 
armour-bearer. 

NA'HASH {serpent).—'!. A king of the 
Ammonites who laid siege to Jabesh-gilead, 
and required as the condition of a treaty 
that the inhabitants should lose their right 
eyes in order to disable them for military 
service. The fear of this chief seems to 
I have been one of the reasons which in- 
[ clincd the Israelites to desire a monarchical 



government. It was the first act of Saul 

to defeat the invader and deliver Jabesh. 
At a subsequent period offices of friendship 
passed between Nahash and David ; who 
wished also to maintain amicable relations 
with Hanun the Ammonitish king's succes- 
sor, but was insulted by him in the person 
of his ambassadors (1 Sam. xi. 1-12, xii, 12 ; 
2 Sam. X. 1-5 ; 1 Chron. xix. 1-5). It is pro- 
bable that the same Nahash is intended in 
2 Sam. xvii. 27.-2. The parent of Abigail, 
David's sister or half-sister, the mother of i 
Amasa (25). Conjecture has been busy as I 
to the person here intended. Some have ; 
supposed this Nahash to be Jesse, others ; 
Jesse's wife the mother of all his children. ! 
The least probable guess is that this Nahash j 
was the king of Ammon ; for the startling ■ 
consequence would be that Jesse had mar- : 
ried the concubine or divorced wife of a : 
heathen king. To entitle such a notion to • 
a degree of credit there should be some show i 
of evidence for it. I 

NA'HATH {rest).—l. A grandson of Esau i 
(Gen. xxxvi. 13, 17; 1 Chron. i. 37).— 2. A ' 
Kohathite Levite (vi. 26) called also Toah j 
(34).— 3. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah 
(2 Chron. xxxi. 13). 

NAH'BI {hidden). The spy selected from 
the tribe of Naphtali (Numb. xiii. 14). 

NA'HOR {snoning).—!. One of the post- 
diluvian patriarchs, father of Terah and ' 
grandfather of. .Abraham (Gen. xi. 22-25; 1 ; 
Chron. i. 26). He is called Nachor in Luke I 
iii. 34.-2. A son of Terah. It would seem 
that he must have accompanied his father 
to Haran ; for it is sometimes styled the 
city of Nahor (Gen. xi. 26, 27, 29, xxii. 20-24, 
xxiv. 10, 15, 24, 47, xxix. 5, xxxi. 53). He is 
called Nachor in Josh. xxiv. 2. 

NAH'SHON {enchantei-). The prince of 
the tribe of Judah in the wilderness (Numb, i 
i. 7, ii. 3, vii. 12, 17, x. 14 ; Ruth iv. 20 ; 1 ; 
Chron. ii. 10, 11). He is also called Naashun 
(Exod. vi. 23) and Naasson (Matt. i. 4 : Luke 
iii. 32). 

NAHUM {consolation). One of the minor 
prophets who is designated (Nah. i. 1) 'the 
Elkoshite.' It seems that there was an 
Elkosh, or Elkosha, in Galilee; and this i 
there can be little doubt was the birth- 
place or residence of Nahum. There is, 
however, an Assyrian Elkosh on the east ■ 
of the Tigris, not far from Nineveh; and 
here it is supposed by Ewald and others 
that the prophet lived (Ewald, Die Pro- 
pheteii des A.B., vol. i. pp. 349, 350), being one 
of the Israelites carried captive into As- i 
Syria. This they think accounts for the | 
minute acquaintance he shows with As- ' 
Syrian affairs beyond that of any other pro- 
phet, and for the small reference he makes ! 
to the kingdom of Judah which still existed. 
The so-called tomb of Nahum is still shown 
at this Elkosh ; but there can be no stress 
laid on this fact : the tomb is not older than i 
Christian times. Taking all the circuni- I 
stances into consideration, it seems most ! 
probable that Nahum lived and prophesied ' 
in Palestine ; in support of which view Hen- j 
dersou {Minor Prophets, Pref. to Nahum) : 
produces several passages in which phrases i 
occur similar to those in Isaiah (comp. Nah I 
i. 8 with Isai. viii. 8 ; Nali. i. 9 with Isai, x. 



617 



[NAME 



23 ; Nail. ii. 10 with Isai. xxiv. 1 and xxi. 3 , 
Nah. i. 15 with Isai. lii. 7), and hence infers 
that Nahum, being contemporary with 
Isaiah, must have lived near him, and have 
horrowed from his writings. 

The date of jSTahum may he ascertained 
with tolerable exactness. It must of course 
have been before the capture of Nineveh, 
and most likely some considerable time 
before. Then there are historical refer- 
ences to suffering endured at the hands 
of the Assyrians. Thus, Nah. i. 11 pro- 
bably intends Sennacherib ; and 14 is a 
threatening against the same king: ii. 13 
alludes to the Assyrian messengers who 
bore Sennacherib's summons to Jerusalem ; 
and i. 9, 12 conveys a comfortable message 
that the Assyrian power should not attack 
Judah a second time. There is another note 
of time in iii, 8-10, where the capture of 
' populous No,' i.e. Thebes, is mentioned 
I as of late occurrence. History does not 
i record this ; but, as Bleek remarks {Einleit- 
I ung in das A.T., p. 543), we may connect the 
I passage with Isai. xx., and may reasonably 
! believe that the desolation referred to was 
i prior to the fourteenth of Hezekiah, the 
{ date of the Assyrian invasion of Judah. 
i Hence we shall hardly err in placing Nahum 
! in Hezekiah's reign. 

I NA'HUM, THE BOOK OF (720-698 B.C.). 
i This book is placed in our bibles seventh 
I among those of the minor prophets. Thepur- 
! pose is to foreshow the entire destruction of 
I the Assyrian empire, and specially of its 
1 metropolis Nineveh ; with which is inter- 
j mingled consolation for tlie prophet's coun- 
i trymen who should be delivered from the 
i oppressor and hear the happy news of 
I peace. The whole is one undivided poem ; 
j in which, after an introduction (i. 1-8) de- 
j scribing in lofty terms the righteous power 
I of God tempered with abundant mercy, the 
; prophet notices the destruction of Senna- 
cherib's army (9-12), and announces his 
death, with good news for Judah, to have 
doubtless its full signiflcancy in Messianic 
times (13-15). Then the fall and utter deso- 
lation of Nineveh is predicted with a sin- 
gular minuteness of detail (ii., iii,). 

Nahum's composition must be placed 
high among those of the minor prophets. 
; He evinces great poetic power: his lan- 
I guage is pure, his images beautifully ap- 
1 propriate. It may be added that he appears 
I occasionally to refer to tlie Pentateuch : 
; comp. Nah. i. 2, 3 with Exod, xx. 5, xxxiv. 
I 6, 7, 14 ; Numb. xiv. 18 ; Deut. iv. 24. The de- 
\ struction of Nineveh was almost a century 
I after the delivery of Nahum's prophecy. 
Commentaries on Nahum are included in 
those on the minor prophets. 
NA'IDUS (1 Esdr. ix. 31). 
NAIL. There are two Hebrew words 
rendered 'nail' or 'pin' in our version. 
Tathed, from a root signifying to fix fast, 
is a peg or nail forced into a wall (Isai. xxii. 
25 ; Ezek. xv. 3). It is also a stake driven 
into the ground to secure a tent, a tent-pin 
(Judges iv. 21, 22 ; Isai. xxxiii, 20, where 
•stakes'). This word is sometimes used 
(Judges xvi. 14), for the pin of the web, 
that by which the cloth was fastened in a 
loom. Hence, to drive a peg, to fasten a 



nail, i.e. in the wall,is a metaphorical expres- 
sion denoting to render firm or stable (Isai. 
xxii. 23 : comp. Ezra ix. 8). And, further, a 
nail or peg means a prince, who supports 
the weight of state affairs (Zech. x. 4). Mis- 
meroth, found only in the plural, denotes 
pointed things, nails of iron (1 Chron. xxii. 
3), or of gold (2 Chron. iii. 9). This is the 
word used in Eccles. xii. 11 : the words of 
the wise penetrate, sink deep into the heart. 

A female captive, described as for a month 
bewailing her parents (Deut. xxi. 10-13), is i 
said to pare her nails. The exact meaning | 
of the passage is disputed. Most probably j 
at the beginning of the month the head was i 
shaven, and through the whole time the 
nails neglected. The word implying nail of 
the finger is sometimes used for a point or 
style for writing (Jer. xvii. 1, marg.). 

NA'IN (pleasant). A town in Galilee, 
once a considerable place, but now little 
more than a cluster of ruins, still retaining 
its ancient name. It was here that our 
Lord raised the widow's son (Luke vii. 11 
17). • It is in keeping,' says Dr. Thomson 
(Tlie Land and the Book, p. 445), ' with the one 
historic incident that renders it dear to 
the Christian, that its only antiquities are ! 
tombs. These are situated mainly on the I 
east of the village ; and it was in that direc- | 
tion, I presume, that the widow's son was ! 
being carried on that memorable occasion, i 
It took me just an hour to ride from the \ 
foot of Tabor to Nain.' j 

NAI'OTH (haMtations). A place close by : 
Ramah, where Samuel dwelt, and whither 
David fled to him (1 Sam. xix. 18-23, xx. 1). : 
Winer supposes it either a suburb of Ka- 
mah, or perhaps the buildings of the school 
of the prophets there iBiU. BWB., art. *Na- i 
joth'). 

NAKED. This word is used literally to ! 
denote persons altogether unclothed (Gen. i 

ii. 25, iii. 7), or those partially uncovered, \ 
being without their upper garments (1 Sam. 
xix. 24; John xxi. 7); also figuratively 
to express the being empty of worldly I 
goods (Job i. 21); destitute of divine i 
grace and righteousness, and so defence- \ 
less (2 Chron. xxviii. 19 ; Rev. iii. 17, 18). i 
It further signifies that a thing is dis- i 
covered, laid open to the eye (Job xxvi. 6 ; 
Heb, iv. 13). j 

It may be added, in illustration of Exod. 

iii. 5, that the orientals appear with bare \ 
feet in a superior presence, or in a place : 
accounted holy: they manifest thus the I 
respect which an European shows by un- i 
covering his head. It is most probable I 
that the Hebrew priests officiated with : 
naked feet : see Pict Bible, note on Lev; I 
viii. 6. j 

NAME. A child sometimes received its '> 
name immediately upon its birth (Gen. i 
XXXV. 18) ; sometimes at the time of cir- 1 
cumcision (Luke i. 59). The mother fre- I 
quently gave the name (Gen. xxix. 32-35), { 
occasionally the father (xxxv. 18). Names ; 
were significant, and were suggested by i 
some circumstance connected with the 
birth (xxxviii. 29, 30), some hope of the 
parent (xxx. 24), some prophetic anticipa- 
tion (V. 29), some event of joy or sorrow (1 
Sam. i. 30 ; 1 Chron. vii. 23), some suggestivG 



i 



Crea^ttri) cf 6is 



nanea] 

divine command (Gen. XYi. 11, 15). Names 
vere freauently changed, or a fresh one 
superadded, sometimes by God in making 
a covenant witli an individual, or desig- 
nating him to some office (xvii. 5, 15, 
xxxii. 28 ; Mark iii. 16, 17). Occasionally 
also an appellation was affixed as a mark of 
judgment for some great sin (Jer. xx. 3), 
Sovereigns, moreover, changed the names 
of vassal princes (2 Kings xxiii. 34, xxiv. 17), 
or of those they raised to dignities ; or, if 
they were foreigners, they gave them aname 
significant in the language of the country 
into which they were brought (Gen. xli. 45 ; 
Dan. 1. 7). Similarly persons often bore two 
names, sometimes those which had the 
same signification in different languages 
(John xi. 16), sometimes when the name in 
one language was altered by assuming a 
form more akin to the usage of another 
i (2 Sam. xxiii. 39, compared with Matt. i. 6). 
Names were also changed by augmentation 
or contraction (2 Kings viii. 16, 21, 24, 25), 
or by substitution of a form having the 
same meaning (2 Sam. xi. 3 compared 
with 1 Chron. iii. 5 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 17 com- 
pared with xxii. 1). But we cannot always 
account for the variety of names by which 
> the same individual is known (2 Sam. iii. 3 
compared with 1 Chron. iii. 1). As in the 
case of persons, so in that of places appella- 
tions were significantly given (Exod. xTii. 
7), and frequently the names were changed 
(Gen. xxviii. 19 ; Josh. xix. 47). The names 
by which the Deity made himself known 
were descriptive, often conveying the idea 
of covenant-blessing, as Jehovah, Jesus : 
comp. Rev. iii. 17, iv. 12, xiv. 1, xix. 12, xxii. 
! 4, and see Stoa^e. Hence the reverent es- 
timation and use of such names (Lev. xxi. 
11, 16 ; Isai. XXX. 27 ; Acts iv. 10, 12 ; Phil, 
ii. 9, 10). ' To know by name ' implies /.avour 
and friendship (Exod. xxxiii. 12, 17). 

NANJ^'A (2 Mace. i. 13, 15). A Persian 
deity, perhaps the moon-goddess, whose 
! temple Antiochus Epiphanes, fatally for 
I himself, attempted to plunder. 

NA'OMI Omj iJleasantness). The wife of 
' Elimelech. Having lost husband and sons 
\ during a sojourn in Moab she prepared in • 
\ sorrow to return to her own land, desiring 
1 that her name of joy might be changed inco 
one more suitable to her sadness. But 
i Ruth, her daughter-in-law, would not leave 
i her ; and a blessing was in store for Naomi, 
i Boaz married P^uth : a son was born to them, 
! Obed (David's grandfather), whom Naomi 
' cherished and nursed as iier own (Ruth 
i.-iv.). 

NA'PHISH {recreated). One of the sons 
' of Ishmael CGen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chron. i. 31) ; 

called also Nephish (v. 19). 
I NAPHI'SI (1 Esdi'. v. 31). Nephusim 
1 (Ezra ii. 50). 

NAPH'TALI Ony wrestling). The son of 
Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid. He had 
his name from the earnest struggles of 
Rachel with God, and in opposition to her 
sister, to obtain seed (Gen. xxx.8, xxxv.25 ; 
Exod, i. 4; 1 Chron. ii. 2). Of Naphtali's 
personal history we know nothing further 
than that he had four sons, who became 
heads of the families of the tribe (Gen. 
xlvl. 24 ; Numb. xx.vi. 48, 49). According to 



Jewish tradition he was one of the five pre- 
sented by Joseph to Pharaoh (Gen. xlvii. 2). 

The prophetic blessing which Jacob pro« 
nounced upon the tribe descended from 
Naphtali,' A hind let loose ; he giveth goodly 
words' (xlix. 21), was remarkably fulfilled 
in the times of the judges. The men of this 
tribe have been considered deficient in 
self-reliance. They left some of their cities 
in the hands of the Canaanites (Judges i. 
33) : they did not like to combat alone but 
joined themselves with Zebulun (v. 18) : 
their hero Barak was unwilling to go to bat- 
tle unless Deborah would accompany him 
(iv. 8). 'But, when he had once conquered 
his hesitation, he and his soldiers shone 
by' their heroic devotion and unwearied ala- 
crity: conspicuous "on the heights of the 
field," they gave their countrymen a bril- 
liant example of indomitable fortitude ; so 
that .... they were compared with the 
"graceful hind," which, light-footed apd 
swift, easily eludes its persecutors on the 
rAouutain-heights. But, not satisfied with 
having bravely fought in the war, Naph- 
taii helped to celebrate it by the immortal 
song which is attributed to " Deborah, and 
Barak the son of Abinoam" (v. 1). Even ■ 
if the tribe gave no other proof of its 1 
poetical genius, of the careful culture of | 
the mind, and of the artistic conceptions of j 
which it was capable, it amply deserved the ' 
encomium bestowed upon it, that it uttered : 
"words of beauty." Thus the text is en- : 
tirely intelligible by a reference to the ; 
time of Sisera and Barak' (Kalisch, Comv.i. \ 
on Old Test. Gen., pp. 760, 761). The number ! 
of the males in the tribe of Naphtali at the | 
first census after leaving Egypt was 53,400 : " 
its place on march was the rear-guard 
(Numb. ii. 29, 30). At the time of the se- 
cond census the number had diminished : it 
was then only 45,400 (xxvi. 50). 

The blessing of Moses was emphatic 
(Deut. xxiii. 23) ; and fully to interpret it 
we must examine the location of the tribe 
in Palestine. Its possession was in the 
north, bordered by the Anti-libanus, which 
seems to have partially extended into this 
territory, so that mention is made of a 
'moimtain of Naphtali' (Josh. xx. 7). 
Southwards Naphtali abutted on Zebulun, 
iu the west on Asher : in the east it 
reached to the Jordan and the lakes of Me- 
rom and Galilee, and, according to Josephus 
even to Damascus {Antiq., lib. v. 1, § 22). It 
is difficult to trace exactly the boundary- 
line ; as many of the places mentioned (Josh, 
xix. 33, 34) have not been identified. And 
there is one remarkable pare of the de- 
scription that the coast reached ' to Judah 
upon Jordan toward the sun-rising.' That 
Naphtali could border upon the territory of 
Judah proper seems impossible : the fol- 
lowing explanation, therefore, has been 
offered. Jair had taken and occupied a 
number of small towns on the east of the 
Jordan. But Jair, though by the mothei-'s 
side descended from Mauasseh, was by the 
fathei-'s side a descendant of Judah (1 
Chron. ii. 21, 22). Accordingly his posses- 
sions locally in Manasseh were reckoned to 
Judah ; and it was to the point opposite 
these that Naphtali extended. Now this 



619 MMt ^twM'tXi^t. [nathanael 



territory situated as just described was 
peculiarly favoured in climate and soil. 
Kaliscla {uM supr.) referring to Josephus, 
dwells on ' the rare productiveness of this 
part of the country, appearing like " a hap- 
py contention of the seasons, each laying 
claim upon the district," and bringing 
forth, during ten months of the year, both 
the fruits of the cold, hot, and temperate 
zones, as walnuts, dates, and olives ; as if 
it had been "the ambition of nature to 
force plants, naturally enemies to one ano- 
1 ther, to agree together." ' Surely Naphtali 
was ' satisfied with favour, and full with 
the blessing of the Lord.' It possessed, too, 
i ' the west (by which some understand the 
' sea of Galilee) and the south,' the south, 
i that is, in respect to the northern Dan 
mentioned in the preceding verse. Dr. 
Thomson's testimony is to the same effect ; 
■ and it is the rather cited because it replies 
to an objection sometimes made that the 
Israelites could not have had the difficulty in 
extirpating wild beasts which we find repre- 
I seuted in scripture. ' It is,' he says, ' with a 
i kind of pleasure altogether peculiar that 
! one wanders over the park-like hills and 
* through the solemn ravines of Naphtali. 
! With a sort of breathless expectation :you 
dive into wild gorges deeper and deeper, 
ever on the watch for a wolf, wild boar, or 
wild Arab, and held wide awake, hour after 
' hour, communing with the grand, thebeau- 
i tiful, and the sublime. It is only by thus 
exploring the rocky mysteries of the country 
! that wo can discover the wisdom of that di- 
j vinely-established process of exterminating 
I the original inhabitants little by little before 
the Israelites. " Thou mayest not consume 
them at onee, lest the beasts of the field 
i increase upon thee " (Exod. xxiii. 29, 30). I 
am not surprised to find this matter of 
wild beasts and their depredations often 
referred to in the bible, nor to read of lions, 
! leopards, and bears in the very heart of the 
I land. The lion, it is true, has been driven 
I back into the desert ; but, notwithstanding 
! the multiplication of fire-arms, and other 
i modes of destruction far more effective 
than the ancients possessed, these wadies 
now abound in large leopards, in bears, 
wolves, hycenas, and many other kinds of 
destructive animals' (27ie Lajid and the 
Book, p. 286). 

A 'ruler' of this tribe was appointed 
by David (1 Chron. xxvii. 19) ; and under 
Solomon we find it one of the commissa- 
riat districts (1 Kings iv. 15). One of the 
refuge-cities, Kadesh, stood within its ter- 
ritory (Josh. xxi. 22). At the division of 
the kingdom Naphtali, of course, was a 
part of the northern monarchy ; and its 
people shared the desolations deserved by 
the sins of Israel. Their territory was 
ravaged by Ben-hadad, king of Syria (1 
Kings XV. 20) ; and the inhabitants were, at 
a later period, carried into captivity by 
Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings xvi. 29). But on 
- Naphtali and Zebulun there was to dawn a 
brighter light. It was predicted by an 
ancient prophet (Isai. ix. 1, 2) : it was ful- 
filled when the Redeemer lived and taught 
and did his wondrous works in GalUee 
CMatt. iv. 1.5, 16). For Galilee comprised 



the districts of those two tribes and of 
Asher and Issachar. Through many of the 
towns and villages of Naphtali spread widely 
the glorious gospel of Christ. The present 
state of this part of Palestine is sufficiently 
indicated in the extracts which have been 
made. In the New Testament Naphtali is 
called Nephthalim, 

NAPR'THAB (2 Macc. 1. 20-36). A sub- 
stance called also Nephij-of which a legend- 
ary account is given as found in a pit where, 
before the captivity, the sacred fire was 
hidden. Tradition identifies the pit with 
the Btr Eyuh close by Jerusalem. 

NAPH'TUHIM {horder-peovle). An Egyp- 
tian tribe, descendants of Mizraim (Gen. x. 
13 ; 1 Chron. i. 11). Kalisch supposes them 
the inhabitants of the Libyan town Napata, 
in the north of the province of Meroe. It 
was a rich and magnificent town, and a 
royal residence ; of which very remarkable 
monuments exist among the ruins. It was 
well situated for commerce, and flourished 
for many centuries, till it was, 22 B.C., taken 
by Augustus and plundered by Petronius ; 
after which it rapidly declined (Comm. on 
the Old Test. Gen., pp. 265, 266). 

l^APKIN (Luke xix. 20 ; John xi. 44, xx. 
7). This was a handkerchief, the Greek 
name being derived from its use of wiping 
off perspiration. In the two places last re- 
ferred to, it was employed to tie up the 
chin of a corpse. 

NAPtCIS'SUS. A person to some of whose 
household, being Christians, St. Paul sent 
salutation (Rom. xvi. 11). It is often sup- 
posed that the famous freedman and fa- 
vourite of the emperor Claudius is meant. 
But this is questionable. That N'arcissus 
was executed at the beginning of Nero's 
reign; and the epistle was written later. 
Besides, Narcissus was probably not an un- 
common name. 

NARD (Mark xiv. 3, marg.). See Spike- 
nard. 

NAS'BAS (Tob. xi. 18). One of Tobit's 
relatives. 

NA'SITE (1 Esdr. v. 32). Neziah (Ezra ii. 
54). 

NA'SOB (1 Mace. xi. 67). The Hazor of 

the bible. 

NA'THAN (given, sc. of God).— 1. One of 
the sons of David, born in Jerusalem (2 
Sam. V. 14 ; 1 Chron. iii. 5, xiv. 4; Zech. xii. 
12; Luke iii. 31).— 2. A prophet, who deliver- 
ed the divine message to David after his 
sin with Bath-sheba : we find him also tak- 
ing part in other transactions of the time 
(2 Sam. vii. 1-17, xii. 1-25 ; 1 Kings i. 8-45 ; 1 
Chron. xvii. 1-15 ; 2 Chron. Ix. 29, xxix. 25 ; 
Psal. li., title). Probably also it is he that is 
mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 5.-3. A resident at 
Zobah, father of one of David's warriors (2 
Sam. xxiii. 36 ; 1 Chron. xi. 38).— 4. A de- 
scendant of Judah (ii. 36).— 5. One whom 
Ezra sent in order to obtain the company 
of some priests and Levites (Ezra viii. 16). 
—6. A person who had married a foreign 
wife (X. 39). 

NATHAN'AEL (given of God). A native 
of Cana, one of the earliest disciples of 
our Lord. He was brought to Jesus by 
Philip, and was pronounced ' an Israelite 
indeed^ in whom' was 'no guile' (John i 



nathakael] 



620 



45-51). Natlianael was afterwards witli our 
Saviour at the remarkable interview by tlie 
sea of Tiberias subsequently to the resur- 
rection (xxi. 2). Tf e can scarcely imagine 
any but apostles present on this occasion ; 
but the first three evang-elists do not men- 
tion Is athanael as an apostle, or at all. They 
do, however, mention Bartholomew, and 
generally in conjunction with Philip, ^ost 
probably, then, Kathauael was Babtholo- 
MEW, which see. 

NATHAX'AEL.—l aEsdr.i.9). Nethaneel 
(2 Chron. sxxv. 9).- 2 (l Esdr. ix. 22). Ketha- 
neel (Ezra x. 22).— 3 (Judith viii. 1). An an- 
cestor of Judith. 

NATRAXI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 31). Kathan 
(Ezra X. 39). 

Is A'THAX-^IE'LECH {placed, i.e. appoint- 
ed, ly the king). An eunuch or officgr of 
state in Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiii. 11). 
KATIOI^', 2s ATIOXS, See Gextiles. 
NATUPtE. This word variously implies 
fche regular course of things according to 
God's ordinance (Rom. i. 26, 27), habit, feel- 
ing of propriety, common sense or general 
custom (ii. 14 ; 1 Cor. xi. 14), birth or natural 
descent (Gal. ii. 15), essence (Gal. iv. 8), 
qualities or dispositions of the mind, 
whether good (2 Pet. i. 4) or evil (Eph. ii. 3). 

XA'IJM (consolation'). One in the line of 
our Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 25). 

InA^^ES a Kings vii. 33). The original 
word put here for the central part of a wheel 
implies protuberance. Elsewhere it is the 
'bosses' of a shield (Job xv. 26), and has 
other meanings. 

KA'VE (Ecclus. xlvi. 1). Nun, the father 
of Joshua. 

NAVY (1 Kings ix. 26, 27, x. 11, 22). See 
Ship. ^ , 

ITAZ'AREKE. "When our Lord was taken 
as a child to Nazareth, which thus became 
for many years his dwelling-place, the evan- 
gelist records this as a fulfilment of pro- 
phecy (Matt. ii. 23), citing no particular 
place, but referring generally to 'the 
prophets,' who predicted Messiah's humble 
and despised condition (e.g. Psal. xxii. 6 ; 
Isai. lii., liii.). The words, ' He shall be called 
a Nazarene,' do not occur in the writings of 
the Old Testament ; but the thing or mean- 
ing conveyed by them is sufficiently ob- 
vious. For the Galileans generally were 
scorned ; but the people of Nazareth were 
proverbially stigmatized. So that Jesus, 
living at Nazareth, was from that very cir- 
cumstance contemned ; and we find in the 
course of his public career his connection 
with that town repeatedly objected to him, 
f.s a great reason why his pretensions could 
not be allowed (John i. 46, vii. 41, 52). Most 
iu'^tlv, therefore, does St. Matthew note 
that event, which branded him with an ili- 
omeued name 'Jesus of Nazareth' (comp. 
Actsxxiv.5\ as an exact fulfilment of wliat 
ancient seers had foretold. It is an error to 
connect Matt. ii. 23 with Isai. xi., from a 
fancied relation of the original Hebrew 
word there translated 'branch,' with the 
name Xazarcth. 

K VZ'AllETH (perhaps separated 1). A 
town of lower Galilee, lu the territory of 
Xcbuliin. „ , ^, 

' Four miles/ says a late traveller, * south 



of the strong Greek city of Sephoris, hidden 

away among gentle hills, then covered from 
the base to the crown with vineyards and 
fig-trees, lay a natural nest or basin of rich 
red and white earth, star-like in shape, about 
a mile in width, and wondrously fertile. 
Along the scarred and chalky slope of the 
hierhest of these hills spread a small and 
lovely village, which, in a land where every 
stone seemed to have a story, is remarkable 
as having had no public history, and no 
distinguishable native name. No great 
road led up to this sunny nook. No traffic 
came into it : no legions marched through 
it. Trade, war, adventure, pleasure, pomp, 
passed by it, flowing from west to east, from 
east to west, along the Ptomanroad. But 
the meadows were a-glow with wheat and 
barley. Near the low grotmd ran a belt of 
gardens, fenced with loose stones, in which 
myriads of green figs, red pomegranates, 
anci 2-olden citrons ripened in the summer 
suu." Hish up the slopes, which were lined 
and planted like the Rhine at Bingen,hung 
vintages of purple grapes. In the plain 
among the corn, and beneath the mulberrj'- 
trees and figs, shone daisies, poppies, tulips, 
lilies, and anemones, endless in their pro- 
fusion. briUiant in their dyes. Low down 
on the hill-side sprang a well of water, 
bubbling, plentiful, and sweet ; and above 
this fountain of life, in a long street 
straggling from the fountain to the syna- 
gogue, rose the homesteads of many shep- 
herds, craftsmen, and vine-dressers. It was 
a lovely and humble place, of which no poet, 
no ruler, no historian of Israel had ever yet 
taken note' (W. H. Dixon, Tlie Boly Land, 
1865). 

ISO : it is not mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment ; but we read enough of it in gospel 
history. Here Mary resided when the angel 
announced to her that of her w-orab Messiah 
should be born (Luke i. 26-28). From Naza 
reth Joseph went with Mary to Beth-lehem, 
to the taxing (ii. 4, 5), and at Beth-lehem, 
according to prophecy, the divine Child was 
born (Matt. ii. 5, 6 ; Luke ii. 6) ; and there, 
probably, thev intended to settle, believing 
it most fitting that the heir of David's 
throne should dwell in David's city. But 
first the cruel quest of Herod, and then, 
after their return from Egypt, the fear of 
Archelaus induced them, by heavenly mo- 
nition, to return to their original abode at 
Is'azareth, where our Lord's Infancy and 
youth were spent (Matt. ii. 13-23; Luke ii. 
39-51). It was from Nazareth that Jesus went 
to the Jordan to be baptized by John (Mark 
i. 9) ; and it would seem that he returned 
thither, though for but a brief season. 
T7hen in Galilee, after his baptism, he was 
chiefly at Capernaum or Cana (John ii. 1, 12, 
iv. 46). His early Judean ministry suc- 
ceeded : subsequently to \Yhich he visited 
Nazareth, and preached there in the syna- 
£rogue. His family was probably still resi- 
dent in the place. But so maddened were 
the people at his address that they a^ 
tempted to precipitate him from the hill on 
which their city was built. And thence- 
forth Capernaum was his liome, so far as 
the lledeeuier had an earthly liome (Matt 
iv. 13 ; Luke iv. 16-31), though it is possible 



621 m'bU ^waMttSQt. 



that one more visit was paid to Nazaretli : 
see Jesfs, pp. 466, 467. We afterwards hear 
little of the place except as a designation of 
our Lord, sometimes merely descriptive 
(Matt, xxi, 11 ; John i. 45), but most gene- 
rally hy way of reproach (Matt. xxvi. 71 ; 
John xviii. 5, 7, xix. 19); for proverbially no 
good thing could come out of Nazareth 
(i. 46). 

Nazareth lies on the western side of a 
narrow vale, to the north of the plain of 
Esdraelon. It is south of Cana, an hour and 
ahalf from Tabor, eight hours from Tiberias, 
and about equi-distant from the lake of 
Gennesaret and the Mediterranean. It 
grew into some importance at the time of 
the crusades, and has now, under the name 
en-Ndzirali, about 3000 inhabitants. Many 
places are shown as scenes of events con- 
nected with our Lord's history, such as the 
cave of the annunciation, the kitchen of 
Mary, the workshop of Joseph, the dining- 
table of our Lord and his apostles, the syna- 
gogue where h© read the prophet Isaiah, 
and the mount of precipitation. It is need- 
less to say that most of these rest on no suffi- 
cient authority. The precipice is certainly 
well suited to the purpose with which the 
Kazarenes were actuated ; but it is two 
miles from the modern town. Dr. Thomson, 
indeed, mentions a ruin much nearer to it, 
where he was told tho ancient Nazareth 
stood, higher therefore than the present; 
but he adds, ' On my way back through :he 
Upper part of the town, I found precipices 
enough for all the requirements of the nar- 
rative in Luke. Most of them, it is true, 
appear to be partly artificial ; but doubtless 
there were some of the same sort in ancient 
days.' He observed, too, the bold immodest 
aspect of the girls to be found at the foun- 
tain of the annunciation (_The Land and the 
Book, pp. 431, 432). Shut in by hills— four- 
teen they are said to be— Nazareth is hot, and 
the views are confined. But from \Ae so- 
called mount of precipitation there is a 
noble prospect. 

NAZ'ARITE. A person separated and de- 
voted to the Lord by a special vow, the 
terms of which were carefully prescribed 
(Numb. vi. 1-21). It has been imagined that 
this kind of vow already existed in Egypt, 
and that it was thence adopted into Israel 
with particular regulations. There is, how- 
ever, no certain proof of this. Either male 
or female might become a Nazarite. 

The restrictions of the vow were three- 
fold. There must be entire abstinence from 
all strong drink, from the juice of the grape, 
and from every thing belonging to the vine. 
A similar prohibition was given to the 
priests when performing the service of their 
ministry (Lev. x. 9) ; that holiness being in 
both cases signified and required, without 
which no man shall see the Lord. The 
second injunction was that the hair of the 
Nazarite was to grow, no razor touching his 
head all the days of iis separation. The in- 
tention of this prohibition has been ques- 
tioned. Perhaps the explanation of Dr. 
Fairbairn is as reasonable as any. Referring 
to the expression of St. Paul that long hair 
In a man is ordinarily a sign of effeminate 
weakness (1 Cor. xi. 14), he argues that ' the 



[keapous 



Nazarite, who gave himself up by a solemn 
vow of consecration to God, and who shoul(? 
therefore ever feel the authority and the 
power of his God upon him, most fitly wore 
his hair long, as the badge of his entire and 
willing subjection to the law of his God. 
By the wearing of this badge he taught the 
church then, and the church indeed of all 
times, that the natural power and authority 
of man, which in nature is so apt to run out 
into self-will, stubbornness, and pride, must 
in grace yield itself up to the direction and 
supremacy of Jehovah. The true child of 
God has renounced all claim to the control 
and mastery of his own condition. He feels 
he is not his own, but bought with a price, 
and therefore bound to glorify God with his 
body and spirit which are his' (Typol. oj 
Script, book iii. chap, iii, sect. viii. vol. ii.p. 
391). The third restriction was, like that 
laid upon the high priest (Lev. xxi. 10-12), 
that the Nazarite should not defile himself 
in any case for the dead, indicating not 
merely the purity which every one set apart 
for God should cultivate, but more pointedly 
that, being alive to God, he has nothing to 
do with that death which is sin's penalty, and 
with the sin of which death is the wages. 
If unavoidably the Nazarite became so de- 
filed, he was to shave his head, bring a tres- 
pass-offering, for the discharge of the debt 
he had thus contracted to the Lord, also a 
sin-offering, and a burnt-offering, and to 
begin again his vow ; all the time before the 
defilement being lost. And, when the term 
of the vow expired, the Nazarite brought a 
sin-offering, for he was still a sinful crea- 
ture, a burnt-offering, and a peace-offering, 
with the usual appendages, his hair being 
shorn or shaven, and cast into the fire, 
under the sacrifice of the peace-offerings, 
indicating the ordinary state of friendly 
communion with God. 

The customary term of the Nazarite vow, 
according to the rabbins, was thirty days. 
But sometimes it was to continue for life. 
Three instances are recorded in scripture of 
persons so sanctified and devoted from 
their mother's womb— those of Samson 
(Judges xiii. 5), of Samuel (1 Sam. i. 11), and 
of John the Baptist (Luke i. 15). Such per- 
sons are said to have had certain sacerdotal 
privileges. It is doubtful whether the vow 
which St. Paul had upon him was that of 
the Nazarite (Acts xviii. 18 : comp. xxi. 
23-26) ; but on the question whether the 
head might be shaven out of Palestine, see 
Winer, Bibl BWB., art. 'Nasiraer.' It will 
not escape notice that the Nazarites were 
not bound to celibacy : their vow therefore 
gives no countenance to any profession in- 
volving such a restriction. 

NE'AH (motion, perhaps earthquake). A 
place on the border of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 
13). 

NEAP'OLTS {neio-toiDn). A sea-port on 
the coast of the iEgean, originally belong- 
ing to Thrace, and about ten miles from 
Philippi, the frontier Macedonian town ; 
but ii. A^^s attached to the province of Mace- 
donia 1-7 Vespasian. St. Paul landed there 
on his voy^^sreto Europe (Acts xvi. 11). The 
village of Kuvalla is on the site of Neapolis, 
containing present about 5000 or 6000 



Xn-EAPvIAh] 



622 



Inhabitants : see Biblioth. Sacr., Oct., 1860, 
pp. 881-885, 892, 893. 

JS'EAPiI'AH (servant of Jehovali).—!. One 
of David's descendants (1 Cliron. iii. 22, 23). 
— 2. A Simeonite cliieftain (iv. 42), 

JSTEBA'I (x>eT]iR-ps fruit-dearer). One "wlio 
sealed the covenant (jSTeh. x. 19). 

KEBAI'OTH, ]S"EBA'JOTH (JieirjMs). ls"e- 
balotk was the eldest son of Ishmael (1 
Chron. i. 29) called IselDajoth In Gen. xxv. 
13, xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3. His descendants 
•were the Xabathfeans, a most distinguished 
Arabian tribe. Thej' originally devoted 
themselves to the feeding of cattle (Isai. 
Ix. 7) : their habits were simple, and their 
principles independent. Afterwards they 
built towns, especially the noted Petra': 
they were under a monarchical government ; 
but the power of their king was limited. 
In later times they applied themselves to 
commerce. They were plundered by Senna- 
cherib, and had wars with the Syrian tings. 
By this time their manners had deteriorated, 
and they were little better than a nation of 
robbers. But the Syrian wars curbed and 
reformed them : they had the confidence 
of more than one of the Maccabean princes; 
and it was not till the reign of Trajan that 
they were fully subjected to the Roman 
power. The extent -of their territories 
varied at different times, according to 
their successes and commercial enterprise. 
See Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 
477-482 ; and comp. an article in Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. ii., pp. 476-479. 

KEBAL'LAT ifolhj in secret). A town in- 
habited after the captivity by Benjamites. 
(Keh. xi. 34), It was probably in the terri- 
tory of Dan, on the site of the modern Beit 
NeTiQ-la, north-east of Lydda, 

KE'BAT (aspect). The father of Jeroboam 
I, (1 Kings xi. 25, xii. 2, 15, and elsewhere), 
i KE'BO (interpreter ?). One of the Assyrian 
! gods ; worshipped also withhigher honours 
; by the Babylonians ; represented by the 
I Hebrew prophet as unable to deliver the 
: great city from captivity (Isai. xlvi. 1), The 
, name Is incorporated with the appellations 
1 of severaJ of the Babylonian kings, as 
i K'abonassar, &c, ; so that he seems to have 
; been regarded as the tutelar deity of the 
royal race. He presided over literature, 
and corresponded with the Hermes or 
Mercury of the Greeks and Romans: he is 
also identified with the planet 3Iercury. 
The Assyrian monarch Pul set up a statue 
of Xebo, which is now in the British Museum 
brought from IS'imroud. Across the body of 
It is a cuneiform inscription of twelve 
lines ; the arrow-head of cuneiform writing 
being his special emblem. The town of 
I Borsippa was under his protection ; and he 
j had a temple there, repaired or re-built by 
i NebiTChadnezzar. The ruins of this temple 
! are the modern Birs Kimtiid. See Babel, 
pp. 84, 85. 

]J?:E'B0 (id.). 1. A mountain in the land 
of Moab, over-against Jericho. It was pro- 
bably a spur or summit of the ridge of 
Pisgah, belonging to the chaj,n of Abarini 
(Dcut. xxxii. 49, xxxiv. 1). It was from 
l^ebo that the Lord showed Moses the ex- 
tent of Canaan, just bef(Tre his death. Ac- 
cording to Burckhardt, the Jel>cl AttdrHs 



i is ISebo ; "but E-obinson questions the 
! identity ; and at least one other summit 
: has been suggested. See "Winer, Bibl. BWB., 
' art. 'ISTebo, 1.' — 2. A town occupied by 
I the tribe of Reuben (Xumb. xxxii. 3, 38 : 1 
, Chron. v. 8\ It would appear after the 
! captivity of the trans-Jordanic tribes to 
have fallen under the power of Moab (Isat 
XV. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. l. 22). Possibly it was 
: not far from the mountain so called; but 
' Eusebius locates it eight miles south of 
Heshbon.— 3. A place, belonging to Judah, 
called for distinction's sake 'the other 
Xebo' (Ezra ii. 29 ; Iseh. vii. 33). Perhaps 
it may be identical with the modern BcH 
2u(daJi, twelve miles north-west of Jeru- 
salem. Some of the inhabitants, who re- 
■ turned from captivity, had married strange 
wives (Ezra x. 43). It has been siipposed 




Kebo. From statue in British Museum. 

that both these to\s-n.s derived their name 
from the worship of the god ;Nebo ; or they 
may have been denominated from aHebrew 
word signifying 'high,' 

KEBUCHADXEZ'ZAR (the prince Keho's 
king, or, perhaps preferably, Xebo is the pro- 
tector against attacJO. The most celebrated 
of the kings of Babylon, great for both his 
warlike achievements, and his magnificent 
works in embellishing his capital and 
promoting the internal jirosperity of his 
dominions. His name is variously given In 
scripture, being usually Nebuchadrezzar in 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel; ;-nd it is found In 
A'ery different forms in prof ane writers. 

Kebucliadnezzarwas the son of a monarch 



623 



[nebtjchadnezzab 



generally called Kabopolassar, tbe founder 
of the great Babylonian empire. Wben 
Nabopolassar rebelled against Assyria, be 
cemented tbe alliance between blmself and 
the Medes by marrying his son Nebuchad- 
nezzar to Amuhea, daughter of the Median 
prince Astyages. In the later years of his 
father's reign Nebuchadnezzar appears to 
have headed the armies of the empire ; and 
it was under his command that the victory 
at Oarcheraish was gained over Pharaoh- 
necho's army, in the fourth year of Jehoi- 
akim, king of Judah (Jer. xlvi. 2). He is at 
that time called king, as the ostensible 
thiet of the Babylonian hosts, though he 
did not really ascend the throne till a while 
after. It would seem most probable that 
he had previously marched to Jerusalem in 
Jehoiakim's third year, put that king, who 
was a vassal of Egypt, in chains, to carry 
him to Babylon, and actually sent many of 
the young nobles of Judah and the sacred 
vessels thither (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7 ; Dan. 
i. 1, 2). Jehoiakim, however, compelled to 
Bubmit, was re-placed upon his throne ; and 
from that date began the Babylonish sub- 
jection, which lasted three years (2 Kings 
xxiv. 1). The events of the time are bo 
concisely related in scripture that it is 
confessedly difQcult to arrange them in 
their true order ; and hasty objectors have 
imagined irreconcilable discrepancies. The 
explanation of Zlindel is adopted here 
(Unters. iiber die Abfass. cles B. Daniel, pp. 
19-26). 

After the victory at Carchemish, Nebu- 
chadnezzar, who was pressing his advan- 
tages against Egj-pt, received intelligence 
of the decease of his father. He, there- 
fore, deemed it necessary to hasten back 
to Babylon, where his authority was at 
once acknowledged, and he commenced 
his actual reign, 604 B.C. (Josephus, Contr, 
A2non., lib. i. § 19). 

It was in his second year, three years 
after Daniel had been placed at the Baby- 
lonian-court (Dan.i. 5), that Nebuchadnezzar 
had his prophetic dream (ii.). It has been 
objected that it is unreasonable to suppose 
that the king would require an interpreta- 
tion of a vision which he had forgotten. 
But there Is no force in the objection. 
Nebuchadamaar very sensibly thought that, 
if the Chaldean wis© men were really pos- 
sessed of the secrets of heaven, they could 
just as easily tell him what his dream was, 
as give him the interpretation. The time 
to which we must assign the erection of 
the image in the plain of Dura is not men- 
tioned (iii.). The transaction is more of a 
political than a religious cast. Doubtless, 
as the three Jews felt, to comply with the 
king's mandate would be to transgress the 
command of Jehovah. But Nebuchad- 
nezzar's purpose seems to have been to re- 
quire an open mark of subjection to the 
symbol of his own power from the civil 
officers in the various districts and pro- 
vinces subjected to his sway. Daniel held 
then no civil office. He was attached to 
the court as ' chief of the governors over 
all the wise men :' he, therefore, was not 
required to perform this homage. 
"Whether Nebuchadnezzar made another 



personal campaign in Judea during Jehoi- 
akim's life is questionable. The scripture, 
speaking of the Jewish king's rebellion, 
says that bands of Chaldees, Syrians, Moab- 
ites, and Ammonites were sent against him, 
but is silent as to any march of the great | 
king himself (2 Kings xxiv. 2). Comp, 
Joseph., Antiq., lib. x. 6, § 3. And. when 
Jehoiachin had succeeded, it is said first 
that his servants besieged Jerusalem be- 
fore that Nebuchadnezzar besieged it (2 
Kings xxiv. 10, 11). Be this as It may, 
Jehoiachin submitted, and'his uncle Zede- 
kiah was placed on the throne, who 
afterwards rebelled; and Nebuchadnezzar's 
forces again reduced Jerusalem in his 
nineteenth year, while the wetched 
king of Judah, brought to his conqueror at 
Riblah, was blinded ; his sons having been 
previously slain before his eyes. And it is 
noted that different parties of captives 
were carried to Babylon in Nebuchad- 
nezzar's seventh (the year of Jehoiachin's 
short reign), eighteenth (just before the 
burning of Jerusalem), and twenty-third 
years (Jer. lii.). 

Little more can be said with certainty of 
the great emperor's campaigns. He be- 
sieged Tyre in the seventh year of his 
reign ; and the siege lasted on for thirteen 
years. The Egyptians attempted to relieve 
Jerusalem during the investment in Zede- 
kiah's reign (xxxvii. 5-12) ; but they were 
either defeated, or retired through fear ol 
the superior Babylonian force ; and Nebu- 
chadnezzar, after the reduction of Phoenicia 
and Judea, invaded and subdued Egypt 
(xliv. 8-13, xlvi. 13-26 ,• Ezek. xxix. 1-20) : see 
Josephus, Antiq., lib. x. 9, § 7. And, according 
to Megasthenes, quoted by Eusebius, Prcep 
Evang., lib, ix. 41, he is said to have ex- 
tended his conquests through Libya into 
Iberia or Spain. His madness (Dan. iv.) 
was probably in the latter part of his reign, 
which lasted forty-three years : he died 561 
B.C., probably upwards of eighty, and was 
succeeded by his son Evil-merodach. 

Nebuchadnezzar was not merely a con- 
queror : he was distinguished by the magni- 
ficence of his civil administration. Many 
of the great works which adorned Babylon, 
temples, palaces, the hanging- gardens, 
constructed (we are told) for the gratifica- 
tion of his queen, Amuhea, to remind her 
of h er native Median mountains, the canals, 
reservoirs, &c. &c., not in the metropolis 
alone, but in many other cities of his 
dominions, were executed by Nebuchad- 
nezzar ; a proof of which is that his name i 
is inscribed on multitudes of the bricks yet 
remaining in Babylonia. 

This monarch was, indeed, one of the 
great ones of the earth (ii. 87, 38, iv. 
36). "With vast abilities he was vain- 
glorious, passionate, and cruel; yet there 
are traits of nobleness in the way in which 
he received the intelligence of the judg- 
ment that was to befall him, and in his ac- 
count of it, also in the honour he gave to 
Daniel. How far he became really ac- 
quainted with the power of Jehovah must 
be uncertain. Inscriptions, and incidental 
notices of scripture, seem to show him de- 
voted to his god Bel-merodach ; and lie 



nebuchadsezzab] ^l)t ^VtK^UVyi at 



624 



might but regard the God of Israel as a 
local deity inferior to Bel. It would be 
pleasing to drav/, if we could, a different 
conclusion from Dan. iv. 
NEBTJCHADRBZ'ZAR (Jer. xxi. 2, 7, xxii. 

25, xxiv. 1, XXV. 1, 9, and elsewhere). See 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

NBBTJSHAS'BAN (adherent of Nebo, or 
Mercury). A chief officer (or perhaps 
eunuch) of Babylon (Jer. xxxix. 13). 

JSTEBTJZAR'-ADAN {the chief _ whom Nebo 
favours). One of the great military officers 
In the army of Nebuchadnezzar, who was 
charged to protect Jeremiah the prophet 
(2 Kings xxy. 8, 11, 20; Jer. xxxix. 9, 10, 
11, 13, xl. 1-5, xli. 10, xliii. 6, lii. 12, 15, 16, 

26, 30). 

NE'CHO, NE'CHOH {lamel). A king of 
Egypt, the second of the name, the sixth of 
the twenty-sixth dynasty. He was the son 
and successor of Psammetichus, and reign- 
ed, according to Herodotus sixteen years, 
according to Manetho six, 611-605 B.C. Pal- 
mer, however, supposes Necho to have 
reigned fifteen years, 609-594 (Egyptian 
Chronicles, vol. ii. p. 900). Neclio was a man 
of enterprise : he undertook to connect the 
Mediterranean and Bed seas by a canal ; and 
his vessels, manned by Phoenician sailors, 
are said to have circumnavigated Airica. 
See Pharaoh, 9. 

NECK^ To place the feet on the neck of 




Kocklaccs— -Egyptian. Gold, cornelian, lapis 
lazuli, and jasper. From originals in British 
Museum. 



a prostrate foe signified complete triumph 
over him (Josh. x. 24 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 41). Ta 
put the hand In the neck of another was to 
arrest him when trying to flee, importing 
therefore conquest (Gen. xlix. 8 ; Job xvl. 
12). To place a yoke upon the neck, as on 
a beast of draught, implied the reducing to 
captivity (Gen. xxvil. 40 ; Deut. xxviii. 48 ; 
Isai. X. 27 ; Jer. xxvii. 2, 8, 11, xxviii. 10-14; 
Acts XV. 10). Hence, to stiffen the neck 
was to refuse the yoke, i.e. to rebel (2 Chron 
xxxvi. 13; Neh ix. 29). The yoke of pri 




Necklaaes—Assyrian. Gold. From originals in 
British Museum, 



soners or slaves was a collar to which their 
chains might be attached. 

Ornaments were often worn about the 
neck; as they still are in most countries 
(Gen. xli. 42 ; Prov. i. 9, iii. 22). See Chain. 

NEGO'DAN (1 Esdr. v. 37). Nekoda (Bssra 
Ii. 60). 

NECROMANCER (Deut. xviii. 11). See 
Divination, Magic. 

NEDABI'AH (whom Jehovah impels). One 
of David's descendants (1 Chron. iii. 18). 

NEEDLE (Matt. xix. 24; Mark x. 25; 
Luke xviii. 25). We must suppose the 
expression in these places a proverbial one. 
Instances have been produced from tlie 
Talmud of proverbs very similar : there 
is, therefore, no occasion to imagine any 
error in the text. In Matt, xxiii. 24 a 
camel is introduced to signify something 



625 



.arge ; and there the literal interpretation 
of the words is impossible, as it is here. 
Our Lord meant by using a common proverb 
to show that the thing was exceedingly 
difficult— humanly speaking, an impossi- 
bility, whicli yet divine grace could accom- 
plish. 

NEEDLE-WORK (Exod. xxvi. 36, xxvii. 
16, xxviii. 39, xxxvi. 37, xxxviii. 18, xxxix. 
29; Judges v. 30; Psal. xlv. 14). See Em- 
broider. 

NEEMl'AS CEcclus, xlix. 13 ; 2 Mace. i. 18- 
36, ii. 13). Nehemiah, of whom the apocry- 
phal writer relates a legendary story. 

NEG'INAH (a stringed instrument) (Psal. 
Ixi. title), the singular of 

NEG'INOTH (Psalms iv., vi., liv.,lv., Ixvii , 
Ixxvi., titles ; Hab. iii. 19, marg.). It would 
seem that the compositions to which this 
expression is prefixed were to be sung or 
chanted with an instrumental accompani- 
ment. 

A'EHE'LAMITB. A person named Sheraa- 
iah IS thus designated : it is not known 
from what place (Jer. xxix. 24, 31, 32). 

NEHEMI'AH (whom Jehovah comforts).— 
1. One who returned from captivity with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2 ; If eh. vii. 7). 

2. Nehemiah, an eminent Jew, who is vari- 
ously said to have been a Levite, and of the 
tribe of Judah, a descendant of the royal 
house. These traditions rest on no ground 
of certainty ; but the last is the more pro- 
bable of the two. For the post he held of 
cup-bearer at the Persian court was not 
likely to be bestowed on any but a person 
of distinction. It was Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus whom Nehemiah thus served. And, 
while in attendance in the twentieth year 
of that king's reign, his countenance was 
so sad for the evil news he had heard of the 
desolation of Jerusalem and afflicted state 
of the returned remnant of Jews there, that 
the monarch enquired the cause. Nehemiah, 
lifting up his heart to God, entreated that 
he might be permitted to visit Jerusalem ; 
and the king accordingly sent him thither, 
with a commission as governor. There he 
re-built the walls, and, in conjunction with 
Ezra, carried on a work of reformation 
among the people. His administration last- 
ed twelve years ; and then he returned to 
the Persian court ; but after some time, 
variously estimated from five to nine years, 
he was permitted to resume his office at 
Jerusalem, to redress the abuses which had 
grown up during his absence. Here it is 
probable he spent the remainder of his 
life, having shown himself a humble, dis- 
interested, pious man, and a zealous, pa- 
triotic, and conscientious governor. His 
administration, including the interval, 
lasted probably from 445 to 409 B.C. These 
are the dates assigned by Prideaux, Con- 
nection, book vi. ; but we cannot fix any 
certain time for the second administration. 
The latest date in scripture is the 32nd of 
Artaxerxes (Neh. xiii. 6). 
_ 3. A person wlio had a charge in re-build- 
ing the walls of Jerusalem (iii. 16). 

KEHEMI'AH, THE BOOK OP. This book 
was placed by the Jews in one volume with 
that of Ezra: contemporary events are 
treated of in both. 



[nehemias 



The book of JSTehemiah may be roughly 
divided into three sections ; I. (i.-vii.) com- 
prising the narrative of Nehemiah's appoint- 
ment to office, his re-building, in spite of 
opposition, the walls of Jerusalem, and his 
purpose of bringing the people to an order- 
ly settlement. In IL (viii.-x.) there is an ac- 
count of certain religious solemnities ; and 
m IIL (xi.-xiii.) we have various lists, ap- 
pointments, and settlements, with a recital 
of some acts of Nehemiah's administration 
on resuming his post. 

In many parts of this book Nehemiah ap- 
pears as speaking in the first person ; but 
there are difficulties in the way of believing 
that the whole proceeded from his pen. It 
is true that some of the arguments urged, 
as that taken from the use of different 
divine names, are not of much weight ; still 
when we find a perceptible diversity of 
diction, when in parts of the book Nehe- 
miah seems to retire into the background 
when his own title varies and the designa- 
tion of the nobles is not the same, when 
too, we see lists extended beyond what we 
can reasonably imagine was the limit of Ne- 
hemiah's life, we can hardly help coming 
to the conclusion that various hands con- 
tril)uted to this book. The following will 
probably be found not an unfair apportion- 
ment of the parts of it. Nehemiah evidently 
was in the habit of noting the occurrencx3s 
of his time. Now the section, Neh. i. l-vii 5, is 
written in the first person : there is an uni- 
formity in its style ; and several favourite 
expressions recur. The writer also declares 
that he found a document (nearly identical 
with Ezra ii.) which he adds to his own nar- 
rative, Neh. vii. 6-73. There is no reason to 
doubt that the whole of this section, there- 
fore, belongs to Nehemiah himself. But in 
viii.-x. there is a change ; the governor is 
spoken of in the third person ; and, though 
Keil has endeavoured to account for this 
{Einleitung, %lb2), maintaining the Nehemi- 
ah authorship, his reasons are not satisfac- 
tory, and it is most probable that the section 
is from another pen. Hiivernick (^Einleitung , 
§ 187, vol. ii. 1, pp. 305, &c.) would ascribe it 
Ezra ; but this is doubtful. The remainder 
of the book, xi.-xiii., was, with small excep- 
tions, most likely written by Nehemiah : 
xi. 1 seems to connect itself with the first 
part of vii. 5. But the list of xii. 1-26 was 
from a later hand, as the succession of high 
priests is carried down to Jaddua, who was 
contemporary with Alexander the Great; 
or else the final editor added some names. 
Jaddua, however, may have been horn 
before Nehemiah's death : see Ziindel, Krit. 
Unters. uber die Abfass. des B. Daniel, pp 
227, 228. The verses xii. 44-47 may possibly 
not be by Nehemiah, as xiii. l is closely 
connected with xii. 43. We may believe, 
then, that, as much of this book was writ- 
ten by Nehemiah, but not the whole, it was 
ultimately arranged in its present form by 
some one, the author of the Chronicles very 
possibly (to which it, with Ezra, formed an 
appendix), who, under divine guidance, has 
transmitted to future ages of the church 
this most instructive narrative as we now 
have it. 

NEEEMl'AS.—l a Esdr. v. 8). Nehemial 
a s 



nehiloth] 



^l)t WvtH^HXV til 



626 



Ezra ii. 2).— 2 (1 Esdr. v. 40). Keliemiali, the 
governor. 

NE'HILOTH (Psal. y., title). This word, 
Bignlfj-iug perforated, showed that the 
psalm'was to be accompanied hy the music 
of a wind-instrument : some have supposed 
that the organ, others that flutes were 
meant. 

NE'HTTM (consolation, or by a copyist's 
error for Rehum) (Neh. vii. 7). See 

REHUit. 

NEHUSH'TA (prass). The mother of king 
Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxiv. 8). 

EEHUSH'TAN (the brazen thing). The 
serpent of brass (or copper) which Moses 
made by God's command in the wilderness 
(Numb. xxi. 8, 9) was preserved for many 
ages. Hezekiah, perceiving that the people 
had been in the habit of paying a supersti- 
tious reverence to it, broke it up (2 Kings 
xviii. 4). Probably Nehushtan was the 
name by which it had been ordinarily 
known ; though some believe it a term of 
contempt then first applied : see Keil, Comm. 
on Kings, vol. ii. pp. 81, 82. 

NEI'EL (moved by God ?). A place on the 
northern border of Asher (Josh. xix. 27). 
Mr. Grove thinks it may be identified with 
the modern village Mfar. 

NEIGHBOUR. The Pharisees were dis- 
posed to restrict the meaning of neighbour 
to their own couutrj^men or friends. Our 
Lord, therefore, to teach the universal 
brotherhood of men spoke his parable of 
the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). When 
compassion can be shown, or akindoflice 
done, there must be no limitation : every 
one is to be deemed for such purposes a 
• neighbour ' (Matt. v. 43-48). 

NE'KEB (a cavern). A place in the terri- 
tory of Naphtali (Josh, xix. 33). 
NEKO'DA {distinguish^). One whose de- 
- scendants, Nethinim, returned with Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 48 ; Neh. vii. 50). Some of 
them, however, could not show their gene- 
alogy (Ezra ii. 60 ; Neh. vii. 62). 

NEMU'EL (perhaps for Jemuel, day of 
Got^j _1. A descendant of Reuben and 
brother of Dathan and Abiram (Numb, 
Kxvi. 9) —2. One of the sons of Simeon (12 ; 
1 Ohron. iv.24). He is also called Jemuel. 

NEMTJ'ELITES, A family of Simeon, de- 
scended from Nemuel (Numb. xxvi. 12). 

NE'PHEG (sprout).— \. A Levite, son of 
Izhar, and brother of Korah (Exod. vi. 21). 
—2. One of the sons of David, born in Jeru- 
salem (2 Sam. V. 15 ; 1 Chron. iii. 7, xiv. 6). 

NEPHEW (Judges xii. 14 ; 1 Tim. v. 4). A 
grandson. 

NE'FHI (2 Mace. i. 36). See Naphthar. 

NE'PHIS (1 Esdr. v. 21). Possibly a cor- 
ruption of Magbish (Ezra ii. 30). 

NE'PHISH (recreated). (1 Chron. v. 19). 
Naphish. 

NEPHI'SHESTM. See Nepbustm. 

NEPH'TEALI (Tob. i. 1). Naphtali. 

NEPH'THALIM (Matt. Iv. 13, 15). The 
Greek form of Naphtali, which see. 

NEPHTO'AH (opening). A fountain, 
the source of the waters of Nephtoah, on 
the boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 9, xviii. 
15). It has been supposed to lie to the j 
south-west of Jerusalem, and to be the, 
modern 'Ain Yalo, in the Wadv el-Werd. \ 



But Mr. Grove identifies it with 'Ain Lifta, 
two miles and a half to the north. 

NEPHU'SIM (expansions). The children of 
Nephusim, Nethinim, returned from Baby- 
lon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 50). The name 
is Nephishesim in Neh. vii. 52. 

NER (a light or lamp). The brother of 
Kish, Saul's father. Abner was his son (1 
Sam. xiv. 50, 51, xxvi. 5, 14 ; 2 Sam. ii. 8, 12, 
lii. 23, 25, 28, 37 ; 1 Kings ii. 5, 32 : 1 Chron. 
ix. 36, xxvi. 28). But elsewhere it seems 
that Ner is considered as the father 
of Kish (viii. 33, ix. 39). Either there is 
here a copyist's error, or there were two 
persons named Ner, or two named Kish, in 
the same family. 

NE'REUS. A Christian at Rome, who, 
with his sister, is saluted by St. Paul (Rom. 
xvi. 15). 

NER'GAL (man-devour er, great hero). An 
idol of the Cuthites (2 Kings xvii. 30). The 
Jewish rabbins fancied that this idol was 
figured by a cock. It is now very commonly 
supposed to be the planet Mars. See Winer, 
BiU. JJT7^., art. 'Nergal;' Keil, Comm. on 
Kings, vol. ii. p. 73. 

NER'GAL-SHARE'ZER (Kergal fire- 
prince).—!, 2. The name of two Babylonian 
grandees who were present at the taking 
of Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13). The last- 
named is styled Rab-mag, that is, president 
of the Magi. There is every reason to be- 
lieve that he was the person known as Ne- 
riglissar who, having married a daughter 
of Nebuchadnezzar, put E^^:l-merodach to 
death and succeeded to his throne. He 
reigned between three and four years, 559- 
556 B.C., and built a palace on the right 
bank of the Euphrates. Bricks have been 
discovered there bearing his name and title 
Rab-mag. 

NE'RI (my light, or light of Jehovah). One 
in the line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke iii. 
27). 

NERI'AH (lamp of Jehovah). The father 
of Baruch, the scribe and minister of Jere- 
miah, and also of Seraiah (Jer. xxxil. 12, 16, 
xxxvi. 4, 8, xliii. 3, xiv. 1, li. 59). 
A^^-RJ'J.^ (Baruch i.l).- Neriah. 
NE'RO. L. Domitius Nero succeeded 
Claudius as emperor of Rome, 54 a.b., and 
killed himself to avoid a public execution, 
63. In his reign that war commenced be- 
tween the Jews and Romans which termi- 
nated subsequently in the destruction of 
Jerusalem by Titus and the overthrow of 
the Jewish policy. It was under Nero, too, 
that a fierce persecution of the Christians 
began, about 64 A.D., which lasted till his 
death. St. Paul suffered martyrdom in it at 
Rome. So great were this monarch's cruel- 
ties, that his name has ever since served 
specially to distinguish a tyrant. He is 
frequently indicated as Ctesar in the New 
Testament (Acts xxv. 8, 10-12, 21, xxvi. 32 
xxviii. 19 ; Phil. iv. 22), and as Augustus 
(Acts xxv. 21, 25) ; but his name Nero does 
not occur. 

NES'i:(Deut. xxii. 6, xxxii. 11, and else- 
where). See Birds. Besides the literal 
meaning of the word, 'nest' is often used 
figuratively to denote a quiet and secure 
liabitation (e.g. Numb. xxiv. 21 ; Job xxix. 
18; Jer. xxii. 23^. 



r 

1 








1 

i 

1 
( 

1 

! 
i 

1 

I 

! 


NET (Prov. i. 17 ; Eccles. ix. 12, and else 
where). See Fishing, Hunting. In p 294 
an Egyptian landing-net is figured The 
word is repeatedly used metaphorically 
(e.g. Psal.xxxv. 7, 8). 

NETHAN'EEL (given of God).-l. The 
prince of Issachar (Numb, i. 8, ii. 5, vii. 18 
23, X. 15).— 2. The fourth son of Jesse (1 
Chron n. 14) .-3. A priest in David's time 
(XV. 24).— 4. A Levite (xxiv. 6).— 5. A Levite 
porter (xxvi. 4), possibly the same with No 
4.-6. One of Jehoshaphat's nobles (2 Chron. 
XVII. 7).— 7. A Levite in the reign of Josiah 
.XXXV. 9).— 8. A priest who had married a 
foreign wife (Ezra x. 22).— 9. A priest in the 
days of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 21).— lo. One of 
those priests' sons who took part in the 
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (36). 

NETHANI'AH (give^i of Jehovah). ~l. One 
of the seed royal, father of Ishraael who 
murdered Gedaliah (2 Kings xxv. 23, 25- 
Jer. xl. 8, 14, 15, xli.).-2. The head of one of 
the divisions of the singers (1 Chron. xxv 2 
12).— 3. One of the Levites whom Jehosha- 
phat sent out to teach (2 Chron. xvii 8) —4 
The father of Jehudi (Jer. xxxvi. 14). 

KETH'IJflM (the given, the devoted). The 
name by which in post-exilian times the 
inferior servants of the sanctuary, subor- 
dinate to the Levites, were designated. It 
IS very likely that the Gibeonites, con- 
demned to be hewers of wood and drawers 
of water (Josh. ix. 27), were the original 
stock. They were augmented, no doubt, 
by prisoners of war (comp, Numb. xxxi. 47), 
who must have become Jewish proselytes 
(Neh. X. 28). Yet they were looked upon as a 
degraded class ; and, if the Talmud may be 
believed, they might not marry Hebrew 
wives. David and successive princes had 
dedicated them for Levitical service, and 
multiplied their numbers (Ezra viii 20) • 
and It may be supposed that gradually they 
were held in higher estimation ; for, on the 
return from Babylon, many of them having 
accompanied Zerubbabel, and others Ezra 
they were located partly in Jerusalem (Neh 
111. 26, 31, xi. 21), partly in the Levitical cities 
(Ezra 11. 70 ; Neh. vii. 73) ; and they seem to 
have been associated with those called 'So- 
lomon's servants,' who also performed the 
subordinate duties of divine service (Ezra 
ii. 43-58 ; Neh. vii. 46-80). 

NETO'PHAH (distillation). A place per- 
haps m some way connected with Beth-le- 
hem (Ezra ii. 22 ; Neh. vii. 26). Possibly it 
was situated where is now the village Beit 
Netty But this is some distance from 
Beth-lehem. The residents are called Neto- 
phathi and Netophathites. 

NETO'PHATHI, NETO'PHATHITES. 
The inhabitants of Netophah (2 Sam. xxiii. 
28, 29 ; 2 Kings xxv. 23 ; 1 Chron. ii. 54. ix. 

xl'8f^' ^^^'"* 

NETTLE. Tliere are two Hebrew words 
so rendered m our version. One occurs in 
t) Ob XXX. 7 ; Prov. xxiv. 31 ; Zeph. ii. 9 Ge- 
semus IS inclined to interpret this of a 
thorn-bush or bramble, from pricking or 
burning, such being the meaning of the 
root; but nettles would answer quite as 
well to this signification. Dr. RSyle has . 
suggested wild mustard as the plant iu- 


■ tended. Another word is found in Isai 
xxxiv. 13; Hos. ix. 6 : it means a prickly 
weed and may designate the nettle or the 
thistle The nettle, Urtica, is too common 
to need description : its apparatus for sting, 
mg consists of a pointed tube through 
which the poison is forced into the wound 
which the point has made. 
NEW MOON. See Festival, Moon 
NEW TESTAMENT (Matt. xxvi. 28 ; Mark 
XIV. 24 ; Luke xxii. 20 ; 1 Cor. xi. 25 ; 2 Cor 
ill. 6 ; Heb. ix. 15, xii.24, marg.). See Bible' 
COVENANT, Manuscript, Scripture 

The first printed edition of the Greek New 
Testament was that of Erasmus, which ap- 
peared in 1516. He afterwards published 
other editions with various corrections : 
the fifth in 1535 is the basis of those still in 
common use. The Complutensian edition 
was not published till after the first of Eras- 
mus ; but It \yas po-inted previously : it bears 
the date Jan. lo, 1514. Robert Stephen print- 
ed his first edition in 1546. His earlier edi- 
tions blend the Complutensian and Eras- 
mian texts : the later ones adhere more to 
that of Erasmus, with some various readings 
from manuscripts. In 1624, the Elzevirs 
printers at Leyden, put forth the first of 
their editions. These generally follow 
htephen, sometimes adopting alterations 
from Beza, who had published a Greek Tes- 
tament first in 1565. In the preface to the 
second Elzevir edition in 1633, it w^as said. 
I'extum -&rgo habes nunc ah omnibus receptum 
whence the common phrase, textus recevtiis 
received text.' This was, till of late years' 
professedly in general use on the continent . 
but readings from Stephen were not unfre- 
quently introduced. It was in this country 
that the collection of materials for the 
thorough revision of the sacred text be- 
gan ; bishop Walton and Dr. John Mill being 
among the earlier labourers in the field 
Many eminent critics have since spared no 
amount of pains for the same object. Amon'^ 
these may be named Wetstein, Griesbacii! 
Lachmann, and Tischendorf ; to whom bibli- 
cal students are deeply indebted. The criti- 
cal editions in England of Dr. Alford, 1849 
and subsequent years, of Dr. Wordsworth' 
18.o6. &c., of Messrs. Webster and Wilkinson 
1855-1862, are full of valuable matter. 

Of commentaries on the New Testament 
Bengel s Gnomon Nov. Test, 3rd edit 1850 
2 vols, and one vol.1855, is of high merit! 
An English translation appeared in 5 vols 
AT- m-^^.^^i "^liitby's Commentary on the 
^ew Test, first published in 1703, will never 
be out of date ; Doddridge's Family Exposi- 
tor 1760-1762, has been frequently reprirfted 
and as a popular work is deservedly valued 
E. H. Bickersteth's Commentary on the New 
Testament, 1864, is also useful. More learned 
books, such as the commentaries of the 
ancient fathers, and modern foreign critics 
need not be mentioned here 
NEW TEAR. See Year. 
N'EZl'A'Q (illustrious). One whose descen- 
dants, Nethinim, returned from captivity 
^l^h Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 54; Neh. vii. 56). 

NE'ZIB (a garrison, statue, or idol). A 
own in the plain country of Judah (Josh, x v. 
t3), doubtless iJett Nusib, between Beat Ji- 
jnn (ancient Eieutheropolis) and Hebron 







^TEBHAZ] 



^xtKixix^ at 



628 



NIB'HAZ {darker 1). An idol worshipped 
by the Avites (2 Kings xvii. 31). The rab- ; 
binical writers say that it was figured as a 
do? : it may, therefore, hare been identical 
with the Egyptian Anuhis, if tliat deity 
had really a dog's head, and not that j 
of a jackal. According to De la Rogue, i 
the colossal figure of , a dog was found, 
three days' journey from Beirut on the 
road to Tripolis, to which the inhahltants 
of the locality paid divine honours. But in 
the Zabian hooks Nebaz is the name of an 
evil demon who sits on the throne on the 
earth, while his feet rest on the bottom 
of Tartarus. See Winer, Bihl. BWB., art. 
• Nibchas ' ; Keil, Comm. on Kings, vol. ii. 

^'niB'SHAN {light soil). A city in the wil- 
derness of Judah (Josh. xv. 62), that is, the 
region contiguous to the Dead sea. 

NIOA'NOR {victorious). One of the seven 
chosen to administer the goods of the 
church (Acts vi. 5). _ _ •■ „^ o 

NICA'NOB (1 Mace. lu. 38, vu. 26-50 , 2 
Mace, xir., xv.). An officer of Antiochus 
Epiphanes and other Syrian kings. 

NICH'OLAS. In some copies for Nico- 
las, which see. _ ^ ^ 

NICODE'MUS (if this name be of Hebrew 
origin it may mean pure in Uoocl, i.e. up- 
right). A ruler of the Jews who came to 
Jesus by night and received instruction 
from our Lord on the subject of the new- 
birth (John iii. 1-10). It is usually assum- 
ed that Nicodemus visited Jesus at night 
in order, through fear, to conceal his com- 
munication with one opposed and perse- 
cuted. But this assumption does not rest 
on certain grounds. It is the custom in the 
east to pay visits at night ; and nowhere is 
it said of Nicodemus, as it is of J oseph of 
Arimathea (John xix. 38), that he was afraid. 
The rest of his conduct is open and straight- 
forward. He speaks fearlessly in the coun- 
cil (vii. 50, 51), and takes his part in the 
burving of Christ (xix. 39). 

NICOLA'ITANS. The designation of a 
party or sect whom our Lord declares (Rev. 
ii. 6, 15) that he hates. There is a difficulty 
in deciding who these persons were and 
whence they had their origiu. A prevailing 
early opinion was that they were the follow- 
ers of Nicolas the deacon, who had lapsed 
from the faith and lived in impurity. After- 
wards another Nicolas was deemed the 
founder of the Nicolaitans. Dr. Alford 
{Tlie Greek Test, note on Rev. ii. 6) believes 
a plain historical fact referred to, and sees 
nothing unreasonable in imagining that an 
associate of the apostles made shipwreck of 
faith and a good conscience. Abp. Trench, 
on the other hand {Comm. on Epistles to 
Seven Churches, pp. 82-87), prefers a sym- 
bolical. interpretation. He does not denj^ 
that in the second century there were actual 
Nicolaitans, but he thinks that no sect really 
bore the name in the apostolic times. 
He considers those who held the docrme 
of Balaam (Rev. ii. 14) identical with those 
who held the doctrine of tlie Nicolaitans 
(15) ; and, as the meaning of the name Ba- 
laam is nearly that of the name Nicolas, he 
says that the Nicolaitans or Balaamites 
were ' those who, after the pattern of Ba- 



laam's sin, sought to introduce a false free- 
dom, the freedom of the flesh, into the 
church of God.' Jewish legalism was the 
first enemy of the truth ; afterwards came 
heathen licentiousness. The student must 
take his choice of these two explanations ; 
each of which is supported by distinguished 
critics. See Winer, Bibl EWB., art. ' Niko- 

^^NICOLAS {conqueror of the people). One 
of the seven chosen to administer the goods 
of the church (Acts vi. 5). He is described 
as a proselyte of Antioch. See preceding 
article. ^ 

NICOP'OLIS {cit^J of victory). There were 
many ancient cities which bore this name : 
three in particular have been supposed by 
difEerent critics the one meant (Tit. in. 12). 
One of these was in the north-eastern cor- 
ner of Cilicia; another on the Nessus m 
the interior of Thrace ; the third in Epirus 
(though Pliny assigns it to Acarnania). This 
last, most probably the Nicopohs intended 
by St. Paul, was built by Augustus m com- 
memoration of his victory at Actium. 

NI'GER (black) (Acts xiii. 1). A surname 
of Simeon, 4. , 

NIGHT In respect of the literal mean- 
ing of the word it is enough to say here 
that, as the Hebrews commenced their day 
in the evening, the night preceded the day. 
As night is dark and gloomy, it is used me- 
taphorically to denote ignorance (^fic. iii. 
6). mourning (Rev. xxi. 25), also the clouded 
time of mortal life (Rom. xiii. 12), and death 
(John ix. 4). The absence of night there- 
fore expresses the highest light and glad- 
ness (Rev. xxi. 25, xxii. 5). And, as it is m 
a time of darkness, when men commit 
abominable sins, as if darkness and hght 
were not equally clear to the eye of the 
Being who shall bring their secret deeds 
into open judgment, evil men are said to be 
« of the night,' i.e. children of the night : as 
the godly are called ' children of the day, or 
'children of light' (1 Thess. v. 5-8 : comp. 
Rom. xiii. 13). _ 
NIGHT-HAWK. See HAWK. 
NIGHT-MONSTER (Isai.xxxiv.l4, marg.). 

See OWL, SCREECH-OWL. 

NILE. This river, though frequently re- 
ferred to, is not mentioned by this name in 
scripture. See Shihor. ^ , , 

NIM'RAH {limpid, sc. water) (Numb, 
xxxii. 3). See Beth-nimrah. 

NIM'RIM {id.) (Isai. xv. 6 ; Jer. xlvni. 34). 
The 'waters of Nimriai' appear to have 
been some stream or pool in Moab. The 
exact spot has not yet been satisfactorily 
ascertained. . ^ , 

NIM'ROD (a rebel). An eminent early 
warrior and king : he was the son of Gush, 
and grandson of Ham ; and his history is 
briefly summed in a few verses (Gen. x. 8- 
12 • 1 Chron. i. 10). He is commonly repre- 
sented as a tyrant and godless personage : 
he is identified with some of the mythical 
characters of Grecian story, and is said to 
be the original Bel worshipped as a God at 
Babylon. And some choose to deny that 
such a king ever existed ; while others 
bring him dOAvn to a comparatively-late 
period and suppose him to be the same 
with the Babylonian ruler contemporary 



629 mhit miamt^Qt. 



with Hezekiali. The narrative of Genesis 
however, is natural and perspicuous. Nim- 
rod was the first mighty hero upon the 
earth : he was successf al in war, and was 
distinguished in the chase, so that his skill 
and intrepidity as a huntsman passed into 
a proverb. He was not content with a 
narrow sphere : he roamed northward into 
the fertile land of Shinar, and to the great 
town Babylon. There he established the 
first seat of his empire, so that Babylon 
was afterwards called ' the land of Nimrod ' 
(Mic. V. 6): there, too, he ruled other cities, 
Erech, Wurka, Accad, according to some, 
AkkerJaif, but see Accad, and Calneh, Nif- 
fer. His ambition prompted him, how- 
ever, to wider conquests ; he went into the 
country called Asshur (Gen. x. 11, marg.) 
from a son of Shem, and there he founded 
Nineveh, not at its origin so considerable 
as the neighbouring Resen, but destined far 
to outshine it in celebrity. Resen, possibly 
Selamiyeh, Rehoboth, perhaps Baliaheh-ma- 
Kfc,and Oalah, Nimroud, or Kalah SJierghat, 
were the other cities built in this legion 
by Nimrod. This is all that at present 
we know for certain of Nimrod. He is 
placed by Kalisch 2450 B.C. ; but this is 
earlier than the ordinary computation 
would admit (Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 253-263, 305). Among the Assyrian 
monuments a figure has been discovered 
which is said to represent Nimrod : he is 
grasping a lion in his left hand, while his 
right holds probably a missile weapon. The 
fables of Jewish writers respecting Nimrod 
do not deserve notice. 

If IM'SB.! (drawn out, saved). The grand- 
father of king Jehu (1 Kings xix. 16 ; 2 
Kings ix. 2, 14, 20 ; 2 Ohron. xxii. 7). 

NIN'EVE (Matt. xii. 41 ; Luke ix. 32). 
Nineveh. 

NIN'EVEH (habitation of Ninus ? or per- 
haps compounded with the name of the 
Assyrian deity, Nin). This great city is 
first mentioned in Gen. x. 11, where it is 
said to have been founded by Nimrod, who 
went from the land of Shinar into Assyria 
and there builded cities— such being the 
more accurate interpretation of the text ; 
see marg. Nineveh is not again noticed 
in the sacred history till, many years 
subsequently, at the time of the mis- 
sion of Jonah, we find it the seat of a 
powerful monarchy (Jonah i. 2, iii., iv. 11), 
the centre of the Assyrian empire (2 Kings 
xix. 36 ; Isai. xxxvii. 37). Assyria, itself, is 
but rarely noticed in early times, but after 
its influence was extended to the west, 
both in the narrative, and in the denun- 
ciations of the prophets, the country and 
also Nineveh, the grand metropolis, fre- 
quently occur. Some account has been 
already given of this monarchy, of the dif- 
ferent kings named in scripture, and of 
those discovered in the deciphered inscrip- 
tions : see Assyria. In the present article 
the reader's attention will be directed to 
the history of the city Nineveh, to its ruin 
and disappearance, and to the marvellous 
disinterment in our own days of its long- 
lost memorials. 

After the mission of Jonah which re- 
sulted in a temporary repentance, we find 



[]^INEYEH 



prophetic denunciations renewed by Na- 
hum. His prophecy is almost exclusively 
directed against the city, the ruin of the 
country and the sovereign being, however, 
involved in the fall of the capital (Nah. iii. 
12, 18). Zephaniah also predicts the de- 
struction of Nineveh with the kingdom 
(Zeph. ii. 13-15) ; and the threatening was 
probably fulfilled before his eyes ; for 
Ezekiel speaks of the Assyrian empire as 
already destroyed, and applies from its 
destruction a solemn warning to the 
Pharaoh of Egypt (Ezek. xxxi.). Thence- 
forth the name of Nineveh was but a voice 
of admonition to other generations (Matt, 
xii. 41 ; Luke xi. 32). 

Nineveh stood upon the river Tigris. Of 
its vastness and splendour only traditional 
accounts had been preserved. It was said 
have been larger than Babylon, to have 
been in the form of a rectangular parallelo- 
gram, 150 stadia in length by 90 in breadth, 
the whole circuit being 480 stadia or 56 
miles. It was encompassed by walls 100 
feet high and so broad that three chariots 
could drive on them abreast. It had also 
1,500 towers, each 200 feet in height (Diod. 
Sic, Bihlioth. Hist., lib. ii. 3 : Diodorus 
erroneously places it on the Euphrates ; 
Strabo, Geograph., lib. xvi. cap. i. 3). This 
estimation of the magnitude, enormous as 
it seems, is in some degree corroborated by 
the scripture statement that ' Nineveh was 
an exceeding great city of three days* 
journey' (Jonah iii. 3). The circuit is pro- 
bably intended ; and the 480 stadia corre- 
spond very well with a three days' journey, 
of about 20 miles a day. Of the buildings 
of this great capital no ancient descriptions 
remain. After a long existence in grandeur 
the time of its desolation came. Cyaxares, 
king of Media, and Nabopolassar, king of 
Babylon, destroyed it. The date of this con- 
quest is variously given. Winer places it 
in 606 B.C. ; but it may have occurred 
earlier ; perhaps in 625 B.C. Mr. Galloway, 
imagining that it was at the time of an 
eclipse (see Xenoph., Anab., lib. iii. 4, §§, 
6-9), and identifying this eclipse as the one 
known to have happened in 585 B.C., would 
bring its final fail down to some years after 
the destruction of Jerusalem, viz., to the 
year above named, 585 (Isaiah's Test, for 
Jesus, 1864, pp. 409-413, 418). 

The once-populous metropolis soon be- 
came utterly waste ; and there was no fur- 
ther mention of it. Even its very site was 
unknown. Herodotus passed near it : Xeno- 
phon encamped upon it ; and yet neither 
of these historians seemed aware that they 
were close by the ancient mistress of 
nations. It was disputed, indeed, whether 
it had not been built upon the Euphrates ; 
and those travellers who were at all ac- 
quainted with its true position could tell 
of little but waste mounds and accumula- 
tions of rubbish. A noted city, Mosul, was 
afterwards built on the opposite bank of 
the Tigris ; but, though the neighbourhood 
was thus the haunt of men, few had any 
curiosity to explore the heaps which lay at 
hand. Bishop Newton's account sufficiently 
describes the utter oblivion into which 
Nineveh had fallen, and the contradio- 





tory notions entertained in regard to it ] 
(Diss on Prophecies,!^'' corap. Keitli, 
dence opPropiecy, chap, x., pp. 386-393. edit. 

'^Thick darkness, then, liad closed over the 
fortunes of Nineveh, and the history of the 
dynasties that had reigned there. Lit e 
was said in the sacred volume oi tlie 
Assyrian power save when it caine into 
conlact with the chosen people so that we 
knew nothing of its general character. 
SomI romantic tales, indeed, there were m 
Greek and Latin writers of Ninus and his 
wonderful queen Semiramis, of an Indian in- 
vasion, and of magnificent works-and then 
UiSe was said to he a catastrophe. Sardana- 
pa?iis, the king, given up to luxury, was be- 
leaguered hy his foes, and in the energy of 
de^S lighted the funeral pile which de- 
stiwed at once himself, his courtiers, his 

^^^^ ^ ij 

f 1 ,~l 


Dcrhaps less curious that an accidental dis 
^overy should suddenly lead us to hope that 
Jiese records may be recovered, and this 
5'te satisfactorily identified.' It is more 
Jian curious : it is the wise Providence of 
Him who uncovereth secret things that, m 
Dur busy, speculative, superficial age, 
vvhen men are questioning the truth of his 
•evelation, and, wise in their own conceit, 
ienying his moral government of the 
worlds he has framed, the earth should, as 
t were, give forth a voice, reveal the 
buried palaces of ancient days, and pro- 
claim thereby a fresh attestation to the 
truths of sacred writ. 

It will be seen by an inspection of the 
plan, that of the mounds just opposite to 
the town of Mosul, there are two called 
Kouyunjik and Nebi Yunus. On the last 
was traditionally the tomb of Jonah ; and 
it was natural to imagine that this might 
mark the site of Nineveh. In the year 1820 
Mr Rich, political resident at Baghdad, 
visited Mosul. Attracted by the mounds, 
he was induced to make some examination 
of them, more especially as he learned that 
a curious sculpture had a while before been 
dug up. He obtained a few fragments from 
the rubbish of both Kouyunjik and Nebi 
Yunus, and on a subsequent occasion 
made a general survey of the rums. He 
had also, as he passed down the Tigiis, 
looked at Nimroud, and been struck with 
its ancient appearance. But nothing more 
was done. In 1840 Dr. .^^5'^^^^^^^^. f 
Mosul: he saw and examiued the neign- 
bouring mounds, and resolved, when cir- 
cumstances permitted, to explore them 
thoroughly. In 1842 he Avas again at 
Mosul, and found that M. Botta appom ed 
French consul there in the interval, had 
commenced some excavations in Kouyunjik-. 
Little, however, had appeared to rewaia 

^ bS D?: Layard, unable to be on the spot, 
encouraged him to persevere ; and Botta 
was himself well inclined to con mue his 
researches. A peasant, observing how 
evfry fragment that turned up was care- 
ful! vVreserved, advised him to explore the 
mound of Khorsabad, some way off. Work- 
Sen were sent thither, and, as Layard te Is 
«ie tale, ' after a little opposition from the 
^habitants, they were pennitted to smk a 
well in the mound ; and at a small distance 
?rom ?he surface they came to the top of a 
wall which, on digging deeper they found 
to be lined with sculptured slabs of gypsum 

isl Botta . . . went at once Directing a 

wider trench to be fopied, and to be earned 
in the direction of the wall, he soon found 
tSat he had entered a chamber connected 
with others, and surrounded by slabs or 
gvpsum cohered with sculptured repre 
Mentations of battles, sieges, sin lar 
events. His wonder may easily be ima- 
gined A new history had been suddenly 
f pened to him : the records of an unknown 
worp hpfnre him He was at a loss 
people weie oeiore imn. j-^-t. 
to account for equally the age and the 
nature of the monument. The style of art 
of the sculptures, the dresses of the Qgure^, 
the mythic forms on the walls, J ere all 
new to him, and afforded no clue to tne 


Fresumod site of anciont Kineveb, showing posi- 

tion of parts explored. 
A . Modern town of Mosul. BB. The riyer Tigris. 
C. Nebi Yunus. D. Kouyunjik. E. Kliorsabad. 

capital, and his empire. These were the 
phantoms that flitted amid the gloom : thej' 
served to point a proverb as words of 
warning and of fear, but no man could dis- 
cern their exact lineaments or tell whether 
there was any substance in them.^ _ 

And so the world went on. ' It is, indeed, 
one of the most remarkable facts m 
history,' writes Dr. Layard, ' that the records 
of an empire, so renowned for its power 
and civilization, should have been entirely 
lost : and that the site of a city, as eminent 
for its extent as its splendour, should for 
swrea have been a matter of doubt : It is not 



631 BtftU mxxaMtiSQt. 



epoch of the erection of the edifice, or to 
the people who were its founders. Nume- 
rous inscriptions, accompanying the bas- 
reliefs, evidently contained the explanation 
of the events thus recorded in sculpture. 



[nineyeh 



discovered an Assyrian edifice, the first, 
probably, which had been exposed to the 
view of man since the fall of the Assyrian 
empire.' 

It was soon founa that the building thus 




Mound and village of Khorsabad. 



and, being In the cuneiform, or arrow- 
headed, character, proved that the building 
belonged to an age preceding the conquests 
of Alexander. ... It was evident that the 
monument appertained to a very ancient 
and very civilized people ; and it was 




Plan of palace at Khorsabadr 



natural from its position to refer It to tne 
Inhabitants of Nineveh, a city which, al- 
though it could not have occupied a site so 
distant from the Tigris, must have been in 
the vicinity of these ruins. M. Botta had 



discovered had been destroyed by fire : 
consequently the slabs of gypsum, reduced 
to lime when exposed to the atmosphere, 
soon fell to pieces. Drawings were hastily 
made; and various remains were secured 
and conveyed to France. 

M. Botta's success greatly stimulated Dr. 
Layard. He was, however, convinced that 
Khorsabad lay out of the actual circuit of 
Nineveh, and he was anxious to prosecute 
researches nearer to the river Tigris. He 
had fixed his eye upon the great mound of 
Niraroud,considerably to the south of Mosul, 
and about six and a-half miles from the point 
where the river Zab falls into the Tigris. 
He was not, however, aided by the British 
government, as M. Botta had been by that 
of France, and it was not till the autumn 
of 1845 that, by the liberality of Sir Stratford 
Canning, our ambassador at Constantinople, 
now Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, he was 
enabled to prosecute his designs. 

In November of that year he succeeded 
in excavating a chamber, in what is now 
called the north-west palace of Nimroud. 
Other discoveries followed — in spite of 
much opposition from the fanaticism and 
jealousy of the Moslems— sculptures, in- 
scriptions, &c. ; while the amazement with 
which each successive disinterment was 
received was not a little amusing. ' Thus 
one morning,' Dr. Layard says, ' I had ridden 
to the encampment of Sheikh Abd-ur- 
rahman, and was returning to the mound, 
when I saw two Arabs of his tribe urging 
their mares to the top of their speed. On 
approaching me they stopped. " Hasten, O 
bey," exclaimed one of them, "hasten to 
the diggers ; for they have found Nimrod 
himself. Wallah I it is wonderful, but it is 
true I we have seen him with our eyes. 
There is no god but God ; " and, both joining 
in this pious exclamation, they galloped ofl', 
without further words, in the direction of 
their tents. On reaching the ruins I de- 



nineteh] 



632 



scended into the new trench . . .The Arabs 
withdrew the screen they had hastily con- 
structed, and disclosed an enormous human 
head, sculptured in full out of the alabaster 
of the country .... I saw at once that the 
head must belong to a winged lion or bull 
... It was in admirable preservation. The 
expression was calm yet majestic ; and the 
outline of the features showed a freedom 
and knowledge of art scarcely to be looked 
for in works of so remote a period . . . i 
was not surprised that the Arabs had been 
amazed and terrified at this apparition. It 
required no stretch of imagination to con- 
iure up the most strange fancies. This gi- 
gantic head, blanched with age, thus rising 
from the bowels of the earth, might well 
have belonged to one of those fearful bemgs 
which are pictured in the traditions of the 
country as appearing to mortals, slowly 
ascending from the regions below. One of 
the workmen, catching the first glimpse of 
the monster, had thrown down his basket, 
and had run olf towards Mosul as fast as his 



twenty-five miles, and from the Tigris tc 
Khorsabad and Kararaless on the east, 
about ten or twelve miles. Over this extent 
of countrv almost everywhere traces of an- 
cient buildings are to be seen ; and various 
huge mounds attract special attention. The 
ruins opposite to Mosul stand— that is, their 
western face— about a mile from the Tigris, 
which probably once ran close to thenx 
They form an irregular quadrangle, and 
consist of an embankment generally forty 
or fifty feet high, with Kouyuujik and jSebi 
Yunus on its western face, which is 4,533 
yards in length: the northern side is 2,333 
yards the southern little over 1000 yards, 
while the eastern, which is curvilinear, is 
5 300 yards; the whole circuit being about 
seven and a-half miles. On the eastern side 
there are moats and formidable ram- 
parts ; and advantage ^-as apparently taken 
of a small stream which flows through the 
enclosure towards the Tigris. These de- 
fences must have been very strong. The 
embankment is supposed to have been faced, 




Kineyeh. The great mound of Nimroud. 



Ipffs could carrv him. The neighbouring 
Arab sheikh and half his tribe were soon 
upon the spot, and confidently pronounced 
the gigantic head to be the work of no 
human hands, but one of the idols which 
Noah had cursed before the flood. The news 
speedily reached Moi-al ; and all the city was 
in consternation. The cadi and all the grave 
doctors assembled ; and the pasha was en- 
treated to put a stop to proceedings so 
alarming, and so opposed to the laws of the 
koran.' , . ^ a a 

More of the adventures which attended 
the progress of the excavations cannot be 
here detailed : the curious reader must be 
referred to Dr. Lavard's own book. Suffice 
it to sav that many of the mounds have been 
explored with most important results, the 
notice of which shall be as briefly as possible 
given. 

These mounds are scattered over a con- 
siderable area on the eastern bank of the 
Tigris, extending from Shereef Khan in the 
north, to Kimroud in the south, about 



at least partially, with stone : at variou? 
points in it are eminences, where probably 
were gateways or towers ; and there are 
out-lvins mounds, the remains, it maybe 
imagined, of detached forts. The ground 
within is everywhere strewed with frag- 
ments of brick and pottery; but the only 
extensive mounds which indicate great 
buildings are those already mentioned of 
Kouvuujik and is^ebi Yunus. K"imroud is 
very similar to the ruins just described ; but 
its defences were by no means so important. 
It consists of an enclosure, indicating an- 
cient walls, nearly square, being about 2,331 
yards by 2,095. The Tigris ran formerly 
along the south and western sides: the 
others were protected by moats. There is a 
great mound, 7CK3 yards by 400, on the south- 
west face, with a kind of earthen pyramid, 
I rising to the height of 140 feet in its north- 
west corner. Also at the south-east conieif 
of the enclosure is a group of mounds which 
the Arabs call Athur ; and it seems that thia 
I name was once given to the whole of Kim 



633 Mihlt miaWziJQi^, 



roud. Athur is said to have been Nimrod's 
lieutenant. Kliorsabad is a square of about 
2000 yards. There are tlie indications of 
towers and gateways, but none of moats. 
A great mound rises on tlie north-west face 
of the enclosure. It is divided into two 
parts, the lower 1350 feet by 300, the upper, 
which adjoins, 650 feet square and about 30 
high. An Arab village was formerly on its 
summit ; and at one corner there is a pyra- 
mid like that at Nimroud, but much smaller. 
The other collections of ruins and mounds 
in the district are far less important than 
those just described ; and it is consequently 
at Nimroud, Kouyunjik, and Khorsabad, 
that for the most part excavations have 
been made and sculptures discovered. 

It is not easy among these remains, 
stretching over so wide an area, to decide 
upon the actual Nineveh. It has been 
thought that the mounds were diiferent 
cities; and attempts have been made to 
identify several of them with some of those 
named in scripture (Gen. x. 11, 12). It has 




Portal of the palace discovered 

been imagined, again, that the great mounds 
were vast fortified palaces, erected by d life- 
rent kings, standing as it were in parks, 
and that these, taken together with the in- 
ferior habitations and open spaces, consti- 
tuted the mighty capital of Assyrian power. 
Within the enclosures that have been men- 
tioned there are few traces of buildings; 
and this fact strengthens the belief that the 
gi^eater part of the area was park. Besides, 
we learn from scripture that Nineveh con- 
tained much cattle (Jonah iv. 11) ; there 
must have been space, therefore, within the 
circuit for their breeding and pasturage. 
This, then, on the whole, would seem the 
most reasonable supposition. Perhaps at 
Kouyunjik was the original nucleus; and 
afterwards additions were made, new build- 
ings arising on the site of old ones ; and it 
might be that fonner quarters were de- 
serted as fresh palaces were built, round 
which, as the seat of authority, and very 
likely regarded also as the abode of their 
deities, the population would cluster. And 
so here was Nineveh, swollen in the course 
of ages to that vast extent through which 
the Hebrew prophet proceeded his three 
days' journey as he cried, to the conster- 
nation of Its people, 'Yet forty days, and 
Nineveh shall be overthrown' (Jon. iii. 4). 



[nineveh 



An examination of the disinterred palaces 
confirms the view taken above. There are 
inscriptions relating the deeds of the sove- 
reign who dwelt therein. Various kings 
built or re-built in various quarters ; so that 
each mound testifies to the magnificence of 
one or more of these royal builders. The 
Assyrian edifices were built upon artificial 
platforms, usually from thirty to fifty feet 
above the ground-level, constructed some- 
times, as at Nimroud, of sun-dried bricks, 
sometimes, as at Kouyunjik, of earth and 
rubbish. They appear to have been faced 
with stone ; and the ascent to them was 
either by slopes or flights of steps. The 
plans only of the ground-floors can now be 
traced ; but there can be no doubt that they 
were of considerable altitude, with storeys 
of sun-dried bricks and wood ; the rubbish 
from which it is that has covered and pre- 
served the sculptured slabs which have been 
found. Chambers, galleries, corridors, halls, 
and uncovered courts have been entered. 
The partition->yalls are thick, from six to 




at Khorsabad. From Botta. 

fifteen feet, of sun-dried bricks, faced with 
alabaster slabs, on which are carvings in 
low relief, which were originally coloured. 
Above the alabaster skirting the walls 
were plastered and ornamented with 
painting. No openings for windows have 
been discovered, so that in the ceiled apart 
ments light must have come through the 
doors. The pavement of alabaster or kiln- 
burnt bricks is laid upon bitumen and sand. 
The same style of building prevails still in 
Mosul. The rooms are there built round 
courts with walls of sun-dried bricks, and 
skirtings of sculptured alabaster. Combi- 
ning, therefore, what is seen in the modern 
architecture of the country with what re- 
mains of ancient Assyrian erection, at- 
temptshavebeen made tore-construct these 
palaces, and to represent them as they pos- 
sibly may have been seen by those who 
looked on them in their fresh magnificence. 
Of course such representations are to a cer- 
tain degree fanciful: they may, however, 
give some general notion of what these 
structures were. 

The palace of Khorsabad is thought to 
have been founded by Shalmaneser, but to 
have been built principally by Sargon, 
Propyloea formed part of the approaches to 
it, flanked by colossal human-headed bulls. 



nineyeh] 



Clje Creature nf 



6^4 



The claambers are i-nferior in size to tbose 
in some of the other palaces ; hut the relief 
of many of the larger figures is holder. 

The great mound of Nimroud covers se- 
veral distinct buildings, which must have 
been constructed at wide intervals. For 
the south-west palace materials were used 
taken from that to the north-west. And it 
is observable that the sculptures in edifices 
of different ages show a marked diversity, 
not only in the skill displayed but m the 
manners and dress represented. Changes 
must therefore have occurred; and iJr. 
Lavard remarks that in the later mouu- 
ments there are traces of Egyptian t^aste 
unknown in earlier remains. The most aii- 



which were used for later buildings. In this 
central palace it was that the remarkable 
black obelisk, now preserved in the British 
Museum, was discovered. Esar-haddon 
constructed another palace at the south- 
west; and in the south-east there is yet 
another by his grandson Asshur-emit-ili, or 
Asshur-ebid-ilut. But this last was of very 
inferior character. Its rooms were small, and 
panelled with ordinary stone, without in- 
scriptions or sculptures. 

At Kouyunjik was the most magnificent 
of all the roval residences, the nucleus pro- 
bably of the city. The palace was the work 
of Sennacherib, and displayed a multitude of 
large halls, some 150 feet square, long gal- 
leries, one extending 200 feet, noble porta s, 
flanked by human-headed lions and bulls, 




South-west palace, Nimroud. 

^Pf^t f on ed of sun-dried bricks, faced with 
feet, toimea ^ ^ ^^pon this rose 

f?e"nrple,ViL"Frsfof Babylon in stages 

mmmm 
Mmmm 

centre of the mound, the materials oi 



North-west palace, Nimroud. 

some twenty feet high, and decorations of 
extraordinary splendour. On the same 
Dlatform another palace was bui t by tlie 
son of Esar-haddon, called . Sardanapalus 
III And in the neighbouring mound of 
Nebi Tunus, though little explorexl, a pa- 
lac- of Esar-haddon was discovered. 

It is needless to pursue the enumeration 
Each quarter of the great area appear* to 
have been in turn the royal residence : 
?hese wSe surrounded by fortifications ; 
and the intervening spaces were occupied 
bv ordinary dwellings, standing m the 
midsrof gardens, orchards, and corn-fields. 
Thei-e was no wall encircling the vast ex- 
tent rsothatincase of hostile assault the 
people probably found Protection in tle 
fortified separate enclosures. The facts 
Siich have been now produced seem well- 
^^h to prove that the whole of tlie great 
d strict within which the mounds occiir 
cinSitutedXineveh-Nimroud,Kouyun3ik^^ 
JXrsabad. and Karamless, being tbe four 
corners - see Yance Smith's Prophecies re- 



685 MiblC WilXOMtiSQt. [NINEVEH 



hting to Nineveh and the Assyrians, Introd. arisen partly from the commerce and the 

pp. 53-63. Between these limits, enclosing manufacturing skill of the Assyrians ; 

an area of 252 square miles, lay that huge while at'the same time the plunder of many 

metropolis which so long made the nations conguered states and capitals, and the 




Mound of Kouyunjik. 



of the earth to tremble, advantageously I annual tribute paid by these, would contri- 
situated for defence and for commerce, bute largely to their stores of silyer and 
Its rivers and connecting canals, its hill- [ gold, " the abundance of every precious 




Plan of palace at Koujunjik. 



barrier, and its artificial walls and ramparts, [ thing " (Nah. ii. 9). • Behold, the Assyrian 

its position on one of the great highways of was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, 
the world, all contributed to its greatness, and with a shadowing shroud, and of an 
Its riches may, says Mi'. Smith, ' have I high statui'e : and his toD was among the 



NINEVITES] 



636 



thick boughs. The waters made him great: 
the deep set him up on high with her 
rivers running round ahout his plants . . . . 
therefore his height was exalted .... all 
the fowls of heaven made their nests m 
his houghs. ... I have made him fair hy 
the multitude of his branches ; so that all 
the trees of Eden that w^ere in the garden 
of God envied him ' (Ezek. xxxi. 3-9). Such 
and so great was Nineveh in its glory! 

Pages might be filled in describing the 
gorgeous reliques of this mighty Nineveh. 
But the story, most interesting, is yet a me- 
lancholy one. There are incriptions telling of 
world-wide conquests : there are sculptures 
which represent the conduct, the success, 
the cruelties of war: there are royal pas- 
times depicted, the excitement of the 
chace, the luxury of banquets : there are 
the symbols of strange worship— these and 
a thousand other particulars might be de- 
tailed (of which indeed elsewhere some ac- 
count has been given : see Assyria). But 
all this grandeur and this glory had a 
disastrous end, shattei'ed, not calmly and 
gradually sinking, but violently crushed ; 
and the marks of the fire which devas- 
tated those lordly halls are yet apparent. 
'Thus saith the Lord God I have . . de- 
livered him into the hand of the mighty 
ones of the heathen .... and strangers, 
the terrible of the nations, have cut him 
otf, and have left him. . . . Upon his rum 
Bhall all the fowls of the heaven remain ; 
and all the beasts of the field shall be upon 
his branches. ... In the day when he went 
down to the grave I caused a mourning. . . . 
I made the nations to shake at the sound of 
his fall, when I cast him down to hell with 
them that descend into the pit. . . . They 
also went down into hell with him, unto 
them that be slain with the sword ; and 
they that were his arm, that dwelt under 
his shadow in the midst of the heathen 
(Ezek. xxxi. 10-17). Surely there is here m 
the history and fate of Nineveh a lesson 
read us, not only of the nothingness of man 
and his greatest works before the breath of 
the Almightv, but also of strong corrobora- 
tive evidence to the accurate truth of holy 
scripture. 

The manners, the mythology, the memo- 
rials of Nineveh have been noticed. It may 
be added that the inscriptions found are in 
what is called the arrow-headed or cunei- 
form character; and much ingenuity and 
learning have been exercised upon them 
for their Interpretation. See Writing. 
The people of Nineveh would seem to have 
spoken a Shemitic dialect, connected with 
Hebrew and Chaldee. But it is supposed 
that concurrently with this an older tongue 
of the Turanian type existed in the country; 
and sometimes inscriptions have been 
found written in the two languages m 
parallel columns. _ • wk<, >.^-f^^ 

Many works on Nineveh might be refer- 
red to Besides those of Layard and others 
mentioned in this article, the student may 
consult Botta's Monument de Nimve, V aux s 
Nineveh and PersepoUi^, and Fergussons 
Palaces of Nineveh avd Persepolis Restored. 

NIN'EVITES (Luke xi. 30). The people 
of Nineveh. 



NI'SAN {month of flowers, or new day). 
(Neh. ii. 1 ; Esth. iii. 7). See Mo^fXHS. 
NPSON (Rest of Esth. xi. 2). Nisan. 
NI'SROCH {great eagleVj. An Assyrian 
deity, in whose house or temple Senna- 
cherib was worshipping when he was slain 
by his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer (2 
Kings xix. 37 ; Isai. xxxvii. .H8). Very little 




Nisroch. The left hand hears a square vessel ot 
basket, the right a fir-cone. Daggers are m the 
girdle. From a bas-relief in Nineveh collection, 
British Museum. 

is known of this god : but it has been pro- 
posed to identify him with Asshur, the 
supreme deity of the Assyrians. It is cer- 
tain that a human figure, with the head of 
an eagle, and wings springing from the 
back, occurs frequently on early Assyrian 
monuments. The name of Nisroch may 
have been given to this ; and it may corre- 
spond with the Egyptian sun-god, Phrah, 
which had the head of an eagle or hawk. 
See Keil, Comm. on Kings, transL, vol. ii. p. 
110. But learned men can but at present 
offer conjectures. . . 

NITRE (Prov. xxv. 20). This is, no 
doubt, the natron found abundantly m 
certain E^vptian lakes, fifty miles Avest 
of Cairo. The Egyptians use it_ in bread 
and for soap; also, it is said, mixed with 
vinegar as a cure for tooth-ache. The 
contrariety between these two ingredients 
illustrates the place referred to. 

NO (Jer. xlvi. 25; Ezek. xxx. 14, lo, 16) 
more fully 



637 miU ^xxaMtXSv^t, 



NO-A'MON (portion, or temple, of Amoni). 
A large and most important city of Egypt, 
said to be situate among the rivers, and to 
have the sea (meaning the Mle) her ram- 
part (Nah. iii. 8-10). This city was as mighty 
as Nineveh ; yet judgment and ultimate 
desolation were threatened against it. There 
can be no doubt that the city intended was 
that called by the Greeks Diospolis or 
Thebes, in Upper Egypi, seated on both 
banks (^f the Nile, renowned for its hun- 
dred gates and vast population, and as 
being the principal seat of the worship of 
the god Amon. 

Some of the mightiest Egyptian dynas- 
ties reigned at Thebes, and embellished it 
with crowds of unrivalled palaces and tem- 
ples. But the voice of prophecy proclaimed 
that it should be ' rent asunder.' This doom 
began to be fulfilled first by the Assyrians 
(see Isai. xx.) : we have, however, no de- 
tailed history of the Assyrian invasion ; 
but it is evident from the words of Nahum 
that Thebes fell earlier than Nineveh. Ac- 
cording to Sir H. Rawliuson, Esar-haddon 
and his son Asshur-bani-bal both conquered 
Egypt ; and the latter took Thebes twice. 
Perhaps the Babylonians might Inflict 
further injuries : Cambyses, king of Per- 
sia, ruthlessly destroyed it and burnt and 
mutilated its remaining monuments ; and 
its ruin was completed by Ptolemy Lathy- 
rus, about 81 B.C. 

The remains of this vast city, which ap- 
pears to have beenquadrangular, four miles 
by two, still astonish those who visit them. 
They lie 260 miles south of Cairo, including 
Karnak and Luxor on the eastern bank of 
the Nile, and Koornah and Medinat Haboo 
on the west. Fragments of colossal obe- 
lisks, pillars, and statues are scattered 
over the wide space (see illustrations, pp. 
249, 318). The grand hall of the temple 
at Karnak is described as * 170 feet by 329, 
supported by a central avenue of twelve 
massive columns, sixty-six feet high (with- 
out the pedestal and abacus), and twelve in 
diameter, besides one hundred and twenty- 
two of smaller or (rather) less gigantic di- 
mensions, forty-one feet nine inches in 
height, and twenty-seven feet six inches in 
circumference, distributed in seven lines 
on either side of the former' (Wilkinson's 
Mod. Egypt and Thebes, vol. ii. p. 248). Pic- 
tured records and hieroglyphic inscriptions 
abound in the temples and the tombs ; and 
when these shall be fully deciphered we 
may hope for much additional information 
in regard to Egyptian history and customs, 
illustrating and corroborating the sacred 
books. 

NOADI'AH (with whom Jehovah meets). 
—A Levite (Ezra viii. 33).— 2. A prophetess 
who would have intimidated Nehemiah 
(Neh. vi. 14). 

NO'AH {rest). An eminent patriarch, the 
ninth in descent after Adam. His name 
would seem to have been given from some 
prophetic anticipation of his father Lamech 
(Gen. V. 29). What the fulfilment was, what 
exactly was the comfort which was to be 
enjoyed, critics are not agreed. When the 
flood of waters had rolled away, when a 
new bright morning of the earth's history 



[noah 



had dawned, and the saved family came 
forth from the ark that had sheltered them, 
to re-possess the land, then the cheering 
voice of God, promising that no more would 
he inflict such a sweeping ruin, no more 
would he curse the earth for man's sake 
(viii. 21, 22), must have comforted Noah's 
heart, and the generations of his children 
must have had a happier confidence and 
comfort in the overruling care of their 
heavenly Father. Perhaps this satisfies 
the prophecy. Or possibly, as Kalisch thinks 
{Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., p. 168), it 
might have a more precise application. 
Animal food, as well as vegetable, was now 
permitted to men (Gen. ix. 3) : no longor 
were they to be dependent only on that 
fruit of the ground for which in the sweat 
of their face they hardly laboured. Other 
theories it is needless here to enumerate : 
suffice it to say that an object was proposed 
towards which the faith of God's people 
might look : if they reached it not on earth, 
there was a heavenly blessing which even 
then, no doubt, those whose eyes were 
opened saw, and of which the highest earth- 
ly comfort was but a pledge (Heb. xi. 7). In 
the promise of the child thus named there 
was hope and rest and consolation. 

Noah lived in evil times. Five hundred 
years he spent in a world filled with vio- 
lence, and in rampant rebellion against its 
Maker. But he walked with God. He was 
a preacher of righteousness (2 Pet. ii. 5), by 
his conduct, and probably by his words also. 
At length a message was revealed to him : 
'The end of all flesh is come before me' 
(Gen. vi. 18) ; and he was instructed to build 
an ark for the preservation of his own 
family. Moved with godly fear he obeyed ; 
and his preparations must have preached 
still more plainly to the world of sinners. 
For a full century still the long-suifering 
of God waited. Whether in that interval 
any had humbled themselves and sought 
mercy we know not ; but we know that, 
when the hour of destiny arrived, the 
world was in its mad uproar. There was 
feasting, and there was the business of life 
in full whirl, and no man chose to recog- 
nize his danger till the storm burst sudden- 
ly upon them (Matt. xxiv. 37-39). Noah had 
had some general directions at first : when 
the ark was finished he had more precise 
instructions (Gen. vii. 1-4). Some critics 
have fancied a contradiction, because in 
this passage it is said that seven days 
were to elapse, and (13) that Noah and his 
family went into the ark the self-same day 
the rain descended. They have forgotten 
that some days — seven would be quite few 
enough— were required for the embarka- 
tion ; and as soon as all were there the 
rain descended. The Lord had shut Noah 
in (16). Happy they whom the Lord shuts 
in. Safe they are under the covert of his 
wing, ' in the secret place of the Most High :' 
no evil can touch them there. A year pass- 
ed over. Noah had more than once opened 
the window of the ark and sent forth birds ; 
and at last the command came for him to 
go forth. He built an altar then and sa- 
crificed to the Lord; and glad must have 
been his hea,rt when he heard the gracious 



noahI 



638 



words of a fresh covenant, and beheld tlie 
beautiful bow, the pledge of it, and knew 
now by personal experience how gracious 
God is to those that humbly seek him. He 
had exercised faith; and his faith was 
crowned with blessing. 

Xoah was to be the father of a new 
race. From his small family the earth was 
to be re-peopled. And three hundred and 
fifty years did he live among his posterity, 
a monument of God's justice and God's 
faithfulness. One more incident is related 
of him (ix. 20-27). He planted a vine and 
drank, knowingly or not we cannot say, 
too freely of the fruit of it. A shameful 
scene ensued. But the patriarch recovered, 
and in the spirit of prophecy predicted bap- 
piness to his faithful sous, judgment to the 
ungodly. ' Let him that thiuketh he stand- 
eth take heed lest he fall.' ' The days of 
Noah were nine hundred and fifty years ; 
and he died ' (29). See Flood. 

NO'AH (motion). One of the daughters of 
Zelophehad (Numb. xxvi. 33; xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 
11 ; Josh. xvii. 3). 

NOB {height, hill). A city m Benjamin, 
on the great road from the north to Jeru- 
salem, in the immediate neighbourhood of 
which it must have been ; perhaps on the 
ridge of Olivet. The tabernacle seems to 
have been here in the time of Saul, who, for 
the alleged favour shown by the high priest 
Ahimelech to David, destroyed the city, 
which was, however, afterwards rebuilt (1 
Sam. xxi. 1, xxii. 9-19; Neh. xi. 32, Itai. x. 32). 

NO'BAH (a harkinq). A Manassite who 
took Keuath and called it after his own 
name (Numb, xxxii. 42). See KE2fATH. 

NO'BAH (id.). Another name of the town 
Kenath (Judges viii. 11). 

NOBLEMAN (John iv. 46). Probably an 
officer of Herod Antipas : he may have 
been Chuza, Herod's steward (Luke viii. 3) ; 
but this is merely conjecture. The original 
word as employed by Josephus never desig- 
nated one of the family or household of the 
emperor ; so that the individual must have 
belonged to the provincial court. 'Noble- 
man' occurs in Luke xix. 12; but there 
the Greek is different, denoting a person 
well-born. , , -, . 

NOD {flight, icandering). The land m 
which Cain is said to have dwelt (Gen. iv. 
16). It is described merely as ' on the east 
of Eden.' It is impossible to fix on any 
distinct locality. Some of the conjectures 
that have been made respecting it may be 
seen in Winer, Bibl.BWB., art. ' Nod : ' com p. 
Kalisch, Connn. on the Old Test. Gen., p. 147. 

NO'DAB {nohility'). Possibly an Ishmael- 
ite tribe (1 Chron. V. 19). ... 

NO'E (Matt. xxiv. 37, 38; Luke in. ^6, 
xvii. 26, 27 ; Heb. xi. 7 ; 1 Pet. iii. 20 ; 2 Pet. 
11. 5). The Greek form of Noah. 

NO'EBA (1 Esdr. v. 31). Perhaps Neko- 
da (Ezra ii. 48). ^ -r^ 

NO'GAH {brightness). A son of David, 
Dorn at Jerusalem (1 Chron. iii. 7, xiv. 6). 
He is not mentioned in the list of David's 
children in 2 Sam. v. 14-16. 
NO'HAH {rest). A Benjaniite (1 Chron. 

NOM'ADES (2 Mace. xu. 11). The wander- 
ing Arabian tribes. 



NON (flsh) a Chron. vii. 27). See Nun. 
NOON. The Hebrew word which is trans- 
lated ' noon' (Gen. xliii. 16, 25, and elsewhere; 
is a dual form : it signifies, therefore, dou- 
ble light, i.e. the strongest brightness. It 
is metaphorically used for great prosperity 
or happiness (Job xi. 17; Psal. xxxvii. 6; 
Isai. Iviii. 10). The phrase * let us go up at 
noon' (Jer. vi. 4) probably means unex- 
pectedly : an attack would be rarely made 
in the heat of the day. 

NOPH (Isai. xix. 13; Jer. ii. 16; Ezek. 
XXX. 13, 16). See Memphis. 

NO'PHAH (blast, perhaps windy place). 
A Moabite town (Numb. xxi. 30). 

NORTH. A Hebrew, when speaking with 
reference to the points of the compass, was 
considered as having his face to the east : 
the north consequently was on the left ; and 
thus ' the left hand ' designates the north 
(Gen. xiv. 15 ; Job xxiii. 9). The north also 
wasconsideredhigherthan the south ; hence 
those travelling from north to south went 
down (Gen. xii. 10, xlii. 2) ; while those who 
travelled from south to north went up (xiv. 
25, 1. 6, 7, 9). The lands of the north denote 
Chaldea, Assyria, Media, &c. (Jer. i. 14, iii. 
12, 18 ; Ezek. xxvi. 7 ; Zeph. ii. 13 ; Zech. ii. 
6) ; not that they were precisely to the 
north of Palestine, but that the course of 
persons or troops proceeding from those 
countries would be from north to south, 
in order to enter Judea, instead of taking 
the straight direction across deserts. 

NOSE. The Hebrews generally placed 
anger in the nose, because of the hard 
breathing of an angry person (2 Sam. xxii. 
9 ; Job iv. 9, xli. 20). The idea is used as 
applied both to men and to the Deity. Fur- 
ther, hooks or rings were placed in the 
nostrils to secure and curb various animals, 
as buffaloes and camels (1, 2 ; Ezek. xxix. 4). 
Hence we find a metaphorical expression 
used to signify the subduing of an enemy 
(Isai. xxxvii. 29 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 4). 




Arab woman at the present day ^vith nose-ring. 

NOSE-JEWEL (Isai. iii. 21). The nose- 
jewel or nose-ring is very common _m the 
ea^t It is of gold' or other metal, with tw( 



639 



pearls and a ruby between, or, among the 
l-'oorer classes, three or more glass beads 
uttached. This ring is an inch or an 




Nose-ring worn by Arab women at the preaent day 

inch and a-half in diameter, and is passed 
through the left, occasionally the right, 
nostril. Also a pendant is sometimes worn 
suspended from the middle cartilage of the 
nose. 

NOVICE. A newly-converted person. Such 
a one was not to be oi'dained to the ministry 
(1 Tim, ill. 6). The precept is reasonable, 
and might well apply to all the churches 
which St. Paul had planted ; the epistle in 
which it occurs not being of very early 
date. 

JSTUMBEIl. In expressing numbers the 
Hebrews used, at all events in later times, 
the letters of the alphabet. Hence the 
facility of errors of transcription ; different 
letters having a near resemblance. Certain 
numbers frequently occur as representative, 
or as supposed to indicate perfection : see 
Seven. Multiples of these are also used, 
in the way in which w^e use 'round num- 
bers.' Thus in enumerations we often find 
only multiples of ten, or a hundred. 

NUMBERING. See Census. 

NUMBERS, THE BOOK OF. This book 
occupies the fourth place in the Pentateuch. 
It has several names among the Jews ; the 
most common of which are the first and 
the fifth words in the first verse, which sig- 
nify respectively ' And he spake,' and ' In 
the wilderness.' The name which we give 
it is taken from the fact that twice it re- 
cords a numbering of Israel, By the Jews 
it is divided into ten perasliioth. 

There is no definite plan visible in the 
composition of this book, which contains 
both legal enactments and historical noti ces. 
It was probably written at different times 
during the period which it includes, that is, 
from the first day of the second month in 
the second year after the departure from 
Egypt, to the beginning of the eleventh 
month of the fortieth year (Numb. i. 1, 
xxxvi. 13, compared with Deut. i. 3). But 
we may for convenience distribute its con- 
tents into three parts: I. Comprising 
the events and regulations during the con- 
tinuance of the Israelites at Sinai (Numb. 
1 1 — X. 10). In this we have the account of 
the first census : II. Transactions in the 
wilderness, from their quitting Sinai till the 
beginning of the fortieth year (x. 11— xix. 
22): III. The occurrences and commands 
given in the first ten or eleven months of 
the fortieth year (xx.— xxxvi.). The second 
•xensus is here detailed, also the deaths of 



Aaron and Miriam, and the arrival of the 
people in the plains of Moab, on the eastern 
bank of the Jordan. A list of their various 
stations through the whole of their wan- 
derings is given in xxxiii. 

It will be observed that most of the events 
narrated in Numbers occurred in the second 
and fortieth years of the wilderness life of 
Israel. Little, and that not dated, is re- 
corded of what happened in the interval. 
Exception has been taken to this fact. But 
it is in accordance with God's general plan 
in scripture. Those events only he would 
have recorded for the permanent instruc- 
tion of his church, which were necessary 
to illustrate the covenant-relationship in 
which he designed to stand to them. Blanks 
therefore are often left in the history : much 
is omitted which it would have gratified our 
curiosity to know: all is related which is 
needful for our guidance and profit. 

It has been imagined by some critics that 
there are portions of this book v/hich do 
not fit in well to the rest : thus the date in 
i. 1 is the first day of the second month, 
while (ix. l) the Lord is said to speak 
to Moses in the first month. Then, again, 
discrepancy is fancied because (xiii. 30, xiv. 
24) Caleb's conduct, and the promise to him, 
are alone mentioned, though, immediately 
after (6, 38) Joshua is noticed too ; and 
the untenable supposition is made that the 
history of the spies comprised at first xiii. 
1— xiv. 4, 10 (latter part)-25, 39-45 ; and that 
a later hand unskilfully enlarged it by in- 
troducing xiv. 5-10 (former part), 26-38. Such 
are some of the objections stated by Bleek, 
{Einleitung, pp. 283, &c.). It must be suffi- 
cient to say here that, on the principle ap- 
plied to Numb. i. 1, compared with ix. 1, 
almost any history ever written might be 
dismembered, and that the other difficulty 
is readily solved by supposing that Caleb 
spoke first in testifjing against the evil re- 
port of the ten spies, and remembering that 
there was a special promise made to him, 
the fulfilment of which is to be noted in the 
course of the sacred history (Josh. xiv. 6-15). 
For some other matters connected with the 
Book of Numbers, see Balaam, Wars of 
THE Lord, The Book op the,Wandering. 

NUME'NIUS (1 Mace. xli. 16, 17, xiv. 22, 
24). A person sent on embassy in the Mac- 
cabean times to Rome and Sparta. 

NUN C/is/i). An Ephraimite, the son of 
Elishama prince of Ephraim in the wilder- 
ness, and father of Joshua (Exod. xxxiii. 11, 
Numb. i. 10). He is also called Non (1 Chron. 
vii. 27). 

NURSE, A nurse was highly regarded in 
an eastern familj\ Thus Rebekah's nurse 
attended her to Canaan, and was buried by 
Jacob's family with much lamentation (Gen, 
xxiv. 59, XXXV. 8). The tenderness of a 
nurse for her foster-child is frequently al- 
luded to in scripture, to illustrate afl^ec- 
tionate care (Numb. xi. 12; Isai. xlix. 23; 
1 Thess. ii. 7) ; and in some of these places 
a foster-father is intended. 

NUT. The ' nuts ' of Gen. xliii. 11 are pis- 
tachio-nuts. The pistachio-tree, Pistacia 
vera, is frequently found in Palestine and 
Syria. It thrives best in a dry and rocky 
soil ; but it is of slow growth. It attains a 



NYMPHJLS] 



CJe Cr^a^urw at 



640 



height of twelve to twenty, sometimes 
thirty, feet. The stem Is not thick ; but the 
branches are numerous and much divided. 
It is in full bloom in April ; and the blos- 
soms are whitish and in clusters. The shell 
of the nut is odoriferous. These nuts are a 
favourite fruit in the east : they have a 
spicy taste, and are eaten either dry or pre- 
served. It has been imagined that the 
kernel strengthened the stomach, and was 



a specific against the bite of serpents. In 
India the seeds are eaten with sweetmeats, 
or fried with pepper and salt. Another 
word is translated 'nuts' in Sol. Song vi. 11. 
Possiblv walnuts may be there intended, 

NTM'PHAS (bridegroom). A Christian, It 
would seem, at Laodicea, who had a church 
in his house, and whom St. Paul saluted 
(Col, iv. 15). 



O 



OAK, A well-known tree, of which there 
are a vast number of species belonging to 
the genus Quercus. Oaks are very widely 
disseminated throughout the northern 
hemisphere. Some of them are deciduous, 
as Quercus pediinculata, the common Bri- 
tish oak, and Quercus ilex, the common 
holm-oak. 

The oak is frequently mentioned m scrip- 
ture; but It is not easy to decide which 
species in the various places is meant. 
There are several Hebrew words used, el, 
elah, mi, ilah, alUh, allon, all implying the 
idea of strength. In our version the 
meanings 'oak,' 'teil-tree' (Isai. vi. 13), 
♦ elm ' (Hos. iv. 13) are given ; and one of 
the words, Hon, is constantly but incorrect- 
ly rendered ' plain ' (e.g. Gen. xii. 6). It has 
been imagined that some of the terms 
designate the terebinth, Pistacia terebin- 
thus, and others the oak ; but then critics 
are not agreed which terras should describe 
the one and which the other. And it is 
very doubtful whether the terebinth is ever 
really referred to. , ^ ^r, t 

Dr. Thomson argues strongly for the oak. 
•The Hebrew writers,' he says, 'seem to 
use these names (eZa/iand alldn) indiscrimi- 
nately for the same tree, or for different | 
varieties of it (one probably deciduous, the 
second evergreen)— and that was the oak. 
For example, the tree in which Absalom was 

caught was the Hah, not the alldn ', and 

yet I am persuaded it was an oak There 

are thousands of such trees still in the same 
country, admirably suited to catch long- 
haired rebels, but no terebinths. Indeed 
this latter tree does not meet the require- 
ments of this catastrophe at all. I see it 
asserted by the advocates of this . transla- 
tion that the oak is not a common nor a 
verv striking tree in this country, implying 
that the terebinth is. A greater mistake 
could scarcely be made. As to strength, it 
is simply ridiculous to compare the tere- 
binth with the oak ; and the same in regard 
to size. The terebinth under which our 
tent is pitched down at Banias is the largest 
I have seen ; and yet there are many oaks 
to which it is but as an infant. Still more 
surprising are the statements about the 
extent of oak-forests in this land. Why, 
there are more mighty oaks here in this 
immediate vicinity (Medjel es-Shems) than 
there are terebinths in all Syri:i and Pales- 



tine together. I have travelled from end 
to end of these countries, and across them 
in all directions, and speak with absolute 
certainty , . . , I do not believe that Abra- 
ham's celebrated tree at Hebron was a tere- 
binth ; as many now affirm without qualifi- 
cation. It is now a very venerable oak ; and 
I saw no terebinth in the neighbourhood ' 
{The Land and the Book, pp. 243, 244). Else- 
where the same writer remarks that the so- 
called Abraham's tree (a Quercus ballota) 
cannot be more than 1000 years old (pp. 599, 
600). He concludes, 'Until we have more 
light on this particular matter, and more 
decisive, let us continue to read out brave- 
ly the good old word oak, and never fear 
the smile of over-wise critics,' 

The Quercus pseudo-coccifera, an ever 
green, and the Quercus cegilops are fre- 
quently met with in Palestine : this last 
species is found in the woods of Bashau 
(Isai. ii. 13; Ezek. xxvii. 6 ; Zech. xi. 2), See 

OATH, A solemn appeal to the Deity or 
some superior being, expressed or implied, 
in token of the good faith of him who de- 
clares or promises anything. We find oaths 
taken in patriarchal times (Gen. xiv. 22, 23, 
xxi. 23, 31), regulated by the Mosaic law, 
forbidden when unnecessary in the New 
Testament, but used by God himself to seal 
his promise as most trustworthy, and 
therebv to end all disputation (xxii, 16-18; 
Heb, vi. 13-18). ^ ^ ^ 

Oaths were usual on occasion of contracts, 
covenants, agreements, or stipulations 
(Gen xxiv. 2, 8, 9, xxxi. 53 ; Josh. ix. 15, 19, 
20 : 2 Sam. xix. 23) ; in making vows (Lev, 
V. 4 ; Acts xxiii. 12, 21) ; as confirming pro- 
mises (2 Kings XXV. 24; Matt. xiv. 7, 9) ; and 
in denouncing imprecations (Josh. vi. 26 ; 1 
Sam. xiv. 24, 26-28). These were voluntary , 
as also were those more common assevera- 
tions when God was called to witness the 
firm purpose of him that expressed it 
(Iluth i. 17 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 22 ; 1 Kings ii. 23). 
But sometimes oaths were exacted, as by a 
sovereign from his subjects, or by a supe- 
rior from a vassal (xviii. 10; 2 Chron.xxxvi. 
13 ; Eccles. viii. 2 ; Ezek. xvii. 16) ; akin to 
which were the oaths laid upon a people to 
obey the laws of God or of the land (Ezra 
y 5 ; Neh. v. 12, x. 29, xiii. 29). Of the same 
nature were judicial oaths; persons on 
trial being obliged to clear themselves by 



i 



ii 



j 

I 



641 



[OBADIAH I 



oath (Exod. xxii. 10, 11 ; Numb. v. 19-22; 1 
Kings viii. 31, 32; Matt. xxvi. 63, 64). 
Witnesses, too, were probably put on oath 
(Lev. V. 1). 

The formula by which an oath was ex- 
pressed generally involved a special appeal 
to the Deity, * As the Lord liveth' (1 Sam. 
xiv. 39), ' God do so to me and more also ' 
(44). Sometimes, however, the person ad- 
dressed was joined with the Deity in the ad- 
juration ; 'As the Lord liveth and as thy soul 
Uveth, (2 Sam. xv. 21 ; 2 Kings ii. 2, 4, 6), or 
the immediate mention of God was omitted 
(1 Sam. xvii. 55 ; 2 Sam. xi. 11). Of a similar 
kind was the oath of Joseph, ' By the life of 
Pharaoh' (Gen. xlii. 15, 16). Occasionally 
the oath was taken by more common things, 
by Jerusalem, by a man's head, &c. (Matt. 
V. 34-36, xxii. 16-22). As a test of allegiance 
to the Lord the Israelites were commanded 
to swear by his name (Deut. vi. 13), and not 
by the name of false deities (Josh, xxiii. 7) ; 
which would be in effect an acknowledg- 
ment of their authority. 

Certain ceremonies were frequently used 
in taking an oath, in order to increase the 
solemnity of it. Such were the lifting of 
the hand (Gen. xiv. 22; Deut. xxxii. 40; 
Isai. iii. 7, marg. ; Ezek. xx. 5, 6 ; Rev. x. 5, 
6)— analogous to which was the laying of 
witnesses' hands on a criminal's head (Lev. 
xxiv. 14)— -the placing of the hand under 
the thigh of another who required the oath 
(Gen. xxiv. 2, 3, 9, xlvii. 29,31), of which dif- 
ferent explanations have been given, as an 
allusion to the rite of circumcision, or a 
testimony to the belief of the Messiah; also 
the passing between the pieces of a divided 
victim (XV. 10, 1? ; Jer. xxxiv. 18). Oaths, 
too, were sometimes taken before the sa- 
cred altar (1 Kings viii. 31). Ceremonies 
for the same purpose accompany our own 
judicial oaths ; as the holding up of the hand 
in Scotland, and the kissing of the New 
Testament in England. 

Perjury and the non-fulfllment of an oath 
were regarded as great crimes. According 
to the law he who had given false witness 
was to suffer the same penalties to which 
nis injustice had exposed the man against 
whom he testified (Deut. xix. 16-21). Even 
if any one had sworn to his own detriment 
he must perform his oath (Psal. xv. 4). This 
could not, however, be held to justify a sin. 
Herod was not excused by his rash oath for 
the Baptist's murder (Matt. xiv. 9). 

We find in the New Testament prohibi- 
tions against swearing (v. 34-37: James v. 
12). It cannot be supposed Siiat it was in- 
tended by these to censure rm-y kind of 
oath. For our Lord himself made solemn 
asseverations equivalent to an oath ; and 
St. Paul repeatedly in his inspired epistles 
calls God to witness the truth of what he 
was saying. The intention was, as Dr. 
Alford well notes upon Matt. iv. 34-37, to 
show « that the proper state of Christians 
is to require no oaths ; that, when evil is 
expelled from among them, every yea and 
nay will be as decisive as an oath, every 
promise as binding as avow': comp. art. 
xxxix. of the English church. 

It may be added that Mohammedans 
usually swear on the opened koran. 



The Roman soldiery were stringently 
boxmd by their military oath : see Matt, 
viii. 9. 

OBADI'AH {servant of Jehovah).-!. An 
oflBcer in Ahab's household, who in an evil 
time held fast his integrity and concealed a 
hundred prophets from the blood-thirstv 
rage of Jezebel (1 Kings xviii. 3-16).— 2. A 
descendant of the house of David (1 Chron. 
iii. 21).— 3. A chief of Issachar (vii. 3).— 4. 
One of Saul's posterity (viii. 38, ix. 44).— 
5. A Levite (16) : he appears to be identical 
with Abda (Neh. xi. 17).— 6. A Gadite cap- 
tain who joined David in the wilderness (1 
Chron. xii. 9).— 7. The father of the ruler of 
the tribe of Zebulun (xxvii. 19).— 8. A prince 
sent by Jehoshaphat to teach in the cities of 
Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 7).— 9. A Merarite Le- 
vite in the days of Josiah (xxxiv. 12).— 10. 
One who joined the caravan of Ezra re- 
turning from Babylon (Ezra viii. 9).— 11. A 
priest who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 5). 
—12. A Levite porter (xii. 25) : possibly he 
may be the same with no. 5. 

13. A prophet of whose personal his- 
tory nothing certain is known. There 
have been various conjectures in regard to 
him, and various attempts to identify him 
with some of the other persons who bear 
the same name. We can only arrive at a 
reasonable conclusion by examining the 
terms of his prophecy. He speaks of the 
calamities of Jerusalem, when foreigners 
entered its gates and carried its forces cap- 
tive. To what event does this refer ? Some 
hare imagined that the raid of the Ara- 
bians and Philistines in Jehoram's reign (2 
Chron. xxi. 16, 17) Is intended. But it is 
more reasonable to believe that some 
Chaldean Invasion is described. Yet 
here again critics differ. Some main- 
tain that the prophet means the captivity 
of Jehoiachin. Surely, however, the terms 
employed point to a yet more entire destruc- 
tion, the final overthrow by Nebuchadnezzar. 
But then there is another question : Is this 
desolation prophetically described ? or is it 
narrated after it had oocurred? The latter 
supposition would appear the true one, be- 
cause the censure of the prophet is spe- 
ciallydirected against Edom: itwas for judg- 
ment upon him that Obadiah was inspired to 
utter predictions : ic is natural therefore to 
believe that his sin for which such punish- 
ment was to follow had been already com- 
mitted. It has also been thought from Obad. 
20 that the prophet himself was one of the 
captives ; on this, however, much stress 
cannot be laid. But we may on the whole 
conclude that he lived at the time of the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, and that his pro- 
phecy was uttered shortly after. 

OBADI'AH, THE BOOK OF. 588-583 B.C. 
This is the shortest of all the prophetical 
books : it is said to have been put in the place 
it occupies in our canon (the fourth among 
the minor prophets) because of the connec- 
tion of its subject with that of the clos- 
ing verses of Amos immediately preced- 
ing. There is a remarkable similarity 
between Obad. 1-8 and Jer. xlix.7-16; and it 
seems clear that one of these prophets 
must have had the composition of the 
other before him. Which was the earlier ia 
T X' 



OBADIAHTJ] 



642 



doubtful. As, hovfever, we kuow tliat Jere- 
miah freguently re-produced the oracles 
which had previously been dehvered,J^e 
may suppose it to have been the case here. 
Ewald imagines {Die Proph. f^s J ^l- 
pn 399, 400^ that both prophets boiiowed 
from an older writer : Bleej. dissents from 
this oninian {Einleitimg in das A.I., p. 
and in truth it rests entirely upon conjec- 

^^The style of Obadiah is animated, and his 
prophecy orderly and perspicuous. He 
first (1-9) denounces judgment agamst 
Edom, then (10-16) dwells upon the special 
sin committed, the malicious Doy with 
which the Edomites had abetted_ Judala s 
enemies (comp. Psal. cxxxvii. 7), reiterating 
the threatening, and afterwards CVf^^^iJf 
describes the restoration of Jewish pro- 
sperity, their dominion being largely ex- 
tended The accomplishment of the earlier 
part of the prophecy took place about five 
Vears after the taking of Jerusalem, thaf. of 
the latter in the victories of the Maccabeaii 
princes : this has, however, no doubt its 
fullest completion in the establishment of 
Messiah's kingdom. ... „,ovcr>> 

OBADI'AHIJ (1 Kings xvm. 3, marg.). 
Obadiah, 1. , , . 

O'BAL (stripped oThnre of leaves^. A son 
of Joktan, being the name of a tribe and 
region in Arabia, the position of which is 
vely uncertain (Gen. x. 28). In 1 Chron. i. 
22 he is styled Ebal. 

OBDI'A (1 Esdr. v. 38). A corrupted form 
of Habaiah (Ezra ii. 61). 

O'BED iserving, sc. God).-l. The son of 
Boaz by Ruth, and father of Jesse (Ruth iv. 
17 21, 22; 1 Chron. ii. 12; Matt. i. 5; Luke 
ili' 32) —2. One of Judah'B posterity, through 
the Egyptian Jarha (1 Chron ii. 37, 38).-3. 
One of David's warriors (xi. 47).— 4. A he- 
vite porter (xxvi. 7).-5. A person whose 
son Jehoiada associated with himself and 
others in order to make Joash king (2 Chron. 

O'BED-E'DOM {serving Edom).— I. A per- 
son in whose hause, after the death of 
Uzzah, the ark was deposited, and on whom 
in consequence God's blessing rested. He 
is called a Gittite, but he can hardly have 
been an alien, as elsewhere he is ranked 
among the Levites. Perhaps he was of the 
body attached to David during his residence 
at Gath (2 Sam. vi. 10-12 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 
13 14, XV. 18, 21, 24, 25, xvi. 5, 35). Or, 
probably, Obed-edom the Levite (xv. 
18, 21, 24, xvi. 5, 38, xxvi. 4, 8, 15) was 
a different person from Obed-edom the Git- 
tite —2. An officer or treasurer of the tem- 
ple in the time of king Amaziah (2 Chron. 

^^BE^IElvCE. Compliance with the re- 
quirements of law. Even inanimate things 
and irrational creatures may be said to pay 
obedience when they fulfil the purpose lor 
which they were created, and are subser- 
vient to divine authority (Psal. cxlviii. 6-8 ; 
Matt. viii. 27 ; James iii. 3, 4). But this is 
not the moral obedience which reasonalUe 
beings are to render to those ^^^lo have the 
just control of them. The pure angels do 
exactly God's commandments (Psal. c^ii. 20); 
and men ought to show an equal obedience, 



as their paramount duty, to their Creator 
(1 Sam. XV. 22). Obedience is often due 
also from one person to another , as from 
children to parents (Eph. vi 1), from 
wives to husbands (v. 22; 1 Pet. iii. 1 , 6 , 
from servants to masters (Eph. vi. 5), from 
subjects to rulers, civil and others (Rom 
xiii. 1 ; Heb. xiii. 17 ; l Pet. ii. 13, 14) Our 
blessed Lord, having become man, paid ob^ 
dience to the law of God which was laid 
on man. Christ's obedience was perfect : 
he entirely fulfilled his Fathers com- 
mandments, becoming. ' obedient unto 
death' (Phil. ii. 8); his death being, so 
to speak, the acme of his ^lUinf compli- 
ance, and entire performance of the work 
given him to do. It is this, the fulfil- 
ment of the law in his life, which together 
with the endurance of its penalty m h s 
death, completes that work, for the virtue 
of which those who believe m him aie 
saved His obedience unto death, then, 
while it by no means abates the claims of 
God's law on men as a moral rule of life, is 
vet a moral equivalent for the world s sin 
'and becomes available to all who plead it as 
the ground of their acceptance with God, 
This is forcibly argued by St. Paul (Rom 
v. 12-19) : comp. Dr. Alford's notes on the 

^^O'BETH (1 Esdr. viii. 32). Ebed (Ezra 

^'o'BIL (r7nc/, i.e. overseer, ofthe c-oviels). 
An Ishmaelite who had charge of Davids 
camels (1 Chron. XXV ii. 30). ^ . . _ . 

OBLATION (Lev. ii. 4, 5 ; Isai. i. 13, ana 
elsewhere). See Offerii^gs. 

O'BOTH (water-skins). One of the stations 
of the Israelites, to the east of Edom, not 
very far from the southern extremity ot 
the Dead sea (Numb. xxi. 10, 11, xxxiii. 43, 
44) 

dcUI'EL a Esdr. i. 9). A corrupt form 
of Jeiel (2 Chron. xxxv. 9). . 

O'CHIM {howlings, holding animals) (Isai 
xiii. 21, marer.). See Owl. 

OCIDE'LOS (1 Esdr. ix. 22). A strangely 
corrupted form of Jozabad (Ezra x. 22). 
OGI'NA (Judich ii. 28). Not improbably 

^°OC'RAN {afflicted). The father of Pagiel 
prince of Asher (Numb. 1. 13, u. 27, vii. 7A 

^"o^DED {setting up, a sustainer).—!. The 
father of the prophet Azariah m Asa s reign 
(2 Chron. xv. 1-8) : probably m 8 also 
Azariah is meant, and the words * the son 
of are erroneously omitted.-2. A Propliet 
in Samaria in Pekah's reign (xxvni. 9-11)- 

OBOL'LAM (2 Macc. xii. 38). The Greek 
form of Adullam. . 

ODOIS-AR'EES (1 Macc. ix. 06). . 
OFFENCE. This word is used to signify 
that against which a person stumbles, an 
occasion of faUing, or, morally, that which 
causes any one to sin. It may or may not 
be entirely the fault of him who so stum- 
bles and transgresses ; but there is ^7 no 
means necessarily implied any blame m the 
stumbling-block. Thus Messiah is called 
' a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence 
(Isai. viii. 14). It was by their « ^ Pf/^^f^^ 
nessthat the Jews were offended at him, 
because he did not come with the temporal 



643 



[offerings 



grandeur they had expected ; on them, 
therefore, the whole fault lay. But he that 
by his sin causes an offence is justly held 
to he very guilty (Matt, xviii. 7) ; and men 
are commanded to deny themselves even 
lawful indulgences which probably would 
give occasion to their own falling (v. 29, 
SO), or which might prove injurious to their 
brethren (Rom. xiv. 21). 

OFFERINGS. Various kinds of sacrifice. 
The institution of sacrifice is elsewhere 
noticed. See Sacrifice. In the earlier 
ages of the world it appears to have formed 
a part, generally speaking, of divine wor- 
ship; and there was a certain distinction 
between those animals which might and 
those which might not be thus offered to 
the Deity (Gen. viii. 20). In the Mosaic law 
minuter details were given, and various 
oiferings were prescribed, which, while 
they were graciously accepted as an act of 
service from the worshipper, inculcated 
also lessons most instructive for all future 
time, and had their full significance and 
completion in the great Christian sacrifice, 
the one offering of the Lamb of God once 
for all. The type contains less than the 
antitype. To convey all the lessons, there- 
fore, that were intended, several forms of 
offering were commanded. And it is only 
by putting them together that we can at 
all grasp the entire purpose of God in them. 
We must view them, therefore, as parts of 
a whole, the well-ordered development of 
great fundamental truths, to bring out all 
that is connected with the sinner's recon- 
ciliation and restored fellowship with God ; 
in which, too, his appropriate affections 
when in the divine favour may be ex- 
pressed. 

It was the first demand of the Israelites 
that they might be permitted to leave 
Egypt to offer sacrifices to Jehovah (Exod. 
V. 1-3). And we find them very soon after 
their departure making offerings on various 
occasions (xviii. 12, xxiv. 5). One of the 
first directions also given them was for an 
altar to be constructed for the different 
kinds of sacrifice (xx. 24, 25), such an altar 
as might be used at once, and used at any 
time when the altar of the sanctuaiT was 
not accessible. Somewhat later we have 
the whole code of regulations for offerings 
(Lev. i.-vii.) ; the sin-offering, the trespass- 
offering, the burnt-offering, the peace-offer- 
ing, with the meat and drink-offerings ; each 
having its peculiar signification. 

The sin-offering, hhattdih, is commanded 
and the order of it prescribed in iv. 1— v. 13, 
vi. 24-30. This betokened abasement in the 
most express sense, and was to be offered 
for special acts of sin, not, as our transla- 
tion 'through ignorance' would lead the 
reader to suppose, those merely which had 
been unconsciously committed, but all 
which arose from that want of care which 
men to whom the will of God was revealed 
were bound to exercise. The original ex- 
pression, according to abp.Magee {On Atone- 
ment, note xxxvii.), ' besides sins of igno- 
rance, includes likewise all such as were 
the consequence of human frailty and in- 
consideration, whether committed know- 
ingly and wilfully, or otherwise. It stands 



opposed to sins committed " with a high 
hand" (Numb. xv. 22-31), that is, deliberately 
and presumptuously, for which no atone- 
ment was admitted. So that the eificacy of 
the atonement was extended to all sins 
which flowed from the infirmities and pas- 
sions of human nature, and was. withheld 
only from those which sprang from a de- 
liberate and audacious defiance of the divine 
authority. This view is also abundantly 
confirmed by the examples given of the 
particular sins which called for the atone- 
ment, and among which fraud, lying, rash 
swearing or perjury, licentiousness are to 
be found.' In this offering there was a 
gradation of victims, more or less costly, to 
mark the more or less offensive character 
of the sin, according to the position of the 
offender, or other circumstances. The blood 
of these victims was to be variously dealt 
with. If the victim were of an inferior 
kind, for a poor person, some of it was to 
be sprinkled on the side of the altar, and 
the rest poured out at the altar foot. If 
the victim were of higher degree, for a 
private person or a ruler, then in addition 
some of the blood was to be put upon the 
horns, the most prominent part, of the 
altar. If^ still further, the offering were 
for the congregation or for the high priest, 
then also a portion of the blood must be 
taken into the sanctuary and sprinkled 
seven times before the inner veil, some 
being put upon the horns of the altar of 
incense. In each case the offerer had to 
lay his hand upon the victim before it was 
slain ; and thus the blood-shedding with 
the sprinkling was taken as an atonement 
for his sin. Certain portions of the victim, 
the fat, the caul and adjoining parts, were 
then burnt upon the altar; while the rest, 
if the offering were for an individual, was 
to be eaten by the priest within the pre- 
cincts of the sanctuary ; if for the congre- 
gation, or for the priest himself, then it 
was to be carried forth, and burnt in a clean 
place. The full acceptance of the offering 
was thus shown : the fiesh had become 
most holy: it was God's: by his priests, 
therefore, it was eaten, in his more imme- 
diate presence, except when the priests 
were directly, for their own sin, or indi 
rectly, as members of the congregation, 
concerned : then the priests could not eat 
the flesh ; else it would have been a peace- 
offering : neither could it be consumed 
upon the altar ; else it would be a burnt- 
offering. The burning, therefore, took place 
without. Thus most clearly through the 
whole was the prominent idea exhibited 
—the identification of the offering with 
the sinner's guilt, the completeness of the 
satisfaction, and the entire removal of the 
iniquity. No meat-offering or drink-offer- 
ing accompanied this rite : these symbo- 
lized the faithful obedience of tlie worship- 
per. But, as the sin-offering was pre-emi- 
nently atonement, that idea was made to 
come so prominently forward that there 
was no room for anything else. The con- 
secration of the person, with the offering of 
his good works, was reserved for another 
stage in this great typical development. 
The trespass-offering, asliavi, is the nex> 



offerings] 



644 



to be considered. The regulations in re- 
gard to it are given in Lev. v. 14-vi. 7, vii. 
1-7 A difficulty has been sometimes telt 
in ' distinguishing the trespass-offering 
from the sin-<)flering ; and this is aggra- 
vated by the mistranslation of v. 6, which 
would be better rendered, 'he shall bring 
for his trespass.' The trespass or, as it 
might be called.the debt-offering, was a sup- 
plement or appendage to the sin-oflering : 
it represented sin in a fresh light as an in- 
iurv for which there must be recompence. 
The injury was two-fold— against the Lord, 
whose rights had been violated, andagannst 
a fellow-creature, whose property or person 
had been maltreated. In all such cases 
tliere must be a trespass-offering. The 
rites prescribed were these, that the victim 
should be killed, but the blood only poured 
round the altar, not sprinkled on the horns, 
or carried into the sanctuary : the same 
parts as in the sin-offering were to be burnt 
on the altar, and the rest to be eaten m 
the holy place. Then too, in respect of the 
injury done or debt incurred, estimation 
of value was to be made, and a fifth part 
:idded thereto : this, where the Lord was 
wronged, was to be given to the priest, 
where a neighbour, to him that had so sut- 
fered Here we see a dealing with sm, not 
eor its actual nature but for the evils that 
Qow from it ; and there was a great lesson 
inculcated, pressing home upon tlie con- 
science the moral debt incurred, and the 
consequent necessity of satisfying the di- 
vine justice, and making restitution to the 
brother who had been injured. It may 
observed, as confirming the view that has 
been taken, that Christ's sacrifice,f requently 
represented as a sin-offer in g-the atone- 
ment being thus fully brought out-is not 
^uoken of in the New Testament as a tres- 
pass-offering ; the Greek word which spe- 
cially signifies this last not being there 

^^Th*e burnt-offering must be now exa- 
mined : it is called 'dlah, 'ascension,' because 
it was consumed and went up m fiam^ to 
the Lord ; also chaUl, ' the whole, as being 
altogether burnt. The statutes respect- 
ing it are found in i., vi. 8-13. The burnt- 
offering may be said to be of pre-eminent 
disunity : it had a comprehensive character 
for those peculiarly who had been brought 
within the bonds of the covenant, it 
was the offering, therefore, of the an- 
cient patriarchs (Gen. viii. 20, xxii. 13 : 
comp. Exod. xxiv. 5). Herein it differed 
froni the two kinds of offering before 
spoken of: they were for special sms, 
vvhich, unatoned for, excluded the trans- 
gressor from covenant-blessings. Biit when 
the conscience was so purged, then God ssei - 
vant might approach him on the general 
ground of his promise, seeking in such an 
offering as this the large i-emission, not of 
this or that specified offence, but of all his 
short-comings, and i^Per^ections and sins 
It was a voluntary service ; and the offeier 
laid his hand on the head of the victim : 
the blood was to be sprinkled round- 
about upon the altar, and the sacrifice to be 
enth-ely burnt, the skin alone being given 
to the priest. The entire consnmuig be- 



tokened the unlimited self-dedication of the 
offerer to God ; and, as this would express 
Itself in the fruits of a holy life and con- 
versation, a meat and drink-offering (of 
which more hereafter) must accompany the 
burnt-offering. , • 

The law of the peace-offermgs, slieUmim, 
is given in Lev. iii., vii. 11-21. There were 
three different kinds of thesp, yiz. of 
thanksgiving, the adoring gratitude of a 
full heart, expressing its sense of ricn 
spontaneous mercy ; for a vow, when some 
benefit had been granted as in considera- 
tion of a promise made ; and a free-wiJl- 
offering, when something was devoted to 
the Lord, but without any special purpose 
or occasion. Of these, the first-named 
would seem to stand in highest estimation. 
Peace-offerings were eucharistic. Triie, 
there was the imposition of hands upon the 
victim, and its blood was to be sprinkled 
on the altar : still such offerings were those 
of a reconciled state, the offerer being in 
amity with God. And this is further ex- 
pressed by the fact that, while the priest 
had a portion, the offerer was with his 
friends to eat also (the same day if of 
thanksgiving) ; the permission betokening 
that he had a seat at God's table, and might 
rejoice before him. This, too, was to be 
accompanied with a meat and drink-ofier- 

^^Portions of the peace-offerings, the 
breast and the right shoulder of the A'ic- 
tim, were reserved for the priest (81-34), be- 
ing consecrated by*heaving' or ' waving. 
According to Jewish tradition, the parts 
were placed on the hands of the offerer ; 
and then the priest, putting his hands un- 
derneath, moved them in a vertical direc- 
tion for the heaving, in a horizontal one for 
the waving. This ceremony must have im- 
Dlied a presentation of the parts to God ; 
and they became the property of the priests 
as God's officers. This view is confirmed 
by the fact that the same ceremony was 
practised in some other cases (Numb. xv. 
19-21): hence the term 'heave-offermg. 

The meat-offering, minchah, is prescribed 
in Lev. ii., vi. 14-23. It was an unbloody 
offering ; and therefore it was not to be 
nresented alone : it accompanied the burnt- 
offering and the peace-offering. So neces- 
sarv was this conjunction that we find it 
even at the offering of the first-fruits, a 
lamb being also then slain for a burnt- 
offering (xxiii. 10-12, 17-20). And it may be 
added that no unbloody offering could be 
accepted for sin, save in the single case of 
a man's being so poor that he could not 
provide the doves or pige(ms ordered as the 
cheapest victims for sacrifice (v. 11-13). ihe 
meat-offering consisted of flour or cakes, 
prepared with salt, oil, and frankincense , 
salt being the preservative against decay, 
oil the symbol of spiritual influence, and 
frankincensebetokening the pleasant savour 
of a pure offering to the Lord. So that, as 
the meat-offering was to teach that God s 
servants were to be fruitfully engaged m 
good works, those good works must, it was 
Ihown, be incorrupt, inwrought by the di- 
vine Spirit, and must be presented before > 
God with the incense of grateful prayer 



645 mUt mnoMtn^t. 



But neither leaven nor honey was to l»e 
used, nothing that could corrupt or by self- 
pleasing oppose itself to the simple and en- 
tire dedication of the heart to God. A drink- 
offering of wine accompanied the meat- 
offering, and was, as it were, included in it 
(Exod. xxix. 40, 41 ; Lev. xxiii. 13 ; Numh. 
XV. 4-7, 9, 10). A portion of the meat-offer- 
ing was to be burnt on the altar, and the 
rest eaten by the priest in the court of the 
tabernacle ; excepc when the offering was 
for the priest himself : then, as in the ana- 
logous case of the sin-offering, it was to he 
wholly burnt. 

Very beautiful and impressive, then, were 
the lessons taught to the devout Israelite 
hy the series of offerings prescribed. 
Within the embrace of the divine covenant, 
he might present his burnt-sacriflce of ex- 
piatory character for sin ; hut, if any spe- 
cial guilt weighed upon his conscience— as 
In the consecration of Aaron and his sons 
the sin-offering preceded the burnt-offer- 
ing (Lev. viii. 14-21)— his sin-offering must 
be brought ; and in certain cases the debt 
incurred by trespass to he repaired, as well 
as the guilt of sin to he atoned for, was 
placed before him. Purged by the propi- 
tiatory offering he might feast before Jeho- 
vah on the sacrifices of peace-offerings, a 
welcome guest, sharing his reconciled Fa- 
ther's love ; and with his other offerings he 
must bring his meat-offering, in token that 
in self-dedication he would be fruitful and 
abound in every good word and work. By 
ordinances such as these he was pointed 
forward to that completion in the gospel 
of all that the law pre-signifled— the purg- 
ing of the conscience by Christ's precious 
blood-shedding, the perfect sacrifice of 
atoning virtue made upon the cross, the 
peace and reconciliation with God procured 
thereby, the devoted service which with 
grateful love the forgiven sinner will ever 
be ready to pay prompted by the divine 
Spirit, and which has its high blessedness 
in communion with God (Heb. ix. 11-14). See 
Fairbairn's Typol. of Script, book iii. chap, 
iii. sect. 7, vol. ii. pp. 334-364. 

It must be added that the victim of every 
offering must be clean and unblemished, 
meet type of him who was ' holy, harmless, 
undefiled, separate from sinners' (Heb. vii. 
26 ; 1 Pet. i. 19). 

The offerings which have been enumerated 
might be made as occasion should require, or 
were the voluntary expression, the free-will- 
offei'ing, of a loving heart. But there were 
particular seasons when sacrificial rites 
were necessarily to be performed—these 
were daily, weekly, monthly, and annual. 
The daily sacrifice was a burnt-offering, 
consisting of two lambs, offered every day, 
morning and evening, at the third and ninth 
hours (Exod. xxix. 38-42 ; Numb, xxviii. 1-8). 
They were burnt as holocausts, but by a 
small fire, that they might continue burning 
the longer; a bread-offering and a drink- 
offering accompanying each. Incense also 
was to be burned every morning and 
evening (Exod. xxx. 7, 8). The weekly 
offering on the sabbath was equal to the 
daily offering, and was in addition to it 
(Numb, xxviii. 9 10). The monthly sacrifice 



[OG 



at the new moon consisted of two young 
bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year 
old, for a burnt-offering, with a suitable 
meat and drink-offering, together with a kid 
for a sin-offering (11-15). There were, be- 
sides, the yearly offerings, at the passover,- 
on the day of pentecost, on the first of the 
seventh month or beginning of the civil 
year, on the tenth of the same month or day 
of expiation, and at the feast of taber- 
nacles. The offerings for these are carefully 
prescribed (16-31, xxix.). 

There were besides perpetually other oc- 
casions when offerings were to be made. 
Families seem sometimes to have had yearly 
sacrifices (1 Sara. xx. 6, 29). There were the 
purification-offerings for women after child- 
birth (Lev. xii.), at the cleansing of the 
leper (xiv. 1-32), and of other persons who 
had been unclean (xv. 13-33), by the Nazarite 
(Numb. vi. 9-21), those at dedications, mar- 
riages, &c : there was also the offering of the 
shewbread ; rites being continually pre- 
scribed in which some of the great lessons 
of the law were impressed upon the mind. 

Such, briefly, were the ceremonial offer- 
ings of the first dispensation— not a mere 
collection of unmeaning burdensome ser- 
vices, but full of instruction, intended and 
adapted to prepare for the better covenant 
wherein the shadows would have their 
abiding substance. Doubtless devout Is- 
raelites looked onwards to this ; the pro- 
phets testifying to the inutility of mere 
formal offerings (Isai. i. 11-15). And be- 
lievers now may, to their great consolation, 
argue, from the legal offerings which ful- 
filled their purpose, to the full efficacy of 
the Redeemer's offering of himself (Heb. ix. 
13, 14). Let no man, moreover, forget that 
he is to be himself 'a living sacrifice, holy, 
acceptable to God' (Rom. xii. 1). 

OG (perhaps long-neckedl princet). The 
gigantic king of Bashan, an Amoritish 
prince, who reigned in Ashtai oth and Edrei. 
He attacked the Israelites, and was over- 
thrown and destroyed by them, and his 
kingdom was taken possession of, and given 
to the half -tribe of Manasseh. His bedstead 
was preserved in Rabbath of Ammon: it Avas 
of iron, nine cubits long, and four cubits 
broad. Some have supposed this a common 
fiat bed-frame (see Bed), made of iron, in 
stead of palm-branches which would not 
have supported Og's weight: it has been 
otherwise suggested that it was a sarco- 
phagus of basalt iron-stone. In any case, 
this 'bed' would be probably one-third 
longer than the height of the person foi 
whom it was intended (Numb. xxi. 33-35, 
xxxii. 33; Dent. i. 4, iii. 1-13, iv. 47, xxix 
7, 8, xxxi. 4 ; Josh. ii. 10, ix. 10, xii. 4, 5, 
xiii. 12, 30, 31 ; 1 Kings iv. 19 ; Neh. ix. 22 ; 
Psal. cxxxv. 11, cxxxvi. 20). Bashan ap- 
pears to have been originally inhabited by 
the elder stock of the Rephaim, also called 
Zuzim, or Zamzummim ; and their chief 
bore sway over other inferior princes. 
These people were displaced by the Am- 
monites, who pushed their settlements as 
far northward as the upper Jabbok (Dent. ii. 
19-21). Hence Og may be considered as one 
of the last representatives of the gigantio 
Rephaim (conip. Miss Oorbaux in Journ. oj 



646 



Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1852, pp 363-367) For some 
legends respecting Og f , ^^^^^jS'' 
Blhliotli. Orient, arts 'Auac Sns of 

O'HAD mited). One of the sous ot 
mmeon (Gen. xlvi. 10 ; Exod. vi. lo). 

O'hSl (atenf, du-eni^c/). One of Davids 
dpsoendants (1 Chron. iii. 20). 

OIL Oil Vas very extensively used 
amoni the ancient Hebrews, ]ust as it is at 
tie mesent time tlirougliout western Asia 
Fcfr^ullnary purposes it is ^ncli prefeiT^^^ 
ro animal fat or butter, which is likeb to De 
'SoS Sncid, or to melt, in a warm clima e 
bili^sconsequentlv spoi^en of as one of the 
rich Productions of the country (Deut. 
xxxii 13 Ezek. xvi. 13). It was used also 
fn some of the offerings (Exod. xxix. 40 , 
Lef vii 12 ; ^^umb. vi. 15), mingled with 
the meaf, or for the ^^^f ^/.^ t'SrSn 
cakes- but it was excluded fiom the sin 
offerin- (Lev. v. 11), and from the ]ealousj - 
oler n^ (^'umb v. 15), on account of their 
?harac?er of humiliation. Oil was applied 
to ?he person in anointing, it being usua y 
nou?ed upon the head and the beard ; it al.o 
was an 'ingredient in frf^^^^f 
ment cExod. xxx. 21. 2o ; 1 Sam- ^- ^' ^^-H ! 

0 c;o,n xiv ; Psal. xxiii. o, xcii. 10, cn . lo , 

1 like \ i 46^ It ^-as employed for raedi- 

of «ick persons (Mark vi. 13, James \. 
?! ^5 The bodies of the dead, too a. 
among the Greeks ^onians ^vou W see^^^ 
to have been anointed with oil, oi at lea.t 
<;omp un'-uent (Matt. xxvi. 12). OH, once 
rJe.rasu'ed L- burning m lamPHE-'; 
T-Tx-ii oo • Matt. XXV. 3, 4, 8). Auu i^ f'^ 
flfe'se cases olive-oil was considered the 
hp5 Oil of nivrrh is mentioned m Esth. 
U 12. From this extensive use. of oil many 

1 ustrations are derived i^^sa-ip me The 
use of oil betokened gladness a==ai Ixi 3) , 

he omission of it, sorrow c2 f am xh . 2^. It 

?id i thes of oil were to be offered to the 
Lord CNamS.xviii. 12 ; l^euf ju. 1 x^.i.4 

2 Chron. xxxi. 5 ; Neh.x. 37, 39, xni. 12). toet 
Axoi>fT, Olive. qpp Otive- 

OIL-TREE Cisai. xli. 19). See ULI^e 

'^^fixTVlEXT The use of unguents was 
commoiifn'^heeast and is -oted m scnp. 
ture for personal adornment, f o f unerea , 
medicinal, and ritual P^;;POBes S\ 

SSb2^^SS^^|ed|S 
the contents of som 01^ of rich un- 



the opposite idea Is denoted by unp easant 
smell (Gen. xxxi v. 30; Exod. v. 21)). Se« 
Axoi^'T, Burial, Oil, Spikenard ; al^u 
Winer, J2Tl^i>'., art. ' Salbe.' 

OLA'MUS a Esdr. ix. 30). Meshullam 

^^0LVTlsTAMEyT.(2 Cor. iii. 1^). See 

BIBLE, MA^-USCRIPTS, SCRIPTUllE, TESTA- 

''SSYE';°bLIYE-TREE. The olive, O^ea 
Farovcea is a well-known species of the 
0 Ser It grows Plentifu y almost 

PVPTvwhere near the shores of tne Medi- 
terranean and is abundant in Palestine 
meut vh il! viii. 8). Olive-yards are there- 
o^e commonly mentioned as a considerable 
nart of a man's property (1 Sam. yn'- j-^ ' 
? rhroP xxvii. 28). This tree flourishes m 
l?Si%^^vm and sunny situations on a 
riJiy soil, at a height not greater than 
nhnnt ^000 feet above the level of the sea. 
U^ncreSes slowly to a moderate altitude 
of twenty or thirty feet, with a knotty 
runk,'aid numerous extended braxjcAie^ 
The leaves grow ui pairs, of a pa It du-^^^ 
rolour and are not deciduous. Ihewnue 
flowed appear in June ; and the fruit is^an 
ohimi^berrv, first green, and, ^\hen luuy 
?S!ra^ ifcldsh-purple. The wood is some- 
nlinV 1 ke box, bat softer, with dark grey 
vein! The oUve-tree lives to a great age 

This tree is mentioned reiy earlyinscni - 
ture It was with an olive-leaf in hermou h 
that the dove returned to Koah, apprising 
Wm thereby that the ^vatei^ of the flood 
were abated (Gen. viii. 11). The high ebt,i- 
mation in which the oliye-ti;ee was he^^^^^ 

rnenUon'edLiSdicatingplenty^ 
and streuffth : the allusion taking its for^e 
bofh f rom the'products, from the evergreen 
character, and the protracted existence of 
?1 ftree (e e. Psal. lii. 8, an olive being often 
ulanted n the court of a building, cxxvm. 
SyounVshootsspin^ 

Jer xi 16 Hos. xiv. 6). And various ain^li- 
Siions are referred to of the ^^er^^es (Deut 
xxiv. 20), the oil (Lev. xxiv. 2^, which was 
an article of commerce (1 Kmgs v. 11), and 

^"S^^ThoSon describes the culUire and 
u=e of the olive in modern Syria ; and Ins 
dP=criDtions illustrate the scripture ac- 
?ountfin a remarkable way. 'The olive is 
flie most prodigal of all fruit-bearing trees 
n- flowers.' But then scarce one m a 
hundred comes to maturity : see Job xv. 33. 
Fn it i Y ielded only every other year ; but a 
fai-e tree will produce ten or fifteen gallons 
of oil a ino t >,elispensable article, used m 
every ?ulinarv process, and the material of 
Toav The 'shaking' of the trees (Isai. 
xvii-'e/is usually about ^^^ovember and is a 
iVhn Vlous m-ocess iThe Land and the Booh, 
vv Two kinds of presses are now 

uid for obtaining the oil: the ^^I'asm. ^ 
worked by hand, and the ^^MJ, driven b 
water-DOwer, like an ordiuaij niiu (PP. 

the oil was received m stoi« presses, inu 



647 



28tljle WilloMttSQC* [oliyes, mount of 



oestlDeing that which flowed first. Many of 
such presses, with their floors, gutters, 
troughs, and cisterns, may still he seen al- 
most perfect in a ruin above Tyre, called Em 
El- Awamtd. They consist of upright posts, 
two feet apart, in the inner faces of which 
are grooves. A plank moved in these, forced 
down by a lever on the masses of olives. 
The oil flowed into a stone trough. In 




Ancient oil presses and mills. 



the large basin the olives were ground to a 
pulp by the stone wheel. In the ot^her per- 
haps they were trodden with the f«et (see 
Mic. vi. 15). 

The reference of St. Paul to the graft- 
ing of the olive-tree is illustrated by a 
singular fact. If the good be grafted on the 
wild tree, it will, as the Arabs say, ' conquer 
the wild.' But, if the wild shoot be grafted 
into the good tree, the wild will conquer the 
good. Hence the a^jostle says this was 
' contrary to nature ' (Rom, xi. 17-24) ; and 
so the mercy shown to the Gentiles was 
magnified, when they, a wild race, intro- 
duced into the church, became good and 
fruitful, contrary to the ordinary process, 
unto eternal life. 

Occasionally the ' oil-tree ' is mentioned 
in £*ripture (Isai. xli. 19). This is perhaps 
sometimes identical with the olive, and is 
80 translated in our version in 1 Kings vi. 



23, 31-33. But in Neh. viii. 15 ('pine- 
branches') it is distinguished from the 
olive. Some have thought that any resi- 
nous tree might be meant. Perhaps it was 
the wild olive, or more probably, according 
to Dr. Hooker in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol ii. p. 596, the Balanus ^gyptiaca, or 
common zackiim. 

OLIVES, THE MOUNT OF, OL'IVET, 
MOUNT. A mountain ridge to the east 
of Jerusalem, from which it is sepa- 
rated by the valley of Jehoshaphat. It 
is generally described as having three sum- 
mits er peaks. Dr. Stanley, however, in- 
cluding more of the ridge under the general 
n-ame, notices four summits, * one out-lier 
starting off to the north, and another to the 
south.' Tiiese are now designated (1) the 
' Galilee,' because there it is supposed that 
the angels stood when saying, ' Ye men of 
Galilee,' or because this was the Galilee to 
which Christ retired after his resurrection ; 
(2) the 'Ascension,' the supposed site of 
that event; (3) the ' Prophets,' from the cata- 
combs on its side, termed the 'prophets' 
tom-bs;' aiid (4) the 'Mount of Offence, 
■denominated from Solomon's idol-worship 
^Sinai and Palestine, pp. 185-195, 452-456). 

The mount of Olives, called also Olivet 
(and by the Arabs at present Jebel et-Tur, 
a name they give to elevated summits ge- 
nerally), was so styled from the olive-trees 
which clathed its sides. Some of these 
still reanaiii (see Gethsesla^'e) ; and on 
part of the hill are corn-fields; and in a 
few half-cultivated gardens are fig and 
pomegranate-trees. 

Little mention is made of Olivet in the 
Old Testament, save that it was up its 
slopes that David, when fleeing from Jerusa- 
lem for fear of Absalom, went wearied and 
weeping as his faithful guards filed on be- 
fore him. Here he met Hushai and Ziba 
(2 Sam. XV, 30-xvi. 4). It is also referred to by 
Zechariah (Zech. xiv. 4). And yet it may very 
well be that there were other deeds done 
on Olivet reco.rded in the Old Testament, 
though the well-known name is not men- 
tioned in connection with them. On the 
northern summit there is great re«*son to 
believe stood Nob, that city of the priests, 
where David and his men ate the shew- 
bread, where the sword of Goliath was kept, 
and where Doeg, the evil-minded Edomite, 
at whose treacherous information Saul de- 
stroyed the city, was ' detained before the 
Lord' (1 Sara, xxi., xxii.). And this may ex- 
plain the singular phrase, ' where David 
worshipped God' (2 Sara, xv. 32): David's 
feet were treading in sorrow the precincts 
of that sanctuary where he had been accus- 
tomed, ere its desolation, to worship in joy. 
And it has been suggested (see Stanley, uhi 
siipr., pp. 187, 188) that it was hither David 
brought the giant's' head (1 Sam. xvii. 54). 
The towers of Jebus were so close to Nob, 
that at a distance they seemed one city. 
Even now to the spectator, in some po- 
sitions, the buildings on Olivet are mixed 
with those in Jerusalem, 

It is from the New Testament, however, 
that this mount derives its most t(nu'hing 
interest. Hitlier the Lord was wont to re- 
sort. From Olivet he looked down upoo 





the rebellious city and wept bitter tears 
over its perverseness and its fate. Over 
Olivet lie passed to and fro visiting Bethany. 
On the side of Olivet was Gethsemane. 1 rom 
Olivet, when all was done, the great atone- 
ment made, the victory over death achieved 
by the glorious resurrection, the last 
charge given to the disciples who were 
thenceforth to build up the impregnable 
fortress of the Christian church, Christ 
ascended to reign till every enemy should 
\>e subdued beneath his feet (Matt. xxiv. 3, 
xxvi.SO ; Mark xi. 1-20, xili. 3, xiv. 26 ; Luke 
xix. 29-44, xxi. 37, xxii. 39; John viii. 1; 
Acts i. 9-12). ^ , 
Very dear to the believer and very sacred 
Is the spot last touched by the Redeemer's 
feet, where a pledge was given that as he 
departed so surely shall he one day come 
again. Some connect with this return the 
prediction of Zech. xiv. 4. This, however, 
cannot be discussed here. See Henderson, 
Minor Prophets, pp, 437, 438. 

Christ did not ascend from the spot 
whereon now stands the church of the As- 
cension : it was rather from some point 
over the summit, near upon Bethany (Luke 
xxiv. 50, 51). The views from this mount 
in different directions are extensive : you 
look into Jerusalem on one side, while on an- 
other there are the dreary hills over which 
the road passes to Jericho, with the nortti- 
ern end of the Dead sea visible, and the 
mountains of 'Moab beyond. The highest 
point of Olivet is 2397 feet above the sea- 
level, or according to Van de Velde 2724. 

OLTM'PAS. A Christian at Rome, to 
whom St. Paul sent salutation (Rom. xvi. 
15) 

OLTM'PIUS, JU'PITEE (2 Macc. vi. 2). 
See Jupiter. ^ „ , , 

OMAE'BUS a Esdr. ix. 34). Corrupted 
from Amram (Ezra X. 34). 

O'MAR (perhaps eloquent). One of the 
descendants of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11, lo ; 1 

^^O'MEGA ^(i^reaf 0). The last letter of the 
Greek alphabet (Rev. i. 8. 11, xxi. 6, xxu. 13). 
See Alpha. . , ^ , „ 

O'MER (a handfuT) (Exod. xvi. 16, 18, 22, 
32,33). See MEASURES. 

OM'RI (i>erhSLV>s pupil of Jeliovah).—!. ihe 
captain of the host of Israel, who, when 
Zimri had killed king Elah, and occupied 
his throne, marched with the army to Tir- 
zah, besieged Zimri, and reduced him to 
such straits, that after a miserable reign of 
seven days he fired the palace and perished 
in the conflagration. Oniri was supported 
in his pretensions to the vacant throne, it 
would seem ,by the army; but a competitor, 
Tibni, had a large part of the people with 
him. The struggle continued for some 
years, from 928 to 925 B.C. : then Omri pre- 
vailed, and Tibni died. From this time 
Omri reigned with full authority till 918, 
twelve years in all. His conduct was un- 
godly ; and he left his crown to- his weak 
Ind wicked son Ahab. It was this king 
who having purchased the hill Samaria 
from its owner Shemer, built thereon the 
splendid city which was ever after the capi 
tal of the kingdom of the ten tribes (1 
Kings xvi. 16-30; 2 Kings viii. 26 ; 2 Cliron 


xxii. 2 ; Mic. vi. 16). It appears from the 
treaty of Ben-hadad with Ahab that Omn 
had been engaged in an unsuccessful war 
with Svria.— 2. A Benjamite (1 Chron. vii. 
8) _3, A descendant of Judah (ix. 4).— 4. 
The ruler of Issachar in the time of David 
(xxvii. 18). . ^ . . ^ 
ON (Strength). A Reubenite who joined 
with Dathan and Abiram (Numb. xvi. 1). 
As his name is not again mentioned, it has 
been supposed that he separated himself in 
time from those who persisted and perished 
in their rebellion. 

ON {light, or specially the suni). An an- 
cient and celebrated city of Lower Egypt. 
Here was a famous temple of the sun ; and 
the priests that officiated in it were highly 
distinguished. Joseph married the daugh- 
ter of one of these priests (Gen. xli. 45, 50, 
xlvi 20) ; an alliance which must have con- 
tributed greatly to his credit with the 
Egyptians, but which some have looked to 
as the reason of that fatal tendency mani- 
fested by the Ephraimites his descendants 
to favour Egyptian idolatry. The scripture, 
however, is perfectly silent as to any such 
influence existing in Joseph's family from 
his marriage. From the worship paid at 
On to the sun (under different forms, as 
Ra, the sun simply, and Atura, the setting 
sun), the city was called Beth-shemesh, 
house of the sun, by the Hebrews (Jer. xliii. 
13), and from the vanity of idol-worship it 
was termed Aven in Ezek. xxx. 17. It was 
rendered Heliopolis, sun-city, by the Sep- 
tuagint translators, and was known under 
that name to Greek writers, as one of the 
four great Egyptian cities which were 
centres of religious solemnities. Heliopolis 
gave name to the district or 'nome' sur- 
rounding it ; audit was at Leontopolis, said 
(though it is alleged incorrectly), to have 
been in the Heliopolitan nome, that the 
Jewish high priest Onias, excluded from 
his dignity in Jerusalem, erected a temple 
under the auspices of Ptolemy Philometor, 
and established regular service there, 
which continued till the days of Vespasian. 
Onias alleged that he thereby fulfilled a 
prophecy (Isai. xix. 18, marg.) : see Ir-ha- 
HERES. This city suffered much from the 
Persian invasion ; and works of art were car- 
ried from it to enrich first Rome and after- 
wards Constantinople. In the time of Strabo 
it was but a mass of splendid ruins, among 
Avhich some of those halls could be traced 
in which Greek sages as well as Egyptians 
had studied. The site is still marked by 
low mounds enclosing a space of about 
three quarters of a mile long and half a 
mile broad: the only remnant of ancient 
magnificence amid the utter desolation is 
an obelisk of red granite, sixty-eight feet 
high, attributed to the reign of Osirtesen 
I These ruins lie two hours, or nearly ten 
miles, north-east of Cairo, six hours from 
ancient Memphis. In the neighbouring 
village of Matariyeh is a fountain called 
'Ain-Shems, sun-foxintoAn, the Arabic name 
of the city. And hard by is an old sycamore, 
under which according to tradition the holy 
family rested when they came into Egypt. 

O'NAM {strong, stout).— I. One of the de- 
scendants of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi 



r 



r 







649 33ti)Tc mn0loI^tf5C. [ophlk 


i. 

. i 
, i 

1 i 

\\ 

1 






23) —2. A descendant of Judah, son of 
JerahraeeKl Chron. ii. 26, 28). 

O'NAN (id). One of the sons of Judah, 
who died by God's visitation for his crimi- 
nal evasion of the levirate law (Gen. 
xxxviii. 4, 8, 9, xlvi. 12 ; Numb. xxvi. 19 ; 1 
Chron. ii. 3). 

ONE'SIMUS (usefaV). The slave of Phile- 
mon who had fled from his master, but 
was converted by means of St. Paul, who 
sent him back: from Rome with a letter to 
Philemon (Col.iv. 9 ; Philem. 10). Tradition 
says that he was afterwards made bishop of 
Berea, and ultimately martyred at Rome. 
See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Onesimus.' 

OI^ESIPH'ORUS {bringing profit). A 
Christian who had been serviceable to St. 
Paul at Ephesus. He also sought him out 
when a prisoner at Rome, and ministered 
to him (2 Tim. i. 16-18, iv. 19). 

ONIA'EES a Mace. xii. 19). This word is 
corrupt. With a slight alteration it would 
be ' Areus to Onias.' 

ONFAS.—l. A Jewish high priest, suc- 
cessor of Jaddua, about 330-309 B.C. : it is he 
that most probably is referred to in Ecclus. 
L 1, as the father of Simon the Just, who 
was father of a second Onias.— 2. Another 
high priest, the third of the name, about 
] 98-171 B.C., grandson of the Onias, son of 
Simon the Just. It must have been 
with him that the correspondence of the 
Lacedonians and the Jews commenced 
(1 Mace. xii. 7, 8, 19, 20). He was unjustly 
deposed and murdered (2 Mace. iv. 33-38). 
He is said to have appeared in a vision to 
Judas Maccabeus (xv. 12-16). His brother 
bore the same name, but exchanged it for 
Menelaus. ^qqMenelaus. It was the sou 
of this Onias who fled into Egypt, and 
founded a temple at Leontopolis : see Oif. 

ONIOiST. One of the plants which the Is- 
raelites in the wilderness regretted. They 
had eaten it in Egypt, and they murmured 
for want of it (Numb. xi. 5). The Allium 
cepa, or common onion, has been cultivated 
in Egypt from time immemorial, and there 
attains its greatest excellence. Its leaves 
and roots are annual, dying in the course of 
a summer, after perfecting a bulb. But the 
bulb is biennial, and will put forth roots 
and leaves in the following season, when it 
increases in size. Onions will thrive in any 
good rich soil. 

O'NO (strong). A city built by the Benja- 
mites (1 Chron. viii. 12), some of the citizens 
of which returned from captivity with Ze- 
rubbabel (Ezra ii. 33 ; Neh. vii. 37). The plain 
near i*- bore its name (vi. 2), and it was 
re-occupied after the captivity by Benja- 
mites (xi. 35). It must have been in the 
immediate neighbourhood of Lod orLydda, 
with which it is almost always named. It 
possibly may be the modern Kefr 'Ana; but 
this is uncertain. 

O'NUS (1 Esdr. v. 22). One. 

ON'YCHA One of the ingredients in the 
sacred perfume (Exod. xxx. 34). It is the 
shell or operculum of a species of mussel, 
the Murex ramosus of Linnseus, found in the 
waters of India, also in the Red sea, and on 
the Arabian coast. When burned it emits 
a sweet musky odour. It is known as the 
Unguis odoratus, the Blatta Bijzantina of 


the shops. See Winer, Bihl. BWB., art. 
• Teuf elsklaue.' But according to Duns it 
is rather the gum of some tree, perhaps the 
gum-benjamin, Styrax benzoin {Bihl. Nat. 
Scieyice, vol. li. p. 64). 

ONYX The Hebrew word shOham is thus 
rendered (Gen. ii. 12 ; Exod. xxviii. 9, 20, 
XXXV. 9, 27 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 2 ; Job xxviii. 16 ; 
Ezek. xxviii. 13). Opinions differ as to the 
gem intended by this word : some prefer 
translating it 'beryl.' But Duns defends 
the version of our translators {Bibl. Nat. 
Science, vol. i. pp. 98, 99). The onyx has its 
particles arranged in parallel layers ; white 
alternating with blue, grey, or brown. It 
was much used by the ancients for cameos ; 
the device being cut out of the opaque 
white, while the darker part formed the 
ground. 

O'PHEL {a hill). A hill or ridge on the 
east of mount Zion, surrounded and forti- 
fied by a separate wall (2 Chron. xxvii. 3, 
xxxiii. 14 ; Neh. iii. 26, 27, xi. 21). After the 
return from captivity, the Nethinim had 
their habitations here. Robinson identifies 
Ophel with the continuation of Moriah, 
southward towards Siloam, between the 
valley of Jehoshaphat to the east, and the 
Tyropoeon to the west. It is about 1,550 
feet in length, and 290 in breadth, and ends 
In a rocky blutf, forty or fifty feet above the 
pool of Siloam. The ground is tilled and 
planted with olive and other fruit-trees 
{Bibl. Res., vol. i. p. 267). In the margin of 
our version the word is rendered ' tower,' 
also In 2 Kings v. 24; where either the 
hill on which Samaria was built is meant, 
or the well-known hill by the prophet's habi- 
tation. 

O'PHIR (a&MncZa7zce?). A jdescendant or 
son of Joktan, of the family of Sheni (Gen. 
X. 29 ; 1 Chron. i. 23). 

O'PHIR {id.). A country peopled by the 
posteritv of Joktan's son. There is much 
difficulty in determining the region desig- 
nated in scripture by this name. It was a 
place whence the navies of Solomon and 
Hiram, sailing from a port on the Red sea, 
brought gold, precious stones, ivory, almug- 
trees, apes, and peacocks (1 Kings ix. 26-28, 
X. 11, 22 ; 2 Chron. viii. 18, ix. 10). It would 
seem that the voyage lasted three years ; 
though some have inferred from certain 
passages (1 Kings x. 14 ; 2 Chron. ix. 13) that 
an annual voyage was made to Ophir and 
back. Jehoshaphat attempted to renew the 
communication ; but his ships were wrecked 
at Ezion-geber (l Kings xxii. 48). The gold 
procured from this region was peculiarly 
valued (1 Chron. xxix. 4; Job xxii. 24, 
xxviii. 16 ; Psal. xlv. 9 ; Isai. xiii. 12) ; so that 
' gold of Ophir ' was proverbial for gold of 
the most precious kind. 

Now, as to the situation of this country, 
no difficulty need be felt on account of 
its being said that ships of Tarshi.-h were 
engaged in the Ophir trade ; as if Tar- 
shish and Ophir were near. Large ves- 
sels were called • ships of Tarshish ; ' or the 
vessels used might be those that had been 
employed in voyages to Tarshish or Tar- 
tessus. Ophir is often placed on the African 
coast, and identified with Sofala, or Zan- 
guebar, where it is said there is a gold dis- 










i 
! 







3PHNI] 



650 



trict called Fura. But tliis district is 200 
miles from the coast, and tlie name Sofala 
cannot at all he connected with Ophir, the 
significations heing quite different. Besides 
Ophir is named (Gen. x. 29) between Sheba 
and Havilah, thatis, in Arabia. And, indeed, 
there is at present an Arabian town Ophar, 
in the province of Oman; though, to be 
sure, the names are not so closely allied m 
the original as they appear to be in English. 
The long time consumed in the voyage to a 
country comparatively so near as Arabia, 
mav be accounted for by the slowness of | 
ancient coast navigation; and, besides,! 
commodities might be exported, as well as 
others imported, and thus a longer delay be 
necessary at the ports. Neither is the fact 
that some of the articles imported are not 
now found in Arabia decisive. Ophir might 
be an euiporium where trade from the east 
and west might meet; and thus Indian 
treasures might be procured there. 

These reasons are very strong for iden- 
tifying Ophir with some part of Arabia. 
Still the Septuagint translators frequently 
render Ophir by a word understood to niean 
India ; and Josephus ff^vours this inter- 
pretation {Antiq., lib. viii. 6, § 4). And the 
Sgument of Prof. Max Muller is most 
weighty. He observes that the Hebrew ex- 
pressions for apes, peacocks, sandal-wood 
and ivorv, are clearly of a foreign cast, that 
there is everv reason to believe that they 
are Sanscrit, or of Sanscrit origin : hence 
he concludes that these things must have 
come from the country from which they 
brou-ht their names. Ophir, therefore, 
is India {Lect on Science of Language, pp. 
189-191). Still tne proof that some of the 
commodities in.ported came from ludia is 
not decisive tv show that Ophir wa^ m 
India It is conclusive for the country 
from which the commodities originally 
came, not for the Place ^vhere the Hebiws 
obtained them. As above stated Ophir 
might be an emporium, where Indian and 
Hebrew merchants met. The theory that 
there were two Ophirs, one m India one 
elsewhere, is destitute of sufficient fouu- 
datlon. see on this vexed question Winer, 
Bibl.RWB., art. « Ophir ;' Kalisch, Cm on 
Old Test Gen., pp. 281, 282; Duns, Bibl ]Sat. 

(Josh, xvlii. 24). Perhaps the "^oderp J^/na, 
two or three miles north-west of Beth-el. 

OPH'RAH (female faim). A name m the 
genealogies of Judah (1 Chron.iv 14)._ 

OPH'RAH (id.).-l. A town belonging to 
the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. xviu. 23; l 
Sam xiii. 17). This has been supposed 
fde™ tical with Ephrain or EPj,ron (2 Chron 
xiii 19). and Ephraim (John xi. o4) See 
FPHRAm Perhaps it may be the village 
S^S, on a hill north-east of Beth-el 
_2 A citv n theterritory of Manasseh, west 
of'-tte Jordan, the. residence o Gideon 
(Jud'^es vi 11, 24, viii. 27, 32, IX. 5). it iias 
not been satisfactorily identified. 

ORACLE. This word is sometimes used 
to denote the sanctuary of the tabernacle 
and of he temple, where the special pre- 
sence of Jehovah dwelt (1 Kings VI. 16, viii. 
Cliron. iv. 20 ; Psal. xxviii. 2). Divine 
■ 



communications were made to persons en- 
quiring of the Lord : hence ' the counsel of 
Ahithophel' was accounted so judicious, 
' as if a man had enquired at the oracle (or 
word) of God ' (2 Sam. xvi. 23). In the New 
Testament the revelations of God in his 
holy word are denominated ' oracles' (Acts 
vii. 38 ; Rom. iii. 2 ; 1 Pet. iv. 11). They were 
the true testimony of him who cannot he. 

But by oracle ordinarily is understood 
that power of utterance ascribed to heathen 
deities when interrogated by their worship- 
per^, the word being loosely applied some- 
times to the response itself, and sometimes 
to the place where the response was dehver- 
ed The Greek oracles were of chief note. 
1 The mind of the Greeks was specially m- 
' Quisitive into futurity ; and the multipli- 
city of the gods they worshipped would 
furnish facilities for communications with 
them The most celebrated oracle was that 
! of Apollo at Delphi. Here the Pythia— m 
' earlv times a young maiden, later a woman 
of fifty, of low origin and uneducated, but 
of unsaillied moral character— was supposed 
' to have the divine inspiration. She pre- 
pared herself by chewing laurel leaves, and 
drinking from the Castalian fountain. She 
then mounted a tripod, placed over a chasm, 
from which ascended an intoxicating va- 
pour, which she received and under its 
influence uttered incoherent words. These 
were arranged and interpreted by a prophet 
and five assistants, audformed the oracular 
response Other noted oracles were three, 
also of Apollo, in Asia Minor, at Didyma, 
Glares, and Patara ; that of Zeus or Jupiter 
at Dodona ; and that of Ammon m Libya. 
Unquestionably imposture was practised: 
dubious replies were given, which the su- 
perstition of enquirers disposed them to 
accept, when the result did not agree with 
the anticipation ; and it is likely that ora- 
cles were not always inaccessible tobribep'. 
But after every allowance of this kind tne 
whole ravstery of them is not solved. Some 
have imagined that they kept a system 
of wide espionage for the sake of obtaining 
Information. If in certain cases this were 
so it could not have been effectively carried 
out for several generations. _ Is it too 
much to suppose, when adoration was paid 
to demons instead of to the living God 
that the dark power of evil wa| Pemutted 
to exercise some mysterious influence over 

^ TlirGrlek oracles decayed or were ex- 
tinguished in the last days of the Roman 
republic, and those of the early emperors 
In the time of Adrian, indeed, and of the 
Antonines, with the convulsive struggle 
of paganism, oracles in some measure re- 
vived, ere long entirely to pass away. The 
fact of their gradual extinction is puzzling 
Mav we suppose that he who nad winked at 
earlier ignorance (see Acts xvii. 30) was 
now resolved, on the promulgation of 
Christ's gospel, that the vanity of all op- 
posing poNvnir should be manifested, when 
he 'commanded all men everywhere to 
repent?' See Dollinger, TJie Gentile and the 
Jeie,transl,hoo^ iv. 2, voL 1. PP. 209-219; 
book viii. 2, § 6, vol. ii. PP. 202-206. 
ORATOR. So TertuUus is called in Acts 



651 



[OSPRAY 



xxiv. 1. Here is an example of a hired 
advocate being employed, according to the 
forms of the Roman law. In Isai, iii. 3 the 
word may he used in a bad sense, perhaps 
with reference to divination. 

ORCHARD. See Garden. 

ORDAIN. This term in a general sense 
means to command or appoint (Numb, 
xxviii. 6 ; Dan. ii. 24 ; 1 Cor. ix. 14). Our 
translators have used it to express several 
different words of the original. With re- 
gard to some of them, the theological mean- 
ing has caused much discussion. Thus the 
apostles are said to ' have ordained elders 
in every church' (Acts xiv. 23; Tit. i. 5), 
implying that certain persons were solemn- 
ly set apart for ecclesiastical offices. The 
questions relating to the mode and manner 
of this ordination cannot be determined 
here : they are treated at length by Bing- 
ham (Orig. Eccles., book iv.). 

Again, there are passages (Acts xiii. 48 ; 
Jude 4) in which some have found a pre- 
determination of God intluenclng men's 
eternal destiny for life or death. It may 
be sufficient on the first of these texts to 
cite a few sentences from Dr. Alford's note 
upon it. ' The meaning of this word must 
be determined by the context. The Jews 
had judged themselves unwortlnj of eternal 
life: the Gentiles, "as many as were dis- 
posed to eternal life," believed. By whom so 
disposed is not here declared ; nor need the 
word be in this place further particularized. 
We know that it is God icho worketh in us the 
will to believe, and that the preparation of 
the heart is of him.' Dr. Alford proceeds 
to enumerate the different opinions which 
have been held upon the subject. In Jude 
4 the word properly means ' before written,' 
with a reference probably to the Old Testa- 
ment prophecies. 

ORDINANCE. A word used for general 
laws, whether of God (Isai. xxiv. 5 ; Ezek. 
xi. 20), or of civil governors (l Pet. ii. 13), to 
which due obedience must be paid. It also 
sometimes occurs in our version for the 
ceremonies or regulations of divine wor- 
ship (Heb. ix. 1, 10). 

O'REB (a raven). One of the two princes 
of Midian whom the Ephraimites took and 
slew, sending their heads to Gideon (Judges 
vii. 25, viii. 8 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 11). 

O'REB {id.). A rock, so called because 
Oreb was slain there (Judges vii. 25 ; Isai. 
X. 26). It is probable that it was to the 
west of the Jordan ; but see Winer, Bibl. 
RWB., art. ' Oreb.' 

O'REB (2 Esdr. ii. 33). Horeb. 

O'RE N (the pine). A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 25). 

ORGAN. A wind-instrument invented 
by Jubal (Gen. iv. 21). It was, no doubt, at 
first of very simple construction, a single 
reed with holes. But afterwards the reeds 
or pipes were multiplied into what is called 
the syrinx, or Pandean pipe, a mouth-organ 
in which the number of reeds varied from 
five to twenty-three. It is still common in 
western Asia. When mentioned in the 
later books of scripture we may suppose 
it to have attained its more complex 
form (Job xxi. 12, xxx. 31 ; Psal. cl. 4). 
' )me have thought it identical with the 



' dulcimer of Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15. See Dul- 
cimer, 

ORI'ON. A well-known brilliant constel- 
lation, south of Taurus and Gemini, and 
partly on the equator. It bears this name 
from a Greek legendary story, which with 
its variations must be sought in classical 
dictionaries. The word occurs three times 
in our version (Job ix.9, xxxviii. 31 ; Amos 
V. 8) as the rendering of the Hebrew term 
chesil ; and there can be little doubt that 
the translation is a just one. In the Persian 
mythology Orion was identified with Nim- 
rod ; and the same notion seems to have 
prevailed among the Arabians and Chal- 
deans, who called this constellation the 
hero or the giant, assigning him Sirius as 
a dog for his companion. The plural is found 
in Isai. xiii. 10, ' constellations.' See Hen- 
derson, Isaiah, pp. 119, 120. 

ORNAMENT, A fondness for personal 
ornament has always distinguished orien- 
tal nations ; and it exists unchecked to the 
present day. Both by particular descrip- 
tion and from incidental notices of scrip- 
ture we learn how, generally, the Hebrews 
and their neighbours, male and female, 
decked themselves with ornaments, such 
as anklets, armlets, bracelets, ear-rings, 
nose-jewels, &c., &c., descriptions of which 
will be found under the respective articles. 
In times of festivity of course they were 
specially used (Isai. Ixi. 10 ; Jer. ii. 32 ; Hos. 
ii. 13), and in times of mourning they were 
taken off (Exod. xxxiii. 5,6). Censures were 
directed against extravagance in ornament 
(1 Tim. ii. 9, 10 ; 1 Pet. iii. 3, 4). The orna- 
ments of grace are infinitely more pre- 
cious. See Dress, Stoxes, Preciocjs. 

OR'NAN (active). (1 Chron. xxi. 15-28 ; 2 
Chron. iii. 1). See Araunah. 

OR'PAH (mane, forelock, or, according to 
some, faivn). A Moabite female, wife of 
Chilion son of Elimelech and Naomi. Slie 
at first intended to accompany Naomi to 
Beth-lehem, but was persuaded to return to 
her own people (Ruth i. 4-14). 

ORPHAN. The fatherless and the widow 
were equally regarded in the Mosaic law 
(e.g. Exod. xxii. 22 ; Deut. x. IS). A father- 
less chad among the Jews had two guar- 
dians. He became of age at the time ap- 
pointed by his father's will (Gal. iv. 2) ; but, 
if his father died intestate, the minority 
terminated at the usual age of thirteen 
years and one day, if the signs of ripeness 
of age then appeared ; if not, it might be 
protracted till the youth was twenty, or, it 
is said, sometimes thirty-five (see Kitto, 
Fict. Bible, note on Gal. iv. 2). 

OETHO'SIAS (1 Mace. xv. 37). A city of 
Phcenicia, north of Tripolis. 

OSAI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 48). Probably Jesh- 
aiah (Ezra viii. 19). 

OSE'A (2 Esdr. xiii. 40). King Hoshea. 

OSE'AS (2 Esdr. i. 39). The prophet 

OSE'E (Rom. ix. 25). Hosea. 

OSHE'A (deliverance, safety). The original 
name of Joshua (Numb. xiii. 8, 16). See 
Joshua. ^ ^ , 

OSPRAY. An unclean bird (Lev. xl. 13; 
Deut. xiv. 12). There is a difTerence (if 
opinion in respect to it; but it very pro 



ossifeage] Etic Cm^uri) of 


Dably is the Pandion haliceetus. This is a 
v^ery powerful bird, sometimes weighing 
ftve pounds : its limbs are muscular, and 
its fe'et adapted for retaiuing firm hold of 
its prev. It feeds on fish, and is therefore 
found 'in the vicinity of lakes and rivers. 
It pounces upon its prey with sudden dash 
and carries it off in its talons. It is found 
in all the various quarters of the world. 

OSSIFRAGE (bone-breaker). An unclean 
bird (Lev. xi. 13 ; Deut. xiv. 12). This is 
believed to be the Girpaetos barbaUis, the 
lamraergeier of the Germans, and m our 
nomenclature the bearded vulture. It is 
large and powerful, measuring four feet 
from the point of the bill to the end of the 
tail : the head and neck are not, as in vul- 
tures generally, naked, but covered with 
whitish narrow feathers; and there is a 
beard of bristly hair under the lower man- 
dible. It is now rare in Europe: it fre- 
quents mountainous countries, and is 
found among the craggy rocks on the bor- 
ders of the Red sea. It lays two white 
e^-gs marked with brown blotches. This 
bird is bold in its predatory habits, seizing 
animals larger than itself, the mountain 
hare, the wild goat, the young chamois, and 
various kinds of birds. It devours its prey, 
when it has seized it, on the spot, and re- 
fuses flesh when in a state of putrefaction ; 
and hence, by a wise provision, its num- 
bers are limited, while vultures, which are 
to clear off animal matter in a state of de- 
composition, largely multiply. _ 
OSTRICH. A large l>ird, the Struthio 
camehis of Linnteus, of the order Cursores, 
belonging to the family Struthioniclce. The 
Hebrew words, ya'en, hath-hayya'dJiah, 
signifying probably, 'voracious,' 'the 
daughter of the voracious,' describe this 
bird the flesh of which was forbidden as 
food (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15), where m 
our version 'owl'; but in several places 
' ostriches' is given rightly in the margin 
(e s Job XXX. 29 ; Isai. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 13, 
xliii. 20). There Is another word, rdndyi or 
renandh, implying a wailing cry, which 
though our translators make it ' peacocks 
(Job xxxix. 13) certainly denotes the os- 
strich. The verse is rendered by Carey, 
' The wing of the ostrich thrilleth joyously : 
is the feather and plume [that] of the 
stork ? ' (Book of Job, p. 152). The descrip- 
tion given in the succeeding verses (14-18) 
has caused some perplexity. Naturalists 
describe the bird as the largest of the 
feathered tribe, exceedingly swift, employ- 
ing its wings which are useless for flight to 
aid it in running. It is voracious, and will 
swallow anv hard substance, as stones or 
metal ; but these are to assist the action of 
the gizzard. Sometimes, however, it is said 
that its indiscriminating appetite proves 
fatal to it. Several female ostriches lay 
their eggs in a singlemest, a mere shallow 
hole in the sand, and then carefully cover 
them. In very hot climates the sun's heat 
on them is suflicient in the day-time with- 
out incubation by the parent birds ; but m 
less sultry regions both male and female 
are said to sit upon the eggs. There are 
also other eggs scattered near which are 
apparently neglected, but are really de- 


signed for the food of the young birds 
when hatched. These habits are the result 
of the instinct with which the Deity has 
endowed the ostrich ; but some of them are 
so strange as to have given rise to an 
Arabian proverb, 'As foolish as an ostrich.' 
And this is sufficient to justify the state- 
ment in the book of Job. Scripture must ' 
of course be composed in popular language ; 
and the meaning here is evidently not that 
the bird is through stupidity unfaithful to 
its instinct, but that that instinct is of a \\ 
kind which seems to imply want of fore- j 
thought and natural care. And it is worth i 
notice that another bird of the same family, : ■ 
the rhea, or American ostrich, as described 
by Darwin, leaves about great numbers 
of eggs, which are useless and become 
putrid.but does not desert her young more 
frequently than other wild birds when- 
their nests have been disturbed. The 
ostrich is a native of Africa, Arabia, and 
the Syrian deserts : the feathers are much 
prized. 

OTH'NI (lion of Jehovah). A Levite, one 
of the porters (1 Chron. xxvi. 7). 

OTH'NIEL (lion of God). A son of Kenaz 
younger brother of Caleb, of the tribe of 
Judah. It has been with less reason sup- 
posed that Othniel himself w^as Caleb's j 
brother. He took Kirjath-sepher, and so I 
obtained the hand of Achsah, Caleb's daugh- > 
ter (Josh. xv. 17 ; Judges i. 13 ; l Chron. iv.. ' 
13). Afterwards, when Chushan-rishathaim 
had subjected the Israelites, Othniel was 
the instrument of their deliverance, and - 
was the first of their judges (Judges iii. 9-11). 
The name is again mentioned in 1 Chron. i 
xxvii. 15; possibly Heldai there spoken of 
was a descendant of Othniel. 

OTRONFAS (1 Esdr. ix. 28). Mattaniah 
(Ezra X. 27). , „ 

OUCHES (Exod. xxviii. 11, 13, 14, 2o, 
xxxix. 6, 13, 16, 18). The settings or bezels 
in which gems are fixed. 

OVEN. See Bread, Furxace. 

OWL. The characteristics of the family 
of the Strigidce, to which owls belong, are 
that they have large heads, with great eyes 
directed forward, and surrounded by a disk 
of loose delicate feathers ; this disk being 
more or less developed according to the 
nocturnal habits more or less of the species : 
they have raptorial beaks, crooked claws, 
and a downy plumage, generally speckled 
or barred with shades of brown and yellow. 
Species are found almost everywhere. 

Owls are several times mentioned in 
scripture: mistakes, however, have un- 
questionably been made by the translators 
of our version. Thus the ' owl ' forbidden 
as food (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15) is cer- 
tainly the ostrich, and is so rendered in 
other passages : see Ostrich. 'The great 
owl' is among the birds enumerated as un- 
clean (Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut. xiv. 16) ; and the 
came original word, yan^/i^i^/i, ovyanshilph, 
occurs in Isai. xxxiv. 11, where it is trau 
slated simply 'owl.' It has been supposed 
that a marsh or water-fowl must be here 
Intended; and some have suggested a 
species of crane or heron. The Septuagint 
translators caU it the ibis, the Egyptian 
sacred bird; and the Vulgate adopts this 



] 



653 



MmMttSQt* [PAHATH-MOAt 



I rendering. But then there is the objection 
not easily got over that the ibis is un- 
known in Palestine. It is little likely that 
I a law intended to be permanent would for- 
I bid a kind of food which the people would 
never find in their own country. If, how- 
ever, the word be taken really to signify 
the ibis, we may add this as another proof 
of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. 
For unquestionably no later compiler, liv- 
ing in Canaan, would have introduced an 
entirely foreign bird into his lists. An- 
I other bird forbidden is 'the little owl' 
I (Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut. xiv. 16). The Hebrew 
I word cos signifies a cup or receptacle ; and 
' hence it has been thought that the pelican 
' must be meant. But in another place (Psal. 
j cii. 6) the cds is distinguished from the 
1 pelican. It is likely therefore that the 
j term designates some kind of owl ; but the 
particular species can only be conjectured, 
i Duns suggests Athene noctua, or Athene 
i meridionalis {Bihl. Nat. Science, vol. ii. p. 
= 86). There is another word, Itltth, rendered 
j ' screech-owl ' (Isai. xxxiv. 14). The rabbini- 
cal story of a night-spectre lying in wait for 
children may safely be dismissed ; though 
certain critics have imagined that the pro- 
phet really meant some such being by the 
word he uses. It implies doubtless some 
nocturnal creature, and is very probably 
an owl, the Strix flammea, or Bubo maximus. 
Irby and Mangles found owls in the very 
locality described, at Petra : * The scream- 
ing of eagles, hawks, and owls, who were 
soaring above our heads, in considerable 
numbers, seemingly annoyed at any one 
approaching their lonely habitation, added 
much to the singularity of the scene:" 
comp. Kitto, Pict. Bible, note on the place. 
In Isai. xxxiv. 15 we have * the great owl ' 
as the translation of the Hebrew kippdz, 
which is said to imply darting: conse- 
quently Henderson renders ' arrow-snake,' 



after Gesenius ; but in the connection in 
which the Avord oc3urs it is more likely 
to mean a bird. What bird can only be 
guessed at : it may have been some kind of 
owl. The ochim (Isai. xiii. 21, marg.) are 
supposed by Gesenius to be howlets or owls. 
It is but a conjecture. More probably any 
howling creatures are meant. 

OX, OXEN. Oxen constituted a large 
part of the wealth of an agricultural people 
(Job i. 3). Sometimes they were fed in 
pastures, sometimes stall-fed (1 Kings iv. 
23 ; Prov. XV. 17). Oxen were used for food, 
for draught, and for sacrifices. See Bun-L, 
Btjllock. The wild ox is enumerated 
among the animals which were clean, whose 
flesh might be eaten (Deut. xiv. 5). The 
same Hebrew word occurs in Isai, li. 20 ; 
where it is rendered a ' wild bull : ' it implies 
swiftness, and denotes a species of antelope, 
probably the Antilopus leucoryx, or abu-harb 
of Sennaar and Kordofan, where it lives in 
large herds. It is a powerful animal, with 
the horns, which are long and sharp, 
slightly bent backwards. Delineations of 
it are common on the ancient monuments 
of Egypt and Nubia. 

OX-GOAD. See Goad. 

OX (Judith viii. 1). Judith's grand 
father. 

O'ZEM (strong). 1. One of the sons of 
Jesse (1 Chron. ii. 15). 2. A son of Jerah- 
meel of the posterity of Judah (25). 

OZI'AS (Matt. i. 8, 9). Uzziah. 

OZI'AS.-l (2 Esdr. i. 2). Uzzi (Ezravii. 4/. 
—2 (Judith vi. 15, 16, 21, and elsewhere). One 
of the governors of Bethulia. 

OZ'IEL (Judith viii. 1). One of Judith's 
ancestors. 

OZ'NI {the hearing). A son of Gad (Numb, 
xxvi. 16), called Ezbon in Gen. xlvi. 16. 

OZ'NITES. A Gadite family descended 
from Ozni (Numb. xxvi. 16). 

OZO'BA (1 Esdr. ix. 34). 



P 



PA'ARAI (probably for Naarai) (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 35). See Naarai. 

PA'DAN-A'RAM (the plain of Syria, Aram 
of the fields). A district (it is usually said) 
of Mesopotamia, viz. that lying round the 
city Haran,which is seated in a wide fertile 
plain, bounded by mountains (Gen. xxv.20. 
xxviii. 2, 5, 6, 7, xxxi. 18, xxxiii. 18, xxxv. 
9, 26, xlvi. 15, xlviii. 7, in which last place it 
isPadan only). But there is strong reason 
for doubting whether Padan-aram lies in 
Mesopotamia, properly so called, that is, 
the country between the rivers Tigris and 
Euphrates : it has been with much proba- 
bility supposed rather to be ' those exten- 
sive plains of well-watered and luxuriant 
pastures which are now well ascertained to 
extend for more than three days' journey 
eastward beyond the Jebel Haurau': see 



Mesopotamia; and comp. Miss Corbauxin 
Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1852, pp.386, &c. 

PA'DON (deliverance). One whose chil- 
dren, Nethinim, returned from captivity 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 44 ; Neh. vii. 47). 

PAG'IEL (event of God). The prince of 
the tribe of Asher in the wilderness (Numb, 
i. 13, ii. 27, vii. 72, 77, x. 26). 

PA'HATH-MO'AB (governor of Moah). One 
whose descendants returned to Jerusalem 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 6, viii. 4, x. 30 ; 
Neh. iii. 11, vii. 11, x. 14). It has been con- 
jectured that, as some of the Shilonite 
family of Judah had, at some unknown 
time, ' the dominion in Moab ' (1 Chron. iv. 
22), the name Pahath-moab might actach to 
their descendants. It is as likely a conjec- 
ture that, as Moab was subjected by David 
(2 Sam. viii. 2), and remained a vassal state 



PIIJ 



Clje ^rrra^uri) at 



654 



till KntT AhaVs death (2 Kings i. 1). the 
name was derived from an Israehtish go- 
vernor placed over the Moahites. 
PAT ia bleating) (1 Chron. i. oO). See i ATT. 
PAINT PAINTING. There is no reason 
to suppose that the art of painting Avas 
cultivated among the Hebrews. The pro- 
hibitions of the law would discourage the 
r roduction of pictures. And, though ac- 
cording to our translation there is niention 
in Isai. ii. 16, of ' pleasant pictures, yet the 
original words can hardly admit such a 
meaning. Henderson renders ^essels of 
delightful appearance' ilsaiali, p. 23). But 
buildings were decorated with pamtmg. 
The walls and beams of houses _ were 
coloured with vermilion (Jer. xxti._ 14^. 
Figures, probably of idols,were so depicted 
on the walls of temples (Ezek. xxui. 14) , 
and idols themselves seem to l^ave been 
thus coloured (Wisd. xiii. 14). The Assy- 
rian discoveries have "lustrate^ these cus- 
toms. Dr. Layard found the ^alls of ^^a- 
rious chambers in the palaces of Nimroud 
constructed of sun-dried brick, covered 
wSlaster coating, on which were painted 
Sures and ornamental devices. The colours 
hi says, were blue, red, white ^^ii^^i,^?? 
black arranged with considerable taste. 
But the Ss of perspective and proportion 
do not seem to have been understood On 
the walls of Esvptian monuments, also, 
paintings have been discovered. For eye- 

^ palace' TMs word often denotes the 
entire mass of buildings courts, and gar- 
dens contained within t^^e external wall 
enclosing a royal residence (Dan. i. 4, n . 4, 
o9) Sometimes, however, it designates 
a citadel or fortress, like the keep of a more 
modern castle, the strongest pai't of the 
king's house (1 Kings xvi. 18; 2 Kings xv. 
25 ,^?here1ome have imagined, l>ut proba- 
bly not on sufficient grounds, that the 
harem, or women's apartment, was meant. 
In Isai XXV. 2 the name is used for the cita- 
del of a hostile metropolis. The expression ; 
•Shushan the Palace ' (Esth i 2 5) must , 
have implied that quarter of the "t3;,^J^ere 
the roval residence was. See Shusha>. 
Elsewhere, and specially iu the New Testa- 
men?the name was given to the residence 
of a man of rank or wealth (Matt. xx| i 3 , 
Mark xvi: 66 ; Luke xi. 21 ; John xviii. lo\ 
SoTomon is said to Mve built a magni^^^^^^^ 
nalacp (1 Kiners vii. 1-12). Lh\s strucLuie 
was no doiJbt ot great size and costly ma- 
teiUll It occupied thirteen years m build- 
ing ; and we may readily B^PP<^\e f ^Si^^ 
unlimited resources at the ^o^er^^^'^'J' 
^mninand, that it equalled, probably , ex- 
ceeded aAy palace of which history gives 
account The hall of judgment, the house 
lor Pharaoh's daughter, and, it mny be, the 
house of the forest of Lebanon were all 
5onion° more or less connected, of this 
?ast Edifice Modern plans of it have been 
dmwn they are, however, almost entirely 
cmirectural. Josephus attempts to describe 
ft ?iS lil^. viii. 5, § 2). but professes him- 
self Sle to tell the numbers of its halls 
«nd chambers, and the riches with which it 
w.' Soiled. He'palace' of Phil 11^3111^^^^ 
hare been the barrack of the Praetorian 



guards attached to the emperors paiac^- 
Herod's palace at Jerusalem (Josephus, Bell. 
Jud., lib. v. 4, § 4) was occupied by the Pvomaa 
governor. , , ^ ^ 

PA'LAL {judge). One who helped to re- 
uair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 25). 

PALESTI'NA (Exod. xv. 14 ; Isai. xiv. 29, 
31). See next article. 

PAL'ESTINE {land of straiigers, or so- 
journers). A region, Pelesheth in the origi- 
nal, comprising the southern portion ol 
the coast and plain of Canaan, along the 
Mediterranean,which was hence called the 
sea of the Philistines,' from Ekron to the 
border of Egypt. The inhabitants of this 
district were termed Philistines; and at 
various times they pushed their conquests 
and held possession of large portions of 
the interior. See Philistii^es. From the 
HebrewPeZes7i€«2 came the Greek Palasstina; 
and this name was frequently by ancient 
Avriters (Josephus among the number, 
Antiq., lib. viii. 10, § B) applied to the whole 
land of Israel. Palestine is also the common 
modern appellation. See CA^^AAif , La2^d of. 

The different districts of Palestine have 
been described, as assigned to the respec- 
tive tribes, in the articles headed by the 
names of the tribes. The natural features, 
the inhabitants and the cities, the produc- 
tions, the climate, the manners and cu^ 
toms, &c., are more or less minutely treated 
of : and to such notices the reader must be 
referred. But it may be desirable m the 
present article to give a brief general view 
of the country, comprising m an orderly 
enumeration those particulars which are 
scattered elsewhere. 

Palestine, though but a small region, is 
admirably situated for acting, as it was in- 
tended to act, npon the great nations _oI 
the world. At the extremity of Asia, 
I closely connected with Africa, lyiug on 
the shores of the Mediterranean, which 
I washed many of the most important states 
of Europe, not far either from that ex- 
! tended gulf by means of which intercourse 
' could be held with India, it yet was com- 
pact and defensible, a kind of citadel from 
which influence and authority might flow 
forth, but which, except for one weak 
point, the lowland near the coast, other 
nations could not successfully assail. In 
length it is about 140 miles, in average 
breldth not more than forty between the 
Mediterranean westward, and t^e cleep 
Jordan valley to the east,while to the north 
it is closed in by Lebanon and Anti-libanus, 
and bordered on the south by the desert. 

The phvsieal structure of Palestine is pe- 
culiar. It is mountainous, the highlands 
of Lebanon extending (so to speak) m 
subordinate eminences through the 
whole country ; but among these moun 
tains are plains and valleys and torrent- 
beds. And the mountain-mass which oc- 
cupies the central region is bordered on 
each side cast and west by a lowland belt 
On the west the plains of Philistia and Sha- 
ron lie between the Mediterranean and the 
hills interrupted by a ridge which,shootnig 
out from the main highlands,terminates in 
the bold promontory of Carmel. To ttie 
north of this ridge the low plain wid-n» 



655 



[PALESTTNJI 



and extends in one part its undulating 
surface quite a-cross the country to tlie 
Jordan. And still farther to the north is 
Phoenicia with headlands down to the sea. 
The eastern depression is much more re- 
markable than that just noticed on the west. 
It is a deep cleft in which lie a chain of 
lakes, connected hy the Jordan. And the 
bottom of this cleft is not only below the 
mountains and the eastern plain, but far, in 
its lower part,below (2,625 feet) the level of 
the Mediterranean sea. It is, in fact, a part 
of that great valley which, with certain in- 
terruptions, extends from the north of 
Sj'iia to the head of the eastern gulf of the 
Peed sea, comprising Coele-syria, the Ghor, 
and the Arabah. Owing to this extraordi- 
nary depression, the slopes on the eastern 
side of the central elevated land are much 
more abrupt and rugged than on the west. 

The mountain-mass of Palestine is lime- 
stone with basaltic and other deposits. It 
is much disturbed, but whether by volcanic 
or other action no conjecture can be here 
hazarded. This, however, may be said— that 
the extraordinary cleft described above is 
probably not paralleled elsewhere. 

The southern hill-country is dry and bare. 
There is little wood : it is near upon the 
desert, and possesses few springs of water. 
The hill-tops are rounded and monotonous ; 
the eastern part of the tract being but an 
arid wilderness. And a note-worthy fea- 
ture in these hills is the abundance of ca- 
verns, partly natural, partly, perhaps, arti- 
ficial. As the traveller journeys northward 
the country improves. There are more and 
more frequently fertile plains winding 
among the hills which present a more 
varied aspect. There is more yegetation 
and more wood, till in the north the swell- 
ing hills are clothed with beautiful trees, 
and the scenery is described as pleasing, 
oftentimes romantic. In central and north 
Palestine, too, there are gushing fountains 
of water, imparting fertility to the valleys 
tlirough which they pour their streams. 
Fertile, indeed, still are the lowlands which, 
it has been said, border the hill-country. 
The Philistine plain is one vast corn-field, 
yielding the most abundant increase. And 
dry and barren as are many of the hills at 
present, there is evidence enough that in 
earlier happier days they were terraced, 
wooded, and productive, so that the enco- 
mium bestowed upon the country was not 
too high : ' a good land, a land of brooks of 
water, of fountains and depths that spring 
out of valleys and hills ; a land of wheat, and 
birley, and vines, and fig-trees, and pome- 
granates ; a land of oil-olive, and honey 
. , . . a land whose stones are iron, and out 
of whose hills thou mayest dig brass ' (.Deut. 
viii. 7-9). 

'Of course, with the differences of altitude 
at>ove noticed, the climate varies much in 
different parts of Palestine ; a circumstance 
flvo arable for a variety of natural produc- 
tions. Four regions have been marked out, 
^stinguished by difference of climate : 
t Ptegion of Ghor and Wady el-Arabah, de- 
wession 1 to 1,300 feet, mean annual tem- 
Berature 75° to 70° ; 2. Littoral plains , ele- 
vation 1 to 500 feet, mean temperature 
J 



70 to 68° ; 3. Table-lands, elevation 2000 to 
3000 feet, mean temperature 63° to 60° ; 
4. Lebanon, 4000 to 10,000 feet, mean tem- 
perature 35 (Peterman, Phys. Atlas, p. 135). 
Hence there are to be found in this country 
the productions of the tropics, and of alpine 
regions. Indeed, in its physical character, 
Palestine presents a kind of miniature of all 
the countries of the world, highland and 
desert, maritime and inland, arctic and tropi- 
cal, pastoral, arable, and volcanic. ' This fact, 
which has rendered the allusions in the scrip- 
tures so varied as to afford familiar illustra- 
tions to the people of every climate, has had 
its natural effect on the zoology of the coun- 
try. In no other district, not even on the 
southern slopes of the Himalaya, are the ty- 
pical fauna of so many distinct regions and 
zones brought into such close juxta-position. 
The bear of the snowy heights of Lebanon, 
and the gazelle of the desert, maybe hunted 
within two days' journey of each other : 
sometimes even the ostrich approaches the 
southern borders of the land : the wolf of 
the north, and the leopard of the tropics, 
howl within hearing of the same bivouac : 
while the falcons, the linnets, and buntings, 
recall the familiar inhabitants of our Eng- 
lish fields, the sparkling little sun-bird, and 
the grackle of the glen, introduce us at once 
to the most brilliant types of the bird-life of 
Asia and South Africa' (Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible, vol. ii. p. 691). Similarly with lower 
forms of animals and insects, the natives of 
different lands meet in Palestine. 

Lists of the beasts and birds mentioned 
in the bible have been elsewhere given : see 
Beasts, Birds. Some species, heretofore 
not uncommon, have now disappeared. 
Thus the lion is no longer found ; but bears, 
panthers, hyoenas, wolves, foxes, jackals, 
wild boars, squirrels, hares, rats, mice, 
porcupines, badgers, &c., occur, and, of do- 
mestic animals, camels, horses, asses, mules, 
buffaloes, oxen, sheep, and goats. Among 
the birds are eagles, vultures, falcons, kites, 
and different kinds of owls, also ravens, 
crows, partridges, quails, storks, herons, 
sea-swallows, gulls, doves, and various song- 
birds. Of reptiles there are lizards and 
serpents, tortoises, frogs, and toads. The 
Mediterranean and inland lakes yield fish ; 
while, of insects, scorpions, spiders, bees, 
locusts, and butterflies abound. 

Of trees there are oaks, carob or locust- 
trees, planes, the sycamore-fig, walnut, 
tamarisk, olive, oleander, the vine, and the 
fig-tree, the crops from which are large and 
most important to the people : there are 
also mulberry-trees, quinces, almonds, ba 
nanas, pomegranates, and other fruit-trees. 
The prickly pear is used for fences ; and its 
fruit is acceptable. Palm-trees are now 
rarely seen. Of flowering plants there are 
abundance : see Flowees : and the prolific 
yield of corn in the lowlands has been al- 
ready noted. Palestine is not, properly 
speaking, a mining country : for a notice of 
the metals known there see Metalluiigy. 

Palestine was early inhabited by sevw 
tribes of the stock of Ham. These are euu 
merated as Hittites, Gergashifes, Amorites, 
Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebu 
sites (Deut. vii. 1) ; and other tribes are 



PALLU] 



m)t Crea^uvi? of 



656 



also noted is occupying adjacent regions 
and m a greater or less degree pusla in g 
themselves into this country (Gen. x. lo-19, 
xv!T8 21; Numb. xiii. 28, 29) : for some 
notice of these see Earth, and the articles 
under the names mentioned i-esi^ectively. 
It became afterwards the land of Israel , but, 
when judgment fell upon the Hebrews for 
their sins, they were remored, and theie 
was at different times a large influx of 
foreign population, eastern nations (2 Kings 
xvii. 24 ; Ezra iv. 9, 10), Greeks, &c._; so that 
even in our Lord's time the inhabitants of 
Palestine were of a mixed character; and 
in later ages additional foreign elements 
were introduced. „ , ^. 4. 

After the Hebrew conquest, Palestine, to- 
gether with the traus-Jordanicterritory.Cfor 
which see BiSHAN, Gilead), was divided 
among the twelve tribes. Subsequently it 
was split into the two kingdoms of Israel and 
Judah (see ISRAEL, and JUDAH) ; and m our 
Lord's time the whole country, that beyond 
the Jordan inclusive, was distributed into 
Judea, comprising the territories of Judah, 
Benjamin, Simeon, and part of Dan; ba- 
niaria in the central part of the country, and 
nearly corresponding to the territories of 
Ephraim and Manasseh ; Galilee, einbracmg 
the districts occupied bylssachar, Zebulun, 
Naphtali, Asher, and northern Dan ; Perea, 
including Abilene, Trachonitis, Iturea, 
Gaulanitis, Batanjea, and Perea properly so 
called ; to which some geographers add Deca- 
polis. Idumea, it may be noted, had en- 
croached on Judea in the south. 

Reference must be made to other articles 
for an account of the mountains of Pales- 
tine (see lM0U2fTAi>-s), of its lakes, and 
streams, cities, generally upon hills, which 
will be found noted under their respective 
names ; and for its history such articles as 

ISRAEL, JUDAH, JEVTS, Kl^SGS, M^CC.4BEES, 

&c., may be consulted. ■ ^ . . 

Most highly honoured of tlie regions of 
the world has been Palestine. Therein the 
wonder-working hand of God has _ most 
visibly displayed itself, and therein he 
specially dwelt as King of its inhabitants. 
In that land the Word took flesh, and was 
'found in fashion as a man;' and its pre- , 
sent state is the fulfilment of prophecy, the 
corroboration of the sacred writings. Per- 
haps it may recover its beauty and dignity, 
and be again the acknowledged heritage ot 
the Great King. But man must not pre- 
sume to map out the future. Time alone 

^ pl^L'Llj (distinguislied). A son of Reuben 
(Exod. vi. 14 ; Numb. xxvi. 5, 8 ; 1 Chron. v. 
3), called Phallu in Gen. xlvi. 9. 

PAL'LUITES. A family of Reuben, de- 
scended from Pallu (Numb. xxvi. 5\ 

P\LAI, PALM-TREE. There are many 
species, several hundreds, it is said, of pahn ; 
but the Phoenix dactylifera, or date-palm, is 
that which, growing in Palestine, is referred 
to in scripture. It is highly va ued by 
eastern nations ; and travellers tell us that 
its fruit furnishes a considerable part of 
their subsistence to the inhabitants of 
E^ypt, Persia, and Arabia. A conserve is 
also made of it with sugar ; while the stones 
are ground in the hand-mills tor the food of 



camels. Baskets, bags, mats, &c., are manu- 
factured of the leaves : the trunk is split up, 
and is serviceable in various ways : the web- 
like integuments at the bases of the leaves 
are twisted into ropes : the sap is collected, 
and is at first a sweetish mild beverage, but 
afterwards ferments, and a kind of arrack is 
produced from it by distillation. Every 
part, therefore, of the tree has its use. 

Formerlv palm-trees abounded m Judea , 
a fact sufficiently proved by the names ol 
several localities, into which the word 
tamar, a palm, enters, as Baal-tamar, Ha- 
zezon-tamar, &c. And it is very probable 
that Phoenicia is so called as the palm- 
country ; vlioinix, or iJhcemx, being tne 
Greek for palm. Jericho, agaiu, was cele- 
brated for its palm-groves, so that it was 
termed 'the city of palm-trees (Deut. 
xxxiv. 3 ; Judges iii. 13 ; 2 Chron xxviii.15). 
And Bethany was ' the house of dates. Few 
palms, however, are now left, except m gar- 
dens about Jerusalem and elsewhere, and in 
the Philistine plain. -^^o^^oi. 

The palm furnishes several allusions for 
the sacred writers. The scripture notices of 
it are well illustrated in Moody's TJie Palm 
Tree, 1864, pp. 333-448. Thus a lady is some- 
times likened to a palm (Sol. Song vii.6, / ) ; 
and we find its name, Tamar, borne _ by 
several ladies (Gen. xxxviii. 6 ; 2 Sam. xiii.l, 
xiv. 27). The expressions of the psaJuiist 
are note-worthy: 'The righteous sliall 
flourish like the palm-tree . . . those that 
be planted in the house of the Lord shall 
flourish in the courts of our God. Thej 
shall still bring forth fruit m old age: 
they shall be fat and flourishing (Psal. xcii. 
12-14). 'The palm,' says Dr. Thomson, 
' grows slowly but steadily. ... It does not 
rejoice overmuch in winter's copious ram, 
nor does it droop under the drought and the 
burning sun of summer. Neither heavy 
weights which men place upon its head, nor 
the importunate urgency of the wind, can 
sway it aside from perfect uprightness. 
There it stands, looking calmly down upon 
the world below, and patiently yielding its 
large clusters of golden fruit from genera- 
tion to generation. They " bring forth fruit 
i in old age." The allusion to being planted in 
the house of the Lord is probably drawn 
from the custom of planting beautiful and 
long-lived trees in the courts of temples 
and palaces, and in all " high places " used 
for worship. This is still common : nearly 
every palace, and mosque, and convent, m 
the country has such trees in the courts ; 
and, being well protected there, tliey 
flourish exceedingly. Solomon covered all 
the walls of the " holy of holies " (1 Km^s 
vi. 29) round about with palm-trees. Tli^y 
were thus planted, as it were, within tne 
very house of the Lord ; and their presence 
there was not only ornamental, but ap- 
propriate and highly suggestive— the very 
best emblem, not only of patience m well- 
doing, but of the rewards of the righteous, a 
fat and flourishing old age, a peaceful end, 
a glorious immortality. The Jews used 
palm-branches as emblems of victory m 
their seasons of rejoicing (Lev. xxiii. 4u ; 
Neh. viii. 15; John xii. 13) ; and Christiai a 
do the same on Palm-Sunday, in commemo- 



1 mme mxamase. fpapho. 


ration of our Saviour's triumphal entry intc 
Jerusalem. Tliey are often woven into ar 
arcli, and placed over tlie head of the hiei 
which carries man to his "long home," and 
speak sweetly of victory and eternal life 
(The Land and the Book, pp. 49, 50). In al 
lusion to this Jewish custom, and to the 
giving of palms to victors in the games, the 
great company whom the apocalyptic writer 
saw had palms in their hands (Rev. vii. 9j 
In the medal of Vespasian (see Jerusalem, 
p. 456), the daughter of Judah is represented 
as mourning under a palm-tree. It is an 
expressive and appropriate emblem. 

PALMERIST (Jonah iv. 6, marg.). See 
Gourd. 

. PALMER- WORM (Joel i. 4, ii. 25 ; Amos 
IV. 9). See Locust. 
PALMO'A^I (Dan. viii. 13, marg.). A 

Hebrew word used (as well as some Mndred 
terms, peldni and almdni, of which it is com- 
pounded) to denote an unnamed person : as 
we say ' such a one.' 

PALSY. Palsy or paralysis (which last is 
a Greek word, signifjang a loosening or re- 
laxation) is a disease in which sensation or 
the power of motion is lost in some nart of 
the body. There is a distinction between 
■ nerves of sensation and of motion : hence, 
according as one or other is affected, 
paralysis is loss of sensation or ancesthesia, 
or incapacity of moving. The two, how- 
ever, may be affected together, and power 
of motion and sensation be both lost. The 
disease varies in intensity and in the ex- 
tent to which it prevails. Sometimes it is 
copaplete, all power sensational or motive 
being destroyed ; sometimes incomplete, the 
powers being only impaired. It may be 
partial, a single nerve being touched, or it 
may affect half the body, hemiplegia, or the 
lower v^rts, paraplegia. Again, it may be 
general, almost every member being more 
or less incapacitated. Other varieties of 
the disease need not be mentioned here 
Many persons described as palsied or para- 
lytic were cured by our Lord (e.g. Matt. iv. 
24, viii. 5-13, ix. 2-7 ; Mark ii. 3-11 ; Luke vii 
2-10), and by the apostles (Acts viii. 7, ix 
33, 34). Probably the word is used in J 
scripture in an extended signification Dr 
Harle (Essay on the State of Physic in the Old 
and JSfeio Test., &c., pp. 126, 127) imagines 
that it includes apoplexy. In one case 
racking pain was felt (Matt. viii. 6): perhaps 
the disorder was attended with violent 
cramps or neuralgia. See Barnes, mtes on 
the Neio Test, note on Matt. iv. 24. 

PAL'TI (deliverance of Jeh ovah). The spy 
from the tribe of Benjamin (Numb. xiii. 9). 

PAL'TIEL (deliverance of God). A chief 
of Issachar, selected to superintend the 
division of Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 26) 
: PAL'TITE. The designation, it is un- 
1 known whence derived, of one of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 26). He is elsewhere 
called the Pelonite (1 Chron. xi. 27). 
PAMPHYL'IA. A maritime province of 

Asia MinOT bavin cr t a t^-\ a cnnfli «-c 

+V. -x ° soucu tnat part of 
the Mediterranean called the Pamphylian 
sea (Acts xxvii. 5), Cilicia to the east, 
Pisidia to the north, whence we find St 
Paul passing through Pisidia to Pamphylia 
UlY. 24), and from Pamphylia to Pisidia 


) (xni. 14) ; to the west it bordered on Lycia. 

Pamphylia was a small slip of country 
' lying, so to speak, on the slope of the 
Taurus, which stretched in a north-westerly 
direction, and along the heights and in the 
hollows of which was Pisidia ; it was fruit- 
ful, well watered, and possessed some navi- 
gable rivers and considerable towns, 
under the Syrian kings it was with more 
extended boundary to the north a notable 
province of their empire : when subjected 
to Roman rule it had sometimes its own 
governor and was sometimes held in con- 
junction with Galatia. It was united by 
Claudius to Lycia and part of Pisidia. The 
cities of Pamphylia mentioned in the New 
Testament are Perga and Attalia (ii. lo 
xiii. 13, xiv. 25, XV. 38). Many Jews had 
settled there : comp. i Mace. xv. 23. 

PAN. Several Hebrew words are thup 
rendered in our version. That which 
occurs most frequently, from a root which 
signifies 'to cook,' probably meant a 
cooking-pan or fiying-pan (Lev. ii. 5, vi 
21, vii. 9 ; 1 Chron. xxiii. 29). It was some- 
times made of iron (Ezek. iv. 3), and was 
probably a flat or nearly-flat plate. A de- 
rivative of the same root is used (1 Chron. 
ix. 31) to denote the things cooked on such 
an utensil. The 'pans 'of 2 Chron. xxxv 
13 were pots forboiling. The same original 
word signifies 'ash-pans' which were of 
copper (Exod. xxvii. 3). Those in Numb, 
xi. 8 were also pots for 'boiling, saucepans. 
We have another word in 1 Sam. ii, 14, a 
basin or fire-pan for cooking. The 'pan' 
of 2 Sam. xiii. 9 was a metal pan, which 
probably had its name from its being kept 
bright. The ' fire-pans ' (Exod. xxvii. 3), 
from a root implying to take up, were fire- 
shovels in which coals were taken up, or 
incense kindled. The 'frying-pan' (Lev. 
ii. 7, vii, 9) was a kettle or pot for boiling. 

PAN'NAG. A word occuring only once 
in scripture (Ezek. xxvii. 17), in respect to 
which nothing satisfactory can be said, 
Henderson on the passage is inclined to 
consider it a place. Gesenius, after the 
Targum, imagines it to mean a kind of 
pastry or sweet cake. The Septuagint 
translates the word cassia, the Vulgate bal- 
sam. Various other conjectures have been 
proposed; sufiiciently showing that we 
have not at present the proper information 
to decide what Pannag really was. 
PAPER (2 John 12). See Writing. 
PAPER-REEDS. The word so rendered 
in Isai. xix. 7 signifies naked places, with- 
out trees : it means here the grassy places 
on the banks of the Nile used for meadows 
or pasturage. The ' paper-reed ' or papyrus 
18 elsewhere alluded to, but the word in 
the original is different, and Is translated 
rush' or ' bulrush : ' see Bulrush, Reed. 
PA'PHOS. A city of Cyprus, over-against 
Pamphylia (Acts xiii. 6, 13). It is New 
Paphos that is here meant, a sea-port with 
a good harbour on the western coast of the 
island, which under the Roman dominion 
was made the capital and the seat of the 
proconsul. It was about seven or eight 
miles north of the Old Paphos, so celebrated 
:or the temple of Venus. New Paphos, too, 
had a splendid temple. In the reign c/ 
u U 



1 

i I 

i 



pahable] 



658 



Augustus it was OYertlirovm by an earth- 
quake, but was restore J by the empeioi 
Tbe modem uame is Baffa, wheie tJieie aie 

'"p\rSlE^" This word is variously used 

m-ps'sed (Psal. IxxTin. 2 Ezek. xx. 4y , 
SSt xiii 35 ; a visible type or emblem 
reme4itiu?somethiDg different from and 
bevoni itself ^Heb. ix. 9, xi. 19:. ; a special 
nstraction (Lute xiv. 7) ; .and a Bunnitude 
or comparison (Matt, xxiv p.^ ^' ^i'Y^pdl ' 
2S) ' • see Home's InirocL, vol. ii. p. 344, edit, 
ivi-e. in some of these places the word 
i parable is not used in our version but pio- 
?lrb' or 'figure but the original words are 
I Lwavs the^same, mashal and parage. A 
pSe in its more defimte Bigmfi^ation 
may be called the continued f. ^^f!^^^ °^ 
something fictitious, used to illastiate by 
^vav of simile an important truth. Thu:= 
there are three things to be specially le- 
-arded in it : the representation or external 
SarrSive, which is employed for i lus ra- 
?fon ; the truth or inner sense, ^vliich s 
lus rated or taught ; and the parallelism 
or simihtude between tbeni ; or as Di 
mTidson describes them, (1) the thing to 
^^e iuitrated, 12) the example iUustratmg, 
Sthe sinAitudebetween them iJ^^^^r^^^^;^: 
phan ix P 311). Abp. Trench well says : 
' ^The iwabie differs from the fable, moving 
as it does in a spiritual world and never 
tnn*^re*-ing the actual order oi things 
natm-al-from the -^thus, there being m 
the latter an unconscious blending ot the 
deeper meanine with the outward symbol, 
fhe Iwo^emaining separate and separable 
n the parable-from the proverb, inasmuch 
a. it is longer carried out, and, not merely 
Accidentally and occasionally, but neces- 
J^r IV fi-urat ve-from the aUegory, com- 
1 mriu- as it does one thing irltli another, 
' hS:. preserving them apart as an inner 
uuu . , • , tv;m efPTrm e. as does 



parables. And this was perhaps one of th€ 
Characteristics in which thepeop e contrast- 
ed his teaching with that of the scribes. 
But then his testimony was not received : 
his plain dealing only provoked opposition. 
And therefore, while doubtless there were 
many advantages in parables as ai-ousiug 
Ihe Attention and likely to dwe 1 m the 
memorv, they had in some respects a judi- 
cial character. The Jews rejected ourLom s 
doctrine : it was therefore to be clothed m 
SaSve speeches. Had they been docile 
heSers, they should have had everything 
expla ned : they shut their eyes and hard- 
ened their hearts, and so truth assumed 
a veiled form, which the careless did not 
choose to seaiTh into, and only the earnest- 
mmded desired to understand. Our Lord 
gave this reason to his <ii="l^e3 ^.^^.^iJi.^ 
questioned him, and showed ^lat bes de^ 
the intrinsic beauty of the Pai-^^llf ^t tested 
the hearts of those to whom it was spoken 

"^^ery^beautiful indeed are the parables of 
ChrSt And, when we really seek to undei- 
stpiid them, 'and use for this the key which 
he himself delivered, we may find m them 
tieasures of instrnction, from which aL 
1 classes may derive tne highest Pioht 
' But in the interpretation of Parables we 
must take care not just to indulge om 
own fancv. "Well-meaning men have sup- 
posed that the circumstances of tbep^rable 
the drapery of the figure presented, ha%e 
n eveJfparticular a symbolical meaning 
apart from the principal illustration, thus 
making the whole a coUection of riddles, 
on which ingenuity may ainuse itself , but 
^vhich common sense repudiates The gene 
ral scope, therefore, of a parable must be 
ascertained, and the attendant circumst^- 
ces interpreted only as they be:ir on this 
With this as a guiding principle, we may 
properly adopt I^r.,Tholuck s rule : A ^i- 
militude is perfect in proportiou as it is on 
all s des rich in applications ; and hence, m 
?reSing the parables of Christ, the exposi- 
or must proc eed on the presumption that 
Sere is import in every s ngle POint, and 
de=i^t from seeking it only when it_does 



and an 



. , preserving them apart as an inner ^'^^fj^^l^.l^,^^^^^^ 

'an outer, and not trausiernng as does ^f^^^^^^^ ^^^^ or that circumstance 

the allegory, the properties and ^^ali les ^^eari ^^.^^^ g 

and relations of one to the other; i^ot_e. on . a "u^e ^^rrative. We shoula 



was aULiCU. u.icii.i.» AAT^i ch -■'lid 

ana reiatiuus ui uxiv. .... ^c-- i intnitiveness to the narrative. >> e .niuuu 

m Parables, chap. i. PP. 9, 10, edit. ISoo f Y^^^^^^^^^ anything to be non-essential 

The mode of teaching ]f'jf'^,%^^^^^^ 
great antiauity. We find ^^t m the Old exc and t^^'^^' 

Testament, as in the address o.f ^atlj^'i^^,^^ {Jg^j. Uusleciiina der Bergpredigt, p. 201). 
David (2 Sam. xii. 1-4^, tbe artifice of th^ A .iif^le illustration may be given. >o 
woman of Tekoah (xiv. 6, 7), the prophet s I ^ ^m-^- . . n.^vp n 



wards adopted by the Hebrew doctois. 
5here was an advantage in it: and there- 
fo'^^l we need not be sm-prised at finding 
that our Saviour largely emi^oj ed it. But 



A ciif^le illustration may be given. >o 
«ound expositor will doubt that there is a 
deeS spiritual sense nuder-lying the narra- 
tive of the 'Good Samanran,' though he 
ml?notbe inclinedto ^npix^sean allegonca^ 
me'anin<^ -f every particular in the desciii>- 
?S Itl s not fanciful to see in the wounded 
traveller the race of inau desixnled and 



aviour largely employed i . But ■ ^;:^ ,VA ed bv spiritual foes, deriving no 
vet there were peculiar reasons tor what | ^^J^^treate^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^.^ 

he did. He did not commence bis mnast].y , consouu ^ ^^^^ Levitical law, bt 



[rv I consolation or cure -^^ ^:"\^"V'i''.";f/ 
Isai. Hi. 1, 2, in "'e synagogue oj •^^"'^'J; XVl"eu leaaitted theTMiria,commiss:oii. 



669 



[paean 



STLffering the precious gifts lie left in their 
charge, the faithful disposal of which he 
u'ill at his coming again acknowledge and 
richly recompense. 

The number of our Lord's parahles is con- 
sideral)le. More or fewer are enumerated, 
according to the wider or narrower applica- 
tion of the term. And some writers have 
gathered rhem into groups. Mr. Westcott 
has constructed a table in which he classi- 
fies— i. parables drawn from the material 
world ; ii. parables draAvn from the relations 
of man ; with a variety of subdivisions, and 
a few over which he cannot conveniently 
get into his synopsis (Introcl. to the Gospels, 
append. F. pp. 450-452). They are ranged here 
as they occur in the Gospel narrative. 

They are these — 

1. The sower (Matt. xiii. 3-8 ; Mark iv. 3-8; 
Luke viii. 5-8). 

2. The wheat and the tares (Matt. xiii. 24- 

30). 

3. The mustard-seed (Matt. xiii. 31, 32: 
Mark iv. 30-32). 

4. The leaven (Matt. xiii. 33). 

5. The hid treasure (Matt. xiii. 44). 

6. The pearl of great price (Matt. xiii. 45, 
46). 

IT. The net cast into the sea (Matt. xiii. 47. 
48). 

8. The lost sheep (Matfc.xviii. 12, 13 : Luke 
XV. 4-6). 

9. The merciless servant (Matt, xviii. 23- 
34). 

10. The labourers in the vineyard (Matt. 
XX. 1-16). 

11. The two sons (Matt. xxi. 28-30). 

12. The vineyard let to husbandmen (Matt, 
xxi. 33-39 ; Mark xii.1-9 ; Lukexx. 9-15). 

13. The marriage-feast (Matt. xxii. 2-14). 

14. The wise and the foolish virgins (Matt, 
XXV. 1-12), 

15. The talents (Matt, xxv. 14-30). 

IG. The sheep and the goats (Matt. xxy. 
31-46). 

17. The seed cast into the ground (Mark 
iv. 26-29). 

IS. The two debtors (Luke vii. 41, 42). 

19. The good Samaritan (Luke x. 30-35). 

20. The importunate friend (Luke xi. 5-8). 

21. The rich fool (Luke xii. 16-20). 

22. The return from the wedding (Luke xii. 
35-40.) 

23. The fig-tree (Luke xiii. 6-9). 

24. The great supper (Luke xiv. 16-24), 

25. The lost piece of money (Luke xv. 8, 9). 

26. The prodigal sou (Luke xv. 11-32), 

27. The unjust steward (Luke xvi. 1-8). 

28. The rich man and Lazarus (Luke xvi. 
19-31), 

29. The unjust judge (Luke xviii, 2-5). 

SO. The Pharisee and the publican (Luke 

xviii. 10-13). 
31. The pounds (Luke xix. 12-27). 
It will be observed that there are no para- 
hles in St. John's Gospel. It is true that 
the word occurs in our version (John x. 6, 
xvi. 25, 29, marg.) ; but the original term 
differs from that used by the other evan- 
gelists. 

The excellent work of abp. Trench, Notes 
(ni the ParaUes, frequently re-printed, may 
well be recommended to the reader. 

PARADISE. A word derived from the 



Sanscrit paradSga, 'a region of surpassing 
beauty ' : the Hebrew ijardes is rendered in 
our version ' forest ' and * orchard ' (Xeh ii 
8 ; Eccles. ii. 5 ; Sob Song iv. 131 ; while the 
Greek pararfeisos is classically used to de- 
signate the parks or pleasure-trrounds 
stocked with wild animals attached to the 
palaces of Persian monarchs. In ordinary 
speech we understand by paradise the 
happy garden in which our first parents 
were originally placed— and so the term is 
usedintheSeptuagint— asDotwhich curious 
enquirers have vainly striven to identify. 
See Edex. But the word has not this 
meaning in scripture. It occurs in our trans- 
lation only three times (Luke xxiii 43 • 
2 Cor. xii. 4; Lev. ii. 7). Jewish writers 
had fanciful notions of it, but generally 
they understood by paradise the place 
where the souls of the righteous were col- 
lected (see Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. &c., col. 
1802) ; and it is so to be understood in 
our Lord's address to the penitent thief. 
St. Paul would seem to mean the heaven- 
ly abode ; and the promise in the Ilevela- 
tion must apply to some happier state of 
which Eden was but an image, where th& 
true tree of life grows and yields fruit for 
ever, to be freely enjoyed by the glorified 
denizens : comp. Ptev. xxii. l, 2. 

PA'PtAH (lieifer-toivn). A town of Ben-fa- 
inm (Josh. xviii.'23); perhaps in the modern 
Vr aclrj Fcirali, south-east of Beth-el. 

PARALLEL, PARALLELISM. See 
Poetry. 

PA'RAN (i:>er\^^\)?> region with caverns). A 
desert region inhabited by nomad tribes 
Paran is celebrated in sacred song as tlie 
spot whence in close connection with the 
solemn legislation of Sinai the glory of 
the Lord shone forth (Deut, xxxiii, 2 ; Hab. 
ill. 3), In this wilderness in later times 
David took refuge after Samuel's death (l 
Sam. xxv. 1), It lay to the south or south-west 
of Palestine, in tne neighbourhood of Beer- 
sheba and Kadesh (Gen, xxi. 14, 21 ; Is^umb 
xu] 3, 17, 26), between Egypt and Edom, 
or Midian (1 Kings xi. 18). The Israelites i 
traversed it in their journev from Sinai ! 
from which it was three days' inarch (Kuuib i 
X. 12, 33) ; and from it the spies were de- 
spatched into Canaan (xiii, 3, 26), Paran ■ 
therefore may be regarded as that ele- ' 
vated desert tract, now caHed e4-Tj:'i, which 
extends from the wilderness of Shurin the 
west to the ridge Jebel et-Tih in the south, 
the land of Edom in the east, and Canaan 
in the north, intersected by the "Wady el- 
Arish the direction of which is north-west. 
In the south and west it sinks into a sandy 
plain towards the Mediterranean : in the 
north-east it is rugged and mountainous: 
hence we find ' mount Paran ' spoken of. In 
Its wider sense it included the deserts of 
Zm and Kadesh : and at the point where it 
reached northward to the wilderness of Ju- 
dah was an oak: to this, El-Paran, the inva- 
sion of the confederate kings (Gen. xiv. 6) 
reached. Joseph us mentions a Pharnn, 
towards Idumea, a valley Avith caverns 
{Bell Jud., lib. iv. 9, § 4) : it may have been 
a part of the ancient Paran; and some have 
proposed to identify it with Wady Feiran 
in the Sinaitic peninsula; but this is ver> 



660 



doubtful. See Winer, BM. BWB , art. ' Pa- 
ran '•Kaliscli, Comm. on Old Test Gen., p. 

ii i-» 707 placing: generally the Avuaemess 
of Faran i^ortli of ^lie et-Tili range, and that 
SsinaTon the south, supposes. that mount 
Paran was one of the Sinaitic group : Wil- 
ton ifelYeves it at tlie north-east corner of 
tSe desS't of Paran, no^v termed tlie moun- 
tains of the 'A^azimeh {The ^ egeb, p. 124). 
I PAK'BIR (perhaps an apartment open to 
tn^fmandair). According to Gesem^^^ 
the open porticoes surroundmg the temple 
' courts, from xvhich was the entrance to the 
various chambers (1 Chron. xxvi. 18). The 
^ame word is, in 2 Kings xxiii. 11, translated 
'tSmTbs'; though possibly the same place 
may not be meant m both case;= Giove, 
in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. ii. p. -08 
takes a somewhat-different view from that 
of Ssenius, and would identify 'the Parbar 
Avith the suburb mentioned by Josepliu. m 
describing Herod's temple {Antiq., Hh. xv. 
11 8 5) as lying in the deep valley which se- 
parlted Se west wall of the temple from the 
city opposite it ; in otber words, tlie south- 
ern end of the Tyropoeon, wliich intervenes 
between the wailing-place, and the (so- 

''plpinEb GPOTJ^'D. The word thus 
rendered (Isai. xxxv. 7) refers to a plieno- 
menon, freauent in the deserts of Aiabia 
and Egypt, of India and Persia, and occa- 
Ifonalfy witnessed in the south of Fmnce 
whicli is usuallv known by the name 
vdraae. It is produced by the refraction 
of the ravs of licht during the exliala- 
?ion of vap'ours by the excessive beat of the 
sun : an inverted image of the sky being 
ISmed and mingled with ground-scenery. 
The desert thus wholly or m pai't pre^ent^ 
the appearance of a sea or lake ; surround- 
Sl ^fiects being apparently reflected m 
the water. So complete is the illusion that 
expe^nced travellers Have often been 
le?eived, and hurrying on to enw the prof- 
fered shade and refreshment have found 
nothing but an and waste, Tne meanin^ 
?f the |rophet,then,is that the vapoury 
illusion shall become actually a lake, tne 
d^=ert sands shall be real water. 

pIrcHMENTS (2 Tim. iv. 13). ' The parch- 
ments, which as more mostly probably c^^^^^ 
tained the more valuable ^vritmgs, peihaps 
the sacred books themselves (Alf oid). 
PARDOX See ATO^'EiIE^T, Forgive- 

"'?lrio5B.''^™e\ve three worasso 
translated. That in Judges iii. 20, 23-..0 
meant Sere perhaps ahall of audience ; h^^ 
term properly denoting an uppei loom 
another was literally a bed-chamber, de- 
tSSated in 1 Sam. ix. 22 an eatms-ro^^^^^ 
The parlours of 1 Chron. xxvui. 11 were 
inferior or withdrawing rooms. 
PARMASH'TA {superior). One of Haman's 

'TAwf^^ii\constanf). One of the seven 
selected to administer the secular busme^* 
of the church (Acts vi. 5). 

PIMACH OiiJnWe?). The father of a 
chief of Zebulun (Numb. xxxiv. 2o). 

PA'ROSH (a flea)' One whose descendants 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 



and with Ezra (Ezra ii. 3, viii. 3 where 
Pharosh; Neh. vii. 8), several of them 
married foreign wives (Ezra x. 25) : one is 
mentioned as repairing the wall of _ J erusa- 
lem (Neh. iii. 25) ; and the name is found 
among those who sealed the covenant (x. 

"^^P A^RSHAN^DA'THA (an interpreter of the 
laio or, possibly, given by prayer). One ol 

^T^irnVflu'^mh^. Parthiawas 
the designation of an Asiatic country 
south-east of the Caspian, caUed also Par- 
thysea and Parthyene. The name was ori- 
ginally given to a mountainous and T\oody 
i°eSion,?he boundaries of which appear to 
have varied at different tunes. Plmy do- 
scribes it as bordered on the east by the 
Arii on the south by Carmauia and the 
Ir an?, on the west by the Medi Pratitae 
and on the north by the Hyrcam, enciiT ed 
everywhere by deserts (lib. vi. 29). This 
country was peopled by an uncivilized and 
needy tribe, probably of Scythian origin. 
Thev were subject to the Persian kings 
and passed over to the Macedonians at the 
conauest, Parchia and Hyrcania forming a 
sinSe satrapy. Afterwards Parthia revo t- 
iu-lrom the Syrian rule became the nucleus 
of a great monarchy, the Parthian empire. 
It was founded by Arsaces I. about 2o6 B.C., 
and ultimately comprised the province, of 
the earlier Persian kingdom (see 1 Mace, 
xiv 2), extending itseli westward till it 
met the Roman power on the Euphrates 
The sovei-eUns are known as the line of the 
Irsacidte, after the fomider of the mon- 
trchl The struggles of Parthia wit^^ 
Rome were long-continued, with yaued f oi- , 
tune; their chief foi'ce.J^emg horsemen , 
using bows and arrows with great skill , but j 
this eastern empire was never conauered oi ; 
dismembered by the masters of the western ^ 
wOTld. It continued till the reign of 
Irtabanus, 226 A.D. ; when Artaxerxes who 
had served in this king's army, asseit^ng , 
that he was a descendant of the an.cient Per- 
sian sovereigns, founded the new Persian 
empii-e under the race of the Sassamto 
TheParthians came little into contact with 
the Jews : they did, however, maintain the 
wtfof Antigkus'against Hyrcanus,^^^^^ 
took Jerusalem 40 B.C. See Wiue^, Bibl 
BWB., art. 'Farther.' There were Jews 
vriio had settled in Parthia who resoited 
at the feasts to Jerusalem_ (Acts u. 9). 

PARTITION. Christ is said to Ime 
broken down the middle wall of partition, 
or the fence which was between Jew and 
Gentile (Eph. ii. U). Reference has been 
stipposed here to the rending of the temple 
veil at the crucifixion ; but that denoted 
the removal of every obstacle to free access 
to God by men in general : here the apostle 
is touching a different topic; and the fence 
is rather that wall which separated the 
court of the Israelites ft'om that of the 
Gentiles. It was broken down ; that is, in 
Christ Jew and GentUe are equaUy regarded 
in the sight of God. . . , . ^.y,-, 
PARTRIDGE. The original word for tne 
bird so called implies 'the crier. It is 
clear that a species of the family Tetraoiiid^, 
Sding grouse, partridges, is intended; 



661 



[PASSOYEE 



but it is difficult to say which. The Pterocles 
alchata, or pin-tailed sand-grouse, is now 
called Jcatta by the Arabs from its cry. These 
birds abound in Palestine, and deposit on 
the ground two or three eggs of a greenish- 
black colour and about the size of a 
pigeon's: the dangers to which they are 
exposed of being driven from their nests 
sufficiently illustrate what is said of 
the partridge in Jer. xvii. 11. The Arabs 
collect large quantities and eat thera fried 
In butter. The red-legged partridge, Per- 
dix rubra, is also, according to Kitto (Pict. 
Bible, note on 1 Sam. xxvi. 20) common in 
Palestine. It is partial, he tells us, to up- 
land brushwood, and is a powerful runner. 
The Arabs hunt these birds by approaching 
a covey secretly, underneath an oblong 
piece of canvas, stretched over two reeds 
or sticks. They thus get near enough to 
fire with effect ; and then, as the partridges 
become wearied after being put up two or 
three times, the hunters run in on them 
and knock them down with clubs. This 
bird, therefore, would seem to correspond 
well with the mention in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. 
And Dr. Thomson describes their being 
hunted with falcons (The Land and the 
Book, pp. 208, 209). But other writers deny 
that the red-legged partridge is to be found 
in Palestine. Mr. Tristram seems to con- 
sider the bird in question the Caccahis 
saxatilis, or the CaccaUs Heyii. See the 
matter discussed by Duns {Bibl. Nat. Science, 
vol. ii. pp. 249-254), who properly discredits 
the oriental legend that the partridge steals 
eggs from other nests to hatch than for 
her own, and illustrates the passage of 
Jeremiah as above. 

PARU'AH (plossoming). The father of 
one of Solomon's officers (1 Kings iv. 17). 

PARVA'IM (oriental regions). A word oc- 
curring in 2 Chron. iii. 6 to describe the gold 
used for the construction of the temple. 
Some have believed Parvaim identical with 
Ophir : more probably the term signifies 
'gold of the eastern regions,' the finest 
gold. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 'Parvaim.' 

PA'SACH (cut off, or torn asunder). An 
Asherite chief (1 Ohron. vii. 33). 

PAS-DAM'MIM (boundary or cessation of 
blood) (1 Chron. xi. 13). See Ephes-dammim. 

PASE'AH (lame).—l. One of Judah's 
posterity (1 Chron. iv. 12).— 2. One whose 
descendants, Nethinim, returned with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 49) ; in ISTeh. vii. 51 
called Phaseah.— 3. The father of one who 
helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem 
(Neh. iii. 6). Perhaps the reference is to 
no. 2. 

PA'SHTJR (prosperity round about).~l. A 
priest (1 Chron. ix. 12; Neh. xi. 12), probably 
the same with the person mentioned in 
Jer. xxi. 1, xxxviii. 1.— 2. Another priest, 
governor of the temple, descended from 
Immer. Because he put Jeremiah in the 
stocks, a fearful sentence was denounced 
against him: see Magor-missabib (xx. 
1, 2, 3, 6). Possibly he was the father 
of Gedaliah (xxxviii. l) ; but it is not clear 
whether it was his posterity or that of no. 
1 that returned from captivity with Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 38 ; Neh. vii. 41) ; some of 
Whose sons had married foreign wives i 



(Ezra X. 22), and of whom the representative 
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 3). 

PASSENGERS, THE VALLEY OF THE 
A place where the multitude of Gog were 
to be buried (Ezek. xxxix. 11), so called in 
reference to its position, which was on the 
east of the Dead sea, on the usual route to 
Petra and Ezion-geber, along which many 
travellers constantly pass. 

PASSION. In one place (Acts i. 3) the 
sulferings and death of Christ ; elsewhere 
(xiv. 15; James v. 17) human feelings 
or nature. The original word occurs fre- 
quently, but is otherwise rendered. 

PASSOVER. One of the chief yearly 
festivals of the Israelites, Its name ex- 
presses the great deliverance when at its 
first institution the Lord passed through 
the land of Egypt to destroy their first- 
born and passed over the houses in which 
his own people dwelt. 

This was the last plague ; and it forced 
the ox^pressors to let go their captives. The 
event was, therefore, to be commemorated 
for ever, and the month in which it occur- 
red to be the first of the Hebrew (ecclesi- 
astical) year. The directions given for the 
observance of the passover were these. 
On the tenth of Abib (or Nisan) each house- 
holder was to select a lamb or a kid, an un- 
blemished male of the first year. But, if a 
family were too small, neighbouring house- 
holds were to join. On the fourteenth the 
lamb was to be killed about sunset : * be- 
tween the two evenings' is the literal ren- 
dering of the Hebrew phrase : this is most 
generally understood to be the period of 
twilight, between sunset and dark; but ac- 
cording to other opinions it lasted from the 
sun's beginning to decline to his setting 
or it was the time just before and just after 
sunset. It may be observed that the hour 
of oficering the daily sacrifice was defined 
by the same phrase: this, however, at 
least in later times, was at 3 o'clock p m 
(see Keil, Comm. on Kings, vol. i. p. 281) 
Another supposition that it was the inter- 
val between the evenings of two succes- 
sive days (Nisan 14 and 15), is made by 
Prof. Lee (Serm. on Sabbath, edit. 1834. 
pp. 22-24). The blood of the passover 
lamb was to be received in a basin, 
and to be sprinkled with a bunch of hyssop 
on the door-posts and the lintel. The 
lamb itself, of which not a bone was to be 
broken, was to be roasted v/hole, and eaten 
m haste with bitter herbs and unleavened 
bread ; each who partook having his loins 
girt, his shoes on his feet, and his staff in 
his hand ; and any portion of the flesh that 
was left was to be burnt. The Israelites 
obeyed : they killed the lambs on the four- 
teenth of the month : they ate them in the 
evening when the fifteenth had com- 
menced ; and at midnight the loud wail 
echoed through every Egyptian habitation, 
for the first-born in each family was dead. 
Then was Israel thrust out in haste ; and 
the passover was ever after to be observed, 
a season of holy gladness (Exod. xii.) 

There were several provisions for the 
future celebration of this feast, which were 
not applicable to that kept in Egypt. It 
to last seven days from the four* 




teentli of tlie month to the twen y-flist 

llrst day and tlie seTentli day oi. lestn al 
^ere to he holy convocations, m ^l^if jl^o 
ZoA mnst he done; ?aid, as con^ectmg 
this feast Avith the gathering of the pro- 
duce o? the earth, the tirst-frmts or first 
Pheaf of harvest Avas then to he presented 
Ir4 special sacrifices Avere to he ofliered 
?hiou4 all the seven days : further, the 
fassover '^as to he ohserved In the place 
where the sanctuary was, and theie tne 
Tamhs Avere to he slain and the hlood 
spSnkled onthe altar (xiii. 4-10 ; I^^-^-f, 
ll • Xumh. xxviii. 16-25 ; Deut. xvi. 1-8 16) It 
mav he added that servants, if hought AVith 
Sonev and not hired, were to eat the pass- 
overTand so might a stranger or foreigner 
who ^uhmitted to the rite of circumci- 
5oii (Exod. Si 43-45, 48, 49). IModiflcationS 
wS-e afterwards enjoined or Perniitteci 
Thus any one unclean or on a journey was to 
1 ppn the pa^=over on the fourteenth day oi 

the r alPs: on men, therefore, alone was it 
a tolutelv incumhent to keep the PassoA ei 
Tt is probahle, too, that the original lule 
rh.t none should leave the house nil the 
1 mmV^nS r^^ : the lamh also does 
' ot aPP?a?to have heen selected four days 
: before^ andMnstead of the haste as pre^ 
i paJed fox a march which characterized he 
fi 'f nas^over, the feast was afterwaiob 



the clay in which their ancestors were 
made to work : this was eaten with the lamh 
Sncf^he other viands. There were also tohe 
nnr fewer than four cups of wme : it was 
?ed auTwas drunkmixedwithwater^^g^^^^^^ 
Vere the materials of which the paschal feast 

""'T^V^llToi partaking it is thus descrih- 
ed The company, who had not eaten since 
niid-dav, a^^semhled in the evening, and took 
their pHces on couches. They were usiially 
not uSde^^^ in ^umher : they m^M 
^^^nrp twentv, even one hundred, a& many 
as the Imh^ would supply wiih a piece as 
f^vcv ' 1^ an olive. A cup of wme was fii«t 
Idled with witer, over which the master 
S Se hmisehold or the person who presided 
m-onounced a thanksgiving for tne day, and 
f orthe wine, which was then drunk. All 
next washed their hands, another henedic- 
Uon h^hig pronounced. The different dishes 
of 'he f east, the lamh, the unleavened hread, 
?hP hitter herhs and the thick sauce, were 
nSrX^d on tiietahle ; and the president 
fivQt nrd afterwards the rest of the com 
' ?anv dipped ^ome of the hitter herhs m 
ihfs ^auce and ate them. Then the dishes 
weie iemov^^ in order that the children 
mio.f,t enquire the reason of f uch a f estn a^ 
•inri a lecoud cup of wme was drunk , ana, 
? rdtfl. °"ftein|.re-placea the m^^^^^^^ 



thurh^toren'ing the condition 0^^ rest to 
v-hich God had Drought his pecple. 

Verv many particulars m regard to tne 
ceTehration of \he paschal feast are enume- 
rated hv the Talmudists : some of tne pun- 
djlf a^one can he noticed Here. The priest 
wpvp arranged in two rows m the court oi 
nfe temple provided with hasins of silver 
and of gold. The people ^ere adm tted m 
?hree divisions; and, as each killed Ins 
lamh the hlood was received luto a basin, 
whirh was passed up to the priest neare t 
the altar who cast the hlood thereon. The 
amh was then prepared for roasting, while 
thehallel or psalms of praise, weie sung, 
^ Se S ! eing hurnt with incense that even. 

S mi the altar. A skewer or spit of pome- 
: S=anTte wood was thrust throughjhe 1^^^^^^ 
when taken away fen- Jf^.^^"-' °Vrs ci° 
in^ to some authorities, tA\ o skcweis ci.^. 
iri" The oven used was of earthenware; and 
?are A 'is talen that the lamD did not touch 

the cfetency of mustard, to represent 



cise 01 unleayeuedUreaa, wWcli lie Wes?^;a , 
1 -nfl ,11 cartookol it, dipping the portious 
Sell Sitter herh^ ^^'^^^o^heTweSui 

tiio lomh was eaten: and another DiesMu^ 
i ionounc7d?4hen t^ third cup o^' cup of 
hle^^ing was handed round. This wa= buc 
I ceeded hy the fourth, termed the cup of 

' We^inly he ieve, from many expressions 
SSft?Sf^SfsSS!?ta%^?wall£^ 

-Sldro't\°Se's^"»'^^^^^^^^ 

tnp S-st-frtiits of harvest, has heen ai- 
i^^^BfeiSS^ : there -s an^ther-^^^^^ 
tain voluntary Peace:offermg.. which seem 
to have accompanied all the fe.tn^^^^^ 
rxnmh x 10 ; 2 Chron.xxx. 22) . tnese lui 
owed tlfe general rule given in I^ev^iu. l-o, 

lS^j;riS^Se;fh?S^ofiei^,j^ 

Iv formed part of the paschal ^-ea^t. At tn 
i passover,too, a criminal was released (Mat^ 
ivvii In- Alark XV. 6 ; Luke xxiii.l7 , Jonn 
xWi 39) ; itisuifcertainwhetlierhy Rom^^^ 
cotirte 'v, or hv ancient Israelitish custom 
' i here arc several special notices of pa.s- 
over ceiehrations in scripture histoiy. it 
s Jems ir^leil prohahle that after r^e second 
vpnr nf their departure from Egj pt tne oo 
Jeivance was suspended; more especially 



1 










563 MMt HnxitokXfg^. [passovei? 




• 

i 

\ 

1 

1 

1 




as the proper time came after the Jordan 
was crossed, the festival was kept (10, 11). 
It is not distinctly mentioned again for a 
very considerable period ; hut, as the resort 
of pious Israelites to the sanctuary is re- 
peatedly alluded to (1 Sam. i. 3, 7, 21 ; 1 
Kings xii. 27 ; Psal. cxxii. 4), we cannot 
doubt that this great feast was generally 
observed (though perhaps imperfectly and 
with mutilation of the rites), at least in 
Judah. A very remarkable one Avas cele- 
brated in the reign of Hezekiah, extending 
over fourteen days. It was, however, held 
in the second month, because the priests 
and people Vv'ere not sufficiently prepared at 
the statutable time (2 Chron. xxx.). This ex- 
ceeded all passovers since the days of Solo- 
mon. There was another still moi-e notice- 
able passover in the eighteenth year of 
Josiah, more solemn than any since the 
time of Samuel (xxxv. 1-19). Another great 
passover was held after the return from 
Uabylon (Ezra vi. 19-22). On these three 
occasions the Levites killed the lambs, be- 
cause many of the people were ceremonially 
unclean. In the New Testament we And 
this feast regularly observed (Luke ii. 41) ; 
an d our Lord's attendance during his public 
ministry is specially noted. 

With regard to the last passover, at which 
time Christ's passion and death occurred, 
there is much difficulty in reconciling the 
accounts given by the diif erent evangelists. 
The difficulty arises, no doubt, from our 
want of full information ; so that, had two 
or three additional links of the narrative 
been supplied, all would be clear. The 
> law prescribed that the passover should 
be kept on the fourteenth of Nisan, and 
called the fifteenth ' the feast ' (Numb, 
xxviii. 16, 17). Now it is reasonable to sup- 
pose that the sabbath during which Jesus 
lay in the grave was Nisan the fifteenth, 
for it is called ' an high day ' (Johnxix. 31), 
and, besides, Friday, according to all the 
evangelists, was the 'preparation' or 'pre- 
paration of the passover' (Matt, xxvii. 62; 
Mark xv. 42 ; Luke xxiii. 54 ; John xix. 14, 
31, 42) ; how was it then that our Lord and 
his disciples ate the passover on the Thurs- 
day evening, while the Jews generally, it is 
evident, had not eaten it, because on Friday 
morning they would not go into Pilate's 
judgment-hall, lest they should be defiled, 
and be thereby incapable of partaking of the 
holy meal (xviii. 28) ? A variety of solutions 
have been proposed, such as that our Lord's 
v/as not the actual paschal feast, that he ob- 
served it at the true time which the Jews 
somehow mistook, that the passover which 
they intended to eat when they feared de- 
filement was not the lamb, but the peace- 
olferings, &c. &c. A full discussion of 
the subject is impossible in this place, but 
some few considerations shall be offered 
which may tend to elucidate it ; and the 
reader shall be referred to other authori- 
ties. 

Dr. Fairbairn {Berm, Manual, part ii. sect, 
ix.) proposes a very ingenious explanation. 
He believes that the Jews — understanding 
by the term that comparatively-small fac- 
tion who took an active part in the seizure 
and trial of Christ— would have eaten the 


passover on Thursday night, had not the 
corannmication made to them by Judas 
hurried their proceedings. They had before 
CMatt. xxvi. 5) resolved to defer our Lord's 
apprehension till the feast was over. But 
suddenly an opportunity presents itself. 
Judas goes to the elders and promises to 
lead them that very night to a retired place 
where they ivould find their victim. Their 
resolve must be immediate : if they let slip 
this favourable occasion, they might nevei 
have such another. And the whole business 
might probably be despatched in a few 
hours. They would delay their paschal 
supper till it was over. And, even though 
the time w^ore on, and morning dawned, 
still they did not relinquish their intention 
of eating the passover, and would keep 
themselves undeflled for it. The precise 
legal time, indeed, was past ; but that was 
of less importance, since they would have 
secured the destruction of Jesus. This ex- 
planation, however, necessarily gives up the 
view generally adopted, that Christ suffer- 
ed on the day legally appointed for slaying 
the paschal lamb, type and Anti-type being 
thus brought into closest coincidence. And 
besides, if Friday were the feast, Nisan 
15, how could the disciples imagine late 
on Thursday evening, when according to 
Jewish calculation the sacred day had al- 
ready begun, that Jesus was directing 
Judas to make purchases for the feast (John 
xiii. 29) ? It would seem, then, most pro- 
bable that the meal eaten by Christ and the 
apostles was before the paschal meal of 
the generality of the Jews. But yet so 
exactly do the accounts we have of it tally 
with the ordinary ceremonies, as above 
described, of the passover, that we can 
hardly avoid the conclusion that it was, in 
some.sense or way, the passover itself. It 
has been already observ^ed that the Jews 
commenced a fresh day at sunset; so that 
from sunset on Thursday to sunset on 
Friday was Nisan 14, a day including 
what we should call portions of tAvo days, 
including, therefore, the supper and the 
crucifixion. Some writers have maintained 
that the passover was ordinarily eaten at 
the beginning of the fourteenth, i.e. after 
the sunset of the thirteenth. This is very 
unlikely; but may the notion be so far 
adopted as to consider the whole of the 
twenty-four hours of Nisan 14 the statu- 
table time for celebrating the passover; 
so that the actual meal might be eaten at 
the beginning, as well at the commence- 
ment as at the close, without exciting won- 
der or being deemed a breach of the law? 
If provision was made in some cases, as 
noted above, for deferring the passover a 
month, it could not be deemed surprising 
if the latitude of a few hours was, on good 
reasons, allowed, merely different parts of 
the same day selected. And it will be ob- 
served that Christ seems to allege sucli a 
reason more than once. When he sent the 
disciples to prepare, he desired them to say 
'The Master saith, My time is at hand' 
(Matt. xxvi. 19), i.e. I have urgent affairs 
pressing me : I must take the first hour I 
legally can. And again, when sitting down 
with the twelve he gave them a kind of ex 




\ 











planation why lie b ad put liis meal so early, t 
• With desire I have desired to eat this pass- r 
over with you before I sufEer' (Luke xxii. c 
15). If this hypothesis he allowed, we see t 
that our Lord's meal preceded that of most 
of the Jews, yet that it was really and truly 
an eating of the passover, and with no 
transgression of the legal directions. ^ Ya- 
rious minor details cannot he examined 
here : and for further information on the 
whole subject the reader may be referred 
to Browne, Ordo ScBclor., part i. chap. i. sect, 
li. pp. 53-62; Robinson, Harm, of the Gosp , 
notes, part viil. §§ 133-158 ; Davidson, Introd 
lo New Test, vol. 1. pp. 102-109 ; Alf ord note 
on Matt. xxvi. 17-19 ; Horne, I^ifrogzfrf., edit. 
Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 475-478 ; Ellicott, Exst. Lect, 
lect. vii. pp. 322, 323. . ^ ^ 

Of course since the destruction of Jeru- 
ealeni and the overthrow of the Jewish 
polity the sacrificial offering has ceased. 
The mode, however, in which to this day 
the Jews eat the paschal meal so nearly re- 
sembles that which has been already detail- 
ed that it would be a mere repetition to de- 
scribe it at length. It will be sufficient to note 
some particular alterations and additions 
Three unleavened cakes are placed m one 
dish, a fourth being ready m case one of the 
?hree should be broken. Ii^^nothe^^^J^^ ^ 
is put a shank-bone of a shoulder of lamb, 
having a small bit of meat thereon, roasted 
quite brown on the coal s, and an egg roasted 
hard in hot ashes. The bone is to com- 
memoSte the paschal lamb ; and the egg 
to signify that it was to be roasted whole. 
Bes des the bitter herbs and sauce, there is 
a cup of salt water or vinegar, injnemory 
of the passage through the Red sea An 
extra cup of wine is always placed on the 
table for Elias the Prophet^vho is expected 
as the forerunner of the Messiah to visit 
them in course of the evening/ And 
just before the fourth cup of wme is filled 
all sit in profound silence, looking for the 
prophet's approach, the doors being set 
open for him ; and then Psal. Lxxi^- 6, 7, and 
Lam.iii.66 are repeated. And before the 
wine is drunk it is said, ' The year that ap- 
proaches, we shall be in Jerusalem' (see 
Mill's Srrtis7J.J"eu's, pp. 190-206). 

By the institution and continued od- 
servation of the passover there is the 
strongest corroboration of the reality of tfie 
facts which it commemorated. Ko man 
could persuade a nation to commence and 
perpetuate such an observance, if there 
were no truth to ground it on. Herein, as 
In so many other respects, the Jews are a 
proof of the credibility of the bible. , 

The symbolical and typical meaning ql 
this rite is full of interest. It was msti 
^Sed aV4 have seen at the deliverance 
from the bondage of Egypt; and the 
sprinkling of the blood of the lamb was £ 
IFgn andIn assurance of the preservatior 
of the Hebrew first-born, while those o 

Seir oppressors ^,f^«,,^f ,,the"bon' 
attendant circumstances, as tue naia ooii 
dage and the haste of the departure wer 
siSfied The celebration was, therefore, 
Btlnding memorial of the Lord's mercy am 
the Lord's power ; and we may well C91 
cefve the flowing triumph with whicl 


he pious Hebrew, questioned as to the 
neaning of such rites by his children would 
lescribe the wonderful works done of old 
ime for their fathers. But, besides the re- 
rospective meaning, the passover had also 
1 future aspect. It was to read lessons for 
the present and the coming time. It was 
to point to a yet greater deliverance, and to 
teach the befitting temper and purity of 
beart which God demands. These lessons 
are brought out by the apostle Paul, who 
speaks of Christ as ' our passover sacrificed 
for us,' and exhorts to ' keep the feast, not 
with the old leaven, neither with the leaven 
of malice and wickedness, but with the un- 
leavened bread of sincerity ^nd truth (1 
Cor V 7, 8). Thus then, as the lamb without 
blemish was selected, slain, and roasted 
whole, its blood being accepted as a propi- 
tiation, and all its fiesh being eaten by the 
household, so Christ, a pure and spotless 
victim, designated by his Father, was sacri- 
ficed for his people, not a bone of him was 
broken, for he was a complete offering, and 
his blood sprinkled is of precious power, 
and he is received whole and undivided'by 
his people's faith, who feed on him and are 
nourished thereby to salvation and eternal 
life. And, as bitter herbs were eateU; 
symbolizing the hard bondage of Israel, so 
the power of sin and the miserable capti 
vity in which it leads its victims will be 
felt by those who are taught to appreciate 
the Saviour's sacrifice. Bitter will be then 
grief, deep their repentance for what they 
have done amiss under the yoke of Satan. 
And, as all leaven was to be cleared away, so 
will he who partakes the benefit of Christ's 
atonement purge out and cast off every- 
thing which defiles and swells, fermenting 
and festering against the holy law of God 
In sincerity, and truth, and pureness he is 
taught to adorn his profession. And the 
presentation of the first-fruits, and the sa 
orifice of peace-offerings, may also have 
their meaning. The believer brought nigh 
by the blood of Christ has peace with God, 
whom now, in his new position, he regards 
as his Father reconciled, and he will pre- 
sent himself, the first and best, yea, all he 
has and is, a thank-offering, a living sa- 
crifice to the Lord. 

Such are some of the lessons which this 
holy feast inculcates. The reader may 
find them more fully drawn out by Dr. Fair- 
bairn (Typol. of Scrii^U book iii. chap. 111. 9, 
vol. ii. pp. 404-410). . , X * i 

PASTOR. A word equivalent to shep- 
herd (Eph. iv. 11). See Shepherd. It is 
used figurativelv for minister or teacher. 

PASTURAGE, PASTURE. TTe find it 
noted that the early patriarchs sowed and 
reaped an abundant harvest (Gen. xxvi. 12) ; 
but for the most part they are described as 
L possessors of flocks and herds, for which 
L they must provide pasture. Sometimes, 
t therefore, they had to travel far for con- 
' venient places. Thus Jacob's sons led their 

- flocks from Hebron to Shechem and Dothan 

- (xxxvii. 12, 17). Generally speaking, the 
i southern parts of Palestine and the neigh- 
^ bouring wilderness were well adapted for 

- pasturage— hilly ranges abounding m her- 
1 tage and shrubbery, or sandy plains, on 



665 



which during the moister parts of the year 
abundant food for cattle was produced. 

PAT'ARA. A large sea-port town of 
Asia Minor, to which St. Paul went from 
Rhodes (Acts xxi. 1). It was in Lycia, lying 
east of the mouth of the river Xanthus. It 
had a celebrated temple and oracle of 
Apollo. Considerable ruins of it still exist, 

PATHS' US (1 Esdr. ix. 23). Pethahiah 
(Ezra X. 23). 

PATH'ROS (region of the south, or the 
abode ofSat-her, the Egyptian -Venus). The 
proper name of what is said to be the na- 
tive land of the Egyptians (Ezek. xxix. 14). 
It is ordinarily used to signify a part of 
Egypt, viz. Upper Egypt or Thebaid (called 
by the Arabs Said), as distinguished from 
Mazor, Mizraim, Lower Egypt (Isai. xi. 11; 
Jer. xliv. 1, 15 ; Ezek. xxx, 14). The inhabi- 
tants of Pathros were one of the tribes 
descended from Ham, and are found in the 
genealogical list of nations, under the domi- 
nation of Pathrusim. Mr. R. S. Poole, in 
Smith's JDict. of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 727, 728, 
considers Pathros but a small part of Upper 
Egypt, and would trace the name in the 
Pathyrite nome. It may be added that he 
thinks it questionable whether Mazor or 
Mizraim is overused for Lower Egypt. 

PATHRU'SIM (Gen. x, 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 12). 
The people of Pathros. 

PATIENCE. A quality, or grace, some- 
times ascribed to God, who, out of his illi- 
mitable love, not willing to punish, bears 
long with men, and sends messengers and 
warnings (Gen. vi. 3 ; Jonah iii. 1), that his 
forbearance may lead them to repentance 
(Rom. ii. 4). The grace of patience in men 
is exhibited in bearing trial with meek- 
ness (V. 3, 4 ; 2 Tim. iii. 10), and in a sub- 
missive waiting for the accomplishment of 
God's promises (Rom. viii. 25 ; Heb. x. 36 ; 
James v. 7, 8). Patience must also be exer- 
cised by one man towards another (Matt, 
xviii. 28-34 ; 1 Thess. v. 14). 

PAT'MOS. A small island, one of the 
Sporades ofE the south-western coast of Asia 
Minor, about thirty miles south of Samos. 
It is a continuous rock, fifteen miles (accor- 
ding to Winer, Bibl.BWB., art. 'Patmus,' 
thirty Roman miles) in circumference, for 
the most part rugged and barren : the coast 
is lofty with many capes and several good 
harbours. The only town stands on a high 
rocky eminence rising abruptly from the 
sea : it contains about four hundred houses: 
there are fifty at La Scala, the landing- 
place ; and these may be said to be the only 
habitations in the island. In the middle of 
the town is the monastery of St. John, a 
massive building erected by the emperor 
Alexius Comnenus. About half-way up the 
mountain, between La Scala and the town, is 
a natural grotto, where it is said St. John 
had his apocalyptic visions. A small church 
is built over it. Patmos was a place to 
which persons were banished; and here 
St. John was exiled (Rev. i. 9), most probably 
in Dornitian's reign. See JoHisr, 2, Revela- 
tion, THE Book of. It is now called Pa- 
tino. 

PATRIARCH {head of a tribe or family) 
(Acts ii. 29, vii. 8, 9 ; Heb. vii. 4). By this 
word are now commonly understood those 



eminent persons who lived in the earlier 
ages of the world, specially before Moses : 
notices of them will be found under their 
respective names. 

The religious knowledge and worship of 
the patriarchs was of an incomplete and 
introductory type. Great truths were 
communicated to them, but not in their full 
development. For the teachings of God have 
always been of a gradual character, exer- 
cising the faith and patience of the church 
(xi. 13). But these fathers looked be- 
yond the transitory promises, and were en- 
abled to fix their eye on the future glory. 
Some notice of the principles they held 
may be found in Job, the Book of, which 
see. The longevity of the patriarchs must 
be conceded by those who do not deny the 
credibility of the scripture history. 

PAT'ROBAS (0716 who treads in his father's 
steps). A Christian at Rome whom St. Paul 
salutes (Rom. xvi. 14). 

PATBOC'LUS (2 Macc. viii. 9). The father 
of Meaner, an adversary of Judas Macca- 
beus. .. 

PAU(a bleating). A place in Idumea (Gen. 
xxxvi. 39) ; also called Pai (1 Chron. i. 50). 

PAUL (small). This eminent apostle, ori- 
ginally named Saul, was a Jew of pure He- 
brew descent, of the tribe of Benjamin, cir- 
cumcised according to the law when eight 
days old. He was born at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
and was by birth a free Roman citizen. 
Possibly his father or some ancestor had 
obtained the right for service performed, 
or by purchase : see Alford's note on 
Acts xxii. 28. He was taught, according 
to Jewish custom, a manual employment— 
that of tent-maker, i.e. the manufacturing 
of goats' hair cloth, commonly used for 
tents. But he was early sent to Jerusalem, 
where he was trained under the famous 
doctor of the law, Gamaliel (xxi. 39, xxii. 
3, 27, 28 ; Phil. iii. 5). Of his family we 
know nothing, save that he had a nephew, 
who detected a conspiracy against his life 
(Acts xxiii. 16-22). 

The future apostle appears first in the 
New Testainent history after the ascension 
of our Lord, being then a young man, we 
may suppose about thirty. He was attached 
to the stricter sect of Jews, 'a Pharisee, the 
son of a Pharisee' (6), and naturally, being 
very zealous for the law, he set himself to 
oppose the Christian doctrine. It has been 
questioned whether or no he was a member 
of the sanhedrim. There is some presump- 
tion that he was ; for he subsequently says 
that when the saints were put to death he 
' gave ' his ' voice against them' (xxvi. 10). 
If one of the council, he must have been a 
married man. But it is more probable that 
without being an actual member he was a 
trusted agent of the sanhedrim, carrying 
out with excessive rigour the persecuting 
measures devised under the authority of 
the rulers for extinguishing the religion of 
Jesus. 

At the martyrdom of Stephen, Saul wag 
present, the witnesses having laid down 
their clothes at his feet. Exasperated, it 
would seem, by Stephen's constjincy, Saul 
bestirred himself yet more actively : he 
arrested men and women in their owb 



PAUL] 



houses, lie bad tliem beaten syBa- 
frogues ; and, though no other death than 
that of Stephen isrelated in the ^li}s|ory, yet 
there must, have "been cases ni which capital 
punishment Tvas infdcted (Yii 58, ^i"- 1' 3, 
xxii 19, 20, xxvi. 9-11 ; Gal. 1. 13\ Saul was 
not content with what he could do at Jeru- 
'^alem. The riolence used had dispersed the 
infant church, hut, instead of extinguish- 
ing, it contributed to_ spread tlie go.pel 
more widely (Acts viii. 4, xi. 19-21) He 
re==olved, therefore, heing armed with let- 
ters from the high priest, to repair to Da- 
mascus, and there apprehend and carry to 
i Jerusalem those whom he found professing 

the faith of Christ (ix. 2). . . 

' But a crisis was at hand. We may imagme 
the ea^^erness with which the zealot pressed 
onwatds t'o the Syrian city. Perhaps the 
heiievers there knew not of their dang a , 
or perhaps It was whispered among then- 
circles that he who had been so rntule.s n 
Judea was on his way to them He a= 
coming : he was near : he was clo:=e upon 
the city-gate. He rode at the head of a 
companvr Escape was hopeless : resistance 
f£S S&t not^ffer. . It was at mid-^ch^ 
and the sun was shining m his stiengtl , 
when^uddeiilv a blinding light, more br 1- 
Uant than the'sun, burst forth ; and Saul in 
ter-or fell to the earth, while a strange 
voice addressed him in the Hebrew tongue, 
a gUmpse of the Speaker being Perliaps for 
a moment caught. The men otbispai y, 
Lo, saw the light ; and tl^^yheara the sound 
of speech but understood not what a as 
said. Then thrilling words reached his 
ear: 'Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou 
me ? ' In an agony of amazement, he a^ked 
who it was thai spoke. ' I am Jesus, whom 
thou persecutest.' It was true, then 1 the 
Crucified One, against whom he had been so 
I mad, and whom; thinking to do God service 
he bad reviled and blasphemed Avas^ 



..ghrhand"of' power. 'O wondrous fact I 
wks ever truth so utterly conf ounding to 
man's principles and P^'l^^'^i'^es as this 
.Te=u3 of Nazareth, the Son of God! T 1 o 
oiorv passed away ; and the voice was still. 
BuE, blind and helpless, Saul ^'f /aken up 
and carried into the city; and tov Unc-e 
days he ate nothing. Perhaps m that u me 
=ome communications were maae to his 
perturbed mind, for he prayed for mercy , 
^onie vision, peradventure, was shovai to ] 
Ihe inward eye; but those around coin d 
not instruct him nor console him ; till on 
tl c bird dav Ananias, a Christian, entered 
^ hou=e-it was in Straight street and 
belonged to one Judas-and, going up to .he 
mSate man, he laid his hands on him as 
he had been divinely directed, and said, 
'R-other Saul, receive thy sight. Then 
.fales fell from the eyes that had been 
c Sed : he sat up, he was baptized, he took 
meat and was strengthened; and speeaily 
who had come to destroy the church at 
Damascus preached the gospel there (3-22 
27 xxii. 6-16, xxvi. 12-20 ; l Cor. ix. 1, xa 8). 
^\Sre hardly ever was so ^vonc erfiil a 
revulsion of judgment. How was it ? ^^ hat 
ocSned it ? Was it a trick played upon 
th?pS?ecutor by those he came to harass? 
wL It ^^e weak fan^ of a fanatic? Or was 



it a tale devised to cover the resolution 

previou^lv taken of croing over to the per- 
secuted partv ? Kone of these supposition? 
wi'l account for the circumstances. Tou 
cannot doubt th« :^ict. For there are letters- 
extant bv the man himself, the authenticity 
of which not even the most determined 
^c"ptic can object to, in Avliich he refers to 
the chauG-e produced in him. It could not 
be with the expectation of worldly advan- 
tage For the followers of Christ were as 
ve^ a small and uninfluential body, unable 
to protect themselves from any outrage 
that bisotrv and malice might plan against 
1 li-Mn ^-Vnd Saul was already in high favour 
with the ruline party in church and state ; 
•iH the rewards which usually allure am- 
hitious men being most surely in his grasp 
oy pursuing his present career. And he 
V. as not an unstable man. Had he through 
any pique deserted the chief priests we 
should assuredly have found him vacillating 
and chanering sides on subseguent occa- 
sions. It^is useless to say that be was de- 
ceived bv trick. And to imagine tnat the 
vision was the figment of his own brain, or 
that he magnified some ordinary natural 
t.heuoinenon into a miraculous interpo- 
sition, would be to adopt a theory ^jii^ch a 
child might refute. The character of Paul, 
a^ described in the Acts, and to be gathered 
' from his own writings, utterly destroys 
'^uch a notion. The idea, that he who an- 
swered for himself before Agrippa, and 
iDenned the epistle to the Romans, was but 
a dreamv enthusiast, is perfectly prepos- 
terous' There is but one sound conclusion, 
then. It is that by the divine voice Saul 
was taught to recognize in Jesus of 2s aza- 
reth that Messiah for whom the ancient 
ceers had taueht the nation to look forward. 
Some minute philosophers, indeed, have 
amused themselves by picking out dis- 
crepancies between the various accounts of 
this remarkable event. On their principles 
anv man's life and letters laid together 
mi'^ht be pronounced antagonistic, and 
evervfact of most certainhistory proved to 
be 'unhistoric' These criticisms cannot 
e elaborately investigated here it needs 
but common sense to detect their woith- 
le^=ness ; and such books as Paley's Jfforcs 
Pcadince and Blunt's ^^'^'J^'^i>'\'f.^^^^^^^ 
dences, will satisfy any reasonable mind of 
I the harm onv of all that the sacred writers 
' have recorded of St. Paul. And, whenever 
through the course of his life we have a 
difficulty, it is no other than ^vhatftller 
l^nowledcre would enable us to solve. Ihe 
narrative, therefore, remains one of strong 
corroborative proof of Christianity. _ 

The date of Saul's conversion is variously 
fixed Some, as Browne (Ordo Sceclor., 
vlO'2), place it as early as the beginning of 
30 A.D.: Wieseler, on the other hand (see 
the chronological table at the end of his 
Chron.des Apost. Zett.), brings it down to 
40 A D. ; and others would place it stiillater. 
But of this somewhat more below. 

Divinelv commissioned, Saul began to 
preach in the synagogues of Damascus, for 
how louff we do not know : it is in one place 
' ai^a to be for ' many days.' But of course 
such a mighty revolution could not patr 



unnoticed ; and the Jewish rarty in the city- 
determined to put an end to the new con- 
vert's zeal. They toolc their measures well ; 
and it was only by being let down oyer the 
wall in a basket that Saul escaped the watch 
that was prepared to arrest him at the city- 
gates. He retired into Arabia, unless his 
sojourn there is to be assigned to the period 
immediately alter his conversion, for he re- 
turned from Arabia to Damascus. At all 
events, the time of preaching at Damascus, 
with the Arabian visit, and possibly visits 
elsewhere, was in all three years ("Acts ix. 
23-25 ; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33 ; Gal. 1. 17, 18). It was 
perhaps while in Arabia that the revelations 
of 2 Cor. xii. 1-4 were vouchsafed. 

And now he turned his face to the holy 
city. Three years, as just observed, had 
elapsed since he left it the agent of the high 
priest for persecution : he returned, parsc- 
f uted himself, the preacher of that faith he 
had so violently opposed. Little was known 
of him by the disciples whom he desired to 
join. They saw him last their haughty foe : 
they could not think he was now their 
friend ; and they shrunk from him, as if he 
had some covert purpose to ensnare them. 
But Barnabas, it matters not how, was ac- 
auainted with him, and was aware of his 
story ; and so he brought him to the 
apostles. Few of these were then in Jeru- 
salem ; only Peter, it would seem, and 
James. And Saul's stay was short, a single 
fortnight. For there of course curiosity 
and opposition would be roused; and his 
life was not safe. Besides, he had a divine 
intimation that his mission was to be more 
specially to the Gentiles. Accordingly the 
brethren hurried him away; and he went by 
Ctesarea to his birth-place. Tarsus (Acts ix. 
26-30, xxii. 17-21 ; Gal. i. 18, 19, 21-24, 

We cannot suppose Saul idle whilst at 
Tarsus : he no doubt embraced every oppor- 
tunity of preaching Christ ; and perhaps as 
his worldly prospects were blighted by his 
conversion he maintained himself here, as 
we know he did elsewhere, by wwldng at 
the craft he had been taught (Acts xviii. 3). 
But a larger field of usefulness was being 
prepared. The gospel had reached Antioch ; 
and the apostles at Jerusalem had des- 
patched Barnabas thither, who, delighted 
with the opening prospect, went to Tarsus 
and brought back Saul as his fellow- 
labourer; and for a twelvemonth the two 
diligently preached in that great city, where 
the name ' Christians' was first infixed on 
the disciples, then a word of reproach, 
afterwards most glorious as pointing out the 
Master w^hom they rejoiced to serve. Tlie 
fruits of faithful teaching were soon ap- 
parent. On the prediction of Agabus that 
there would be a famine, the disciples at 
Antioch raised a contribution for the relief 
of the Judean brethren, and sent as the 
bearers of it Barnabas and Saul (xi. 22-30). 
How long they continued at Jerusalem we 
do not knov/: probably it was no great 
time. But it is likely that wdiile they 
Vfcre there the martyrdom of James and 
the imprisonment of Peter by Herod 
Agrippa occurred. Returning to Antioch 
they took with them another helper, John 
Mark, the nephew of Barnabas (xii. 25). 



[PAUL 



There were many distinguished teachers 
at Antioch ; and hitherto Saul had ranked 
but as one of them, and probably not the 
foremost. His peculiar designation by the 
Lord himself was not unknown ; but it was 
not yet seen that hei was to stand forth a 
burning and a shining light, independent 
of men, at least the equal of any of the 
great apostles and pillars at Jerusalem. 
But now the Holy Ghost intimated that 
Barnabas and Saul must leave Antioch and 
deliver a testimony elsewhere. So the 
church fasted and prayed ; and hands were 
laid upon them, not to communicate au- 
thority, but as a formal designation to this 
particular mission. And they took John 
Mark with them and sailed to Cyprus, 
Barnabas's own country. Hitherto it had 
been 'Barnabas and Saul :' now it is almost 
exclusively, 'Paul and Barnabas.' For 
Saul among the Gentiles was PajUl ; and he 
was the principal speaker. In Cyprus he 
confounded before the proconsul a sor- 
cerer called Elymas ; and, wiien they re- 
turned to the continent, where at Perga 
John Mark left them, Paul preached at 
Antioch in Pisidia to the Jews in their 
synagogue ; and, as they contradicted and 
blasphemed, the two apostles boldly uttered 
the ominous words, to be ever afterwards 
the maxim of their work : 'It was neces- 
sary that the word of God should first have 
been spoken to you ; but, seeing ye put it 
from you, and judge yourselves unworthy 
of everlasting life, lo, we turn to the 
Gentiles.' The further incidents of the 
narrative, how they visited Iconium, and 
Lystra, and Derbe, how they were taken 
for gods at Lystra, Barnabas with his grave 
aspect being called Jupiter, and Paul with 
his fluent tongue being supposed to be 
Mercury, how Paul was stoned and left for 
dead, but, supernaturally perhaps, was re- 
stored to strength, how through several 
provinces the Lord was pleased to bless his 
message, and how churches were formed 
and pastors ordained over them cannot be 
particularly noted here. With glad hearts 
the apostolic missionaries returned to 
Antioch, and told out to the rejoicing dis- 
ciples there that God ' had opened the door 
of faith nnto the Gentiles.' For a while 
then they rested at Antioch (xiii,, xiv.). 

But there was fresh work for them. Meu 
came doAvn from Judea— Christians in pro- 
fession, but deeply imbued with. Jewish 
prejudice, and insisted on the necessity of 
circumcision for salvation. Paul and 
Barnabas opposed the dogma ; but so great 
was the importance of the crisis that it was 
deemed necessary to send the question to 
Jerusalem for solemn consideration and 
resolution by the apostles and elders there. 
Paul and Barnabas therefore wuth certain 
other delegates journeyed into Judea ; and, 
if this visit be the same with tliat he men- 
tions in Gal. ii. 1-10, a divine admonition 
was not wanting for it. Of Paul's more 
private communications with James, Peter, 
and John, of the attitude he assumed to- 
wards them in their hai-monious ai-rauge- 
njent, of his public address in the council, 
and his bold determination for Christian 
liberty in refusing to have Titus circum* 



Paul] 



668 



ci«ed, and of the decree adopted, notliing 
can 13 e Bere said. Paul and Barnahas re- 
turned with thankful hearts to Antioch, pro- 
claiming as they went the decision arrived 
at at Jerusalem, which they_ read m full 
Tssemhly to the chin-ch at Antioch gathered 
to receive them. They had been accom- 
panied hy Judas and Silas, who were con> 
missioned to confirm the account of jvhat 
had heen resolved on, and one of these, 
Silas, hecame afterwards the missionary 
companion of Paul (Acts sv. l-3o). 

For soon there was a disagreement be- 
tween Paul and ^arnahas ; and we toiow 
not whether they met again (36-41). it was, 
therefore, probably before this separation 
thlt Peter paid a visit to Antioch. For 
Barnabas was yet there at the time and 
was influenced by Peter's example to yield 
a point which would seriously have C9m- 
prmnised the purity of Christian doctrine. 
But Paul maintained his ground, and faith- 
fullv rebuked Peter for his vacillation ; and 
meekly did the elder apostle seem to have 
borne the reproof (Gal. ii. 11-21). 

Paul's second missionary journey must 
be verv briefly touched. He had proposed 
it to Barnabas, but on accouiit of a dis- 
pute about John Mark he took Silas as hi. 
Companion. His course lay through Syria 
aSd Cilicia, to Derbe and Lystra where 
Timothy, son of a Greek father and a He- 
irewmother, joined the party ; Paul having 
Sad him circumcised, that bo reasonable 
nffpuce might be given to the Jews, ihen 
g?fded bv the divine Spirit the apost e 
traversed Galatia, Phrygia, and Mysia 
to Troas. Here he had a notable vision. 
Not vet had he proclaimed the gospel m 
Europe. But a Macedonian seemed to cr> 
for help. It ^as the Lord's suggestion. 
?n from Troas the heralds of salvation 
crossed'^tS sea to 2seapolis and Philippi ; 
and there they preached the word of life. 
The conversion of Lydia, the cruel punish- 
ment inflicted by the magistrates on Paul 
and Silas, and the gaoler's baptism followed^ 
And herein Paul showed again his _inde- 
pendent spirit. He had l?een unjust y 
beaten, and yet he sang praises to God in 
thf pr son at midnight. Persecution he 
gladly endured for Christ's sake. But he 
felt it risht to make the magistrates 
ashamed of their conduct ; and they, so 
arbitrary one day, had to come the next 
Souch ng to the men they had abusea 
(Acts xvi.). Then Paul and Silas went 
through Amphipolis and Apollonia to Thes- 
salomcaand Berea ; and, disturbances being 
stirred up, Paul was by the kind care of 
Ihe brethren hurried off alone to Athens 
fxvii ) His address there would of itself 
Vtamp him as no common man. From 
Ath^Ss he repaired to Corinth where 
Timothy, whom he had sent from Athens to 
ihe°salonica,and Silas rejoined him. There 
he continued a year and six months, f ound- 
Lg and tendhig a noble church There, 
to5,he wrote his earliest apostolic letter 
the first to the Thessalonians (xviii. 1, 5 , 1 
The-J iii. 1-6), and no long time after the 
second. Subsequently he visited Ephesus ; 
but being anxious to be at Jerusalem at an 
Spproachfng feast, probably pentecost, his 



stay was short. From Jerusalem, he went 
bv Cfesarea to Antioch (Acts xviii. l-22\ A 
brief record remains of the journey thus 
completed ; but vast were the results of it. 
The apostle's faith and patience were sorely 
exercised ; vet he ceased not from his 
labours. He cheered the churches he had 
previously founded : he carried the banner 
of the cross to a fresh continent : he 
preached in licentious Corinth, in philoso- 
phic Athens, in luxurious Ephesus ; and it 
was on this journey that Christian bodies 
were gathered in so many cities, to whom 
afterwards those inspired letters were 
directed which have ever since been so 
choice a treasure of Christian doctrine. 
Labour indeed he did, and more abundantly 
than other teachers. 

It might be thought that he would now 
take rest. Years must be beginning to teU 
on him ; and the hardships he had endured 
had perhaps enfeebled him. But Paul would 
notrest on earth. Pest is in heaven. It was 
not long before he commenced his third 
mis-ionarv journey. Passing throngn GEiia- 
tia and Phrygia (23), he came as on his 
previous visit he had promised he wotiia, 
to Ephesus. His epistle to the Galatians 
was written after the visit just referred to, 
possibly from Ephesus. And in the last- 
named great city a marveUous work was 
accomplished. The deepest impression was 
made upon multitudes. Special miracles 
were perf onned by the hands of Paul ; and 
many converts gave the best proof of their 
cinceritv bv publicly burning their valuable 
unlawful books. The apostle's three years 
soiourn at Ephesus was brought to a close 
bv the great tumult incitei by Demetrius 
(xix ) But verv likely in this time he made 
short excursions elsewhere. Thus it is not 
improbable that he then visited Corinth: 
see C0EI^-THIAXS, The Epistles to the 
p 181 It was fi-om Ephesus that the first 
epistle to the Corinthians was written; the 
second after leaving Ephesus, when he had 
reached ^tacedonia. Thence he visited 
Greece proper, and from Corinth wrote his 
letter to the Romans : then, retracing his 
steps throu£?h Macedonia, he sailed from 
Philippi to "Troas. His preaching there, 
with the accident to Eutychus,his voyage to 
Miletus, where the Ephesian elders met him 
and received a most pathetic farewell, his 
fm-ther course till he reached Cresarea can 
be onlv alluded to here (xx., xxi. 1-S). In this 
la«t iournev much had been accomplished 
iirboth Europe and Asia. The settlement 
of the church at Ephesus, a centre of reli- 
gious influence for the Asiatic districts, 
was most important : abuses elsewhere were 
rectified; and during this portion of the 
apostle's life some of the most weighty of 
his letters, as above noted, were penned. 
Again we may say he was in labours most 
abundant. 4.1 „4. t,« 

It was with mourniul feelings that he 
ended this missionary tonr. He had told the 
Ephesians that they should see his face no 
more ; and at Ctesarea, in Philip the evan- 
gelist'^ house, Agabus from Judea warned 
him^hat if he went to Jerusalem his arrest 
was certain. Vainly did his company dis- 
i suade him with tears from prosecuting his 



I 



I 



- i 
? I 




669 



journey. The apostle, feeling as a man, was 
determined as a follower of Christ. ' What 
mean ye to weep and to "break mine heart ? 
for I am ready not to he bound only, but 
also to die at Jerusalem for the name of the 
Lord Jesus.' He went up, therefore, to the 
city and was received joyfully by the bre- 
thren and lodged at the house of Mnason, 
an aged man of Cyprus, who was of his 
company (9-17). 

The predicted storm soon burst upon the 
apostle. He had, upon the advice of James, 
joined in a legal ceremony, when, being in 
the temple, a riot was suddenly raised, be- 
cause it was fancied that one of his Gentile 
associates with whom he had been seen 
walking in the city had accompanied him 
into the holy house. The entire population 
were at once in uproar ; and, had not the 
Roman tribune hurried down with troops, 
Paul would have been torn to pieces. As it 
was, he was with difficulty rescued, and 
carried into the castle or tower of Antonia, 
from the steps of which he was permitted 
to harangue the crowd (18-40). At first, as 
he spoke in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic, he was 
listened to, but as soon as he related the 
divine command to him to go to the Gen- 
tiles the tumult re-commenced ; and the 
tribune, thinking him some demagogue, 
ordered him into the castle to be scourged 
that the truth might be extracted from him. 
This, however, Paul prevented by his claim 
of Ptoman citizenship ; which made the 
tribune tremble for the length to which he 
had already gone. Still he detained him, 
and the next day placed him before the 
Jewish council (xxii.). The details of his 
behaviour and treatment there, and how he 
was rescued from the villanous plot to as- 
sassinate him, and sent under a guard to 
Csesarea, are full of interest (xxiii.); but they 
cannot be given here. The active mission- 
ary was now perforce stationary. For two 
years he was kept in custody by the gover- 
nor Felix ; and the only incidents recorded 
of the period relate to the court held when 
the high priest and elders came down to 
prosecute him with a hired advocate, and 
the conversations he had with Felix, 
ose guilty conscience reproached him 
en Paul reasoned of righteousness, tem- 
perance, and judgment to come. Yet the 
a:^ostle was not altogether secluded: his 
friends might have access to him ; and 
d|)ubtless his converse instructed and com- 
forted many (xxiv.). Festus, who succeeded 
i^lix as governor, found Paul still a pri- 
soner. And, though so long a time had 
Pissed, the Jews were as eager as ever to 
have him condemned ; and, on Festus en- 
quiring whether he would go to Jerusalem 
f(jr formal trial, he exercised his right of 
aipeal, and transferred his cause to the 
hfcaring of the Ptoman emperor. Then fol- 
lowed his wonderful address before Agrippa, 
Bi forcible, so truthful, so persuasive, that 
tie governor and the king agreed that but 
f r the appeal, which removed Paul from 
1 cal jurisdiction, he might have been freed 
at once (xxv., xxvi.). 

Long before this the apostle had express- 
(i his intention of visiting Rome (xix. 21 ; 
] :om. i. 9-15, XV, 22-24, 28, 29). He had thought 



[PAUL 

of going thither at his own will : but he was 
to be carried as a prisoner to the imperial 
city. The history of the voyage is given 
with great minuteness by Luke, who was 
on board the vessel (Acts xxvii.) ; and it 
has been weU illustrated by Mr. Smith in 
his Voyage and SMpivreck of St. Paul. The 
officer in command soon perceived that he 
had no ordinary man under his charge ; and 
the calmness and faith exhibited by the 
apostle not only served for the preservation 
of the ship's company and passengers,whose 
lives the Lord in vision told him he had 
given him, but have also left a noble exam- 
ple for succeeding generations of the 
church. Cast on the island of Malta, at a 
spot which may yet be identified, now 
called St. Paul's bay, he was the mes- 
senger of blessing to the people there, and 
ultimately he arrived in Rome, cheered by 
the brotherly love of the Roman Christians 
who had gone far to meet him. The Jews 
there had not been apprised by those in Pa- 
lestine of the charges against Paul. They 
heard him, therefore, at first with less pre- 
judice ; and to them, so far as they would 
listen, and to the Gentiles he was permitted 
to preach freely. For after being reported 
to the captain of the guard, the celebrated 
Burrus, he was allowed to hire a house and 
live only under the charge of a soldier 
(xxviii.). And this continued for two years. 

At this period we lose the guidance of St. 
Luke ; and Paul's subsequent history is 
uncertain and disputed. During his en- 
forced stay at Rome he wrote letters to the 
Ephesian and Colossian churches, and also 
to Philemon, and probably later, when he 
was in stricter custody, to the Philippians. 
Moreover, if that to the Hebrews is from 
his pen, it must have been composed 
during his imprisonment. But then the 
question is. Was he ever released ? Ecclesi- 
astical history, which cannot reasonably be 
doubted, records his martyrdom at Rome : 
Did he return thither ? or was his death the 
close of this single confinement? Able 
critics maintain both sides of the alterna- 
tive. But after the fullest consideration 
it must be said that the evidence preponde- 
rates in favour of Paul's release, of extended 
further labours, of a second apprehension, 
and then of the martyr's crown. 

Mr, Browne argues very strongly that the 
pastoral epistles entirely forbid the suppo- 
sition of a single imprisonment : ' We 
know from the epistle to the Philippians 
that Timothy was with the apostle during 
part at least of one imprisonment : now, 2 
Timothy is addressed as to one who needed 
to be informed of the writer's situation and 
prospects. But suppose that imprison- 
ment to have lasted several years; so that 
Timothy was at Rome when the epistle of 
the Philippians was written, and then re- 
turned to Ephesus, whence, towards the 
close of the imprisonment, and in the 
near prospect of his martyrdom, St. Paul 
now summoned him by this second epistle, 
still how is this to be reconciled with the 
instructions about the cloak and books and 
parchments which were left at Troas with 
Carpus (2 Tim. iv. 13), and the inforniajtion 
at 20 : ' Erastus abode at Corinth ; but rro* 



PAUL] 



67C 



phimus have I left at Miletus sick ? ^en 
were tlie cloak and books left at Tiofs . 
Whv on tills liTpoilie=is, at latest \vlitn 
Panl s on liis way fi-om Corintli to Jeru^- 
leni (^cts XX. 6), at least three years before 
the efA e=t date that can he assigned to thi= 
ppi.tle A-aiu that Erastus ahode at Cormrh, 
ifti isrefei to St. Panl's final departure 
froni Corinth on that occasion (4), it was 

th?t Sine vo;4e left sick at Miletus, he- 
sWes^S^ inconlrnity and unineaningness 

of thus adverting ^?^ffo) It 

iipned oolong aso ' {Ordo Sa?c?., p. UO). it 
Siiv he added that Trophimus was not on 
?ie^upposed occasion left at Miletus; for 
he accompanied Paul to Jerusalem ; and it 
was Ills presence there that gave rise to the 
rumilt when Paul was appi;ehended .Acts 
^xi 29) lueenious attempts, it i= tiue, 
have heeu made to evade this objection: 
"hnr thev are not satisf acton. 

Theie ai^^^^^^ classes of critics ^l^o main- 
taSthat^heapostlewashutonceap^^^ 
nr Rome Some would deny the autneiiii 
WSie Pastor.1 epistle. Lut^^^^ 



confident anticipations, like those of any 
other man, were modified hy events nor 
did he in uttering them profess to speak by 
tie pi-oShetic spirit. For what can be said 
ir, favour of a single imprisonment the stu- 
dent mav consult Wieseler, Cliw^ol^s 
Jpost. Zeitalt, PP. 521-551; and David^oii, 
Introd.to New Test, vol. ii. PP. 98-106,^ ol. m. 
^fAhe whole, it is reasonable to believe 
from the considerations above stated from 
Sie mtei-r^il ch^^^ of the pastoral epis- 
t leV as well as from external not ces-a be^ 
iS'coi'roborated by ancient tradition-that 
St Paul was at liberty at a period suo:=e- 
QU-nt to the imprisonment mentioned lu 
the latter part of Acts, that he resumed hi 
fabom-s and preached again the |5^spel l.o.b 
in the east and m the we^t. \\e ma} 
^me measure tracehis course He vij^ed 
Asia and Greece (1 Tim. i. 3), reil ap. be 
nt FDhe^us more than once (i^ • 13 ' 
f 1?) He wSit to Crete, where he left Titus 
Ti? "i. Sfand intended to winter at ]Sicopo- 

bo^o^ifcr^ln^^^^^ 

jJSt^^^alone^yet^st^lyn^m^ 



euy ... ^J^^- aid^pJcUn| soon Ins a:^i ol 

can here be taken_of Jhe.e.^^Compe^^t 1 .^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^ 



Ms hJ?e ^il^ra^lhe-facl th^ I -g^teousuessat ^= i^^^^ess 
these pastoral epistles ^'e^e penned by S . ^^O^^^^^^ tell where 

Paul Dr. Alford, for example, carefully in- ^f^^/^^^^^^ to place them, whether 

vestigates the whole ciuestion, and come= \ chionologicauy ^^^re probably the 

L the conclusion that (1) 'External te.tr- ai^^^^^^^ reievved. to in the east. 

Sony in favour of the genumene.. i= .o J^l^f^.^j^'e^^ clement, his contemporary, de- 
SatMactory as to suggest no doubt on the ^.^^J' ^^^^^'"i.e pre iched to the bound of 
fonit of ?heir universal reception m the ; [^^%l^%ftTad Cor. b\ and other ear y 
iar est times. (2) The objections brought , ^^^^^ we t W ^^^^^ ^.^^^^^ g 

I^ai^^stthe genuineness by its opponents, , ^^ luei. d t^^^ jacobson's 
Si imemai grounds, are not adeqnate t ^^^^e ^^^nou^^ . 26), we can 

^?r iV^a=ide or even to raise a doubt on the , Patrc^ the fact. Some believe that 

ul;ct\'n%fair-^idgingnnnd'^C^^^^^^^ 

^^SS^Sics there are, who, ^^^^^^^1^^^^^^^^^ 
the authority of the pastoral epistle. =tm e ^^-Jj^?, ^ud supply generally .he 

h^'^f^ I e^^-ce on ^1.1.^-)- opUimn isj^ed. 

the' strong%>oint in favour 



^5'??^t^e^e i^ Sers iiis full cSnvic- 
feu "that they should see l^ij ff^ee no more 
c \rrs XX '^5) ; whereas, if released fiuin tne 
otftnafimprisonment, he visited Epl^esus 
a Alu But this really cannot be admitted 
fobe decisive; because if the apostle v> as 
i.pver released there were other assertions, 
Sv nearlS as confident, which must then 
aveleeTunfulfiUed. For example he pu^ 
1 osed and expected to visit bpam (Kom. xy 
if there were but one imprisonment, 

the?e were bit mie imprisonment he did 



sliil more cannot well be said than gciie- 
?a v?iatfsa?^ a visit is not impossible 
aid on panicular pares of the history we 
must not be conflaeur. -ponVq life is 

Thu- the chronology of bt. Paul a iu:e la 
vel-v xmcertain: the following table, hew- 
eve? mav noti,. -anuseful to the student. 
The 's^c6nd and third columns are var^^ 
tions of date according to Conybea e and 



111, 112. 



Paul's conversion . , 
First subseaueut visit to 

Jerusalem 
Journey to Antioch . 
Visit with Barnabas to Je- 
^ rusalem, and return to 
Antioch 
First missionary tour com- 
menced 



A.H. 


A.T>. 




35 


oG 




S8 




11 


42 


44 


43 


41 


45 




45 


43 




50 


51 




5-1- 







671 



MihU %nCiMtUQe. [PAULTJS SEBGIUa 



A.D. A.D. A.D, 

Arriral at Jerusalem . 58 
Arrival at Ptome . . 61 
Eelease . . . . C3 

Martyrdom (June 29) . 66 j^^f^g "Jg 

Of the circumstances attending tlie death 
of the great apostle scarce anything can 
be certainly known. We may v. cll believe 
that it was a day o± gladness to him. He— 
who had long before expressed ' a desire to 
depart to be with Christ ' (Pbil. i. 23), who 
had been ever pressing ' towards the mark 
for the prize of the high calling of God in 
Clirist Jesus ' (lii. 14\ who was little moved 
by the hardships of the contest, anxious 
only to finish his course with joy (Acts xx. 
24), who, as the tedious night of storm was 
passing off, could fix his eye with triumph- 
ant hope on the near brilliance of everlast- 
ing day (2 Tim. iv. 6-8)— he could not have 
dreaded the conflict with the last enemy. 
' The sting of death is sin ' ; and his sin was 
blotted out by the blood of the Lamb : 'the 
strength of sin is the law,' which his 
Surety had fulfilled: doubtless then he 
realized his own inspired exclamation : 
'Thanks be to God which giveth' me 'the 
victory through our Lord Jesus Christ' 
(1 Cor. xy. 56, 57). 

His last imprisonment is traditionally 
said to have been very difEerent from the 
mild coercion of the former. Iso longer in 
his own hired house, he is thought to have 
been confined in the Mamertine dungeon. 
It still exists, comprising two large apart- 
ments, built of uncemented stones, one be- 1 
low the other. Into this last (called the i 
Tiillianum, from the king Servius TuUus, ; 
by whom, as the story goes, it was construc- 
ted), accessible only through a hole in the , 
floor of the upper chamber, a place charac- ' 
terized by ancient historians as most foul ; 
and loathsome, the apostle was thrust, ho ; 
njan had stood with him on his trial ; but 
he was not alone, for his Lord was there 
(3 Tim, iv. 16, 17). From this dungeon he 
\fas dragged to Aqure Salvice, on the Ostian [ 
rpad, two" miles beyond the limits of the | 
Ijresent city, and was there beheaded. 
Glorious martyr! Doubtless fresh strains ; 
of gratulation poured from heavenly harps ' 
fhen Saul of Tarsus, a cliief of sinners, a 
cliief of saints, was borne by angelic minis- 1 
ters into the Everlasting Presence, there | 
1 0 receive his crown ; and wondrous sweet— | 
] lay fancy be allowed thus far ?— must have 
1 een the recognition of Stephen and Saul, { 
■ lie martyr and the persecutor a martyr j 
1 DO, as bound in the tie of indissoluble love ' 
hey together adore the grace of Him wdio 
: ath placed them near his throne to behold 
] is countenance for ever. 

Of St. Piiul's personal appearance tradi- 
tion has preserved some features. He is said 
Id have been short of stature, of strongly- 
narked Jewish type of countenance, to have 
] ad a long face with high forehead, an agni- 
i ne nose, a clear complexion; his beard being 
mg and thin, his head bald, Ids eyes grey, 
leneath thickly - overhanging eyebrows, 
Vith a cheerful and inviting expression, 
asily showing the quick changes of his 
eelings. Probably his body was disfigured 



by some lameness or distortion. But the 
characteristics of his mind are of yet 
greater interest. Ardent in disposition, 
with much tenderness of heart, he was 
fearless, determined, patient, courteous, 
and of honourable bearing, with clear 
logical grasp of truth, y,-hich he could 
illustrate with commanding eloquence ; 
and he united intellectual qualities of 
different kinds, impulsive zeal with prac 
tical good sense and a singleness of purpose 
which, in any walk of life, would have en 
sured distinction. How mttch more when 
all these natural endowments were sancti- 
fied and directed by the highest wisdom, 
even the guidance of God's Spirit, to the 
highest end. 

A meet vessel indeed— so made by divine 
grace — was this to proclaim the everlasting 
gospel. And faithfully did he bear the 
message. His lucid expositions of divine 
truth have always occupied a foremost 
place among the standards of Christian 
doctrine. Some, indeed, have chosen to 
represent him as inconclusive and vacillat- 
ing ; and some have dwelt upon the differ- 
ence in type of his teaching from that of 
other of the apostles. To the first charge 
only a decided negative can be opposed ; 
and to the alleged variation it must be said 
that different aspects of the same trutn 
may be presented without opposition, nay, 
that they must be presented if we would 
ai>prehend the whole. There was but One 
who could exhibit a complete picture, giv- 
ing to every part its due prominence, and 
leaving nothing to be supplied. "What the 
Master has done by a single touch the dis- 
ciples could do only in conjunction and by 
repetitions, each illustrating a part or pai'ts 
which, collected, forin a perfect image. 
Doubtless those who learned from them 
have often failed to combine their teach- 
ings ; and hence there have been divisions, 
one of Paul, another uf Apollo?, and another 
of Cephas. But this has been man's in- 
firmity : it was one Spirit that originally 
breathed in all of them his harmonious 
gifts. iSTone of the sacred Avrirers has more 
thoroughly illustrated the great Christian 
doctrine of the atonement than the apostle 
Pauh The work and offices of Christ, justifi- 
cation by faith in him, are prominent topics 
in his productions. And again and again 
does he break off from the main thread of 
his discourse to dwell upon the exceeding 
great love of his ^Master and only Saviour. 

His history and v.'ri tings furnish a proof 
not to be gainsaid of the truth of Christian- 
ity. If the facts of Paul's life be admitted 
—and how can they be questioned ?— it is 
clear that we have not been deceived, but 
that Christ did indeed die for our sins and 
rise again for our justification (Pom. iv. 25,). 

The various works of St, Paul are noticed 
under their respective headings. A large 
list might be given of writers who have 
treated on his life, character, and works : it 
must be sufficient here to name Conybeare 
and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul, 
and Paley'siforccPaztZivifc. Several editions 
of both these standard books have appeared. 

PAUL'US, SER'GIUS (Acts xiii. 6-12). See 

SeRGITJS PAULTJS. 



pavemekt] 



672 



See 



PAVEMENT (Jolin xis. 13) 

^PAVILION. We ordinarily use tliis wd 
to indicate a superior kind of tent. For 
the most part when it occurs in our version 
it is as the equivalent of a Hehrew term 
signifying a hooth, or hut, and frequently 
translated 'tent' or 'taheruacle' (1 Kmss 
12) The ' pavilion' of Psal. xxvii. 5 is 
an enciosure or covert. The word rendered 
'royal pavilion' in Jer. xliii. 10 means the 
ornament or tapestry with which a throne 
1? spread or decorated. See TE^'T. 

PEACE. A Christian grace (Gal. v. 22). 
The carnal mind heing described as ' enmity 
against God' (Rom. viii. 7), and men under 
the dominion of sin heing enemies (v. 10), 
he of his great mercy has proclaimed peace 
through the redemption effected hy Christ 
Jesus (Luke ii. U ; Acts x. 36 ; Eph. ii 17). 
Those, then, that are justified hy faith have 
peace with God (Rom. v. 1) ; and, as it is hy 
virtue of what Christ did and suffered that 
this peace is obtained (Col. i, 20), he is some- 
times caUed ' our peace ' (Eph. ii. 14), recon- 
ciling men to God, and forming them, once 
'jeparated and apart, into one united body. 
The word 'peace 'is often used to express 
temporal, and still more spiritual, prosper- 
itv It was a common form of salutation 
and blessing to say, 'Go in peace' (Exod. 
iv 18 ; Mark iv. 341, or ' Peace be unto you 
(Luke X. 5 ; John xx. 19, 21 ; Rom. i. 7). To 
ennuire after the peace of another was to 
ask if he was weU (Gen. xxix. 6, marg , 
xxxvii. 14, marg. ; 2 Kings x 13 marg.). 
\nd to die in peace described the happy 
3nd of God's servants CGeu. xv. 15; Isai. 
vii. 2 ; Luke ii. 29). 
PEACE-OFEERIXG. See OFFEnpGS. 
PEACOCK. A well-known bird, brought 
m Solomon's fleets to Judea (1 Kings x. 22 ; 
2 Chron. ix. 21). There seems no reason to 
doubt that the peacock, Paro crisiatus, is 
really here intended, though some critics 
have susrgested parrots, and others phea- 
sants. Peacocks are said to be great de- 
stroversof serpents in India even of the 
most venomous kind, which they will fear- 
lessly attack, confusing them with their 
rapid evolutions, and usually despatch with 
a blow upon the head. ' Peacocks is the 
rendering in our version of another word 
(Job xxxix. 13) ; but the female ostrich is 
meant : see Ostrich. . «^i.„f 
PEARL This substance is mentioned but 
once in our version of the Old Testament 
(Job xxviii. 18) ; but the word so translated 
There is more likely to be crystal: see, 
however, Carey, Book of Job notes, p. 328. 
Some have imagined that the rubies m 
the same place are pearls ; but this is que;=- 
tionable; and Lam. iv^. 7, where the same 
wordis found, seems to offer an msupei-able 
obiection. If, then, ' bdelhum (Gen. ii. 12) 
be not pearl, of which there is some pro- 
Mb?my\see BDELLir.1), the Old Testame^^^ 
writers do not mention it at all. In the 
Xew Testament, however, we repeatedly 
find pearls, put for jewels or precious things 
generally, or, possibly, wise saymgs (Matt 
lii 6) as choice and sought-for articles of 
costly merchandise (xiii. 45, 46 ; Rev. xyiii. 
12, 16), as used ornamentaUy by females (1 



Tim. ii. 9 ; Rev. xvii. 4). The gates of the 
heavenly Jerusalem also are described as 
each one several pearl (xxi, 21): see 
Winer, Bibl BWB., art. 'Perlen.' The 
mother-of-pearl shell is from the Avicula 
margaritifera, or pearl-oyster, belonging 
to the genus Avicida of bivalve mollusks. 
Fisheries of this are established in various 
parts of the world : the principal are near 
Cevlou. Cape Comorin, and in the Persian 
gulf Pearls hold a high place among the 
decorations of an eastern monai'ch. See 
Duns, BM. Xat. Science, vol. ii. pp. 607-610. 

PEL VHEL (whom God delivers). A chief 
of Kaphtali, appointed to superintend the 
division of Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 28). 

PEDAH'ZLR (whom the rock, i.e. God, 
delivers). Father of Gamaliel, prmce of Ma- 
nasseh (Numb. i. 10, ii. 20, vii. 54, 59, x. 23). 

PEDAI'AH (whom Jeliovali delivers).—!. 
The father of Zebudah, Jehoiakim's mother 
(2 Kings xxiii. 36).— 2. The father of Zerub- 
babel (1 Chron. iii. 18, 19).-3. Father of 
Joel, ruler of the half-tribe of Manasseh m 
David's reign (xxvii. 20).-4. One who helped 
to repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. in. 
25'! —5. A Levite (probable-) ,who stood by 
Ezra when he read the book of the law 
(viii. 4\ The person named in xiii. 13 may 
be the'same.-6. A Benjamite (xi. 7). 

PEDIGREE (Numb. i. 18; Ezra ii. o9, 
marg.; Neh. vii. 61, marg.). See Gene- 
alogy. , „ 

PE'KAH [open-eved:). The son of Rema- 
liah, a captain in Pekahiah's army who cori- 
spired against his master, slew him, and 
reigned over Samaria in his steadf or twenty 
years (758-738 B.C.), His conduct was evil : 
he maintained the sinful worship set up by 
Jeroboam I. In the latter pai-t of his reign, 
about the seventeenth year, he aUied hun- 
self with Rezin, king of Syria, agamst 
Judah, over whom he gained a great victory ; 
but he was himself attacked and his king- 
dom dismembered by Tiglath-pileser, king 
of Assyria. And then he was slam by ccn- 
spiratoVs headed by Hoshea, who afterwards 
obtained the crown ^2 Kings xv. 2o-38,_xvi. 
1-9 : 2 Chron. xxviii. 6 ; Isai. vu. 1-16, Tin. 6). 

PEKIHI'AH (Jeliovah has opened his 
eves). The son of Menahem, king of Israel. 
He succeeded his father and reigned 
wickedly two years (760-758 B.C.). He was 
murdered in his palace by Pekah, one of Lis 
officers (2 Kings XV. 22-26). 

PEKO'D (visitation, punishmentD. A 
name allegorically given to Babylon, per- 
haps in anticipation of her destruction tae 
citv to be visited and punished (Jer. 1.21, 
Ezek. xxiii. 23) : comp. Psal. cxxxvii. 8. But 
the meaning seems to vary m the two pas- 
sasres in which the word occurs. 

PELAI'AH (Whom Jeliovali makes diM-n- 
guished).-!. One of David's posterity (1 
Chron. iii. 24).— 2. One of the Levites who 
expounded the law, and sealed the covenant 
(Neh. viii. 7, x. 10). ^ • ; « 

PELALI'AH (whom Jehovah judges, ..e. 
whose cause he protects). A priest (Neh. 

^^PELATI'AH (whom Jehovah delivers).—!. 
One of David's posterity (1 Chron. iii. 21).- 
2 ASimeonite captain (i v. 42) .-3. One who 
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 22).— 4. A prince 



{ 



mme miameijQt. rPENTATETrrr, 


of the people, against whom Ezekiel wag 
commandecl to prophesy for his wickec 
counsel, and who died while the pronhel 
was speaking (Ezek. xi. l, 13). 

PE'LEG {divisionX One of the sons oi 
Eher (Gen. x. 25, xi. 16, 17, 18, 19 ; 1 Chron 
1. 19, 2o). His posterity may he supposed to 
have settled in various parts of Arabia De- 
serta. The expression, 'in his days the 
earth was divided,' has given rise to much 
conjectural discussion ; and it has heen 
imagmed that some literal disruption of 
the earth's surface then occurred. But it 
IS perhaps most satisfactory to adopt the 
explanation of Kalisch, who, tracing the dis- 
persion of the progeny of Arphaxad, says : 
From the boundaries of Armenia, his im- 
mediate descendants, the Salahites, spread 
(Salah) along the eastern side of the Tigris 
and on the mountains of the IMedian high- 
lands : a part of their population gradually 
wandered and settled beyond (Eber) the 
Tigris and Euphrates; whilst the chief 
stock of the latter, no doubt urged on and 
accompanied by a general commotion of 
nations, was the origin of extensive and dis- 
tant colonies (Peleg) in the wide tracts of 
Arabia, to the Indian ocean in the south, 
and the Mediterranean sea in the west 
(Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 278). 

PE'LET (deliverance).—!. One of Judah's 
posterity (i Chron. ii. 47).— 2. A Beniamite 
chief, who joined David at Ziklag (xii. 3). 

PE'LETH isioiftness).-!. A Reubenite 
(^umb.xvi. 1).— 2. A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 33). 

PEL'ETHITES (runners). (2 Sara. viii. 18, 
XV. 18, XX. 7, 23 ; 1 Kings i. 38, 44 ; 1 Chron. 
xviu. 17). See Cherethites. A writer in 
Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible doubts the 
etymology of the names given here, and 
conceives that the Cherethites and Pele- 
thites were of tribes kindred to the Philis- 
tines. Cherethim, probably Cretans, were 
employed as mercenaries by some Egyptian 
kings (vol. ii. pp. 766, 767). 

PELF AS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Perhaps a cor- 
ruption of Bedeiah (Ezra x. 35). 

PELICAN. The Felecanidce are a family 
of the Palmipedes ; including a variety of 
ewimmmg birds, pelicans, cormorants, &c. 
The genus Pelecanus comprises many spe- 
cies. The pelicans are large and heavy 
birds, with a great extent of wing, and are 
excellent swimmers. Their expansive pouch 
Will hold a considerable number of fish : in 
It they dispose of the superfluous quantity 
taken during fishing expeditions, for their 
own future consumption, or the nourish- 
ment of their young. The male, too, is 
Baid to supply the wants of the female when 
Eittmg. In disgorging the contents of the 
pouch, the under mandible is pressed against 
the neck and breast; and during this action 
the red nail of the upper mandible, it would 
6eem, comes in contact with the breast: this 
probably is the foundation of the fable that 
the pelican feeds its young with its blood 
[The neighbourhood of rivers and lakes, also 
Bea^coasts, and marshes are the haunts of 
pelicans. Burckhardt describes them as 
^bounding m Idumea. The Pelecanus ono- 
crotalus, common pelican, and the Pelecanus 
^nspus, are common in Palestine and the ad- 


3 jacent countries. The general aspect of this 
I bird is said to give the notion of thought- 
fulness or melancholy. The Hebrew term 
tor It signifies 'vomiter,' most probably from 
Its disgorging what it has swallowed. It 
was forbidden as food (Lev. xi. is • Deut 
7ll:^.^^'■ Psal. cii. 6 ; Isai.xxxiv.il ;" 
>5eph. 11.14: m the two last-named places 

J-r®y^^°^ ' cormorant ' in the text). 
r./^^ ^I^^'^' designation of some 
ot David s warriors, of which the origin is 
unknown (i Chron. xi. 27, 36, xxvii. 10). Sea 
Paltite, and comp. Palmoni 

PELU'SIUM (Ezek. xxx. 15, 16, marg.). 
The Greek name of Sin, which see, 

PEN (Judges, V. 14 ; 3, John 13 and else- 
where). See Writing. 

T ^^k"?^ ^^P'^ ^-^ The place where 
Jacob had his mysterious conflict: he 
wrestled through the night; and, though 
the might of his antagonist was manifested 
by a touch upon Jacob's thigh, yet the pa- 
triarch had power with God, and prevailed • 
at day-break he received a blessing ; and 
his name was changed from Jacob to Israel, 
from the sujjpkmter to the prince of God 
(Gen. xxxii. 24-30). The spot must, in all 
probability, have been to the south of the 
Jabbok From early times it had a tower 
or castle called Penuel : this tower Gideon 
destroyed (Judges viii. 8-17) ; and the city 
was afterwards re-built or fortified by Jero- 
boam L (1 Kings xii. 52). ^ 

PENIN'NAH (coral). One of the wives of 
Elkanah, the father of the prophet Samuel 
(i bam. 1. 2, 4). 

PENNY. PENNYWORTH. The Roman 
denarnis (Matt. xx. 2, 9, 13, xxii. 19 ; Mark 
Z]- 11' ^l!- -5 ; I^'^^ke XX. 24 ; John vi. 7 ; Rev. 
\i. 6). See Denarius, Monet 
thP^m7A^^^>!^^,' Tlie name by whicn 
the flist five books of the Old Testament, 
commonly ascribed to Moses, are collec- 
tively designated. The word is of Greek 
origin, implying five books or volumes. In 
scripture various appellations are given to 
the Pentateuch, such as 'the law,' ' the law 
of Moses,' ' the book of the law of the Lord ' 
..^•'o*^^- ^'^eut. xxviii. 61 ; 2 Kings xxii. 8, 
11 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 9, xxxiv. 14, 15 ; Neh. viii. 
' i'.^i -^^^^.^ and elsewhere); 
flil '^^i^^^ rabbins it is termed ' the flve- 
flj-ths of the law.' It forms to the present 
aay but a single roll or volume in the Jewish 
manuscripts, distributed into 54 larger i 

sections, and into 669 smaller 
ones, called open or closed, according aa ' 
they commence respectively at the begin- I 
ning or m the middle of lines. It is not 
agreed when the five-fold division was ' 
made. Some scholars consider it original: i 
others would attribute it to the Alexan- 1 
drian translators. It is at any rate of great 1 
antiquity; for It is mentioned by Josephuj; 
(Contr. Apion., lib. i. § 8). 1 
The authorship, date, integrity, and credi- 1 

iceenly discussed. It is only a compendious 
account of the discussion that can be given 
m the present work. The observations to 
be made shall be ranged under two heads 
— (1) the Mosaic authorship; (2) the truth- 
fulness of the record. 
1. The current of external evidence U 



very ^tvoiislv in favour of the Mosaic 
auttioi-ii?. Tliat great la^-giver is said 
to have Sen ' learned in all rHe .visdom of 
the Eevptians' (Acts vii. 22). ^ow it i= , 
notorious that the art of ^"n t mg was kno.M. , 
and was contimially practised EgH t 
prior to the time of Moses ^?f' f^/' 
confirmation of this fact, Dr. Bartlett m 
w T^f^n^T «?7rrr Oct 1863, p. ?03, cited ahore, 
f 60?'^? was'^aUxig such a people that 
Ho=es was reared, and in such wisdom he 
mSt hive heen trained. When, then, the I 
Srrriiig events of the exodus occurred, 
When a nation was to he organized laws to 
be promulgated, and customs to /.ta - 
lished, it is a moral certainty, apart irom 
the consideration of any divine coiM^ 
tliat such a man would take caie to lo.io- 
nicle passing events, and to have his laws a 

i '''pprf?ct?v^-easonahle, therefore, are the 
! no^ci^wIncTwe flf the Pe—h 
1 it=e]f (Exod. XTii. 14, XXIV. 3, 4, 7, xxxn . 
' 27, 28 ; I^umh. xxxiii. 2 ; Deut. i. 5_, xvii 18 
vvvili xxxi 9-11, 22. 24-26 , which go to 
' ^Sow that Moses was in the hahit of com- 
' mi?tin- thin^rs to writing, for preservation 
to S^ceeclini age^^^ Some of these notices, 
ndeed, refer to particular historical events, 
or to a compendium of laws. But others 
?m-nish a strong Pi-esumirtion that the 
entire Pentateuch was ^^^tended Thus, 
when it is said that ' the hook of the la^ 
was io he placed heside the ark of the cove- 
nant (26), a natural conclusion i= that thij, 
was the complete roll. So, when, t^ie ' la ^ 
was ordered to he read to the people at the 
feast of tahernacles (9-11), jt cou d hardly 
he a mere fragment. Tne Jews, it is tuie, 
have a notion that Deuteronomy a one was 
meant But when the reading is afterwards 
1 nenUoned we fiud tluat precepts from Levi- 
ticus were rehearsed (^eh. vm. 14, lo) Be- 
cuip=; the length of time devoted to thi^ 
^ relcUng was several hours a day for eight 
I dav^ Less than the entire Pentateuch 
' ^vould not have lasted so long. 

If we pass to the following hooks of the 
Old Testament we have a chain of evidence 
for the existence of the Pentateuch Thei e 
a?e several notices in Joshua of ' hook 
of the law,' sometimes expressly called tl e 
lo w of Moses ' (Josh. i. B, viii. 30-32, 34, xxiii. 
6 xxiv.26). And that such a volume con- 
i tiuucd to exist, and was often f^PPea^^^ 

the following references will pr9ve (1 Kings 
\ ii 3 viii 53; 2 Kings xi. 12, xiv. 6, 
i xxii 8 10 11, 16, xxiii. 24, 25 ; 1 Chron. xvi. 40, 
xxii 12;i3; 2 Chron. xvii. 9. xxiii lS,xxv 4, 
^xx 16 xxxi. 3, xxxiii. 8, xxxis\14, 10,16,18, 
04 30 XXXV. 6. 12. 26 ; Ezra iii. 2, vi. 18, 
viie • Veh.i.'?, 8, viii. 1-3, 5, 8, 14, 15 18 ix'. 
3 X 34: 36, xiii. 1-3 ; Dan. ix. 11, 13 ; Mai iv. 
4^ ^ 'Tlie testimony may he traced still fai- 
tlier For, though soon after the return 
fvSn captivity the Spirit of prophecy ceased, 
vet there were Jewish secular writers of cre- 
d?t who preserved and carried ori-the record 
which they had received from theirfathers 
? iev bear witness to the existence of the 
book in their days, and to the tact that it 
was attr nued to Moses. Proofs have been 
S?e where (-ee Canon of Scripttire, p. 134 ; 
and comp. .110) produced from the Apocry- 



I pha and from Josephus, and they need not 
i be repeated here. But it is necessary to 
advertTo the mention of the Pentateuch 
and of Moses as its 
■ Isew Testament. For this the following 
passaijes may be examined: Matu. > 
Mark X. 3-5, xli. 19, 26; Luke xyi. 29, 31, 
xxiv 27, 44 John i. 45, V. 46, 47, vil. 19, Till. 
5; Acts iii. 22, XV. 21, xxvi 22, xxvm. 23, 
Bora X. 5 : 2 Cor. iii. 15 ; Heh. vn.. 14. 

Scarcelv for any other ancient hook can 
such a continuous line of witnesses he pro- 
duced. It is indeed alleged that they are 
not all relevant, that the law-hook, so cahed 
? t he earlier, is not identical with the law- 
Sok (acknowledged to he the Pentateuc 1) 
of the later, that it Is by a series of accie- 
tions that some fragmentary original grew 
nto a volume. The burden of P^of ^}^ay 
we-.lhelaid upon those who maintain th s 
hvpothesis. And historical proof they hav 
noSe: their theory , is based on ceitam 
internal characteristics, which they think 
etoken a less remote age than that which 
must he claimed for the Pentateuch if it 
was really the work of Moses. „^ 
Let this for the present pass. Attentioii 
must be called to the mode m which _Chii=>t 
speaks of the Pentateuch. Some indeed 
object to this witness hemg produced. It 
? iiardto say why. If Clirist Yi^'^r^^V'' the 
ordinarv writer; were he only like the 
Jewish historian Josephus, no man would 
dream of putting aside his testimony It is 
hard to see why, because he is ^vested 
with a higher character ^^?,cause he is the 
founder and teacher of the new dispen- 
sa?fonrbecause he speaks with an authority 
which no mere man can claim, his juo^- 
ment is not to he appealed to. Surely, if ^ve 
wait to decide rightly d^^Pf^f.f f^^l 
we ought to avail ourselves of all tne _evi- 
dence which can in any way hear upon it. 

But Then our Lord's evidence is repre- 
sented as not so very conclusive. It can 
no be denied that the Pentateu(J in h 3 
hands was the Pentateuch we have ; hut it 
is alleged that he was not better acauamted 
wi? 1 i!s origin than other Jews of us time 
or that he spoke in accommodation to 
Jewi^=h notions, or that, when he referred 
to Moi? as ?he author, he did not refer to 
th e entire book. We are gravely warned to 
hewai-e of trenching on the truth of.CXinst'g 
pSect manhood if we ascribe to him more 
&an nie ordinary knowledge o^^^^e men 0^ 
his dav : just as if we should not be^.rencll- 
i g onthe truth of his Godhead if we did 
ot ascribe to him far higher knowledge 
111 fact, to put the matter on the lowest 
oround if Christ were unable to detect 
vimt modern critics declare to be so patent 
to their eves, if he were misled m at- 
ti^DUtiug to Moses laws which Moses never 
finned and prophecies which Moses never 
ut ered,?herS can surely he little depend- 
ence Placed on his o^vn fitness as a teacher, 
Stle reasmi to bow to the authority of the 
gospef dispensation which Promulgated 
and based upon the earlier record. Of tnis 
further use will he made. At present it 
niust be enough to refer to Porter's Pc/i- 
Zeth and m Gospels, 1864, in ^^ch our 
Lord's testimony to Moses is amply vindi- 



675 



[PENTATETJCH 



cated, and to some sensible observations 
by bp. Browne in The Pentateuch and the 
Mohistic Psalms, lect, i,, pp. 10-15 : see also 
a very excellent summary of the external 
evidence for the Mosaic authorship by Dr. 
Bartlett, uhi siqn:, pp. 811-840. 

Besides the direct evidence, there are va- 
rious collateral proofs of the antiquity of 
the Pentateuch. Thus the whole body of 
the later writings of the Old Testament is 
in accordance with what we find therein. 
The customs of the Pentateuch are ob- 
served, the laws of it are acknov/ledged, the 
history it details is referred to, its phrase- 
ology colours the style of every Hebrew 
author. It would be very difficult to ac- 
count for this, if the book itself wer-enot at 
the time in existence, if there were merely 
some floating traditions or unauthorized 
documents,which were not till a later period 
formed into a collected consistent v»'hoIe. 
It is not merely that, as has been shown, 
there is distinct mention of alaw-book, but 
the rest of the Old Testament is, so to speak, 
impregnated with the Pentateuch. Detailed 
proof of this obviously cannot be produced 
here ; but ib has been gathered by various 
critics, and may be seen drawn out at some 
length in Home's Introduct., vol. ii. edit. 
Ayre, pp. 598-603. Of course exception is 
taken against many of the presumed al- 
lusions. It is said that the number of them 
is exaggerated : it is affirmed, by a cool l)eg- 
ging of the question, that the fragment- 
ary parts of what afterwards became the 
Pentateuch furnished ground enough for 
all these references. Little notice need be 
taken of such allegations. But there is 
much more to be said. There are archaisms 
in the language of this book which are 
for the most part wanting in other 
1 looks of the bible. These archaisms run 
through even those portions, Deuteronomy 
may be instanced, which are frequently 
called most modern. The fact cannot be 
denied, even by critics like Hupfeld, nor can 
it be evaded by his childish supposition 
that the author or editor was possessed with 
a wonderful passion for uniformity, or had, 
mayhap, a fancy for imitating the phrase- 
ology of old books (see Home's Introd. 
p. 005 ; and Bartlett, uM supr., pp. 841-844, 
for various examples of archaic phrase- 
ology). Then, again, there is the use of 
Egyptian words, of which some became in- 
corporated into the language, while others 
subsequently disappeared. This fact, of 
which Bartlett produces examples (pp. 844- 
84G), is reasonable enough on the ground of 
the Mosaic authorship, but is not readily to 
be explained on any other hypothesis. Still 
farther, a vast deal of Pentateuchal legis- 
[lation is suitable to the wilderness life of 
the Israelites. There are statutes for their 
|then circumstances and position, v/ith pro- 
spective changes and modifications in re- 
gard to their future residence in Canaan 
(e.g. Numb. xv. 1-31 ; Deut. vii. 1-5, xii.). It 
is unreasonable to believe that these 
[things were devised by a later writer. 
Stronger, if possible, is the evidence of 
progressive legislation. God treats his 
creatures as sentient reasonable beings. He 
lets thein find out their wants, and make 



application to hira for their supply, go the 
daughters of Zelophehad conceived it hard 
that their fathers house should lose name 
and inheritance because he had no son ; and 
therefore it was pi'ovided that daughters 
should inherit. Subsequently, the tribe of 
Manasseh objected that, by the unrestrained 
marriage of heiresses, an inheritance might 
pass from tribe to tribe ; it was provided 
therefore that such should marry only with 
their own tribesmen (Numb, xxvii. l-ll, 
xxxvi. 1-12). It was natural to chronicle 
these things as they happened : it is pre- 
posterous to suppose that they were de- 
vised centuries after they are said to have 
occurred (comp. also Exod. xii. 3, 6, 25: 
Nuinb. V. 1, 2, ix. 1-18). Add to all this the 
fact that in tlie Pentateuch there is no dis- 
tinct enunciation of the soul's immortality. 
' But if we read from Genesis through the 
history, the devotional poetry, the prophe- 
tical utterances of scripture, we see an or- 
derly development. The future world, dis- 
tant and darkly hinted at first, draws nearer 
and nearer : the veil is gradually lifted ; and 
flashes of the inner glory shine more 
brightly forth. So that David could gaze 
upon the path of life, and anticipate the 
pleasures at God's right hand for evermore; 
while the prophets describe exuitingly the 
spiritual and endless magnificence of Mes- 
siah's salvation. All is in order— the chui'ch 
a,dvaucing, God's purposes ripening, as the 
ages rolled on. But now put the Penta- 
teuch in the time of the prophets, even in 
David's time, and you have a'vast anomalv. 
A compiler, sitting down then to construct 
the guide-book of tlie nation, the laws and 
tiie ordinances and the covenant, even if he 
had used older documents (and these older 
documents are placed by the new critics 
very late), could not have thrown back liis 
miud, and have shut out that blessed light 
which was glowing around him. It is im- 
possible to account for the phenomena of 
the Pentateuch in regard to the great doc- 
trine of the soul's immortality, if you bring 
down its composition to a late period' (see 
Home, tibi supr., pp. 605, 606). 

There is no growth of law and legislative 
enactments after the settlement of Israel 
in Canaan. In the history of other states we 
find this growth ; nay, we may see it dui-ing 
Moses' life-time as the circumstances of his 
people changed. Why was there no subse- 
quent advance? Why, rather, on the con- 
trary, are there laws remaining in the 
statute-book, the strictness of which— the 
punishment decreed against adultery is an 
example— had ceased? Surely, if a com- 
piler in the time of the Judges or the kings 
— such is the allegation of certain critics 
—had for his own purposes reduced old 
documents Into a code, he would have 
been succeeded by others who would have 
tried to improve upim his labours. But we 
find no trace of this. Not even did David or 
Solomon presume to make new laws. They 
accepted those already existing; and in the 
revivals and reformations of later kings, 
directed and aided by prophetical men, wo 
find only the ancient authority re-asserted 
—the regulations not going beyond the or 
derly assignment of the already-prescribed 



PENTATEUCH] 



^\)t €xtKinvVi at 



676 



duties of priests and Levites. In what 
time could a compiler live vrho could so fix 
tlie wliole worship and polity of the nation ? 
—in the disturhed period of the judges, 
when there was hardly ever a central go- 
vernment, and separate tribes made sepa- 
rate wars uncontrolled, and suffered under 
separate captivities? in Saul's reign? who 
can helieve that ? in David's or any of his 
successors? we should have had particular 
notice of the fact then. It is hard there- 
fore to fix on any date for the Pentateuch 
save that to which it has by the voice of 
ages been ascribed ; and almost as well 
might we imagine the Kew Testament 
^vritten in medieval times as, taking all 
the circumstances into consideration, the 
Pentateuch in the later days of Israel's 
history. , 

Besides, look at its particularity, consist- 
ing a very large part of the last four books, 
of Vords distinctly said to be uttered by God 
to Moses, or by Moses to the people. Wlio 
could chronicle these ? They must have 
been recorded at the time, or else they 
must have been dictated by special revela- 
tion to some later prophet. Will the modern 
critics accept the latter branch of the al- 
ternative ? If not, they must have another 
offered. A subsequent author must have 
devised mainly from his own mind those 
sacred conversations, those authorita- 
tive utterances which are presented to us 
with surh minuteness as the very words of 
God Some have actually embraced this i 
theorv, and have fixed on the prophet I 
Samuel as the guilty man. For guilty, m 
spite of all the explanations offered, he must 
be called, who dared to publish as the very 
words o£ God what God never uttered. The 
^in of Hananiah (Jer. xxviii.) was not so 
deep : the presumption of Korah (Xumb. 
xvi.) was not so daring. 

Such is a verv compendious sketch of the 
evidence direct and indirect for the Mosaic 
authorship of the Pentateuch : it is neces- 
saiwnow to see how far it is neutralized by 
the* objections which are commonly made 
to such a theorv. These objections are 
taken mainly from internal phenomena. 
They are grounded on the use in these 
writings of different divine names, on 
alleeed variations in the style, on imagined 
repetitions, and discrepancies, on the as- 
sumed improbability of Moses writing cer- 
tain parts, on the traces of several hands 
throughout the work, on the supposed in- 
troduction of topics and events reasonably 
thought to be posterior to the age of 
Moses. Let it be at; once admitted that there 
can bene objection to the freest exami- 
nation of these and kindred matters, 
provided it be conducted in a reverent 
spirit Truth, even if it involve the relin- 
QUishing of long-cherished prejudice, must 
fearlessly be accepted. But then we must 
not be overborne by confident assertion, 
even though it be made by men of greatest 
erudition, whose knowledge of the Hebrew 
language, in spite of the paucity of its re- 
mains is so comprehensive and so delicate 
that they can strike out every word or phrase 
which Moses would not have used, whose 
Judgment can decide exactly what Moses 



ought to have written, whose privilege, too» 
it is to vary from one another and call It 
unanimity, nay, individually to maintain 
different opinions at different periods, and 
to require the same deference to be paid 
to each. 

Let us look at what they allege. 
The Pentateuch is not a whole from a 
sinele hand. Floating suspicions of this 
kind had been long entertained. Writers, 
both Jewish and Christian, were inclmed 
to b-^lieve that earlier documents were in- 
corporated. This is what we find not unfre- 
auentlv in other books of scripture. The 
decree* of Cvrus, for example, was obtained 
from what we may call the state-paper office 
at Ecbatana (Ezra vi. 1-5) ; and the gene- 
alogies in the Gospels (Matt. i. 2-16 ; Luke 
iii. "23-38) were copied, there is no doubt, 
from carefully-preserved records. But two 
names, it was observed, were given to the 
Deitv. Tertullian, Augustine, Chrysostom 
noticed this. It was not, however, till the 
middle of the last century that Astruc, a 
Belgian phvsician, ventured to mark out by 
this rule the documents which he supposed 
had been employed. In a work published 
in 1753, Conjectures sur les Memoires origi- 
naux dont il paralt que Ifoyse s'est serm 
pour composer le litre de la Genise, he main- 
tained that Moses had compiled Genesis 
from two principal documents, in which 
the names Jehovah and Elohim were re- 
spectively used, with additions from ten 
others of inferior importance. It was con- 
cluded from Exod. vi. Sthat the name Jeho- 
vah was unknown to the ancient patriarchs, 
and that therefore the introduction of this 
word in earlv history must indicate a writer 
diverse from the one who used in his early 
description the name Elohim. From these 
two words the supposed two writers have 
been called the Elohist and the Jehovist, 
Here then is a principle according to which, 
it i« said,the Pentateuch may be distributed. 
But this is not the only, it is not always 
an exact, criterion. There are other marks. 
Thus the Elohist is more simple and cir- 
cumstantial in his style, with less polish. 
He abounds with repetitions, and -is fond of 
introducins genealogical and ethnological 
registers. He uses many words and phrasea 
foreign to the Jehovist ; who also has his 
peculiar phraseology. The style of the 
latter is more compact and shorter, also 
more smooth and clear. He frequently 
cites proverbs and snatches of old poetry: 
he describes appearances of angels and Ol 
the Deity, and is careful to magnify his 
own nation. 

It is bv such indications that vanoris 
scholars *have attempted to divide the 
Pentateuch, ascribing each portion to, as 
they think, its suitable owner. But unfor- 
tunately they have not been successful. 
For, if tables are made out of their distri- 
butions, these are found marvellously at 
variance. Such a table is given in Horue's 
Introd. (,xibi supr., p. 551), where De Wette, 
Tuch, and Sttihelin are shown to disagree 
And the disaarreement does not end here. 
Some inultip^ly, and some diminish, the 
number of original writers. Some are con 
tent with an Elohist and a Jehovist, on? 



^Mt %mMtiSQt. [PENTATEUCH 



677 



who produced the ground-document, and 
another who supplemented and completed 
it. Some must have an Elohist, a Jehovist, 
and a final editor. Others require two or 
more Elohists, or two Jehovists. Some in- 
troduce a Deuteronomist. Some consider 
one document complete in itself, and some 
another; while others will not a'llow that 
any is complete, so that the editor according 
to their notion worked from a mass of 
fragments. And these different writers are 
assigned to all possible ages, from the time 
of Samson to that of Jeremiah. It must 
not be thought that these statements are 
exaggerated. There are more diversities 
on the different points among critics of 
name than can possibly be here enumerated, 
as may be seen by any reader who will take 
the trouble to turn to Dr. M'Caul's Essay in 
Aids to Faith, pp. 190-193, or to Bartlett, iibi 
8upr., pp. 853, 854. ' It is self-evident,' says 
Dr. M'Caul, ' that criticism leading to such 
inconsistent conclusions must be in a high 
degree imaginative : a little examination 
shows that it is also unreasonably arbitrary.' 
Very often, for instance, a passage has to be 
cut up into fragments, because the word 
Jehovah appears just where it should not. 

But these two names of Deity are not 
synonymous. They imply different notions. 
What then if they were introduced, not ac- 
cording to the varying custom of individual 
writers, but because the use of one or other 
suited best with the scope of the passages 
in which they respectively appear ? There 
are scholars of the highest name who think 
they can trace such a propriety of use. And 
it is very similar to what we find in the 
New Testament. The names Jesus and 
Christ, though we now through familiar 
habit employ them indifferently, have each 
a special signification ; and generally in 
the earlier books the change of one for an- 
other would obscure and confuse the sacred 
writer's meaning. In regard to the deriva- 
tion and meaning of the names Jehovah 
and Elohim something has been said else- 
where : see Jehovah. And it may be 
added here that it by no means follows from 
Exod. vi. 3 that the first patriarchs were 
ignorant of Jehovah as a name : it was the 
covenant-relation implied in it which they 
did not comprehend. The stress of the 
passage lies in the term 'know,' denoting 
an experimental acquaintance with ful- 
filled promise. That it and kindred expres- 
sions mean something more than bare ac- 
quaintance is evident from such passages 
as the following : Exod. ii. 25, xxxiii. 12, 17, 
XXXV. 30 ; Psal. i. 6 ; Isai. xliii. l, xlv. 4 ; 
Jer. i, 5 ; Nah. i. 7 ; John x. 3 ; 1 Thess. v. 12. 

Various eminent critics, among whom 
Hengstenberg {Dissertations on the Genuine- 
ness ofthePent.), and Kurtz (Die Einheit der 
Genesis) may be specified, have undertaken 
to show that the two names are employed 
very carefully according to their respective 
significations. They have analyzed the sa- 
cred text, and have pointed out with a 
great deal of skill the peculiar fitness, as it 
goes along, of this or that divine appella- 
tion to the character of the narrative and 
the tone of thought. It is impossible to 
give here an exempliflcation of their pro- 



cess : it may be seen in some measure 
drawn out in Home's Introd., ubi supr., pp. 
555-561. And, though the reasoning may 
not appear always satisfactory, and cases 
may occur in which, when Jehovah is used, 
Elohim would be equally appropriate, yet it 
should be remembered that, if the book were 
made up from materials of a Jehovist and 
an Elohist, put together without much 
skill, it would be marvellous to detect in 
such a conglomerate any kind of system 
after which the occurrence of the names 
could be explained. Surely, if com- 
posed so to speak at hap-hazard, each 
would sometimes be found in places for 
which no plausible theory whatever could 
account. There is another point. In Gen, 
ii., iii. the names are combined. The com- 
bination occurs very rarely elsewhere in 
scripture. If we believe that there was 
but a single writer, we can well understand 
hoWjhaving shown that Elohim (the ground- 
notion of the name being power) created 
the world, and proceeding to describe the 
covenant-relationship in which Jehovah 
(the self-developer) appears and acts, he 
would be careful to make it known that 
there were not two Gods, but one, who 
manifests himself in different aspects. The 
use of Jehovah-Elohim, ' the Lord God/ 
sufiiciently proves this. No adequate ex- 
planation of it has yet been produced by the 
critics who advocate the theories of frag- 
ments or documents. 

Great stress is laid upon the alleged fact 
that two different accounts are frequently 
given of the same story, with such diversity, 
or even discrepancy, in the details, that 
both, it is inferred, cannot have proceeded 
from the same hand. Only a single illus- 
tration can here be given. "We have, it is 
asserted, two narratives of the deluge, so 
inartificially combined as that in one part 
the command prescribes that pairs of all 
creatures were to be taken into the ark, in 
another sevens of many kinds ; in one part 
Noah is represented as embarking seven 
days before the flood, in 'another the very 
day it began ; in one part the rains are de- 
scribed as descending forty days, in another 
the waters prevailing one hundred and 
fifty (Gen. vi., vii.). Critics, it would seem, 
are often not well skilled in the ways of 
the world, and the events of common life; 
else they need not have stumbled at state- 
ments like these. They forget that two dif- 
ferent communications must necessarily 
have been made to Noah. Again, even an 
ordinary fiood does not cease so soon as 
the descending rains are stopped. Every 
one with eyes perceives that the inundation 
is not all over. So that very well, after 
the forty days of rain and the breaking up 
of the fountains of the great deep, may 
the waters have 'prevailed' with little or no 
sensible diminution three or four months 
longer. The narrative fairly read, and inter- 
preted as ordinary histories are interpreted, 
is consistent enough, and does not require 
the hypothesis of two different writers to 
it. See these particulars more largely 
treated under Flood, p. 296, Noah, p. 637. 

Then, further, it is urged that there Is a 
difference in the phraseology. Very little 



PENTATEUCH] €vm^MXVi uf 678 


can be said on this topic. Scliolars Lave i 
explained again and again tliat there are t 
varying shades of meaning, which required 1 
varying phrases to express them. Yet 
again and again the same objection is 
pressed, as if no reasonable explanation had 
ever been attempted. The reader shall 
judge by a single instance. Padan-aram, 
we are told, is peculiar to the Elohist, 
Aravi-naharaim, rendered-' Mesopotamia m 
our version, to the Jehovist. But the 
names are not identical. Padan-aram is the 
district of Mesopotamia vrhich lies around 
Haran, Mesopotamia the whole sweep oi 
the country between the rivers. And be it 
knoAvn that 'Mesopotamia' occurs— a blen- 
der foundation on which to base a theory— 
but tivice in the whole Pentateuch (Gen. 
^-xiv 10; Deut. xxiii. 4), in both which 
passages the name of a particular place is 
properly adjoined, lu the first (Gen. xxiv.) 
the country is given from which Isaac s wife 
Avas to be brought, and then the particular 
' city of Nahor ' in it is specified. When 
the reader was once acquainted witn the 
country and place, it was natural to employ 
Generally the special appellation, Padan- 
aram. But in Deut. xxiii. Padan-aram would 
be inappropriate, because Balaam was of 
Mesopotamia indeed, but not from Haran 
When again, it is objected that different 
Ph^-ases for male and female are used by the 
two writers, the objectors arenot even accu- 
rate. Both phrases occur in both. Aud, 
besides, the one distinguishes the sexes ac- 
cording to their physical constitution, tne 
other according to their moral personality. 
Such arguments tell very little indeed for 
the theory they are produced to support. 

It is assumed by several critics that tne 
final compiler, having in his hands the pro- 
ductions of the Elohist and the Jehovist, 
very inartificially combined them, retain- 
in °- in full the whole of each document, but 
distributing the portions into places which 
he conceived they best would fit. It is 
onlv necessary to glance at one of the 
tables before referred to, in order to see 
what trouble such a compiler must have 
undergone. Is it reasonable to believe 
that he would tatc that trouble 1 more es- 
pecially as if, instead of transcribing and 
transposing, he had used his materials as 
other historians do theirs, he would with 
greater facility have produced a more satis- 
factory work. An honest and truthful 
writer does not combine contradictory 
statements by mere juxta-position, he does 
not if he has lighted upon the annals oi 
old times— instead of weighing the proba- 
bility and evidence of the different stories, 
and selecting that which he deems the 
truth— set about concocting a narrative by 
stringing together first a piece from one, 
and then a piece from another, careless 
whether they are consistent, and present- 
ius the same incident again and again m a 
different dress. This is just what a man 
who desired credit for his work, and was 
possessed of common sense, would not do. 
Besides if what are called tlie Jehovistic 
and EloMstic sections were respectively 
picked out and laid together, it would be 
foand that neither of them would be com- 


plete. The one requires the other in order 
0 be perfectly comprehended. For illus- 
ration it may be remarked that only the 
^o-called Jehovist narrates the fall of mau. 
But how without this narration could the 
miversal depravity noted in Gen. vi. 11-13 
by the so-called Elohist be understood? 
Still further, the Jehovist is said to belong 
to a later time. Yet there are references to 
him in the Elohist, pre-supposing his work 
to have been kuoAvn to the imagined earlier 
writer. Many such references have been 
pointed out by Kurtz, Keil, and others, 
which cannot be given here : the student | 
will find examples in Home's Introcl., it Ji 
supr., pp. 589, 590, demonstrating that the 
Pentateuch is the product of a single mind, 
not a heterogeneous composition, but a 
well-compacted body, the parts of which 
take their proper place. Surely there is 
proof here of the existence of a plan, laid 
down at first and regularly carried out. 

Dr Kurtz has carefully examined tlic 
structure of Genesis. He finds that, besides 
an introduction (Gen. i.— ii. 3), it comprises 
ten sections ; as ten is the number of com- 
pleteness, the author thereby perhaps in- 
tending to indicate the completeness of the 
work. These ten sections, moreover, have 
distinct and similar superscriptions : ' These 
are the generations,' or, ' This is the book 
of the generations.' Here is the list {Ber 
Eivlieit der Genesis, m\ Ixvii., Ixviu.). 

Tlie generations of the heaven and the 
earth (ii. 4— iv. 2G). 

The generations of Adam (v. 1— vi. 8). 

The generations of Noah (vi. 9— ix. -iyj. 

The generations of the sons of l^oah (x. 
1 xi. 9). 

The generations of Shem (xi. 10-26). 
The generations of Terah (xi. 27— xxv. 11). 
The generations of Ishmael (xxv, 12-18). 
The generations of Isaac (xxv. 19-xxxv 
29). 

The generations of Esau (xxxvi.). 

The generations of Jacob cx-vxvii. 1_— 1. 2yj. 

Moreover, there are certain similarities or 
arrangement frequently to be observed in 
tlie^e sections. Is it hkely, then, it may be 
pertinently asked, if two or more hands in 
different ages had been employed upon ic, 
that the work could have presented the 
regular structure in which we have it 1 Lhe 
same observations may be extended to tne 
entire Pentateuch. Aud, in addition to w.ia t 
has been previously said, it may be noteu 
that there is a chronological thread running 
through the whole, according to whicn 
events are placed in orderly succession ; any 
minor departure from this being only for 
the better arranging and completing of the 
histories to be given. There is a careful 
elaboration of the subject, aud a consistent 
linking of its parts, so that the earlier sec- 
tions tend forward, in preparation for what 
is yet to come, and the later sections, m 
their regular development, continually 
refer back, in the most natural way, to 
those which have preceded-the references 
bein"" not of a one-sided character, but, as 
above noted, from the so-called supplement 
to the trrcmnd-work, and from the ground- 
work to the supplement. _ 
The united voice of antiquity testifies to 



679 



'MihU [PENTATEUCH 



the soundness of this conclusion. Iftliemo- 
I dern notion be adopted that the Pentateuch 
is an inartificial gradual compilation hy dif - 
! ferent 'hands, and in different ages, we are 
entitled to ask not only how it first acquired 
j its position as the law-book and authorita- 
tive chronicle of the Hebrew nation , but also 
how through times of national declension 
I and of exile, when its enactments were felt 
a heavy yoke and its denunciations galling 
to the national spirit, how in gospel times, 
when the Christian scriptures among which 
it was incorporated were exposed to the 
! keenest investigation, how in later days of 
; echolarly research, it maintained its place, 
satisfying the most enciuiring intellect, till 
at last, on a sudden, ancient prescription is 
i supposed to be groundless, and the compact- 

'I ed edifice of the Hebrew polity is represent- 

' ed as something that can be crumbled into 

I discordant fragments. Surely there would 

1 te a moral wonder in all this ; and common 

sense revolts against the notion. Take 
i the history of Joseph for exam|)le. Critics 

Bitting in their studies have tried to dis- 
member it. It is useless to argue with men 
who do not feel its exquisite adaptation and 
consisten cy ; it must be enough to oppose to 
them the well-weighed opinion of a learned 
author, who, not denying that the writer 
may have availed himself of an earlier 
chronicle, remarks upon the excellent judg- 
I ment which guided him, and declares that 

j • the history of Joseph is carried out with 

(. such admirable unity and precision, that all 

' attempts of the iragmentists to dismember 

* it have utterly failed' (Kalisch, Comm. on 

Old Test. Gen., \)- Qlf)' 

The observations hitherto offered are di- 
rected mainly against the notion that the 
Pentateuch is made up by accretion of ill- 
assorted parts, combining different and 
discordant traditions, so as to multiply the 
same event, and represent that which oc- 
curred once to a single individaal, as oc- 
curring repeatedly and to different persons. 
They are directed against the notion which 
sacrifices the perfect truthfulness of the 
Pentateuch, and which would reduce it from 
the dignity of an inspired record to a mere 
human chronicle, imperfect through the 
misapprehension, and embellished accord- 
ing to the fancy, of the compiler. If— for 
the matter requires much delicacy of 
handling— if any one is convinced by the 
varied use of the divine names, by, as he be- 
lieves, the perceptible difference of tone and 
expression, by the not-always-similar phra- 
Beology, that more than one hand may be 
detected in the composition, then, though 
many of the reasons adduced for this con- 
clusion are very slight, and stress is often 
laid on matters which will not bear it, yet 
the conclusion is such as an earnest believer 
in the authority of the book may admit 
without compromise of principle, provided 
the composition be not carried down below 
the time of Moses. There is nothing unbe- 
; coming, nothing strange, in the admission 

I that the great lawgiver may have inter- 

I woven— as Ezra, as Daniel, as Matthew, as 

■' Luke, and others, it has been admitted, uu- 

j questionably did— previously-existing docu- 

ments into his narrative. 



But then. It is alleged that there are 
traces of a later date, that the composition 
shows by its very form that it was posterior 
to Moses, that it uses names and refers to 
events of later occurrence, that it speaks of 
Moses as no man would have spoken of him- 
self, and that one division, the bock of 
Deuteronomy, is so evidently diverse from 
the rest that it could not have been com- 
posed till long after. These allegations 
must be briefly sifted. 

An argument is taken from the frequently- 
recurring phrase,' unto this day,' which im- 
plies, it is said, that a considerable time 
must have elapsed between the event re- 
corded and the recording of it. Now the 
phrase appears in Gen. xix. 37, 38, xxii. 14, 
xxvi. 33, xxxii. 32, xxxv.20, xlvii. 26. Every 
thing here alluded to occurred long before 
Moses' birth : Moses might very well there- 
fore have employed the v/ords. In Exodus, 
Leviticus, and Numbers, they do not appear. 
But we have them in Dent. ii. 22, iii. 14, x. 8, 
xxix. 4, xxxiv. 6. Of these passages there 
is but one which presents a difliculty. A 
bare inspection of ii. 22, x. 8, xxix. 4, will 
show that Moses might well have penned 
them. And xxxiv. 6 is necessarily excluded 
from the investigation, because no man 
supposes that Moses chronicled his own 
death and burial. Well, then ; there is but 
iii. 14 ; and on this it may be said that the 
phrase had very likely come to imply little 
more than our ' still,' which may mean a 
longer or shorter period, that it is con- 
fessedly used in both the Old and New Tes- 
taments, when the interval was very short 
(e.g. Josh. xxii. 3 ; Matt, xxviii. 15). And, if 
this be not altogether satisfactory, it must 
be urged that the use of the phrase gene- 
rally in the Pentateuch is what we might 
expect, on the presumption of the Mosaic 
authorship, frequently in the history of 
events long passed, rarely in the history of 
contemporaneous events, and then only in 
addresses made by Moses to the people. It 
may be fairly added that, if the author of the 
Pentateuch were posterior to Moses, instead 
of one case in which there is some difliculty, 
we should have found many. 

It is urged again that Gen. xiii. 7 betrays 
a later date, that it was written after the 
expulsion of the Canaanites. Nay, it may 
be rejoined ; for, as remnants of the Canaan- 
ites were in Palestine after the Babylonish 
captivity (Ezra ix. 1), the date Avould then 
have to be brought downtoatime in which 
no sane man would choose to place it. 
Iiather,we have in the words objected to the 
natural reason stated why Abram and Lot 
could not dwell together. Had there been 
no other settlers, there would have been 
room enough; but it was not so: the 
Canaanites and the Perizzites even then, 
at that early time, were there. 

But it is said that places are called in the 
Pentateuch by names which they did not 
bear till after the days of Moses. Beth-el 
(Gen. xii. 8), Hebron (^xiii. 18), and Ban (xiv. 
14) are examples of the alleged anachronism. 
But really little stress need be laid on such 
objections. The title Beth-el might not 
generally adopted till the Israelites had 
occupied Canaan, but as so solemnly given 



! 



PENTATEUCH] €1)^ tSLXtK^MXVi tit 



680 



by Jacob it is reasonable to believe that it 
was from bis time used by bis descendants. 
Hebron was probably tbe old name (its an- 
quity seems proved in Journ. of Sacr. Lit, 
Jan. 1852, pp. 379, 380) of the cityCto wbicb 
the title Kirjath-arba, ' town of Arba,' was 
additionally and subseauently (for not Ana- 
kim, but Eittites, dwelt there in Abraham's 
days) given, as that of ' the city of David ' to 
Zion and to Beth-lehem. There is nothing to 
surprise in the old name's being resumed : 
modern examples of such a resumption 
might easily be produced. As to Dan, there 
seems to have been another place, Dan-jaan 
(2 Sam.xxvi. 6) so called, besides that which 
took its name from the tribe (Josh.xix.47) ; 
but we have scarcely information enough 
to decide. After all, though the text as 
it is may be satisfactorily defended, yet 
who shall say, as it is likely that the 
hands of inspired men subsequently ar- 
ranged some of the holy books, that a name 
may not have been for perspicuity ex- 
changed ; or a slight explanatory addition 
have been made— like the notice of Moses' 
death-suchlas those which occur in ordinary 
works without impeachment of their autho- 
rity or good faith 1 Such minute objections 
will not in any reasonable man's mind cast 
doubt upon the Mosaic authorship. 

The law of the king (Deut. xvii. 14-20) was 
written, it is said, after the establishment 
of the Hebrew monarchy. The real ground 
of objection to it is its prophetic character. 
That the injunction against multiplying 
horses and wives was not properly obeyed 
is no proof that there was no such early 
law ; else every statute that ever existed 
in any country might be pronounced ' un- 
historical ' ; for none has been always ob- 
served. The prophetic objection cannot be 
here discussed : the reasonable right of the 
Creator to foreshadow things to come may 
be found noticed elsewhere : see Prophecy. 
And for a brief statement of the reasons 
why we receive Deuteronomy as the work 
of Moses see Deuteronoiiy. 

One more point must be here adverted to. 
The writer of the Pentateuch applies the 
third person to Moses, and speaks of him, 
it is said, as he would not have spoken of 
himself-. It is perhaps necessary to notice 
only that remarkable passage (Numb, xii.) 
which, as appearing to involve self-com- 
mendation, has created the chief difficulty. 
We must bear in mind that Moses shrunk 
from the charge laid upon him. In his 
earlier life, indeed, fired with a sense of his 
people's wrongs he had zealously stood forth 
as their defender (Bxod. ii. 11-14). But 
afterwards he repeatedly declined the 
offered mission (iii. 11, iv. 1-17, v. 22, 23, vi. 
12, 28-30). And even after the deliverance 
from Egypt we find Moses desiring to be 
relieved from his burden and rejoicing 
when others were called to share it (Numb, 
xi 10-15, 28, 29). Who can doubt that such 
a man would readily, if it had been permit- 
ted him, have devolved on Aaron and 
Miriam all the authority they coveted? 
Moses was not 'meek' in the ordinary 
sense of the word, for we frequently read 
of his wrath ; but he was thoroughly tm- 
amUtious. So far then from personal com- 



mendation, he simply records (xii. 3) the 
fact that for his part his brother and sister 
might have had their way. What is there 
inconsistent with his authorship of the 
history in this ? 

It is impossible here to pursue this part 
of the argument farther. The objections 
to the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch 
have been lightly touched ; but it has been 
in some degree shown that they are not of 
a conclusive character. Thus, then, to 
sum it up the matter stands. There is 
every antecedent probability that Moses, 
educated as he had been, and charged as he 
was with the superintendence of Israel, 
would commit large particulars to writing. 
This is every reasonable testimony in the 
book itself and in posterior recoi-ds that he 
did write. Authorship, generally speaking, 
must be settled by such testimony; and ex- 
amples, some of them sufficiently ludicrous, 
might be produced of critics, even in our 
own day, who have been wofully deceived 
in their estimate of the age and authorship 
of productions devised to test their saga- 
city. Thus the modern tale of the ' Amber 
Witch' was pronounced by Geseuius and 
others a veritable record of antiquity. The 
internal evidence of the Pentateuch adds 
force to the external. The manner and 
tone of it ought not to be overlooked, the 
fact that a multitude of things are related 
of which Moses alone was cognizant, the 
archaic forms, the Egyptian words, the 
traces from many of the directions and 
allusions that Israel was in a wandering, 
not a settled, position at the time of writ- 
ing, the unsuitableness of every other 
period of Hebrew history for the compo- 
sition of the book, the inability to dis- 
cover any other author except by random 
guess, when of such a work surely the 
author's name was not likely to fall into 
oblivion— these and a multitude of other 
considerations corroborate the belief of 
ases in the Mosaic authorship. Then the 
arguments alleged in opposition are by no 
means decisive. The so-called anachronisms 
admit of explanation : the progressive cha- 
racter of the legislation, so far from betray- 
ing a late authorship, is rather a proof of 
its early date— a contemporaneous writer 
would naturally chronicle statutes as they 
were enacted : no one long after would 
record those that had been superseded— 
diversities of diction may be accounted 
for: repetitions are frequent in almost 
every writer, especially in eastern writers : 
variations are not contradictions ; and even 
if they were (laying aside for a moment the 
question of inspiration) they do not tell 
upon authorship; else, seeing that some 
eminent critics have published within brief 
space contradictory opinions on this very 
subject, they would be proved to have had 
no hand in their own compositions. More- 
over, the alleged duplicate accounts, the 
various use of the divine names, even if 
the explanations offered are thought un- 
satisfactory, go only to show that the 
writer of the Pentateuch, like other sacred 
writers, availed himself of existing mate- 
rials (the Divine Spirit never superseding 
human industry, or directly revealing that 



681 



MihU ^XXUMttSQt* [PENTATEUCH 



wliich was known by other means), and 
yield not tlae shadow of a proof against the 
Mosaic authorship, unless it could be de- 
monstrated — Avhich has not been done— 
that these materials were of later date than 
Moses. The fair conclusion surely is that 
to which Dr. Bartlett (iMsupr., Oct. 1864, p. 
751) comes : ' It will be seen that the sys- 
tematic policy of the objectors has been to 
hurl all manner of missiles, taken at ran- 
dom, in the hope that some of them may 
reach the mark. It will also be seen that, 
out of that whole mass of materials, scarcely 
more than half-a-dozen passages, lying on 
the surface of the narrative, could fairly 
suggest the thought of a later hand, and 
that these can be accounted, on intrinsic 
probabilities, general testimony, and special 
indications, as superficial glosses, without 
for a moment disturbing the concurrent 
testimony of all antiquity that Moses was 
the responsible author of the Pentateuch.' 

This conclusion is defended in no dogma- 
tic temper ; and the scruples of those who 
hesitate in receiving it, if they have dealt 
with this confessedly-diflacult matter in a 
reverent spirit, must certainly be treated 
with that respect which reckless criticism 
has no right to claim. 

2. Besides the question of authorship there 
is yet another— that of the truthfulness of 
the record— which must be briefly looked at. 
If we cannot depend upon it as credible, it 
matters little by whom the Pentateuch was 
written. 

Regarding, however, the Mosaic author- 
ship generally as proved, we have presump- 
tive evidence that the narrative is true. A 
large part of it comprises events in the life- 
time of Moses, events many of them wit- 
nessed by the Israelitish nation, events 
published before those who could have ex- 
posed their falsehood if they were falsely 
reported, and who, from the temper they 
manifested, we may be sure would have 
exposed it if they could. The Pentateuch 
demonstrably moulded the manners of 
Israel : it contained the ordinances of their 
religion based upon alleged facts : it pre- 
scribed their political constitution and 
rights based also upon alleged facts : it re- 
gulated, moreover, their domestic habits, 
meeting them, so to speak, at every point 
publicly and socially. Their passover was 
to be observed because they had been de- 
livered by divine judgment from bondage. 
The division of the nation was fixed because 
their early ancestor had twelve sons. Their 
priesthood was assigned to one of these 
tribes, because of the zeal reported at a par- 
ticular crisis to have been shown by that 
tribe. How could all these ordinances have 
taken effect, unless the events which are 
said to have led to them really happened ? 

Attacks, however, have been made upon 
the credibility of the Pentateuch, and cer- 
tain critics not content with assigning 
different portions of It to different persons, 
have assumed that the Jehovist and Elohist 
have written, not according to the truth of 
history, but according to their own turn of 
mind, colouring events as their pre-disposi- 
tion inclined them. Thus, as before hinted, 
the Jehovist is said to have been imbued 



with ritualistic tendencies, to have mani- 
fested a Levitism, as it is termed. And yet 
very many references to ceremonial obser- 
vances appear in the so-called Elohist. 
Again, the Jehovist is said to have been 
anxious to exalt the patriarchs and the 
Israelitish nation. And yet it is in sections 
attributed to him (e.g. Gen. iii. 6, 16-24, ix. 
20-27, xii. 10-20, xxvi. 6-11, xxvii. 1-36, xxx. 25- 
42, xxxviii.; Exod. xvii. 2, 3 ; ISIumb. xi., xii., 
xiv. 1-4) that some of the worst features 
of their history appear. So far, then, there 
is not much to discredit the truth of the 
history. 

But actual contradictions are alleged ; as 
a sample of which take the following. Two 
varying reasons are given for Jacob's being 
sent into Mesopotamia ; the one that he 
might escape the results of his brother's 
anger, the other that he might marry with 
his own kindred (Gen. xxvii. 41-45 compared 
with xxvii. 46-xxviii. 5). But these reasons 
were not contradictory, and may both be 
true. Esau's threatening against his bro- 
ther may well consist with Ptebekah's wish 
that Jacob should take a wife from among 
his own relations. Indeed, the two parts 
of the history fit accurately together. 
For it is not said that Esau's angry threats 
reached his father's ear. They were told 
only to Rebekah. And she, of course, did 
not convey them to Isaac. With charac- 
teristic tact she mentioned to Mm only her 
fear that Jacob also might intermarry with 
the daughters of Heth, sure that that would 
procure Isaac's consent to Jacob's departure. 
Matters fell out as she had anticipated ; and 
Jacob obeyed both his father and his mother 
(7), the one in going to seek a wife of his 
kindred, the other in consulting for his 
safety in flight. The narrative is complete 
and consistent. 

Such cavils as these, however, are petty 
and little deserving notice. Still more for- 
midable objections have been urged. Thus 
it is alleged that the Pentateuch is contra- 
dicted by scientific discovery, that it con- 
tains demonstrable historic errors, and— 
which is the ground-work of every other 
objection— that it so deals with the mar- 
vellous, relating supernatural events, that 
it must necessarily be relegated to the 
domain of mythos or fiction. A fev/ words 
shall be said on each of tliese points. As to 
the first, it is the narratives of the creation 
and of the flood that chiefly are assailed. 
Geological research, it is said, disproves 
them : long ages must have elapsed before 
the appearance of man upon our globe ; 
and a universal deluge could not have oc- 
curred. Then, again, a greater antiquity is 
claimed for man; than the scripture seems 
to allow; and some will not admit that all 
the races of the world have sprung from a 
single pair. Now, it is freely confessed 
that interpretations were heretofore put 
upon the Mosaic narrative which science 
has contradicted, just as it was thought in 
earlier days that the scripture had decided 
against the motion of the earth round the 
sun. Better examination shows that Gen. 
i. does not limit creation, from the first 
almighty fiat to the finished preparation 
of Eden for man's abode, to the short space 



■i 



PENTECOST! ^l)t ^r^a^ttrp of 682 


once imagined, so tliat tliere might very 
well intervene vast periods sufficient for 
geological changes, with no contradiction 
to the sacred text. And geologists of the 
first reputation have seen and maintained 
that the two records are in harmony. See, 
among others, Hugh Miller's Testimony of 
the Jtocks, and Dana's Manual of Geology : 
see also Creation. Moreover, for some 
pi-oof that the theory of a partial deluge is 
not inconsistent with scripture, see Flood. 

But there are, further, said to he histori- 
cal inaccuracies— indeed, yet stronger lan- 
guage has heen used; and many of the 
recorded eveuts, we are now plainly told, 
are impossible. One or two examples must 
he given. We are told that Israel could 
never have multiplied from a family into a 
populous nation within the period during 
Avhich they were held in hondage by the 
Ei^vptians. But, first of all, this ohjection 
overlooks the fact that Jacoh went down 
into Egypt with a very large estahlishment. 
We may well suppose that it was not from 
the family only, hut from the family and 
the dependants, with whom there would he 
intermarriages, that the nation sprung. 
But, setting this consideration apart, it 
has been sufficiently proved and confirmed 
l)v modern examples, that it is aiute possi- 
hie that the recorded increase could have 
taken place within the specified time : see 
Census ; more especially when the divine 
blessing was vouchsafed purposely for this 
multiplication. Agaiu, it is maintained 
that the vast masses of Israel never could 
have lived, as we read they did, with their 
cattle for many years in the desert. But 
to this there are two answers. IModeru 
travellers declare tliat the wilderness is 
not, as men are ready to suppose, all a 
bare and naked waste. Amid arid plains 
there are extensive fertile tracts, abun- 
dantly watered, and, in parts of the year at 
least, covered with vegetation. And, so 
f;ir from its being impossible for large 
bodies of men to traverse it, at this day 
the caravans of the pilgrims to Mecca, often 
including many thousands, pass directly 
through the whole length of the most 
desert portion of the peninsula. Besides, 
it is a gratuitous assumption that the Ara- 
bian wilderness was always as inhospitable 
as it is at present. There is strong reason 
to believe that there were anciently cities 
where now there is a sandy waste ; and 
there are still visible the traces of woriis, 
yielding full proof that the country was 
once far more fitted for the sojourn of 
nomadic tribes than it is now.- The whole 
ouestion is satisfactorily handled by Dr. 
Bartlett. w&i supr., July 1864, pp. 511-529. 

The grand obiection, however, to the 
truthfulness of tlie Pentateuch is the super- 
natural character of many of the events re- 
lated; and men, professing to know accu- 
rately what their Maker can or will do 
have gravely pronounced his special mterte 
rence in the government of the universe 
the work of his fingers, the domain of his 
power, impossible. Objections or this kmc 
have a larger scope than the credibility oi 
the Pentateuch : they affect the whole oi 
revealed religion. So far as they can bt 


treated in this work they are considered 
elsewhere. See Miracle, Sce.ipttjbb. 

The direct evidence for the truthfulness ; 
of the Mosaic writings is, at least, as strong ; 
as it is for any historical document what- 
ever. We find the leading facts of them 
alluded to or pre-supposed in almost all the 
later books of the Old Testament. And 
archdeacon Pratt in his useful work, Scrip- 
ture and Science not at variance, pp. 69-bb, 
3rd edit., has shown how many of those 
facts (of the earlier part of Genesis) are 
treated as literally true by our Lord and 
his apostles. Here, especially, Christ's au- 
thority before adverted to may properly 
come in. Would he have grounded his 
pretensions on a book which was not lite- 
rally true ? Besides, though profane history 
does not reach so far back as sacred, yet it 
does furnish innumerable weighty proofs 
of the credibility of ]Moses. Mr. Rawlinson 
has exhibited many of these in his Biston- 
cal Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture 
Record. Every book of travels in the east is 
an additional witness. The manners are still 
very much what Moses describes them. 
The natural productions, the face and 
structure of the country, unite their voice. 
The cities of Bashan which he mentions- 
it was once thought Avith exaggeration— as 
so mighty, vet remain to corroborate his 
statements:' see Porter's Giant Cities of 
Bashan. And, above all, there is the pre- 
sent condition of his people. Their des- 
tiny, as foretold in the Pentateuch, our 
omi eyes may see. They are a standing 
miracle, a testimony resounding through 
the world, that it Avas no forger, no pre- 
tender to divine communications, no mere 
guesser that traced from its origin the 
house of Jacob, narrated its early history, 
sketched its yet future fortunes, drew the 
accurate picture of its present state, but 
one endued with the wisdom which could 
flow from the Spirit of truth alone. 

More cannot be added. It is but an out- 
line which has here been given ; and the 
student must be referred for fuller particu- 
lars to other books. Several such books 
have been already cited ; and to them may 
be added some articles in the valuable work 
called Aids to Faith ; Dr. McCaul's JExami- 
nation of Dr. Colenso's JDifflcuUiesivithregard 
to the Pentateuch : Dr. Muhleisen-Arnold's 
English Biblical Criticism and the Authorship 
of the Pentateuch from a German Point of 
Vieiv ; Birks' Bible and Modern Tliought, and 
Exodus of Israel, Macdonald's 7?itrrtd to the 
Pentateuch ; together with Dr. Bartlett's 
Historic Cliaracter of the Pentateuch, in 
Biblioth. Sacr., vol. xx. pp. 381-431, 660-670. 

PE:n^TECOST. The name, signifying 
fiftieth, hy which the Hebrew feast of v>'eek3 
is known in the Isew Testament. It was 
to be kept the fiftieth day, i.e. seven weeks, 
a week of weeks, after the passover, count- 
ing from ' the morrow after the passover 
sabbath,' the second day of that feast 
(Exod. xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 15, 16; Deut. 
xvi 9 10). It was a festival of thanksgiving 
for the harvest, which began immediately 
after the passover ; and the first-fruits were 
then to be offered to the Lord (Numb, 
xxviii. 20-31). Thiswasone of the tlsrec great 



683 



occasions on wliicli the Israelites ■were to 
resort to the sanctuary (Excel, xxiii. 14-17 ; 
Deut. xvi. 16). And accordingly ^ve find 
several notices In the Kew Testament that 
the practice was still observed (Acts ii. 1, 
9-11, XX. 16; 1 Cor. xvi. 8). The giving of 
the law was also considered, as commemo- 
rated at Pentecost ; for it ' was delivered 
from Sinai on the fiftieth day after the de-- 
partnre of Egypt, tha,t is, after the institu- 
tion of the passover. It was at peutecost 
that the promised out-pouring of the Holy 
Spirit on the gathered disciples occurred; 
and continually since, almost if not quite 
from the times of the apostles, has this 
great event heen commemorated with 
solemn joy in the church of Christ at 
the season noA7 called Whitsuntide. For 
an account of the name and the ohscr- 
vance see Binghamj Grig. Eccles., hook xx. 
chap. vi. 

The modern Jev/s oljserve the feast of pen- 
tecost or weeks on the sixth and seventh 
days of the nionth Sivan. The three pre- 
ceding days are called the Hhree days of 
bordering,' because before the giving of the 
Jaw God directed Moses to set bounds to 
the mountain that the people might not 
trespass upon it. The scenery of the open 
country is imitated : the synagogues are 
decorated with tiowers ; and the tables and 
iloors of the houses are strewed with 
ilowers and fragrant herbs. For it was not 
in a temple but in the waste that the law 
was promulgated. On the evening of the 
fifth of themontli, after synagogue service, 
the families sit at table to sanctify the 
feast. The master of the house takes a 
glass of wine in his hand and repeats the 
kid'usli or sanctiflcation : 'Blessed art thou, 
O Lord our God, King of the universe, the 
Creator of the fruit of the vine. Blessed art 
thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, 
who hast selected us from all other people, 
and exalted us almve all other nations, and 
sanctified us w^ith thy commandments, and 
granted nnto ns, O Lord our God, in love, 
solemn feasts to rejoice, with festivals and 
times for gladnc:-,i;, this festival of the 
weeks, the time oi the giving of our law, a 
holy convocation, a memorial of our depar- 
ture from Egypt; for thou didst select us 
and sanctify us from all other people ; and 
thy holy seasons with (love and favour) joy 
and gladness thou causedst ns to inherit. 
Blessed art thou, O Lord, the sanctifler of 
Israel and the times. Blessed art thou, 0 
Lord our God, King of the universe, who 
hast maintained us and preserved us to 
enjoys this season.' The next morning, in 
addition to the usual services, certain spe- 
cial prayers, descants, and paraphrases are 
read, with portions of scripture, among 
which are Exod. xix., xx. The sanctiflcation 
is repeated on the second ev^ening; and the 
service of the following day is similar to 
that of the first, save that different por- 
tions of scripture are read, among which is 
the book of Iluth. When the stars appear 
the festival is over (Mills' British Jews, part 
ii. chap. vi. pp. 207-210). 

PEN'UEL {face of God).— 1. One of the de- 
scendants of Judah who was the 'father' or 
founder of Gedor (1 Chron, iv. 4).— 2. ABen- 



[PERGA 



jamite chief, one of those who dwelt in 
Jerusalem (viii. 25). 
PEN'UEL (id.) (Gen. xxxil. 31; Judges viii. 

8, 9, 17 ; 1 Kings xii. 25). See Pexiel. 
PE'OR (cleft).— 1. A mountain in the terri- 
tory of Moab, at the north-east end of the 
Dead sea (Numb, xxiii. 28).— 2. Put for Baal - 
peer, an idol of the Moabites (xxv. 18, xxxi. 
16 ; Josh. xxii. 17). See Baal-peor. 

PEPlA'ZIM {breaches). SeeBAAL-PERA^iM. 

PE'RES {divided) (Dan. v. 28). SeeME:>E. 

PE'RESH {dunij). A descendant of Ma- 
nasseli (1 Chron. vii. 16). 

PE'REZ {In-each) (1 Chron. xxvii. 3 ; Neh. 
xi. 4, 6). See Piiauez. 

PE'PtEZ-UZ'ZA, or PE'REZ-UZ'ZAH {the 
breach of Uzzah). A place so called, because 
there God burst forth on Uz/.ah for his sacri- 
lege, so that he died (2 Sam. vi. S; 1 Chron. 
xiii. 11). 

PERFECT, PERPECTIOK We find that 
persons are repeatedly spoken of in scrip- 
ture as ' perfect ' ; and 'perfection ' is placed 
before men as an attainment at which they 
ought to aim. It does not, hov^ever, follow 
that any are absolutely perfect in this life : 
day by day the holiest fall short of the 
high standard before them (1 Kings viii. 46 ; 
Prov. XX. 9 ; Eccles. vii. 20). The first who 
is said to have been ' perfect in his genera- 
tions ' is Noah (Gen. vi. 9) 'not perfect in 
the sense of sinless,' says Prof. Bush {Notes 
oil Genesis, pp. 83, 84), 'but sincere, simple, 
upright, having respect to all God's com- 
mandments, and, like Caleb, following the 
liovd fully. Christian perfectiun is not ab- 
solute freedom from sin, but evangelical 
integrity; a perfection implying complete- 
ness of parts rather than of degrees in the 
renev^ed character; and it may be better 
understood by viewing it as opposed to 
■partiaMty and liyppcrisy, to a partial obe- 
dience and siiinsincere profession.' More 
than one original word in the New Testa- 
ment is translated ' perfect' ; but the inter- 
pretation given of one may well apply to 
others. Our Lord inculcates a duty, 'Be 
ye therefore perfect, even as your Father 
which is in heaven is perfect ' (Matt. v. 48) ; 
on which Dr. Alford very well observes : 
"•'complete" in your love of others; not, 
one-sided or exclusive, .... but all-em- 
bracing, and God-like. ... No countenance 
is given by this verse to the ancient Pela- 
gian or the modern heresy of perfectilnlity 
in this life. Such a sense of the words 
would be utterly at variance with the 
whole of the discourse. See especially vv. 
22, 29, 32, in which the imperfections and 
conflicts of the Christian are fully recog- 
nized.' In Eph. iv. 12 a difiierent Greek 
word is used: in 13 the idea is that of ma- 
turity. To 'make' Christ 'perfect' (Heb. ii. 
10) means to make him complete, that i.^ to 
bring him to the glory purposed as the end 
of his humiliation. The same idea is im- 
plied in V. 9, 'brought,' says Dr. Alford. 
' to his goal of learning and sufilerins 
through death.' 

PERFUME (Exod. XXX. 35, 37; Prov. vii. 

9, and elsewhere): see Ince^'Se, Ointaikxt. 
PER'GA. A town in Pampliylia, upon tiie 

river Oestrus, about sixty stadia (seven 
miles) from its mouth, bciwecn and on the 





Bides of two WUs, with an extensive valley 
in front, watered by tlie river, and Ijacked 
by the mountains of the Taurus. It con- 
tained a celebrated temple of Artemis or 
Diana. Paul and Barnabas preached the 
ffospel here; and it was here that Mark 
left them (Acts xiii. 13, 14, xiv. 25). There 
are some ruins of Perga, almost entirely 
Greek, sixteen miles north-east of Attalia, 
at a spot now called JEski-Kdlesi. 

PER'GAMOS, or PER'GAMUM. An illus- 
trious city of Mysia on the river Caicus. It 
was originally but a strong hill-fortress, 
1 but became an important place under tue 
1 successors of Alexander, the capital of a 
kingdom which the last sovereign. Attains 
III bequeathed (133 B.C.) to the Roman 
people. It was famous for its vast library, 
given by Antony to Cleopatra, and added to 
that of Alexandria, for the Nicephorium, a 
grove in which were the splendid temples 
of Zeus or Jupiter, of Athene or Minerva, 
and of Apollo, but most especially for the 
worship of ^sculapius, the remains of 
whose magnificent shrine may still be seen. 
The modern name is Bergamah. To the 
church there one of the apocalyptic 
epistles was addressed (Rev. i. 11, li. 12- 
17) In that epistle it is called ' Satan s 
seat,' respecting which there have been A^a- 
Tious conjectures ; but no satisfactorj^ ex- 
planation has yet been given. The most 
feasible, perhaps, is that persecution, Sa- 
tan's work, even to death was already 
rife there. A martyr of the Pergamene 
church, Antipas, is mentioned; but nothing 
else is' certainly known of him. In later 
days several of Pergamos gained the crown 
of martyrdom. See Trench, Comm. on 
Epistles to Seven Cliurclies, 2nd. edit. pp. 

"'"''"PERrDA (kerneT) C^eh. vii. 57). See Pe- 

PERIZ'ZITES villagers'). One of the 
tribes described as dwelling in Palestine, to 
be expelled by the Israelites. Taken m 
conjunction with Cauaanites the term 
seems sometimes to include all the inhabi- 
tants of the land (Gen. xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30 ; 
Judges i. 4, 5). Kalisch is disposed to be- 
lieve Irom the sis:niflcation of the word 
that the Perizzites were those who lived m 
open villages ; so that the two appellations 
: ' together comprise the dwellers in cities, 
i I and the dwellers in the country (Comm. on 
1 : Old Test Gen., p. 344). Hence it is that 
! 1 Perizzites are named as residing in so many 
different parts of the country, in the moun- 
tains (Josh. xi. 3), in the wooded plains (xvii. 
15), in the territories allotted to Judah and 
Ephraim (ibid. ; Judges i. 4, 5), and near 
Beth-el and Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 30) : comp. 
Winer, J3ibl. BWB., art. 'Peresiter.' Some 
of them were left in the time of Solomon 
(1 Kings ix. 20 ; 2 Chron. viii. 7), and per- 
haps even after the captivity (Ezra ix. 1). 
PERJURY (1 Tim. i. 10). See Oath 
PERSECUTE, PERSECUTION. By these 
words we sre to understand the inflicting 
of penalties or punishments on account of 
religion. Thus the disciples at Jerusalem 
were molested at the time of the death ol 
.Stephen (Acts viii. 1). Under the Mosaic 
law uniformity of worship was prescribed 


md, as the Deity was in a special sense the 
King of the nation, idolatry was high trea- 
son, to be visited Avith the severest punish- 
ment (Dent. xiii.). According to statute 
10 other kind of religion was tolerated m 
Palestine ; and those aliens who would ob- 
tain the full privileges of Hebrew nation- 
ality must embrace the Hebrew faith 
(Exod. xii. 48). Foreigners were not obhged 
to adopt the Israelitish religion : they were 
to be punished for open idolatry, and gross 
crimes (Lev. xviii. 26, xx. 1-5), but they were 
to be rather encouraged than compelled 
to worship the true God (Numb. xv. 14). 

Under the Christian dispensation those 
penal laws which were naturally in force 
under the theocracy had no place. Chris- 
tians were persecuted; but they had no 
warrant to persecute again. Of course they 
hada riffht to remove an offending member 
from their body (1 Cor. v. 3-5, 13) ; but the 
notion of propagating their rehgion by 
force was entirely opposed to the spirit of 
the gospel (Matt. vii. 1; Luke ix. 54-56 ; Rom. 
xiv. 4 ; James iv. 11, 12). 

PEESEP'OLIS (2 Mace. ix. 2). A celebra- 
ted city of Persia, the capital of Persia 
proper, probably founded by Darius Hys- 
taspis, the frequent residence of Persian 
monarchs, till the time of Alexander the 
Great, by whom it was wantonly fired. It 
seems in a degree to have recovered, as. it 
was rich enough for Antiochus Epiphanes 
to attack and attempt to plunder it. It was 
«ome distance from the ancient capital 
Pa^argadee ; and its splendid remains are yet 
seen at a spot caUed Chehl-Mindr, ' the forty 

^^^p'eB'SEUS a Mace. viii. 5). The last king 
of Macedon, defeated 168 B.C. by the Romans 
under L. ^milius PauUus at Pydna. His 
kingdom then became subject to the PtO- 
man power. rr,-. 

PERSEVERE, PERSEVERANCE. Though 
the word occurs but once in the Enghsh 
version (Eph. vi. 18), yet the duty of perse- 
verance, that is, of steady earnest continu- 
ance in the ways of godliness, is continually 
and most forcibly inculcated (Matt. x. 22-, 
xxiv. 13 ; Heb. iii. 6, 14 ; Rev. ii. 10) ; and 
the danger of f alUng back is forcibly de- 
picted (Luke ix. 62 ; Heb. vi. 4-8, x. 26-31, 39 , 
2 Pet. ii. 20-22). There is abundant reason, 
therefore, for the caution of 1 Cor. x. 12 
The discussion of the theological question 
whether those who are made really Gods 
children do persevere, or whether they can 
fall finally away, does not belong to such a 
work as the present. 

PER'SIA. This name is generally applied 
in scripture to the wide Persian monarchy 
In Ezek. xxxviii. 5, however, it appears to 
designate the region which may be called 
Persia proper; and this is separated from 
Media on the north by a mountain ridge: on 
the west it borders on Susiana (Elam), to 
the east on Carmania, and extends south- 
ward to the Persian gulf. It is the modern 
Ears or Earsistan. That portion which lies 
along the coast is a sandy plain hardly ha- 
bitable on account of the heat and pestilen- 
tial winds. In the interior are lofty moun- 
tains, a large part of the year covered with 
snow : stiU there are among these hills 



many well-watered valleys and plains, in a 
pleasant climate, and tiiglily productive. 
To the north the country is wild, fitted only 
for shepherds and migratory trihes (Winer, 
Bibl.BWB., art. 'Persien'). In the larger 
sense Persia must he taken to comprehend 
the empire that extended from India to 
Egypt, including the wide regions between 
the Black sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian 
sea, the Persian gulf and Indian ocean, and 
the Arabian desert, together with parts of 
Europe and Africa. 

The Persians (a name thought to signify 
* the tigers ') were a brave and active people, 
vain and impulsive, but truthful and simple 
in their habits till they came into close 
contact with the Modes, a people probably 
descended from the same stock with them- 
selves. Their own dress had been close- 
fitting ; but they adopted the Median flow- 
ing robes and fondness for ornament, 
becoming by degrees a luxurious and 
effeminate nation. Polygamy was practised 
among them. They worshipped a supreme 
god, Oromasdes, but believed also in other 
inferior deities, as Mithra, the sun, and 
Homa, the moon. They imagined, too, that 
there was an independent and very powerful 
principle of evil, Arimanius, or Ahriman. 

But at length this simpler faith was al- 
loyed with Magianism, the worship of fire 
and the other elements, a system that 
widely prevailed among the people of 
western Asia. The two contended for pre- 
eminence; but a kind of compromise was 
effected : the old creed was retained ; and 
the rites and ceremonies of Magianism 
were superadded. The language of ancient 
Persia was near akin to the Sanscrit: the 
modern speech is a modification of it, as 
Italian is derived from Latin. 

The Persians were divided into ten 
tribes, of which three were noble, three 
agricultural, and four migratory or no- 
madic. The PasargadSB, from whom sprung 
the royal Achsemenian race, were the most 
distinguished of the noble tribes. 

Very brief notice can here be taken of 
Persian history, and that mainly as con- 
nected with the Jews. 

In remote anticLuity the nation occupied 
other settlements to the east of the Caspian. 
And it is said that a certain Achcemenes was 
their leader, about 700 B.C., into the country 
called after them. From him the line 
of kings noted above derived their name. 
All, however, is very imcertain before the 
reign of the great Gyrus. The Medes seem 
to have kept the Persian princes in vas- 
salage; audit was not till Cyrus, son of a 
Persian king, headed a revolt, that Persian 
independence was secured. The Medes 
thenceforward were the dependant nation. 
Cyrus extended his conquests widely. The 
Median dominions were his. The countries 
bordering on India owned his sway. He 
conquered Lydia, and attacked and captured 
Babylon'. This conquest had been long fore- 
told, and the conqueror named (Isai. xliv. 
28, xlv. 1-7). It was because the destinies 
of God's church and people were involved, 
that a just retribution was to be meted out 
to the haughty power that had enslaved 
them, and freedom to be proclaimed to the 



[peter 



Jews to return to their own land. Tfaf- 
prophecy was fulfilled ; and in the first year 
of Cyrus' extended rule he published the 
remarkable edict recorded in Ezra i. 1-4. By 
virtue of this many Jews returned to Pa- 
lestine, and began to re-build their temple. 
But their progress was soon stopped. Their 
enemies hired counsellors to oppose them, 
' all the days of Cyrus king of Persia, even 
until the reign of Darius king of Persia' 
(iv. 5). To Daniel, who In the third year of 
Cyrus was lamenting the continued deso- 
lation of his people, this thing was revealed. 
'One and twenty days,' said the divine 
messenger, 'the prince of the kingdom of 
Persia withstood me' (Dan. x. 13); and it 
was not till the end o£ one and twenty years 
that the temple of the Lord was again com- 
pleted (Ezra vi. 14, 15). Cyrus died 529 B.C. : 
his tomb is said to be still at Miirgcuib, the 
site of the ancient capital Pasargadas. He 
was succeeded by his son Cambyses (most 
probably the Ahasuerus of Ezra iv. 6), who 
invaded Egypt. After him Gomates the 
Magian, who pretended to be Smerdis, son 
of Cyrus, usurped the throne. He is the 
Artaxerxes who forbade the re-building of 
the temple (7-23), He was slain after a reign 
of seven months ; and Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, succeeded. He built palaces at 
Persepolis and Susa (Shushan), and was the 
sovereign under whom the temple was com- 
pleted (24, v., vi. ; Hagg, i. 1 ; Zech. i, 1), He 
died 485 B.C., and left his crown to Xerxes, 
in all probability the Ahasuerus of Esther 
(see Dan. xi, l, 2). Xerxes was assassinated 
465 B.c, His son Artaxerxes Longimanus 
was the prince who commissioned Ezra 
(Ezra vii,), and to whom Nehemiah was 
cup-bearer (Neh. ii, ij. He reigned forty 
years. Other kings succeeded; the only 
one of whom that is mentioned in scripture 
is Darius Codoraannus (xii, 22) : he was the 
last ; his empire being overthrown by Alex- 
ander the Great (Dan. viii, 5-8, 21, 22, xi 
3, 4). In later ages the Persian monarchy 
revived; and Persia is still an important 
Asiatic power. 

PER'SIANS (Esth. i. 19 ; Dan. v. 28, vi. 8, 
12, 15, 28). The inhabitants of Persia, 

PER\SIS (perhaps of Persian origin). A 
Christian female at Rome, whom St, Paul 
salutes and speaks of as having laboured 
much in the Lord (Rom, xvi, 12). 

PERU'DA {kernel). One of Solomon's 
servants, whose descendants returned from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 55). He 
is also called Perida (Neh. vii, 57). 

PESTILENCE (Exod. v. 3 ; 2 Sara, xxiv, 13 ; 
Psal, xci. 3 ; Hab, iii. 5). See Plague. 

PESTILS (2 Chron. xxiv. 14, marg.). Pes- 
tles. But the version of the text is prefer- 
able. 

PE'TER (rock, stone). One of the foremost 
of the twelve apostles. Originally called 
Simon, he was the son of Jona, and a resi- 
dent at Bethsaida. His brother Andrew, 
being a disciple of John the Baptist, was 
by John directed to Jesus ; and speedily he 
prevailed on Simon to accompany him to one 
who he felt convinced was the predicted 
Messias. Our Lord kindly received the new- 
comer, and gave him the name of Cephas, 
the Aramaic equivalent to the Greek Peter 



T 

I 





(John i. 35-42). This name ^vas intended to . 
be a perpetual memorial to liira who hore it. J 
It implied the steadiness with which he i 
would he enabled, in spite of a naturally- 1 
impulsive and therefore vacillating eh a- i 
racter, to hold the faith he was now em- 
bracins-. It was his personal relation to 
Christ that was therehy signified, not the 
relation in which he stood or was to stand 
(except through Christ) to the church (see 
Wieseler, Clironcl. des Apost. Zeitalt, p. 581). 

Peter and Andrew were fishermen, not 
altogether without property, hut certainly 
not of the class of the rich and great. They 
were not at first required to he in close at- 
tendance on their Master, and they still 
pursued their ordinary calling. After the 
conclusion of his early Judean ministry, 
Jesus, walking hy the sea of Galilee saw 
them so employed. He then desired them 
to follow him, promising to make them 
' fishers of men.' A miraculous draught of 
fl^ii was given at the same time, which so 
iuipre=sed Peter with a sense of the divme 
power of Jesus, that he felt himself un- 
worthy to stand in that holy Presence. But, 
re-a-^sured hy the Lord's kind words, hotu 
he and Andrew, with their partners John 
and James, the sons of Zehedee, left all- 
much to them as the far larger all of the 
rich man can he to him, and followed Christ 
rMatt. iv. 18-22 ; Mark 1. 16-28, x. 28 ; Luke 
V 1-11) This occurred near Capernaum, 
where the brothers had then a house ; and 
there Jesus healed Peter's mother-in-law of 
a fever (I^Iatt. viii. 14, 15 ; Mark i. 29-31 ; 
Luke iv. 38, 39). It Avas some time after- 
wards when the Lord nominated the twelve 
npostles. Of these Peter is always placed 
fir^t From his age or from his zealous 
temper he seems to have had precedence ; 
hut no supremacy or authority over the rest 
was therehy given him (Matt. x. 2 ; Mark iii. 
16 : Luke vi. 14 ; Acts i. 13 : see Apostle). 

It is not necessary to trace inmmute and 
chronological detail the various incidents 
of Peter's life while personally attending 
the Lord. He was always foremost to speak 
and to put questions, and he with James 
and John formed the choice h]gh]y- 
f avoured hand who witnessed the more re- 
in arkahle manifestations of Christ's power 
and dignity (e.g. Matt. xvii. 1, 2; Marky. 
37, 40, 41). But there are some events 
which must he somewhat more particularly 
noticed. Such are Peter's confession of 
Christ, his hehaviour at the passion, the 
address of Christ to him after the resur- 
rection, with the question of his residence 
at Rome. „ , . . , , 

Jesus had demanded of his disciples who 
in their judgment he was. It was as the 
mouth-piece of the whole that Peter rephed, 
' Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living 
God' (Matt. xvi. 16). It is elsewhere shown 
(«ee Son op God) that the title Peter then 
ffave his Master implied that he believed 
him to be a Divine Person. Peter might 
not perhaps, apprehend as yet the full sig- 
nificance of this ; but he had reached a 
belief higher than the current notions oi 
the age : he had some glimpse of the car 
dinal truth to be in time fuUy proved 
though not to be proclaimed just yet, thai 


resus was the only-begotten of the Father- 
lence the peculiar force of our Lord's 
eply, ' Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona ; 
or flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto 
hee, but my Father, which is in heaven ' 
17). It was heavenly teaching, no doubt, 
vhich imparted to him such a mystery. , 
rhe succeeding words of Christ (18, 19) are | 
very remarkable, and have provoked keen i 
controversy. ^ , . ! 

Various expositions have been given oi i 
the declaration, ' Thou art Peter ; and upon 
this rock I will build my church ; ' but two j 
only need be noticed here. It is maintained 
by some that Peter was the rock on which 
the church was to be built ; and that the 
promise was f iilfllled when on the day of 
pentecosthe first preached Jesus the cruci- 
fied, 'both Lord and Christ' (Acts ii. 36), 
exercising the authority of the keys which 
had been entrusted to him, and opening to 
the people tho door of salvation by faith m 
the Saviour. There is a propriety, it is - 
readily admitted, in this interpretation ; and ,| 
it agrees well with other passages of scrip- 
ture in which apostles are spoken of as 
foundations of the church (Eph. ii. 20 ; Rev. 1 
xxi. 14). If this interpretation be admitted, . 
it gives no countenance to any supremacy j 
of Peter, still less to the claim of such su- 
premacy as descending in a single line of | 
bishops, presumed successors of Peter in a 
particular see. For this apostle spoke m 
the name and with the accordance of hia 
fellows, to whom in general the question 
had been addressed : they, equally with him, 
are termed foundations ; and to them, too, 
not derived through Peter, the power of the 
kevs was as largely given (John xx, 21-23). 

But there is an interpretation of the 
words in question perhaps more satisfac- 
torv. Putting aside as scarcely to be de- 
fended the view that Christ in saying ' upon 
this rock' pointed to or meant himself m 
contrast with Peter, we may advert to the 
peculiar character, above-noticed, of Peters 
confession. It was the announcement of 
the most glorious truth of the gospel. Made 
in good faith, as revealed by the heavenly 
Father to the apostle, it showed that he wa,s 
upon the rock. He was now Peter indeed, 
exhibiting that personal characteristic an 
the view of which Christ had long before 
given him the name. And well, therefore, 
on this might the Lord say, 'Thou art 
Peter,' the firm niaintainer of fundamental 
truth: and on this rock, this immutable 
truth, a church should be built, against 
which the gates of hell could not prevail. It 
was the dignity of the Lord's person Avhich 
gave efCect to his work, and security to 
those that believed in him. Had he been 
merely a man, the gates of the unseen world 
would not have unclosed at his bidding : it 
was because he was the Son of God that, as 
Peterhimself proclaimed on the day of pen- 
tecost, ' it was not possible that he should 
be h olden of death (Acts ii. ^4;. xi. \N<.f5 
rather, then, from this great ground-doc- 
trine that the church grew, than that it 
re^^ted on Peter as a foundation. This view 
is adopted by a large number of able ex- 
positors. Bishop Jewel adopts it: sea 
. J ewel's works, Park. Soc. edit., voL 1. p. 340 ; 



687 



[PETEIl 



where finthorities are produced from an- 
cien t authors, 
i Passing strange it was to Peter, after 
making the acknowledgment which was so 
approved, to hear Christ speak of approach- 
ing degradation, suffering, and death. All 
this was in his view simply impossible ; and 
therefore we are told he hastily exclaimed, 
'This shall not he unto thee.' His excla- 
mation drew down on him a severe rehuke 
(Matt. xvi. 21-23). We may conceive the 
astonished perplexity into which he must 
have been thrown ; and we have therein a 
clue to som'e of the apostle's subsequent in- 
consistencies. The stronger his faith in his 
Master's dignity, the less could he imagine 
that drear eclipse which was to come upon 
the Sun of righteousness ; and it was this 
very faith, when afterwards, as it seemed, 
so utterly deceived, that made him deny 
' Christ. Perhaps, had his expectations been 
less high, he might have held on through 
those last doleful hours, 
! We may see the working of Peter's mind 
in his various observations and questions. 
1 Thus on the mount of transfiguration he 
i proposed to pitch tabernacles, the head- 
quarters of the splendid kingdom he sup- 
posed just about to be inaugurated (xvii.4). 
Then he would not at first allow his Master 
to demean himself by washing his feet 
(.John xiii. 8). His unquiet curiosity about 
the traitor, and his puzzled enquiries, 
'Windier t^oest thou?' and 'Lord, why 
cannot I follow thee now?' (2.3, 24, .36, 37) 
indicate vfhat was passing within. He felt 
that a crisis was at hand. And, when the 
Lord spoke of buying a sword (Luke xxii,3G), 
then doubtless his hopes were high ; and, as 
the band of officers approached, the long- 
period of suspense was over — he was the 
first to strike a blow. What cared he now for 
the authority of the priests! his Master 
would presently blaze forth in the reful- 
gence of divine might, and the rulers of the 
world must sink before him. Then it was 
when the meek Victim made no resistance, 
and was actually led off a prisoner — then 
came that vast revulsion, and Peter seemed 
to wake from a flattering dream : So, then, 
it has been all a delusion ! instead of wield- 
ing hea\'enly power, Jesus cannot deliver 
himself from a party of peace-ofllcers. I 
jiave lieen somehow deceived. It was this, 
the crusliing of all his high-raised hopes, 
j the disappointment of his faith, and not 
I viere cowardice that made Peter shrink. He 
j thought he ha- '-lo longer any cause to con- 
! tend for. And, though curiosity and linger- 
i ng affection for the defeated one carried 
liijii to see th& enu, yet it was no more as a 
disciple^ iui. just as g spectator, that he 
i^ressed into the higti priest's palace. He 
did not belong Co Tesus : he could have 
nothing to do with a man who had trifled 
with his honest attachment. Why should 
he involve himseit m danger for such a 
one? Hence the repeated denials, not 
caused by fea? alone, but by mortified 
affection, the strength of his denials corre- 
sponding to the greatness of his former ex- 
pectations. Biit, when the Lord turned and 
looked upon him, then he felt it was with an 
omniscient eye. He who stood to be judged 



could read his heart, and was pointing to 
his prophetic word just then fulfilled. And 
the apostle's mind misgave him. Thou.gh a 
dark cloud hung over the Son of man, he 
might be after all the Master and the Lord ; 
and in an agony of shame, and self -upbraid- 
ing, and love, and sorrow— for all that has 
been said does not excuse, it but ex- 
plains his conduct— Peter went out and 
wept bitterly. 

. The three denials are differently recorded 
by the different evangelists. But, if all the 
details are laid together, and it is borne in 
mind that not merely three definite ex- 
pressions, but a torrent of hasty words 
were uttered on both sides, the independent 
narratives will be found by no means con- 
tradictory. As to the first denial, all is plain. 
Peter was in the hall or court of the palace, 
wai-ming himself by the fire, when he was 
taxed by the porteress, who. came up to him, 
with being of Jesus' company. He denied, 
and retreated from the fire to the porch or 
vestibule; and the cock crew; but the 
anxious apostle did not heed it. Next he 
w^as lingering in the porch ; but his move- 
ments had attracted notice : so several per 
sons charged him, the porteress again (now 
probably returned to the door), another 
maid, a male servant, according to the first 
three evangelists. We should naturally ex- 
pect this : several in such a group would be 
sure to speak at once ; and this is just what 
St. John, 'vvho was present, reports, 'they 
said.' Then as to the third denial a while 
after: Peter perhaps, as thinking the 
danger over, had returned to the fire ; but 
his provincial accent: betrayed him to the 
bystanders as a Galilean; and a kinsman of 
Malchns, whose ear he had cut off, identified 
him as one of those he had seen with Jesus 
in the garden. The words of his reply are 
differently reported ; but, as St. Matthew 
tells us he ' Ijegan to curse and to swear,' 
it is obvious tliat he did not just utter a 
single sentence, but denied with repeated 
asseverations. It vras then that the cock 
crew again ; ;uul the Lord cast his sad 
warning look upon Peter (Matt. xxvi. 69-75; 
Mark xiv. GG-72 ; Luke xxii. 54-62; John 
xviii. 15-27). A fuller explanation may be 
seen in the Journal of Sacr. Lit., April, i854, 
pp. 84-92 ; Birks' Ilorce Evanrj., book ill. chap, 
ii. pp. 415-417; Home's Introcl., edit, i^yre, 
vol. ii. pp. 478, 479. 

Of St. Peter at the crucifixion, and during 
the following day, we read nothing. On the 
resurrection morning he ran with John to 
the sepulchre (John xx. 2-10) ; and the Lord 
in the course of that day vouchsafed to ap- 
pear to him (Luke xxiv, 34 ; 1 Cor. xv. 5) ; 
and with the rest of the disciples he re- 
peatedly saw the risen Saviour. One occa- 
sion was when he had returned to his old 
occupation of fishing on the sea of Galjleo ; 
and Jesus questioned him of his love ta 
him, and in touching terms gave him (diarg<: 
to feed his sheep, and told him that ho 
should follow him to death (John xxi.). 
Peter's mind was clear enough then : ho saw 
it all, that Jesus was alive, the Sou of God 
for evermore. 

After the ascension -we find him taktnf^ 
I his old place as spokesman of the aposlies. 



peter] 



688 



He proposed the election of another in the 
place of Judas (Acts i. 15-25) : he specially 
addressed the multitude that crowded 
round the apostles on the day of pentecost 
(ii. 14-40), and was indeed the central figure 
of the first part of the Acts of the Apostles, 
■which describes the planting and extension 
of the church among the Jews hy his 
ministry. The experience he had gained he 
turned to profit. He had learued his own 
weakness, and his Master's power; and it 
was one of the marvels of the age, a problem 
not to he solved unless the gospel doctrine 
were true, that the impulsive, vacillating, 
inanisitive fisherman, in six or seven short 
weeks, was so changed in character and de- 
portment, into the grave and learned 
teacher, that, with logical argument and 
masterly application of the ancient scrip- 
tures, he boldly confronted and confounded 
tlie leading councillors and profound doc- 
tors of the nation (iii. 12-26, iv. 1-20, v. 29-42). 

The rest of Peter's history, as we find it 
In scripture, can be but lightly sketched. 
He was incessantly engaged in preaching 
Christ ; and many miracles were wrought 
by his hand. When Samaria had received 
the gospel, he wag sent thither with John, 
where he rebuked Simon Magus ; and he 
passed through various other districts, the 
Lord blessing his labours (viii. 14-25, ix. 
32-43). There was then a special crisis of 
the church. God had determined, according 
to ancient prophecy, to make the Gentiles 
fellow-heirs with Israel of the promise. 
And by means of Peter the door should be 
set open. But the apostles did not as yet 
understand the largeness of Messiah's king- 
dom. And Peter must be taught by a 
symbolical vision that he was not to call 
anything common or unclean. Accordingly 
he' was instructed to go with the messen- 
gers of Cornelius, the devout centurion; 
and while he was speaking to him and hi& 
company the Holy Ghost fell upon them. 
Then they were of course admitted to Chris- 
tian baptism. But the church at Jerusalem 
at first censured Peter for what he had 
done ; and, when he had recounted ^the 
matter, in utter wonder they exclainied, 
' Then hath God also to the Gentiles granted 
repentance unto life' (x., xi. 1-18). Peter 
was afterwards imprisoned by Herod 
Agrippa, and the night before his intended 
execution miraculously delivered in answer 
to the prayers of the church (xii. 1-17). He 
was also subsequently present at a council 
of apostles and elders (xv. 7-11). 

We read no more of Peter in the Acts. A 
few scattered hints of him may be gleaned 
from the epistles (to be noticed hereafter). 
For the rest of his life we are left to tra- 
dition. Ecclesiastical story, however, tells 
us that he left Jerusalem early, founded and 
presided over the church at Antioch ; that 
subsecLuently he went to Rome, where he 
once more met and confounded Simon 
Magus ; and that he was bishop many years 
of the imperial city. He visited the east 
again, and planted many churches in the 
west ; and at length he was martyred with 
Paul, at Home, under Nero, being crucified 
With his head downwards, 
'liiat he was martyi-ed we may be sure, 



and by the same kind of death as his Lord 
suffered (John xxi. 18, 19). That this oc- 
curred at Rome is highly probable. Several 
of the early writers, such as Tertullian, 
Dionysius of Corinth,Caius the Roman pres- 
byter, and others, report it; some of them 
mentioning memorials of 'the fact which 
they say were existing in their times. And, 
though some of these authors were credu- 
lous, and their statements not always to be 
relied on, yet, as "Wieseler well remarks, if j 
Peter had suffered in any other city, we ' 
may feel certain that the church of that city ! 
would have claimed honour as the scene 
of the martyrdom of so eminent an apostle 
(see Chronol. dcs Apost. Zeitalt., pp. 568- 
570). 

But a long residence at Antioch or Rome 
cannot be made to fit in with the New Tes- 
tament accounts of Peter. Neither can he 
have been the founder of the churches 
there. For Paul, three years after his con- 
version, found Peter at Jerusalem (Gal. 1. 
IS; comp. Acts ix. 26-28). Somewhat later, 
when tidings came of the success of the 
gospel at Antioch, not Peter but Barnabas 
was sent thither, who soon associated Paul 
with him ; and, when, after a year's sojourn 
there, the two went to Jerusalem, there 
was Peter; for it was just at the time of 
Herod's rage against the disciples (xi. 19-30, 
xii. 1). Again, fourteen years after Paul's 
conversion he was at Jerusalem with Bar- 
nabas (Gal. ii. 1). This must have been at 
the time of the council (Acts xv. 2-4) ; at 
which Peter was present, though, it maybe 
observed, he did not preside. It was at this 
meeting that James, Peter, and John agreed 
to direct their ministrations chiefly to the 
Jews ; wliile Paul and Barnabas went to the 
heathen (Gal. ii. 7-9). It is inconceivable 
that Peter would just after betake himself 
to Rome, where the church was for a long 
time almost exclusively Gentile ; for, on 
Paul's subsequent arrival there, the Jews 
seem scarcely to have heard the gospel 
(Acts xxviii. 17-29). Besides, soon after the 
council, Peter must have gone to Antioch 
(Gal. ii. 11-13), probably at the time marked 
in Acts XV. 35, before Paul and Barnabas 
separated. Then, further, when Paul wrote 
his epistle to the Romans, on his way to 
Jerusalem, lodging with Gains at Corinth 
(Rom, XV. 25, xvi. 23 : corap. Acts xx. 2, 3; 
1 Cor. i. 14), he does not name Peter to them. 
Years later, vrhen Paul was carried a pri- 
soner thither, there is no mention of wel- 
come from Peter. Nor is there any reference 
to Peter in any letters written from Rome. 
Certainly loo much stress ought not to be 
laid upon silence ; but from Peter's own 
epistle fl Pet. v. 13) the probability is that 
he had not at that time quitted the east. 
And how could Paul at a still later period 
have spoken as he did (2 Tim. iv. 0, 16, 17), 
had Peter been at hand ? 

The conclusion then is a probable one 
that, though Peter suffered at Rome near 
upon the time of Paul's martyrdom, in the 
Neronian persecution, yet it could not have 
been till at or after the close of Paul's life 
that Peter reached the metropolis. The 
date of his martyrdom is variously placed : 
possibly it was about 67 or 68 A.D. 



689 



MhU WiVtaMttfQt. [peter, epistles of 



PETER, THE EPISTLES OF. There are 
two epistles in tlie canon of scripture which 
bear the name of St. Peter. 

Of the genuineness of the first there has 
scarcely ever been a doubt. The early testi- 
monies to it are numerous and decisive. Poly- 
carp and Papias cite it. Irenseus guotes 
it, expressly naming Peter as the author ; 
also Clement of Alexandria, TertuUian, and 
Origen. And, though not introduced into 
the Muratorian canon, which v/hen it speaks 
of Peter is confused and obscure, it appears 
in every other ancient catalogue (see West- 
cott. Canon of the Neio Test, app. D. pp. 565- 
584). It is in the early Peshito Syriac ver- 
sion ; and in short so conclusive is the 
proof that few have ever questioned it 
save some modern critics, whose arguments, 
such as they are, have been disposed of by 
Dr. Alford, Proleg., sectt. i. vi. 

The apostle writes to ' the strangers (i.e. 
pilgrims on earth, comp.l Pet. ii, ii) scatter- 
ed (i.e. of the dispersion)througbout Pontus, 
Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.' 
Prom the mention of the dispersion we 
may probably conclude that, as he regarded 
Jerusalem still as the central point of holy 
worship, that city was not yet destroyed (see 
Wieseler, Chronol. des Apost. Zeitalt, pp. 559- 
563). Still it must not be supposed that St. 
Peter was writing only to Jews : various 
passages (e. g., 1 Pet. i. 14, 18, ii. 9,/10, iii. 6, 
iv. 3) are applicable mainly to those who 
had been heathens but were now converted 
to the faith of Christ. And then the 
churches generally in the provinces which 
Peter names had been planted by St. Paul, 
who had ever instructed them that all, both 
Jews and Gentiles, were one in Christ (Gal. 
vi. 15 ; Eph. ii. 14-18, iii. 6, iv. 3-6). Peter, 
writing to these communities with the 
purpose of confirming them in the doctrine 
they had previously learned, would never, 
we may be sure, pick out, so to speak, the 
Jewish believers from the Gentiles, and 
direct his counsels to them apart from their 
brethren. 

The place from which this epistle was 
^vritten was ' Babylon' (1 Pet. v. 13), whether 
Babylon literally or Babylon symbolically 
(that is, Rome) has been questioned. Other 
conjectures— as that it was an Egyptian 
city— are not worth notice. Now Rome is 
called Babylon only in the poetic and highly- 
symbolical book of the Revelation (e.g.. 
Rev. xvii. 5, 18). It is not likely that it 
would be so termed in a prose matter-of- 
fact epistle, where other places or countries 
have their ordinary names. Besides, the 
order in which (1 Pet. i. 1) those countries 
are ranked is that which would naturally 
occur to one writing on the banks of the 
Euphrates, ranging generally from north- 
east to south and west ; while it would be 
unsuitable to one sojourning in Italy. It 
was in the highest degree probable, seeing 
that Judea and Babylonia were in close 
intercourse, and many Jews had settled in 
the last-named country (Josephus, Antiq., 
lib. XV. 3, § 1), that the apostle of the circum- 
cision would carry the gospel thither. And 
certain causes which had tended to un- 
settle the Jews there— as a persecution by' 
Caligula, and a plague— had by this time 



passed away. It wiU be observed that 
'church' is supplied in our version : some 
have imagined that rather Peter's wife 
who used to travel with him (1 Cor. ix. 5) is 
intended. But we may safely dismiss such 
a conjecture, which would render it very 
difficult to account for the words ' in Baby- 
lon ' being introduced at all. 

We can with much probability approxi- 
mate to the time when this letter was 
written. The following notes may be laid 
together. Jerusalem, as already observed, 
was still standing. And Silas (Silvanus) and 
Mark were with the apostle (1 Pet. v. 12, 13). 
Now Silas was St. Paul's companion, and 
did not leave him till he quitted Corinth 
(Acts xviii. 5, 18 ; 2 Cor. i. 19). It was after 
that date, then, that Silas joined Peter. 
Again, Mark was in Pvome with Paul when 
the epistle to the Colossians was written, 
in which there is an intimation that Mark 
would visit Asia (Col. iv. 10), while at alater 
date Paul desires that he may return to him 
in Rome (2 Tim. iv. 11). It is very likely 
that it was in the interval that he was with 
Peter. Still further, while Paul was at large, 
Peter would hardly have violated the com- 
pact of Gal. ii. 7-9. But, if Paul was in 
prison, unable to remedy the evils growing 
in the churches he had founded and might 
be said to govern, Peter, who probably had 
seen the epistles Paul wrote out of his Ro- 
man prison, might readily feel himself 
bound to confirm those churches in thef aith. 
We may not unfairly conclude that Mark, 
having visited the Asiatic churches soon 
after the epistle to the Oolossianswas writ- 
ten, carried the news of their condition to 
Peter, and that this apostle under the guid- 
ance of the divine Spirit wrote to them by 
Silas, charging them to continue in that 
true faith in which they had been grounded 
(1 Pet. V. 12). The expressions in regard to 
persecution do not require us to bring the 
date down to the time of that of Nero ; for 
they imply rather trial impending than 
actually present (ii. 12, iii. 13), and no 
greater amount of opposition than Christ's 
disciples had always had to meet. Besides^ 
it is not certain that the Neronian persecu- 
tion extended to the Asiatic provinces. 
The probable inference from all this is that 
the epistle may be dated 62 or 63 a.d. 

The purport of the apostle's writing is 
indicated in the verse just referred to (v. 12), 
IS^ow the ' true grace ' wherein they stood, 
since we have no proof that Peter had him- 
self visited these churches, must neces- 
sarily have been that body of doctrine which 
had been deliverexi to them by Paul and his 
associates. Keeping this in mind, and see- 
ing that the strain of Peter's admonition 
was to fortify and encourage the disciples 
in the prospect of that more desperate 
struggle into which they were likely to be 
brought with the rulers of the world, we 
shall see that the various parts group well 
round the central design. St. Peter did not 
mean to teach elementary truth, but rather, 
recognizing the fundamental doctrines of 
the gospel which St. Paul had inculcated, 
to supplement the last-named apostle's 
teaching. He could do this with the moit> 
eifect as the apostle of the circumcision, 

Y Y 



PETES, EPISTLES OF] ^tea^Urg Qt 



690 



the one especially looked up to by those "u-lio 
imagined tliat Paul Tras iuclined to uuder- 
value the autliority of the law. Peter thus 
strengihens his hrethreu (Luke xxii. 32). 
His address is very earnest ; his mind ever 
dwelling on his Master, his lahours and 
eufieriugs, and his expected manifestation 
to the jOY of his now-struggling people. All 
Is in accordance with what we know of 
Peter's character, and resemhles very strik- 
ingly his addresses as recorded in the Acts 
of the Apostles. It has heen already said 
that Peter must have heen acG[uainted with 
St Paul's epistles ; he adopts their form of 
doctrine, and often re-produces their sen- 
timents ; so that tahles have heen con- 
structed to exhibit the similarity by a com- 
parison of passages. Similar coincidences 
have been pointed out between this epistle 
and those of St. James and St. John (De 
Wette, Einleit. in K.T., § 172 ; Alf ord, Proleg., 
Eect. vi.). Thus one mind pervades the 
whole scripture, one Spirit 'dividing to 
everj' man severally as he will ' (1 Cor. xii. 11). 

It 'is not easy to arrange this letter into 
iistinct parts f so many of the admonitions 
running into each other. The fohowiug is 
Bengel's distribution of it : it will lUustrate 
the composition and connection as well as 

^^I. The inscription (1 Pet. 1. 1, 2). 
II. The stirring up of a pure mmd. He 
stirs up the elect, ^ „ , 

(a) As betrotten again of God. Here he 
mentions both the benefits of God to 
the faithful, and the obligations of 
the faithful towards God : these he 
interweaves and presses by three ur- 
gent considerations, to which force 
is added from the mystery of Christ:— 
(A). God hath begotten again to a 
lively hope, to an inheritance of glory 
and salvation; therefore hope to the 
end (3-13). (B). As obedient children 
yield forth the fruit ot faith to your 
holy Father (14-21). (C). Purified by 
the Spirit love with a pure heart 
blamelessly (22— ii. 10). 

(b) As strangers in the world they must 
abstain from fleshly lusts aD : (A). 
With an honest conversation (12) ; i. 
particularly (l) subjects (13-17), (2) ser- 
vants after Christ's example (18-25), 
(3) wives (iii. 1-6), (4) husbands (7) ; ii. 
generally all (8-15) : (B) by a good pro- 
fession; i. by an answer for the 
truth and the avoidance of evil asso- 
ciation (15— iv. 6). (The whole career 
of Christ from his passion to his 
death adds force to this) ; ii. by vir- 
tues and the good stewardship of 
God's gifts a-ll). 

(c) As participators of future glory they 
must eudure afflictions. This all must 
do, (1) In the general position of Chris- 
tians (12-19), (2) In the individual posi- 
tion of each (v. 1-11). 

III. Conclusion (12-14). 

The second epistle of St. Peter has per- 
haps less amount of ancient testimony than 
any other of the books in the sacred canon. 
And it is freely acknowledged by early 
writers that it? authoriry was doubted. Still 
there are probable refer.n^.ccs to it in Justin 



Martyr,Theophilu3 of Antioch, and Irenseus. 
Origen and Firmilian distinctly mention or 
alliide to it ; and in the fourth centur-y after 
Christ it was generally received, and thence- 
forward appears in the catalogues of ca- 
nonical books. And we are bound in fairness 
to believe, as the fathers of that time were | 
aware that this epistle had been objected 
to, that they did not receive it without 
satisfying themselves, by such evidence as 
they could command, that the objections 
were untenable. Olshausen has very care- 
fully and temperately examined the whole 
question. He is quite ready to give up every 
testimony prior to that of Origen. But he 
reminds us of the very early classification 
of various books of the ^'ew Testameut— 
the Gospels— the Pauline epistles— the 
epistles called catholic; which gradually 
coalescing formed with the Acts and the 
Apocalvpse a single volume. So that, if not 
individually named, it by no means foUows 
that this was unknown or rejected. And he 
shows that it may reasonably be supposed 
to have been included in the collection of 
catholic epistles. Even those who mention 
the objections to it received it themselves. 
And the objections had no definite ground: 
they arose rather from men's speculations 
about the contents, Olshauseii's deliberate 
conclusion,therefore,is—'l.That our epistle, 
as far as we can ascertain from history, was 
usedbv the church, and was generally read, 
along with the other catholic epistles: 2. 
There were those who denied that Peter was 
the author of this epistle, but they were in- 
fluenced particularly by critical and, per- 
haps, by doctrinal reasons: 3. That there 
were historical considerations which led 
them to assail our epistle is not probable ; 
cercainlv it cannot be demonstrated. His- 
torh',t]ie)i. avails scarcely anytMng in over- 
ihroicing the authority of our epistle' {Integr. 
and Authent. of Second Epistle of Peter, 
trarisJd. in Amer. Bibl. llepos., July 1836, pp. 

^'Tiie^''objections, then, are of an internal 
character; and they have been urged both 
from the contents of this epistle considered 
by it«eif, and also from a comparison of it 
with the first, an undoubted production of 
St. Peter's pen. ^ ^ t. 

It is of course impossible even to touch 
on all the arguments taken from the epis- 
tl'Mtself : one or two may just be indicated. 
Thus it is said that too great anxiety is 
•shown by the writer to exhibit himself as 
the apostle, giving thereby ground for 
suspicion that he only personates St. Peter 
(2 Pet. i. 13-18). The reply is that as he was 
gravelv censuring false teachers there was 
oood reason why Peter should bring him- 
self prominently forward. St. Paul under 
similar circumstances frequently does the 
same. Again, it is urged that he refers to 
Paul's epistles as forming part of the re- 
cosnized scriptures (iii. 15, 16). Dr. Al- 
fofd {Proleg., sect, iv.) allows considerable 
weight to this argument, and thinks that 
we must infer that Peter's life was more 
extended than is usually supposed. But 
Olshausen considers ' the other scriptures 
as simply designating the other epistles of 
Paul • * The unstable pervert, not untre- 



691 



[petes, epistles 



Quently, all the epistles of Paul, those 
sent to you as well as those sent to 
others ' (ubi supr., Oct. 1836, pp. 353-357). 
Schott, denying also that the words imply 
that there was then any recognized con- 
plete collection of St. Paul's epistles, re- 
minds us that each apostolic writing was at 
once acknowledged hy those to whom it 
came as the word of God (X>er Ziveite Brief 
Petri u.s.w. erMaH, p. 144). 

Schott also disposes of the argument 
taken from the alleged difEerence between 
the first and second epistles in regard to 
subject, and shows how by the vrorking 
of the evil leayen in the church there ne- 
cessarily would be a diif erence ; each letter 
being suitable to the circumstances of the 
time when it was penned. He ridicules the 
idea that in the short compass of sixty-one 
verses the distinctive characteristics of the 
first epistle must re-appear, and maintains 
that with equal wisdom the epistles to the 
Romans and to the Ephesians might be sup- 
posed not to be from the same pen ; for, 
though the letter to the Romans is a regu- 
lar exposition of Pauline doctrine, that idea 
of the church which is so prominent in that 
to the Ephesians does not once appear 
iihicl., pp. 167-174). 

With regard to style and phraseology much 
variation has been imagined between the 
two epistles ; so that it has been confidently 
afflrmed that the same man could not have 
expressed himself so very differently. And 
some critics have suggested that, as Peter 
was ignorant of Greek, he dictated what he 
had to say in Aramaic, and that his mind 
was expressed in Greek in the first letter 
perhaps by Silas, in the second by Mark. 
But really to suppose the apostle ignorant 
of Greek is a monstrous assumption ; all 
probabilities telling the other way. Schott 
believes that with his first epistle Peter 
took especial pains in regard to his expres- 
sions, as writing to those whom he had not 
visited. Be this as it may, the leading 
topics of the second were peculiar : there 
was a certain influence (to be hereafter 
more particularly mentioned) which would 
make itself felt in his style ; and some time, 
we may reasonably suppose, elapsed between 
the two letters (comp. Schott, pp. 175-188). 
And we have to lay over-against objections 
of the kind just now considered the fact 
that the writer distinctly claims to be the 
apostle Peter. This is not like a disquisi- 
tion respecting the authorship of the book 
of Job, y/hich holds its place, whoever tlie 
penman might be. Hence if not Peter's 
writing we have an impudent forgery, and 
the falsest of teachers with awf'il gravity 
warning the church against false teachers. 
Is any man, putting all the circumstances 
together, prepared to take this frighfful 
alternative? 

Of the time and place of writing nothing 
certain can be said. That it was penned 
not long before the apostle's death is evi- 
dent ; but where he was at the time we 
can only conjecture. 

This epistle would seem to have been 
addressed to the same persons to whom 
tlie former was written, being intended as 
a kind of supplement to that (2 Pet. lii. 1), 



with the purpose of stirring up and con- 
firming in the knowledge of tbe truth, with 
special reference to certain dangerous 
errors in both doctrine and practice, which 
were even then developiiig themselves, and 
which would spread and strengthen to the 
last days. For surely no pen could more ac- 
curately describe those whom we now be- 
hold, whose great principle is that 'all 
things continue as they were,' and who 
scorn the notion of the great God ever 
coming to touch the orderly mechanism of 
the universe (3, 4). 

The following is Ben gel's distribution of 
this epistle : — 

I. The inscription (i. 1, 2). 

II. The repeated stirring up of a pure 

mind; in which — 1. He exhorts 
those who are partakers of faith, 
that, increased with di\ane gifts, 
they should show forth all zeal for 
growth in grace and in the know- 
ledge of Jesus Christ (3-11).— 2. He 
adds motives ; (a) from the con- 
stancy of true teachers (12-21) ; (b) 
from the evil of false teachers (ii. 1- 
22).— 3. He warns against scoffers ; 

(a) confuting their error (iii. 1-9) , 

(b) describing the last day, with 
fitting exhortations (10-14). 

III. Conclusion ; in which— 1. He declares 

his accordance with Paul (15, 16), — 
2. And repeats the sum of his epis- 
tle (17-18). 

There is one more topic in respect to this 
letter, which must be briefly touched— and 
that is its relation to the epistle of St. Jude. 
It is evident that the later writer must have 
been cognizant of what the earlier had 
said ; but it is a question which is the 
earlier. Gaussen {Canon of Holy Scripture, 
transl., part i. book iv. chap. 3, pp. 368-371), 
and Schott (iibi svor., pp. 265-277), believe 
that Peter wrote first, and regard Jude's 
work as one of the testimonies to the au- 
thority of the second of Peter. It is, how- 
ever, more generally supposed that Jude is 
prior to the second of Peter. In proof of 
which it may be said that the corruption 
described seems to have reached a greater 
development in Peter than in Jude; the 
false disciples occupying in the first-named 
the teachers' chair, while no evidence of 
this appears in the other. It is urged, in- 
deed, that Peter's observations are Uioro 
compressed than those of Jude ; so that tlie 
latter has illustrated them. But, perhap'S, 
such an argument may tell more forcibly 
the other way; and Peter, if he had not 
knoym that Jude's letter was in the hands of 
the church, might have been more explicit. 
Dr. Alf ord, comparing Jude 11 with 2 Pet. li. 
15, 16, where Peter mentions of Old Testa- 
ment false prophets only Balaam, and Jude 
names others,pertinently asks, 'Can any one 
persuade us that in the impetuous whirl- 
wind of St, Jude's invective he adopted and 
abridged the example furnished by St. 
Peter, prefixing and adding those of Cain 
and Korah ?' {Proleg., sect, iii.). As to the 
fact of one sacred writer borrowing from 
another, we have examples enough in the 
Old Testament ; where a prophecy delivered 
by a seer in earlier times is subse'iuentjy 



pethahiah] 



692 



re-produced "by another. And Peter, it lias 
Toeen seen in Ws fli-st epistle, lias taken a 
tinse of colouring from St. Paul : tliere can, 
tlierefore, iDe no valid olDjection to tlie 
belief that, dirinely guided, lie adopted 
something of what Jude had said, and that 
his style was hence somewhat influenced. 

Of commentaries on St. Peters wi'itmgs, 
besides those already referred to, that hy 
archhp. Leighton on the fli'st epistle, fi-e- 
Quently re-printed, must he speciaUy re- 
commended. Dr. John Brown's ^xpos. 
Discourses on 1st Epistle of Peter, 1848-1849, 
may also he mentioned. , . ^ n 

PETHAHI'AH (whom JeliovaJi sets free). 
—1 A chief of one of the courses of the 
priests aChron. xxiY.16).— 2. ALente who 
had married a foreign wife (Ezra s. 23)._ it 
was perhaps the same who took part in a 
solemn serxice of confession and praise 
(Xeh is 5).— 3. A descendant of Judah, who 
held * some office at the Persian court on 
hehalf of his countiTmen (si. 24). 

PETHO'R (possibly a table). A city, as 
usuahy supposed, of Mesopotamia, more 
probably in the neighbourhood of Bashan : 
see Journ. of Sacr. Lit., Jan. 1852, pp. 384- 
S86 : it was the residence of Balaam (Aumb. 
xxii. 5 ; Deut. sxiii. 4). 

PETHU'EL {-vision of God, or possibly for 
Methuel, man of God). The father of the 
prophet Joel (Joel i. 1). , ^ ^ 

PET'PtA (rock). A very celebrated city 
in the land of Edom, the capital of the Na- 
bathiean Arabs. Strabo (Ub. xvi. cap. iv. 
779) and Pliny (lib. vi. cap. 32) describe it. 
Petra lay in the route of the caravan-traffic 
throueh Ai-abia to the Elanitic gulf of the 
Red sea. The name occurs only in Isai. 
xvi. 1, marg. : in the test we have Sela, a 
word'of like sis^niflcation. See Sela. 

PEPL'THAI (icacjes of Jeliovah). One of 
the Levite porters (l Chron. xx^^i. 5). 

PJSA'ATE-MOAB (1 Esdr. v. 11). Pahath- 
moab (Ezra ii. 6), . ^ -, 

PHA'CAEETE 0- Esdr. v. 34). Pochereth 
(Ezra ii. 57). „ ^ 

PHAI'SUB (1 Esdr. ix. 22). Pashur (Ezra 

^'^BALBArUS a Esdr. is. 44). Pedaiah 

' PSALE'AS a Esdr. v. 29). Padon (Ezra 
ii. 44). „ ^ 

PHA'LEO (Luke iii. 35). Peleg. 

PHAL'LTJ (Gen. slvi. 9). See Palltj. 

PHAL'TI {deliverance of JeJwvah). A 
■person to whom David's wife, Michal, was 
given (1 Sam. ssv. 44). He is also called 

PHAL'TIEL {deliverance of Gocl) (2 Sam. 

^ PHAXTJ'EL (face or vision of God). An 
Asherlte, father of the prophetess Anna 
(Luke ii. 36). 
PiTJ.IZ'ACiJ/ a Esdr. V. 31). 
PHA'PAOH {the sun). The ordinary title 
by which the Egyptian kings are known 
in scripture. It was at one time be- 
lieved that this word signified king : but 
later researches seem to have conclusively 
established the fact that, as the monarch 
was supposed to represent the sun-god he 
therefore bore the name of the sun (l.aw- 
linson's Herodotus, vol, ii. P. 293) ; the Pha- 
raoh of the Hebrew bible correspondmg to 



P-E.A, or PH-PA in hieroglyphics. The 

deity Re or Ra was the sun. ^ , ^, 

Certain kinss (as Shishak, So, Tirhakah, 
and Zerah) of Egypt or Ethiopia do not 
bear the title Pharaoh : for some account ot 
them reference must be made to the articles 
under their respective names. And two ot 
the later sovereisrns have each a name addea 
to the title, Pharaoh-necho, and Pharaoh- 
hophra. To aU the rest the appellation 
Pharaoh is given with no mai'k of distinc- 
tion. It is therefore veiT difficult to 
identify these difEerent princes, more es- 
pecially as, besides the uncertainty of Egyp- 
tian dynasties or regal lines, the events 
in Hebrew history contemporary with par- 
ticular Pharaohs are placed at very difEerent 
dates bv different chronologers. Thus, ac- 
cording to the common Usserian reckoning, 
the call of Abraham was 1921 B.C. But, if that 
can occui-red 2084 B.C., as some suppose, we 
should have to seek for another Pharaoh as 
the monarch whom Abraham found r eignmg 
when he visited Egypt. For special inves- 
tigation, then, the reader must be referred 
to those who have written at length on 
Egyptian chronology and history, it win 
be more in unison with the general cha- 
racter of this book to give brief accounts, 
so fai' as we have them in scripture, of the 
successive Pharaohs there mentioned, and 
to add, if they have been made on pro- 
bable groimds, the identification, of these 
sovereigns as proposed by the best authori- 

1^ The first Egyptian king of whom we 
find a notice was the one who reigned 
when Abramwent to sojourn in his lana 
on account of a famine in Canaan (Gen. sii. 
10-20). This prince appears tO:haye acted 
uprightly. He was at first deceived by the 
representation that Sarai was Abrams 
sifter and took her into his house ; but 
when he knew the truth he restored her to 
her husband, with a very proper reprool 
for the deception practised, and then dis- 
missed the patriarch with substantial gifts. 
Some have imagined that this Pharaoh was 
the Salatis of Manetho, head of thefifteentli 
dvna^tv of shepherd kings. By others he is 
called Osirtesen I., or Sesortasen I- ; ^J^^le 
Kalisch, among a variety of conflicting 
opinions, thinks it useless to attempt fisiug 
upon any particular monarch {Comm. on 
Old Test. Gen., p. 341). It was evidently one 
who reisned in Lower Egypt. 

2 The nest Pharaoh mentioned is he who 
advanced Joseph and received the blessing 
of Jacob. His reign must have been o-f 
considerable length ; for there is no note of 
any change of person from the time when 
the chief butler and baker were committed 
to prison till the death of Jacob ; and tiie 
interval was fuUy twenty-eight years. This 
king exercised great but not quite despotic 
power. He imprisoned or released his great 
officers at his will, yet he consulted his 
nobles before he placed Joseph in his high 
position, and he observed the custom of the 
country in lea^ang untouched the inheri- 
tance of the priestly caste, while he got 
nos^ession of the lands of the otherpropne- 
tors (Gen. xl., xlv., xmi., 1.). It has been 
imagined that this monarch also was one 



693 MMt ^X\nMttSQ2. 



of the slieplierd kings. Mr, Palmer suppo- 
ses him to have heen Apophis, who reigned 
sixty-one years in lower Egypt, and in his 
fortieth year, the third of the famine, re- 
duced the king of the Thehaid to vassalage 
(JEgypt Chronicles, vol. ii. p. 897). Others, 
with less probahility, would identify him 
with Sesortasen III., celebrated under the 
name of Sesostris. 

3. The Pharaoh that knew not Joseph 
(Exod. i. 8-22), and endeavoured to check 
the growth of the Israelites whom he had 
reduced to hondage, was perhaps a native 
Egyptian. It was the daughter of this in- 
human prince who rescued and adopted 
Moses. Mr. Palmer (iibi supr.), would iden- 
tify this Pharaoh with Amosis the first of 
the eighteenth dynasty, who reigned ahout 
twenty-four years. Of the princess his daugh- 
ter nothing certain is known heyond what is 
recorded in scripture. Some have supposed 
her to he Hatasu (afterwards called Numt 
Amun), sister and wife of Thothmes II. 

4. If Amosis was the Pharaoh just men- 
tioned, then, as his reign was not a long 
one, the one from whom Moses fled (Exod. 
ii.l5) must have heen one of his successors. 
Mr. Palmer (p. 898) places the event in the 
first year of Hatasu with Thothmes II. 
It is reasonable to believe that Moses might 
be incited to attempt the deliverance of 
his brethren on a change of sovereigns. 

5. Of all that bore the title the Pharaoh of 
the exodus has left the most frightful 
history. Boldly questioning the right of 
Jehovah to interfere with him, held out 
as long as possible against the evidence of 
miracle and judgment. His very magicians 
acknowledged that there was a power at 
work superior to theirs : his courtiers re- 
monstrated that Egypt was being destroyed. 
Yet the obstinate king would only yield by 
degrees, and retracted his concessions as 
soon as the plagues which terrified him 
were removed. Compelled to submit by the 
last fearful stroke of the death of the 
first-born, when the loud wail of bitter grief 
resounded at midnight through the whole 
land, from the palace equally as from the 
prison, this king soon gathered heart again, 
pursued the retreating tribes, and lost all 
his army in the deaths of the Red sea (Exod. 
vii.-xii.). It has been questioned whether 
Pharaoh himself perished in the last catas- 
trophe. In Exodus this is not distinctly 
stated ; but elsewhere (Psal. cxxxvi. 15) it 
is implied. Opinions are strangely at va- 
riance in regard to this monarch. Kalisch 
calls him ' Ramses V. Amenophis, the last 
of the sixteen monarchs of the eighteenth 
dynasty (Gen., p. 643). Palmer says he was 
Amenoph II., and that his whole reign lasted 
nearly twenty-six years, the exodus oc- 
curring in the third (p. 898). These writers 
place the exodus in 1491 and 1654 b.c. respec- 
tively. Miss Oorbaux, on the other hand, 
in her very able memoir on the Rephaim, 
printed in the Journal of Sacred Literature, 
1851-1852, identifying a branch of the stock 
of the Rephaim with the shepherds, brings 
down the date to somewhere between 1325 
and 1300 B.C. (Jan. 1852, p. 376). Some would 
make the Pharaoh in question Rameses II., 
or his son Menptah (Amenophis). Other 



[PHAREZ 



writers fix on Thothmes III. "We must be 
content to wait for further investigation 
before we consider this Pharaoh certainly 
identified. 

6. There was a Pharaoh whose daughter 
Solomon married, and for whom he built a 
palace (1 Kings iii. 1, vii. 8) ; and the Egyp- 
tian king her father took the Canaanitish 
town Gezer, sacked it, and gave it her for a 
present (ix. 16). 

1. Another Pharaoh reigned in Egypt 
during David's time, and received Hadad of 
the Edomite royal family, who was rescued 
when a child from the military execution of 
Joab. Pharaoh brought him up, made him 
grants, and gave him in marriage the sister 
of Tahpenes his queen (xi. 18-22) ; but he left 
the Egyptian court as soon as he heard of 
David's death. Probably this Pharaoh was 
predecessor of Solomon's father-in-law. 
Osochor and Pseusennes II. have been sug- 
gested as likely to be these two kings. 

8. A Pharaoh of Egypt is mentioned in 
Rabshakeh's harangue (2 Kings xviii. 21 ; 
Isai. xxxvi. 6). Possibly he was Sethos. 

9. Of Pharaoh-nechoh (JPTira the lame) we 
have more definite information. He went 
up against the king of Assyria to the Eu- 
phrates, and defeated Josiah king of Judah, 
who came out to withstand him, at Megiddo. 
He afterwards deposed Jehoahaz, whom 
the Jews placed on the throne, and gave 
the kingdom to Jehoiakim as his vassal 
(2 Kings xxiii. 29-35). This king was subse- 
quently defeated at Carchemishby Nebu- 
chadnezzar (xxiv. 7 ; Jer. xlvi. 2). He is 
known as the Necho who reigned fifteen 
years,f rem 609 to 594 B.C. According to Hero- 
dotus (lib. ii. 159), Necho after defeating the 
Syrians at Magdolus (Megiddo) took Oadytis, 
a Syrian city. This has been supposed to 
be Jerusalem : it was more likely Gaza ; 
but a writer in Dr. Smith's Diet, of the BiUe, 
vol. ii. p. 818,would identify it with a Syrian 
strong-hold, Ketesh on the Orontes. 

10. Pharaoh-hophra (Phra the priest oj 
the sun) is also mentioned (Jer. xlvi. 30). 
This most probably was the king who 
attempted to raise the siege of Jerusa- 
lem (xxxvii. 5-11). He was the Apries of 
secular historians. H^ received into his 
dominions the Jews who against God's 
warning fled into Egypt after the murder 
of Gedaliah ; but there they were told that 
war should overtake them. There is every 
reason to believe that ISTebuchadnezzar 
successfully invaded Egypt in Hophra's 
reign. This and other untoward events 
alienated his subjects : the army placed 
Amasis on the throne ; and the deprived 
monarch was ere long put to death. 

10. There is another Pharaoh mentioned 
(1 Chron. iv. 38), whose daughter Bithiah 
was taken to wife by one Mered, a descen- 
dant probably of Judah. Speculation is 
useless in regard to this king. 

PH ABATE' ONI (1 Mace. ix. 50). A place 
in Judea fortified in the Maccabean wars. 

PHA'RES. The Greek form of Pharez 
(Matt. i. 3 ; Luke iii. 33). This occurs also 
in the Apocrypha (e. g. 1 Esdi*. v. 5). 

PHAR'EZ (a breach). One of the sons of 
Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen. 
xxxviii. 29, xlvi. 12 ; Numb. xxvl. 20, 21 ; 



Kl)t Crra^urg at 



694 



Ruth Iv. 12, 18 ; 1 Cliron. ii. 4, 5, i\^ 1, ix. 4;. i 

He gave name to one of tlie great families 
of Judali; tlie Pliarzltes. He is also called 
Perez (xxrii. 3; 2v'eh. xi. 4, 6). Of liis per- 
sonal history nothing Is recorded: his nu- 
merous descendants are frequently noticed 
in the genealogies. _ 

PHABFEA (1 Esdr. v. 33). Peruda or 
Perida (Ezra ii. 55 ; jST-eh. vii. 57). _ _ 

PHARISEES, THE. One of the religious 
sects or parties among the Jews, occupying 
a very distinguished position in their later 
! historv. The origin of the Pharisees is 
i somewhat obscure. We may readily believe 
I that after the return fi-om the Babylonish 
' captivity, when the narion T^'as piaced 
under foreign sovereignty, a tendency 
1 would soon show itself to form parties. 

The administration of the Persian and es- 
1 peciallv the SjTian government would _na- 
' turally have an influence in assimilating 
the Jews to the rest of their subjects. Some 
would be inclined to yield to this in- 
fluence; and others would hold the more 
strictly to the observances of their own 
law. The difference would probably be 
aggravated by the neighbourhood of the 
Samaritans, hostile politically and, yet 
more, religiously. And the persecutions of 
J^ntiochus Epiphanes, attempting to force 
the Jews into idolatry, would push matters 
to a crisis. It is to this period that we must 
ascribe the origin of the Pharisees. They 
are not mentioned by name till the Kew 
Testament times. But it has been supposed 
that the Assideans (probably meaning the 
vious) of whom we read (1 Mace. ii._42, vn 
13 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 6> were the beginnings of 
them : see Prideaiix, Connection, vol. ii. pp. 
159 283, 284, under dates 167 and 107 B.C. The 
name Pharisee imports separated: cornp. 
Westcott, Inirod.to Gospels, chap. i. pp.60, &:c. 

The Pharisees rose by degrees to great 
estimation and power. In our Lord's days 
thev appear very prominently. It is true 
that sometimes the rival sect, the Sa^au- 
cees.held high office (Acts iv. 1, 2, xxiu. 6) ; 
but the Pharisees were more in favour with 
the people : they courted the applause of 
men, and they were successful : they had 
their reward : the leading men were of their 
party: the scribes and lawyers for the most 
part belonged to them. There was, how- 
ever, some internal division, there being 
two schools of them, those of Hillel and 
Shamraai, celebrated doctors a little before 
the Christian era; of these the last-named 
was the strictest. , 

The main distinguishing principle of this 
party was that thev placed tradition upon a 
level with the divine written law. Xay, as 
they conceived the written law imperj.ect, 
i e not containing all that God delivered, 
thev not onlv superadded but in some de- 
gree superseded it by the interpretations 
which they put upon it. For this our Lord 
especiallv reproved them, showing how thej' 
had 'made the commandment of God of 
none effect by their tradition' (Matt. xv. 
1-9) Their teaching on this point, as re- 
corded in the Mishna (part iv. tract. 10, 
Pirke Ahoth, c. 1) was that Moses received on 
Sinai both the law and the niterpretauon of 
it with the command to commit the former 



to -v^Titing, but to deliver the other only by 
word of mouth to be preserved In the 
memories of men; that, accordingly, he com- 
municated it to Joshua, Joshua to the 
elders, the elders to the prophets, and the 
prophets to the men of the great synagogue, 
from whom it was handed down through a 
succession of rabbis (see Prideaux, iM 
supr., vol. i. pp. 2S4, 285, under date 446 B.C. ; 
Winer, Bihl. BWB., art. ' Pharisiier : comp. 
Josephus, Antiq., lib. xiii. 10, § 6). Hence 
the Pharisees inculcated the most minute 
and frivolous observances ; instances of 
which, some of them almost ludicrous, have 
been given by various writers. But to all 
these thin s-s they attached a greater degree 
of sanctitry than to moral virtues (Matt, 
xxiii. 23). It was no wonder, therefore, 
that they were bitterly opposed to our 
Lord's teaching, which demonstrated the 
folly of trusting in these ' weak and beg- 
garly elements,' declared that the only 
acceptable worship to God who is a Spirit 
must be that offered ' in spirit and in truth' 
(John iv. 24), and contradicted their favour- 
ite notion that they were the chosen ones 
who had a right to look down on others 
as less righteous than themselves (Luke 
xviii. 9-12). 

The Pharisees maintained the immor- 
talitv of the soul and the doctrine of a re- 
surrection. Hence St. Paul enlisted them 
in his favour in a council composed partly 
of them, and partly of Sadducees whose be- 
lief was far different (Acts xxiii. 6-9). But, 
according to Josephus, they seem to have 
supposed that the souls of good men are 
united to other bodies in which the chastise- 
ment perhaps for lesser sins may be en- 
dured, while the souls of the wicked suffer 
eternal punishment (Bell. Jud., lib. ii. 8, § 14 ; 
Antiq., lib. xviii. 1, § 3). It may be doubted, 
however, whether these notions were not 
more of a speculative cast, so that the 
real and practical belief of the Pharisees 
was herein nearly identical with that which 
the gospel teaches. And Prideaux, who 
imagines that the doctrine of the Pharisees 
was'akin to the Pythagorean transmigra- 
tion of souls, acknowledges that aU the 
Jewish • books now extant speak of the re- 
surrection of the dead, and the last judg- 
ment thereon to follow, no otherwise in 
the main particulars than as the Christians 
do' (vol. ii. p. 289). ^ ^ 

The Pharisees, further, are said to have 
held that all things were controlled by 
fate, though not so as absolutely to take 
awav man's free-will (Josephus, Antiq.,Uh 
xviii. 1, § 3 ; Bell Jud:^ lib. ii. 8, § 14). But 
the account of the Jewish historian must 
probably be taken with some allowance. 
Thev were anxious to make proselytes 
(Matt, xxiii. 15), and as of republican prin- 
ciples they were in this respect as well as 
in others opposed to the more aristocratic 
Sadducees. 

But after admitting all their faults— and 
they were great enough to deserve the 
strong condemnation of our Lord— it must 
be acknowledged that among the Pharisees 
there were those who were zealous and 
conscientious. Jv'either, generally speaking, 
were they chargeable with luxui-iousliviji 



605 



[PHENICIA 



or licentiousness of morals. Their gra^nd 
error was tlmt they substituted a religion 
of externals for a religion of the heart ; yet 
Che converting grace of God was powerful 
enough to hring one of them (and doubtless 
many more) humbly to the cross. The great 
apostle of the Gentiles had in his earlier 
years, * after the most straitest sect ' of their 
religion, lived a Pharisee (Acts xxvi.5). 

PHA'ROSH (a flea) (Ezra viii. 3). See 
Parosh. 

PHAPl'PAR (stoift). One of the rivers of 
Damascus mentioned by Naaman in con- 
junction with the Abana (2 Kings v. 12), It 
is only of late years that this stream has 
been satisfactorily identified and described. 
Mr. Porter visited its sources in 1852, and 
has traced its entire course. In a deep 
valley running far up into the heart of 
Hermon several small fountains burst forth, 
uniting into the Nahr el-'Arny. This flows 
through a picturesque and rugged valley, 
entering the plain about nve miles from its 
source, and winds a few miles farther till 
it reaches S'as'a. Here it is joined by ano- 
ther stream, the Nahr Beit-Jenn, which 
rising more to the south passes through a 
wild glen shaded by walnuts and poplars, 
and, augmented by another brook a little 
below the village Beit-Jenn, crosses an 
undulating plain Ave or six miles to S'as'a. 
After the junction the river bears the name 
of the 'Aioaj, ' curved ;' and this is the an- 
cient Pharpar. It does not approach very 
near to Damascus, but, flowing in its upper 
course through limestone strata and after- 
wards through basalt, it waters the adjacent 
territory. S as'a is about tv/enty-flve miles 
from Damascus ; and the greater part of 
the road is dreary and uninteresting. Some 
portions, however, of the course of the 
'Awaj arc picturesque, as it glides by mea- 
dows and cornfields fringed with poplars and 
willows. Its waters are diminished by 
canals constructed to irrigate neighbouring 
villages ; and, Vv-'hen it reaches a place called 
Nejha, the greater part of what remains is 
carried ofE by two canals. Below Nejha, 
therefore, its bed is often dry; but after 
the winter rains it continues to run with a 
•deep and rapid stream in to the lake Heijauy, 
vviiich is about seven miles from north to 
south by four and a-half from east to west, 
the whole being covered with water in win- 
ter and spring, afterwards much contracted 
and occasionally quite dry at the end of 
summer. The district through which the 
'Awaj flows is called TVady el-'Ajam, ex- 
tending from the walls of Damascus along 
the base of Anti-libanus to the borders of 
Jedurbeyond the'Awaj. Its greatest breadth 
is thirty miles, but near the lake Heijanyifc 
is but four or five. The extreme length is 
thirty-two. It contains fifty-one villages, 
and a population of about 18,000, &,eeJoiirn. 
of Sac. Lit., Oct. 1853, pp. 45-57. 

PHAR'ZITES. A family of Jadah, de- 
scendants of Pharez (Numb. xxvi. 20j. 

PHASE'AH (lame) (Neh. vii. 51), See 
Paseati, 2. 

PIIASE'IAS (1 Mace. xv. 23). A town on 
the coast of Asia Minor, on the borders of 
Lycia and Pamphylia, where Jews were 
settled— many brought thither as slaves. 



PIIAS'IRON (1 Mace. ix. 6G). Perhaps 
the chief of an Arab tribe. 

PIIASSA'RON (1 Esdr. v. 25). Pashur 
(Ezra ii. 38). 

PHE'BE or PHCE'BE {shining, the moon). 
A deaconess (servant) of the church at Cen- 
chrea whom St. Paul commends to the 
Romans (Rom. xvi. 1, 2). See Deaconess. 

PHEJSri'CE.— 1 (Acts xi. 19, XV. 3), See 
Phexicia.— 2. A town, more properly 
Phoenix, with a harbour on the south-west 
coast of Crete, which the officers of the 
vessel in which St. Paul was endeavoured 
to reach in order that they might winter 
there (Acts xxvii. 12), It has been identi- 
fied by Mr, Smith of Jordanhill as the 
modern Lutro. The inhabitants preserve 
the memory of the ancient name, Phcenild; 
raid there are some ruins of the town re- 
maining on a hill a little way from the shore 
{The Voi/a;:/e and Shipioreck of St. Paul, chap, 
ii. pp. 84. &c. Append, iii. up. 246, &c.). 

PHEIs IG'I A, PHCSIS^IG'I A(the Greek name 
of the country in question, from phoinix 
' a palm,' that tree probably abounding 
there). Phenicia or Phenico was a small 
narrow strip of country, with an average 
breadth of hardly twenty miles, lying 
along the shores of the Mediterranean, 
from the river Eleutherus near Aradus on 
the north, 120 miles to the promontory of 
Carmel, or the town of Dor, on the south. 
But this limit appears to have varied at 
diiierent times. Phoenicia pi'oper was still 
more confined, extending from the Pro- 
montorium i^lbum, Pds el-Ahyad, six miles 
Gouth otTyre,to the Bostrenixs, Nahr el-Auly, 
two miles north of Sidon , twenty-eight miles 
in length, with a breadth of one mile. The 
wholecountry,slo_ping from the foot of Leba- 
non, comprised hilly plains, vv^ell-watered by 
streams descending from the uplands, very 
fruitful, and studded with towns and cities, 
of which the principal were Tripolis, Byblos, 
Sidon, Tyre, and Berytus. It was admirably 
situated ;for commerce. Lebanon supplied 
timber for ship-building : there were iron 
and copper-mines near Sarepta. Celebrated 
in the oldest writings of pngan antiquity, 
the Phoenicians are said to have traded 
with distant lands, and planted numerous 
colonies, of which Carthage may be men- 
tioned as the most distinguished. From 
the north of Europe they brought amber, 
from Britain tin ; various other commodi- 
ties supplying their markets. Nor was this 
commerce carried on only by sea : their cara- 
van-traffic was g]-eat with Egypt and Arabia ; 
and through such communications the 

highway of the Red sea was open to them. 

Phoenicia was peopled by the descendants 
of Ham ; for Sidon is said to have been the 
first-born of Canaan ; and the Arkite and 
probably the Sinite, the Arvaditc and 
the Zemarite, had their settlements in tiiis 
region (Gen, x, 15, 17, 18), At first their 
tovv'ns are supposed to have been indepen- 
dent, but subsequently they were united 
under the dominion of Tyre. The Assyrians 
in later times, the Chaldeans, the Persians, 

the Macedonians, the Egyptians, and the 

Romans were in turn their juasters. 

The Greeks professed to have borrowed 
letters from the Phceniciaus ; and it la un- 



PHEBJESITES] 



auestionaMe that the characters they used 
were of great antiq.uity, the origin perhaps 
of the old Hehrew. See Writixg. Their 
language too, as Inscriptions which have 
heen discovered prove, was nearly akin to 
Hehrew. Phoenicia is mentioned in Acts 
xi. 19, XV. 3, xxi. 2 ; where, in the first-named 
two places, our version has 'Phenice.' 
The religion of the Phoenicians in its popu- 
lar form was that natural hut defeased and 
foolish worship paid to the sun, moon, and 
planets hy the appellations of Baal, Ashto- 
reth, &c.. of which some account is given 
in the articles under their respective names. 
These bodies were supposed to he intelli- 
gent heines exercising an influence on 
mundane events, and hy the more refined 
thinkers the chief deities were deemed the 
male and female productive powers. Very 
pernicious effects were produced on Israel 
hy their contact and alliance with the 
Phoenicians. Not only was idol-worship 
thus imported, hut also the most cruel rites 
of it (Jer. xix. 5, xxxii. 35). See Tyre. 

PEEB'ESITES, PHER'EZITES 0- Esdr. 
viii. 69 ; 2 Esdr. i. 21 ; Judith v. 16). The 
Perizzites. . ^ , 

PHI-BE'SETH in some copies (Ezek. xxx. 
17), for Pi-BESETH : which see. 

PHI'CHOL (mouth of all, i.e. all-command- 
ing). The chief captain of the forces of 
Ahimelech king of Gerar (Gen. xxi. 22, 32, 
xxvi. 26). This might he an official title, 
borne 'hy various individuals holding the 
same post ; and possibly, in the two places 
referred to, different persons— since the 
lapsf of time was great— might be meant. 

PHILADEL'PHIA. A city of Lydia, at 
the foot of mount Tmolus, on the banks of 
the little river Cogamus, which falls not far 
from the city into the Hermus. It is twenty- 
eieht miles south-east from Sardis, and was 
built by Attains II. Philadelphus (158-138 
B c), from whom it derives its name. Earth- 
quakes were very prevalent in this district ; 
and Philadelphia was more than once nearly 
destroved by them. To the church here an 
apocalvptic epistle was addressed (Rev. i. 11, 
iii, 7-13), conveying unqualified commenda- 
tion ; and over Philadelphia has been ex- 
tended the hand of divine protection. 
'Among the Greek colonies and chui-ches 
of Asia,' says Gibbon (DecL and Fall, chap. 
Ixiv.), ' Philadelphia is still erect, a column 
in a scene of ruins, a pleasing example that 
the paths of honour and safety may some- 
times be the same.' It is still a considerable 
town, named Allali-sliar, ox Allali-slielir,\.nt\i 
ruins of its ancient waIL,and of about twenty- 
five churches. See Trench, Co?nm. on ITpisi/es 
to Seven Churches, 2nd. edit, pp.170, 187, 188. 

PHILAB'CHES (2 Mace. viii. 32). This is 
really not a proper ;name, but the desig- 
nation of the chief of the cavalry. 

PHILE'MON {affectionate). A Christian 
at Colossa3 or, as some critics believe (see 
next article), at Laodicea, whose wife it is 
likely was Apphia, and Archippus then- 
son, at least a near relation (Phil. 2). It 
seems that Philemon was converted by the 
instrumentality of St. Paul (13, 19) ; and it 
is clear that he was a large-hearted zealous 
believer, abounding in good works (4-7). _ 
PHILE'MON, THE EPISTLE TO. This, 



the shortest of St. Paul's letters, bears upon 
its face decisive proof of its authorship. 
There is also abundant testimony to it 
given by early writers. And, though some 
have disputed its genuineness, and would 
exclude it from the canon on the ground of 
its being addressed to an individual on a 
private matter, yet the evidences for its 
canonicity are too plain, and the arguments 
adduced against its authority too superficial 
to require further notice here. The occasion 
on which this letter was written i s clear from 
the contents. Onesimus, Philemon's slave, 
had absconded after robbing his master 
(18). Having fled to Rome, the providence 
of God had brought him into contact with 
the apostle, then in confinement; and the 
fugitive was led to Christ (10, 11). He was 
now ready to return to his earthly master ; 
and St. Paul furnished him with this letter, 
in which he asked for him a favourable re- 
ception by Philemon, not now as a worthless 
slave, but as a brother beloved in the Lord. 
We cannot but conclude that the request of 
the apostle was granted. This epistle was 
written from Ptome at the same time with 
those to the Colossians and Ephesians, i.e. 
about 61 or 62 a.d. It was probably alto- 
gether in St. Paul's own hand-writing, and 
is a beautiful specimen of tenderness, deli- 
cacy, and judgment. The style is natural 
and" easy, and the topics are arranged with 
inimitable skill. It is proper to say that 
Wieseler {Clironol. des Apostol. Zeitalt.,vV- 
450-455) has, with a great deal of ingenuity, 
supported the opinion that Philemon resid- 
ed at Laodicea, and that the epistle to him 
is that Laodicean epistle (Col. iv. 16) sup- 
posed to be lost. He thinks that, had Ar- 
chippus been pastor at Colossse, the apostle 
would have addressed him at once, and not 
have merely sent a message to be conveyed 
by the Colossian church, when, it would 
seem, their epistle was read at Laodicea (16, 
17). It is a curious fact, in corroboration of 
this view, that, in the Apostolical Constitu- 
tions (vii. 46), Archippus is called bishop 
of Laodicea ; and, though Onesimus is said 
(Col. iv. 9) to be ' one of you,' the Colossians, 
the expression might only imply that he was 
a native of their town, a fact quite consis- 
tent with the residence of his master at 
Laodicea. Dr. Alfordwas at one time in- 
clined to accept Wieseler s opinion : he now, 
howeyer, dissents {Proleg. Epist. to Phil- 
em.), and Bleek (EinJeitimg in dasN.T., p. 442) 
is of the same opinion, because they cannot 
conceive that a private letter could be that 
epistle which was to be publicly read in the 
Colossian church. Wliatever be thought of 
the force of the positive evidence, it is mani- 
fest til at the objection of Alf ord and Bleek is 
of little weight. They might as well argue 
that the epistle to Philemon ought to be ex- 
cluded from the canon. An inspired com- 
position, designed by the Holy Spirit to be 
placed on record for the instruction of the 
church in all ages, might very well, though 
first of all addressed to Philemon, be read 
in other places. Besides, it was not direct- 
ed to Philemon alone, but to the church in 
his house (Phil. 2). The matter seems to 
deserve more careful investigation than it 
has yet received. 



697 



MihU Hunlttl^lfgr. [psiLnriANS, epistle to 



PHILE'TUS (amiable). A person cen- 
sured with Hymeneus for saying that the 
resurrection was past (2 Tim. ii. 17). ' They 
appear to have been persons who believed 
the scriptures of the Old Testament, hut 
misinterpreted them, allegorizing away 
the doctrine of the resurrection, resolving 
it all into figure and metaphor. The deli- 
vering over unto Satan seems to have been 
a form of excommunication, declaring the 
person reduced to the state of an heathen ; 
and in the apostolical age it was accom- 
panied with supernatural or m-iraculous 
effects upon the bodies of the persons so 
delivered ' (Waterland, Imp. of Doctrine of 
Holy Trinity, chap. iv. vol. iii. pp. 459, 460, 
edit. 1843). 

PHIL'IP.— 1. One of the twelve apostles. 
He was a native of Bethsaida, and pro- 
bably already known to our Lord when he 
was called to follow him. It was he that 
brought Nathanael (no doubt Bartholo- 
mew) to Jesus, and with Bartholomew he 
is generally named in the lists of the 
apostles, once, however, with Thomas, 
occupying himself always the fifth place 
(Matt. X. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14 ; John 
i. 43-46 ; Acts i. 13). A few notices of Philip 
are found in the gospel history, which may 
seem to show that he was of an active en- 
quiring mind (John vi. 5-7, xii. 21, 22, xiv. 
8. 9) ; and it has been imagined (Clem. Alex., 
Strom., lib. iii. 4, torn. i. p. 522, edit. Potter, 
1715) that he was the disciple referred to in 
Matt. viii. 21, 22 ; Luke ix. 59, 60. Of the 
later life and labours of Philip nothing is 
certainly known. He is said to have preach- 
ed in Phrygia and met his death at 
Hierapolis. But traditions differ in regard 
to him. See Euseb., Hist. Eccles., lib. iii. 30, 
31 ; Winer, BiU. BWB., art. 'Philippus,' no. 6. 

2. Philip or Herod Philip (Matt. xiv. 3 ; 
Mark vi. 17 ; Luke iii. 19). See Herodian 
Family, The, 4.— 3. Another Philip or Herod 
Philip (Luke iii. 1). See Herodiai^ Pajiily, 
The, 5. 

4. One of the seven appointed to minister 
to the poor (Acts vi. 5), and commonly 
(though not in scripture) called deacons. 
This Philip (perhaps a Hellenist), who is 
also designated an evangelist, was one of 
the first who gave the gospel a wider scope, 
in this respect a kind of precursor of St. 
Paul : he was very successful in preaching 
in Samaria, and working miracles there. 
When the news of this reached Jerusalem, 
the apostles sent two of their number, Peter 
and John, thither, that by prayer and im- 
position of their hands the newly-baptized 
might receive the Holy Ghost (viii. 5-17). 
Philip afterwards was commissioned to 
meet an Ethiopian eunuch, whom he in- 
structed and baptized : he then went (car- 
ried by the Spirit) to Azotus, or Ashdod, 
and having preached in various cities came 
to Caesarea (26-40). Probably he settled 
there ; for we find him in Csesarea when St. 
Paul passed through on his way to Jeru- 
salem. He was a married man and had four 
daughters endued with the prophetic gift 
(xxi. 8, 9). No more is certainly known of 
Philip : according to a tradition he died 
at Ccesarea. Some ancient writers appear to 
confound the apostle and the evangelist. 



PEIL'IP.~1. The celebrated king of Mace- 
don, father of Alexander the Great (l Mace, i. 
l,vi. 2).— 2, A favourite and foster-brother of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, appointed lieutenant 
of his realm and guardian of his son (vi. 14, 
15, 55, 56, 63 ; 2 Macc. ix. 29, xiii. 23).— 3. I 
Philip v., another Macedonian king, de- i 
feated by the Romans (1 Macc. viii. 5). He ! 
died 179 e.g., in the forty-second year of 
his reign, and was succeeded by Perseus.— 
4. A Phrygian officer of Antiochus (2 Macc. 
V. 22, vi. 11, viii. 8), sometimes identified ! 
with no. 2. 1 

PHILIP'PI. A city of Macedonia, accord- 
ing to the Roman division, in the first region 
of that province. It was on the borders of 
Thrace, thirty-three Roman miles north- 
east of Amphipolis, and about ten miles 
from Neapolis its port, where St, Paul land- 
ed. It was built on the site of a village, 
called Krenides (also Datos) by Philip king 
of Macedon, and made a strong military 
station. In the hills to the north and east 
were gold-mines ; and on the plains extend- 
ing towards the west to the river Strymon, 
and between it and the Gangites, on which 
the town was situated, was fought the deci- 
sive battle between Antony and Octavius 
and Brutus and Oassius, The Roman town 
was probably not exactly on the Greek site : 
it was made a colony by Augustus. The an- 
cient name is still applied to the locality ; 
but there are no inhabitants (Winer, BiU. 
BWB., art. * Philippi'). The line of the walls 
may be traced, and there are two lofty gate- 
ways amid the fragments that are left: there 
are also the remains of an amphitheatre on 
the sides of the overhanging hill,the seats of 
which are quite perfect. We do not know 
whether early converts may not have car- 
ried previously the news of salvation to Italy 
or to Rome ; but, so far as the ISTew Testa- 
ment history directly informs us, Philippi 
was the first city in Europe which heard the 
gospel message. The account of St. Paul's 
visit and of his founding of a church there 
is given in Acts xvi. There has been some 
difficulty in interpreting 12, where accord- 
ing to our translation Philippi is termed 
' the chief city of that part of Macedonia.' It 
was not the chief city; and, though different 
modes of explanation have been proposed, 
the most simple and satisfactory is to trans- ' 
late, ' the first Macedonian city of the dis- 
trict,' as Neapolis properly belonged to 
Thrace. St. Paul visited Philippi again, pro- 
bably twice (Acts XX. 1-6). There is an inte- 
resting account of a journey to Philippi by 
Dr. Hackett, in the BiUioth. Sacr., Oct. 
1860, pp. 869-880, 890-892. 

PHILIP'PIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. 
A tie of peculiar affection seems to have 
existed between the apostle Paul and the 
Philippian church. In their city he had 
suffered grievous wrong at the hands of the 
heathen magistrates, and from the disciples 
there he had,contrary to his general custom, 
twice accepted gifts soon after his depar- 
ture from them (Phil. iv. 15, 16 : comp, 2 
Cor. viii. 1-6). IsTor, when the apostle was far 
away a prisoner at Rome, did the Pliilippians 
forget him. They sent him a present by 
Epaphroditus (Phil. iv. 18); on whose return 
he despatched this letter, pouring out his 



philistia] 



O3C Crtasuvi) 0t 



698 



heart in warm affection tOTvards tuo=e ylio 
had so tenderly sHo^ni their lore to him 

we may arrange this ?Pi^V''"^^Sfptf->n 
tions :-I. After an affectionate introdnction 
(i the apostle gives an account of h ^ 

condition at Rome (12-26), and then exhort, 
to unanimity and Ciiristian hmnihty (2^- 
ii 16^ Pddinsan expression of lii= hope 01 
visiting rhem, Tvith a Botice of Epaphrodi- 
tn^'^ sickness and recovery a- -30) —ii. ii^e 
apostle cautions the Pl^^lil;^^^^^^^^^,^"!^!;?.;^^ 
Jndaizinff teachers, and confirms his ^vaia- 
ing hv a Ipecial reference tohis o^vnexper - 
ence,'and thence, having sho^vn how he le- 
nonnced all self-dependence, l^^ take^ occa- 
sion to exhort to heavenlmess o.l miml 
i_iv D— III. He gives various aamon.- 
tions (2-9), then expressesliis thanksfor the 
present sent him (10-20\ and conclude^ with 
salutation and a benediction 

It has heen already noted that this ep.^tie 
was written while St. P^^^^l.^-^s^lF^f e^i^'fl^^ 
Pome : it would seem not im possible to nx 
i-oie preciselv the date of it. Some time 
mus? o'livfouslVhave elaPsed^aftc.;St Paurs 
arrival in the gTeat city. For the Phiiip- 
Sans had become acauainted wuh his ne- 
ce==itv there : they haa then sent to hiin 
Fmphroditns, who had been sick at 
i^oii?r we cannot determine how long the 
Qicime=s lasted; but we learn that the 
mmn"ans heard of it ; and the news of 
their irrow on hearing had travelled back 
frome, and had troubled Epaphroditns 
not then it would seem convalescent his 
;SndSng PerhaP^enfeg^led by wlia^he 
had suffered (ii. 25-28). His illness, tneie 
fore was not a short one. ^ow, however, 
he wS well and was the bearer of this ; 
fenS- A?ain, for two years Paul dwelt m , 
bis o^-n hired house, and Pleached the ; 
eo'pel without interruption (Acts xx^i^i- 
30 31? This was the case when he wi-ote to 
jS'e Ephesians (Eph. vL19,20), ^^^^ 
wise while writlug.to PhiUppi (PMl. i. 12) 
The apostle is not in his own j30Use._ He is 
in what is called (13) 'the pa ace,- i.e. the 
^■^o^inn,ov cruard-house of the prtetorian 
bands art^ched to Zero's paiace. (Eoi u 
mTv be observed that attempts to make ou 
that it was ' Herod's judgment-baU' (Acts 
^:xi i 35\ and that the epistle was written 
f ■ vea are futile^ . Hence the saluta- 
oTfi'm tliofe 'of ea^sars ™oM^ 
(Phil. iv. 22). And it IS evident t^at tne 
kpo==tle felt that a crisis was come (i. 20 30 
if 03 97). He hopes indeed that be, shall be 
dpfi^red (i 25, ii. 24^ ; but he is m great 
pSSv such as would naturally be felt 
bv onS'hoVever strong in faith, to whom 
the awful expectation of martyrdom was 
Te?v ™e. Indications of this kind point 
[0 the per od after the death of Burros, the 
,^-itorian prefect under whose charge the 
a^Stle had been, and the change for the 
^.ri in Kero's eovernment. We may, 
rherefore reasonably fix the date of the 
eSle Jo'the latter end of St. Paul's impri- 
Snment" about the middle of 63 a.d. 

?rs genuineness has been generally ac- 
knowlldTd It is referred to by Polycarp 
knowiea=,eu X ^ clement of 

nexandri and other early writers. The 
SmJiS of some modern critics m opposi- 



tion are not wortb notice. The style 1 3 
animated and affectionate, occasionally 
abrupt, but in a strain of almost-unarialified 
commendation. The Judaizers whom Paul 
had to oppose elsewhere had, it is true at- 
tempted to gain influence here-aud it was 
perhaps as much a desire to warn the Philip- 
pians against them as to acknowledge 
the present he received that induced hnii 
fo write-but they had not succeeded. 
There were, indeed, some tokens of disa- 
greement ; 'and therefore the apost e ear- 
ne^tlv presses unity upon them ; but his 
admonitions are conceived and expressed m 
Uie ??nderest spirit. They were, we may 
trust, not ineffective. fhP 
Of commentaries on the episJe to the 
Philippians may be named those 01 E. liid- 
lev, 1540, re-printed in Richmond s Fathom 
ofthe English Cliurch, vol. ii. : of Airay, 161;, 
re-printed 1864 : of DaiUe, 1639, translated 
and ii-infed in English, 1841, 1863; and 01 

^'pHILIS'TIA.' TheHebiW word PeUsheth 
Hand of strangers or sojourners^ is some- 
times so translated (Psal. Ix. 8, Ixxxvii. 4 
cviii 9 : elsewhere it is generally rendered 
Palestina. Hence the Greek name Pa^b.es- 
tiua applied by many writers to the wno.u 
! country of the Israelites. _ But Pl^i^i^tia is 
di^tiucrivelv the region inhabited by the 
Philistines.* It comprised the southern 
portion of the coast, along the Meaiterra- 
nean, extending inwards to the Judeau 
bills from Ekron to the border of Egypt 
(Jo=h xiii.3\ adiacent to the three tribes of 
Dan, .Judab. and Simeon. There were five 
principal cities in this ^iftrict-Ekron, Asli- 
dod, Gath, Ashkelon, and Gaza. The Phuis- 
tine plain is described as being stiU of gitat 
fertilitv. producing abundant crops yearly, 
to that Di' Thomson remai'ks that if it were 
protected bv a settled government, it wou.d 
'quSlv be studded with villages, and 
beautilied with vineyards, o^^e-yards and 
oranee-groves ' {Tlie Lana and the Book, 1^. 
n^7^ ^ See Phi"listixes. 
PHTLIS'Tni (Gen. x. 14) See Philistia, 

"^^mLVs'TKNTIS. The origin of this ccle- 
brarodP'-ople is involved in much obscurity. 
Some modern critics have been anxious to 
chow th-n thev were descendants of Sliem, 
and tb-^t thev migrated from Crete either 
di-ectlv or through Egypt into Palestine, 
^hi^ theorv is exposed to formidable objec- 
tion^ and is not consistent with thenotices 
of scripture. According to the genealogy 
of nations (Gen. x, 13, 14) they were of the 
AHzraunite race (Hamites) from the Caslu- 
iiim probablv increased from theCaphtorim. 
This is borne out by various other testimo- 
nies (Dent. ii. 23 ; Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Amos ix. 7). 
Mi=s Corbaux in her interesting memoir 011 
the Rephaim adopts geuerally this view, 
"lid reaards the Philistines as a branch of 
the Rephaim. For the giant family whom 
David and his warriors destroyed are dis- 
tinctly said to haA-e been sons of a certain 
Rapha of Gath (2 Sam. xxi. 16-22 : comp. 
inar"- ) : see Journ. ofSacr. Lit.,Oct. 1851, r.P. 
IGo 170. Abraham founi the Philistines m 
what is called ' the south country ; ' and 
they were then but an inconsiderable tribe. 



699 



[PHILISTI1-?E3 



evidently of pastoral habits (Gen. xx.). In- 
deed Atoimelech, their chief, seems to hare 
regarded the patriarch vrith his numerous 
tribe of dependents as quite equal in power 
with himself, and was glad to make a treaty 
with him at Beer-sheha (xxi. 22-32), Nor 
were the Philistines more formidable in the 
days of Isaac ; for the then Abimelech urged 
as a reason for pressing his departure from 
Gerar, ' Thou art much mightier than we,' 
and afterwards renewed the treaty of Beer- 
sheba (xxyi. 12-33). In the time of Joshua, 
however, the Philistines had not only 
largely multiplied, but were also in posses- 
sion of that most fertile plain, the Sliefe- 
lah, Iving along the coast, between the 
i Mediterranean and the hill-country of Judah 
and Can. It may be that from the peculiar 
advantages of this district, into which they 
had introduced themselves, the tribe had 
naturally increased into a nation ; or they 
may have been reinforced by fresh settlers 
from Egvpt. Miss Corbaux adopts the latter 
supposition, and says : ' An important acces- 
sion to their numbers had accrued to them 
from a kindred stock, on the expulsion of 
the Hyksos from Egypt. A great number 
I of emigrants from the Delta were among 
i the number ; and it seems that these estab- 
' lished themselves in the pastoral region of 
the A.vim, and subsequently extended them- 
selves northward, becoming intimately 
blended with the Philistines.' She con- 
siders, further, the texts above referred to 
(.Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Amos ix. 7) as palpably allud- 
ing to this great immigration (iM supr., 
Julv 1852, pp. 324, 325 : comp.Wilton's Negeb, 
Append, pp. 246-249). It may be taken as 
i some corroboration of this view that the 
Philistines, as their subsequent history 
shows them, were no longer a merely-pas- 
toral people, but well skilled in handicrafts, 
ene-aged in commercial pursuits, and espe- 
cially powerful in war, able to contend with 
even the Sidonians and Egyptians. Some 
suppose the Pelethites, named with Che- 
rethites as David's body-guard, to have been 
Philistines: see Pelethites. 

The Philistine country lay withni the 
limits of the promised land (Numb, xxxir. 
5 G) ; and the Israelites ought to have pos- 
sessed themselves of it. Indeed, it was 
actually assigned (some of the principal 
towns being specified) to Judah and Dan 
(Josh. XV. 45-47, xix. 41-45). But the oppor- 
tunity was neglected ; and five lords of the 
Philistines remained in five chief towns, to 
be a scourge to Israel through almost the 
whole course of their existence (xiii. 3 ; 
Judges iii. 3). If the Philistines were, as 
above suggested, of the Ptcphaim stock, 
we find an additional reason for their never- 
ceasing hostility to the Israelites, 

An outline only of Philistine history, as 
connected with that of Israel, can be given 
here. The tribe of Judah (if the present 
reading of the text be accurate) at first 
occupied three of their cities (i. 18), but did 
not hold them long. And, in spite of the 
valour of difEerent cliampions, such as 
Shamgar and Samson (iii. 31, xiv., xv., xvi.), 
the Philistine power grew so much that in 
the time of the later judges they had com- 
pletely broken the spirit of the Israelites, 



and kept them— the southern tribes at least 
—in degrading servitude (xv. 11; 1 Sam. 
xiii. 19-22). They invaded and spoiled the 
country at their pleasure : they occupied 
various strong-holds, pushing forward even 
to the Jordan, in order to prevent assis- 
tance from the trans-Jordanic tribes to 
their western brethren (xiv. 1, xxxi. 7, 
10), An attempt by the Israelites at freeing 
themselves in the time of Eli was signally 
defeated (iv.) ; and it was not till the ad- 
ministration of Samuel that any great ad- 
vantage was gained (vii. 3-14). The result 
however of the day of Mizpeh was that the 
Philistines were for a time confined to their 
own country. In Samuel's later days and 
in the beginning of Saul's reign their 
power was again felt ; and, when Jonathan 
gave the signal for war by destroying a 
pillar or monument set up as a mark of 
Philistine superiority, the people were so 
far from responding to the call that they 
dispersed and hid themselves, leaving the 
new king almost defenceless (xiii.). After- 
wards, however, by Jonatlian's valour in 
attacking a Philistine strong-hold, and in 
consequence of an earthquake, a great and 
decisive victory was obtained by the Israel- 
ites (xiv. 1-47) ; and for some time there was 
no further Philistine war. The next occa- 
sion on which we read of hostilities was 
when, just on the Philistine border, David 
slew Goliath, and Saul with his commander- 
in-chief, Abner, defeated their army (xvii.). 
But, though they were worsted in the field, 
the Philistines retained their own terri- 
tory ; and David found with Achisli king of 
Gath a secure retreat from Saul's persecu- 
tion (xxvii.). And then, taking advantage 
of the state into which Israel had been 
brought by Saul's misgovemment, the 
Philistines raised a vast body of troops, 
fought a successful battle in the heart of 
the Hebrew country, slew Saul and his 
sons, and established themselves in various 
cities and strong-holds (xxviii. 1-G, xxix. 1, 
2, xxxi.) 

When David became king over united 
Israel, the Philistines repeatedly attacked 
him, but always unsuccessfully: their 
champions were slain, and their country 
subdued, though probably there were occa- 
sional risings against the conqueror (2 Sam. 
V. 17-25, viii. 1, xxi. 1.5-22 ; 1 Chron. xi. 13-19, 
xviii. 1, XX. 4-8). Under Solomon while re- 
taining some of their petty chiefs they were 
tributary (1 Kings ii. 39,40,iv. 21, 24). Gezer 
at the extremity of the Philistine plain was 
given to this king by Pharaoh ; and he 
deemed it prudent to fortify it and some 
other border-towns (ix. 15-17), When the 
kingdom was divided, we find both states 
from time to time involved in hostilities 
with the Philistines (x. 27, xvi. 15; 2 
Chron. xxi. 16, 17). And, though Jeho- 
shaphat and Uzziah obtained advantages 
over them (xvii. 11, xxvi. 6), it was not till 
the reign of Hezekiah that they were en- 
tirely subdued (2 Kings xviii. 8). In the 
Assyrian invasions and wars with Egypt 
the Philistine plain was repeatedly traver- 
sed by armies; and some of their towns, 
being considered in a military point of view 
important places, underwent sieges (Isal 



PHILOLOGUS] 



700 



XX. l; Jer. xTvii. 1). At the BalDylonisli 
captivity the old hatred against Israel hroke 
out (Ezek. xxv. 15-17) ; hut on the return 
alliances were made hy the Jews with Phi- 
listine women (Neh. xiii. 23, 24). Alexander 
the Great traversed their country and took 
Gaza; and Philistia was involved in the 
fortunes of the Syrian, Egyptian, and 
Maccahean and suhsequent Jewish wars. 
At last it fell under and was disposed of hy 
the Roman power fl Mace. iii. 41, x. 69-89, xi. 
60-62 ; Josephus, Antig., lib. xiii. 13, § 3, lih. 
xiv. 4, § 4, lib. XV. 7, § 3, lib. xvii. 11, §§ 4, 5). 

Of the PhiJistine language we know 
little : it is generally supposed to have 
been Shemitic. The mechanical arts must 
have been cultivated among this people ; 
for they were able to fabricate weapons 
and defensive armour (1 Sam. xiii. 20, xvii. 
5-7). They also worked in the precious 
metals (vi. 4), and must have had consider- 
able skill in architecture (Judges xvi. 26- 
29). They appear to have traded in slaves 
(Joel iii. 3-6 ; Amos i. 6), and probably pos- 
sessed ships. Their government was a 
kind of federal union. The five principal 
cities had districts with towns and villages 



They had priests and diviners (1 Sam. vi. 
2), and carried their images with them in 
their campaigns C2 Sam. v. 21). 




Philistine. Trom an Egyptian painting. 

dependent on them (Josh. xv. 45-47 ; 1 Cliron. 
xviii. 1) ; but in war they acted in concert : 
those that are called the * lords ' had consi- 
derable influence in affairs of state, con- 
trolling the 'king,' as he is desiguated, of 
Gath (xxix. 3-9). The gods they worshipped 
were specially Dagon (Judges xvi. 23; 1 
Sam. V. 1-7 ; 1 Chron. x. 10), Ashtaroth (1 
Sam. xxxi. 10), Baal-zebub (2 Kings i. 2, 3, 
6, IR) ; also Derceto, not noticed in scrip- 
ture (Died. Sic, Bihl. Jlist., lib. ii. cap. 4). 




Philistine. From an Egyptian painting. 

The Philistines are said to have been a 
tall well-proportioned people, with regular 
features , and complexion lighter than that 
of the Egyptians. They shaved the beard 
and whiskers entirely. Their arms and 
accoutrements were peculiar. Their head- 
dress presented an appearance like feathers 
set in a metal band, with a defence for the 
back of the head and the sides of the face. 
They wore corslets quilted with leather or 
plates of metal. These were supported by 
shoulder-straps; and the arms were left free. 
They wore a girdle round the waist, from 
which hung a quilted skirt. They had cir- 
cular shields, javelins, and spears as missile 
weapons, and poniards and long swords for 
close combat. See Pict. Bible, note on Jer. 
xlvii. 1 ; Kitto's Bailu Bible Illustrations, 
thirtv'-third week, second day. 

PHILOL'OGTJS (lover of learning). A 
Christian at Rome to whom St. Paul sent 
salutation (Rom. xvi. 15). 

PHILOME'TOB (2 Macc. iv. 21). A sur- 
name of Ptolemasus or Ptolemy YI. king 
of Egypt. 

PHILOSOPHER, PHILOSOPHY. St. 
Paul was encountered by philosophers at 
Athens (Acts xvii. 18). These are described 
as EFicuREAifS and Stoics ; which see. 

The 'philosophy' against which the 
apostle warns the Colossians was of a dif- 
ferent cast (Col. ii. 8, 18-23 : comp. 1 Tim. 
vi. 20 ; Tit. i. 14, iii. 9). It would seem to 
have "been a mixture of Jewish dogmas 



701 



[phut 



with oriental principles, and was tlie inci- 
pient budding of tliat heresy whicli after- 
wards under the general name of Gnosti- 
eism, hut in many divisions, was so detri- 
mental to the church. It was thoroughly 
congenial to the speculative mind which 
loves to husy itself with curious questions, 
and then hoasts of having sounded the 
depths of wisdom. The Alexandrine and 
Syrian Gnostics differed : in the former 
Platonism Vv^as amalgamated with Christian- 
ity, in the latter there was a Persian influ- 
ence. Hence there is in one the doctrine of 
emanation, as if various orders of heings 
proceeded from or were developed by the 
Supreme Deity— in the other the dualism 
of God and. matter, which last was supposed 
to he ruled hy a principle hostile to the 
Deity the fountain of good. The Gnostics 
have been divided into those of a Jewish 
cast, and those who had adopted Gentile 
notions : other divisions have also been 
proposed. They ramified into numerous 
classes and sects : Kurtz enumerates four 
of those which had a leaven of Judaism, 
and eleven of Gentile Gnostics (_Eist of 
Christ. Church, transl, §§ 48, 49, vol. i. pp. 
99-109. These were subdivided into many 
more; and Manichseism, which appeared 
later, was in some respects a form of Gnos- 
ticism. But for accounts of such heresies 
the reader must be referred to ecclesiastical 
historians ; and he may consult with ad- 
vantage an article in Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible, vol. ii. pp. 849-858, in which the deve- 
lopment of Jewish and Greek philosophy 
and the relation of these to Christianity.will 
be found discussed at length. 

PJSI'NEES.—l (1 Esdr, v. 5, and else- 
where). Phinehas the son of Aaron.— 2 (1 
Esdr. V. 3). Paseah (Ezra ii. 49).— 3 (1 Esdr. 
viii. 63). Phinehas (Ezra viii. 33).— 4 (2;Esdr. 
1. 2). Phinehas the son of Eli. But this 
name is introduced by mistake. 

PHI'NEHAS {mouth of brass).— I. The son 
of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron (Exod. 
vi. 25 ; 1 Chron. vi. 4, 50 ; Ezra vii. 5). He 
distinguished himself for his godly zeal 
when an open act of licentiousness had 
been defiantly committed by a Simeonite 
chief with a Midianitish female of rank. 
Phinehas with his own hand inflicted on 
them both, while in the act of sin, the just 
punishment of the law they had out- 
raged. For this it was promised him that 
the priesthood should continue in his 
family (Numb. xxv. 6-15; Psal. cvi. 30). 
Phinehas was afterwards appointed to ac- 
company the expedition against the Midian- 
ites (Numb. xxxi. 6) ; and we hear of him 
again when the trans-Jordanic tribes had 
erected an altar in opposition, it was ima- 
gined, to the altar of the tabernacle (Josh, 
xxii. 13-34), and in the war of Israel with 
Benjamin (Judges xx. 28). He may be sup- 
posed to have succeeded his father Eleazar 
as high priest (Josh. xxiv. 33; 1 Chron. ix. 
20) ; and it has been said by some writers 
that he filled that office twenty-five years. 
We know, however, nothing certain on this 
point (for some strange traditions respect- 
ing him, see Selden,De Succ.in Pont.Ebrceor., 
lib. i. cap. ii. pp. 115-121), nor how it was that 
the high priesthood was for a time in the 



line of Ithamar. It was restored to that of 
Phinehas in Zadok, and continued in hia 
family till after the captivity. A descend 
ant of his accompanied Ezra from Baby- 
lon (Ezra viii. 2). The traditionary tomb of 
Phinehas is shown at Awertah, four miles 
from Nablous.— 2. A priest, the ungodly 
son of Eli (1 Sam. i. 8, ii. 34, iv. 4, 11, 17, 19, 
xiv. 3).— 3. The father of a person engaged 
in weighing the treasures Ezra brought 
from Babylon (Ezra viii. 33). But possibly 
the first Phinehas is meant, and the word 
'son' here means generally descendant. 

PHI' SON (Ecclus. xxiv. 25). The river 
Pison (Gen. ii. 11). 

PHLEG'ON (flaming). A Christian at 
Rome whom St. Paul saluted (Rom. xvi. 14). 

PHGE'BE. See Phebe. 

PHCENIC'IA. See Phentcia. 

PEOB'OS (1 Esdr. v. 9, ix. 26). Parosh 
(Ezra ii. 3, x. 25). 

PHRYG'IA. A region of Asia Minor, 
said to be divided on the south by mount 
Taurus from Pisidia, on the west and north 
< bordering on Caria, Lydia, Mysia, and Bi- 
thynia, on the east on Galatia, Cappadocia, 
and Lycaonia. This was the greater Phry- 
gia, distributed by the Romans into Phrygia 
Salutaris in the east, Phrygia Pacatiana (see 
subscription to 2 Tim.) in the west, and 
Phrygia Katakekaumene, ' the burnt,' in the 
centre, there being here traces of volcanic 
action. The country was well-watered 
and fertile ; and its pastures fed celebrated 
breeds of cattle and sheep. The Phrygian 
people seem to have extended themselves 
over a great part of Asia Minor west of the 
Halys ; and some, passing the original boun- 
daries of Phrygia, settled upon the Helles- 
pont in a district thence named the lesser 
Phrygia (Winev, Bibl. BYiB., art. 'Phrygien'). 
But it must be understood that Phrygia 
was not a regnlarly-deflued Roman province 
in apostolic times. By the term, therefore, 
as vaguely used in the New Testament we 
are rather to understand a region, portions 
of which, varying at different periods, were 
comprehended under different Roman pro- 
vinces. Jews were to be found in this 
region from the time of the Syrian domi- 
nion (Acts ii. 10). Hierapolis, Colossas, and 
Laodicea of its cities are named in the New 
Testament. St. Paul twice traversed Phry- 
gia (Acts xvi. 6, xviii. 23). 

PHUD (Judith ii. 23). Phut. 

PHTJ'R AH {bough). The servant or armour- 
bearer of Gideon (Judges vii. 10, 11). 

PHU'BIM (Rest of Esth. xi. 1). Purira. 

PHUT {afflicted, or, perhaps, a bozo). 
A son of Ham (Gen. x. 6; 1 Chron. i. 8). 
In the last-named passage he is called Put. 
The name freauently occurs as Phut, or Put, 
in our version, but is sometimes trans- 
lated 'Libya' or 'Libyans' (Jer. xlvi. 9; 
Ezek. xxvii. 10, xxx. 5, xxxviii. 5 ; Nah. 
iii. 9). The descendants of Phut must have 
occupied districts in Africa. According to 
Josephus Phut was the colonizer of Lybia 
{Antiq., lib. i. 6, § 2) ; and he confirms his 
belief by stating that there was a river of 
the name in the country of the Moors, 
whence the whole adjoining region was 
termed Phut by Greek historians. In Cop- 
tic, moreover, Lybia is called Paiat, and 



phip/ah] 



702 



tlie ialaaLitants of tliat part Tfliicli adjoins 
Egypt bear a correspouding name. Hence 
it may "be that, while Lehaljini denotes 
Libya in general. Phut designates a leading 
district close upon Esypt. If this new be 
thought untenable, Kalisch supposes that 
Phut might he looked for at Buto, a very 
famous citv, where were the temples and 
oracle of the goddess Buto, of Horus, and 
Buhastis. It was the capital of the Delta 
of the Nile, on its Sehennytic arm. The 
modern Kern Kasir occupies its site iComm. 
on Old Test Gen., p. 2GS\ But a wi'iter m 
Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, xoh ii. pp. 86S, 
869, would rather identify Phut with ^^uhia. 

PHU'YAH {moutii). One of the sons of 
Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13). He is called also 
Pua (Xumh. xxvi. 23), and Puah (1 Chron. 

PHTGEL'LUS {fugdive^. A person of 
Asia (the province) of whom St. Paul com- 
plains that he was one of those that had 
turned from him (2 Tim. i. 15). The cir- 
cumstances can he only conjectured. 

PHYLACTERY (Matt, xxiii. 5). A strip 
of parchment on which some verses of 
scripture (such as Exod. xiii. 2-10, 11-16; 
Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21) were written. Such 
strips were enclosed in smallleathern boxes, 




Tephillin, or rbylact cries, 
and worn by men during the time of prayer 
on the forehead between the eyebrows, or 
on the left arm near the region of the heart, 
being attached by leathern straps Their 
■n^e was to remind the worshipper that the 
law must be in his head and in his heart ; 
and they were supposed to be preservatives 
against the power of demons ; hence the 
name phylacteries, i.e. safe-guards, ihe 



practice was founded upon a literal inter- 
pretation of Exod. xiii. 9, 16 ; Deut. vt 8 
xi. 18, and is continued to the present day. 
The foll^)wing account of it, as now ob- 
served, is supplied by Mills, The British 
Jews, pp. 21-23. The young Jew begins to 
wear the tep7rtHi?i,which are two— one for the 
head, the other for the left arm. Four shps 
of parchment are prepared, each about an 
inch wide, and eight inches long. On these 
the above-named passages are written with 
great care. The slips being finished, a 
covering of the same material is prepared 
to deposit them in. It is a quadrangular 
• box, of about an inch deep. Inside arefour 
pieces of parchment placed at equal dis- 
I tance=, and the interior thus divided into 
I four small apartments. The slips are care- 
1 fully folded, the writing being inside, and 
' separately lodged in these apartments. One 
end of the parchment of which the box is 
composed is turned over as a lid, and sewed 
with leather thongs prepared for the pur- 
pose. On two of the squares, raised in the 
, material itself, whilst preparing it to be 
i formed into a box, is the Hebrew letter 
1 shin, the initial of Shaddai, Almighty. In 
' forming the lidakind of loopismade,throvig a 
which a leather thong, two yards long and an 
inch wide,is passed,to secure the whole to the 
head. The other box for the arm is similar, 
save that there is but one cavity, the pas- 
sages of scriptui-e being written m four 
columns on one piece of vellum, and the 
letter shin is omitted. The lad is provided 
with a small bag, generally given by his 
mother or sister, in which to deposit the 
tephillin. They are to be worn at prayers, pub- 
lic or private. The one for the arm is first 
put OD, the thong being wound seven timea 
round the arm, while the person recite.5 
'Blessed art thou, O Lord our Goa,Kiug ot 
the universe, who hast sanctified us with 
thv commandments, and commanded us to 
wear the tep7it«t?i.' Then he takes the one for 
the head, and places it exactly in the centre 
between the eyes, touching where the hair 
beeins to grow, and securing it _ says, 
' Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of 
the universe, who hast sanctified us with 
thv commandments, and commanded us the 
commandment of the tephillin Blessed be 
the name of the glory of his kingdom for 
ever and ever. And I wiU betroth thee unto 
me for ever ; yea, I will betroth thee unto 
me in righteousness, and in judgment, and 
in lovins-kindness, and in mercy. I wiU 
even betroth thee unto me in faithfulness ; 
and thou shalt know the Lord.' Every time 
he savs ' I will betroth thee,' he winds the 
end of the thong three tuimings around his 
middle finger. 4. +v« 

PHYSICIAif. It is probable that the 
I=;raelites learned something of the healing 
art from the Egyptians, who are said to 
have paid so much attention to medicine as 
to havehad separate persons devoted to the 
study and cure of eich separate disease 
(Herod., lib. ii. 84). There are aUusions in 
scripture to the physicians whom Joseph 
retained in his service (Gen. L 2) : these, 
however, were embalmers. 

At an early period of the world Bomeme- 
dical and surgical skill was attained. Thua 



We have mention of midwives (Gen. xxxv. 
17, xxxyiii. 28) ; and the operation of circum- 
cision must liave required a carefiil hand 
(xvii. 10-14, 23-27), We frequently read of 
external applications, as for the treatment 
of wounds (Exod. xxi. 19: 2 Kings viii. 
29, ix, 15 ; Isai. i. 6 ; Ezek. xxx. 21). Also 
we find internal and mental maladies 
treated (1 Sam. xvi. 15, 16 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 12); 
and some of the remedies prescribed were 
singular enough (1 Kings i. 1, 2). Regu- 
lations in regard to diet seem to have been 
originally regarded as of principal impor- 
tance. For, while the commands and pro- 
hibitions in respect to food (Lev. xi. ; Deut. 
xiv. 3-21) had a religious aspect, we cannot 
doubt that they were grounded on sanitary 
principles ; and that kind of food was spe- 
cially forbidden which in that chmate 
would pre-dispose to leprosy or other di- 
seases. The various purifications enjoined, 
and the setting apart of lepers had the same 
tendency : they promoted the public health 
(See Harle's Essay on the State of Physic in 
the Old and Neio Test, pp. 8-10). In later 
ages the science of medicine seems to have 
been more cultivated, aud the skill of the 
physician recognized (Jer. viii. 22 ; Mark v. 
2G ; Luke iv. 23, v. 31, viii. 43 ; Col. iv. 14 : 
see also Ecclus. xxxvili. 1-15). 

The remedies used were unguents, salves, 
and balsams (Jer. viii. 22, Ji. 8), poultices or 
plaisters (2 Kings xx. 7), infusions of oil 
and wine (Luke x. 34), perhaps the applica- 
tion of leaves (Ezek. xlvii. 12) ; also mineral 
haths (Josephus, Antiq., lib. xvii. 6, § 5). 
Honey seems to have been employed as an 
internal medicine (Prov. xvi. 24). There 
were also more questionable modes of treat- 
ment. Amulets, charms, invocations, &c. 
were resorted to, the belief in which to the 
present day is common in the east (see 
Thomson, The Land and the Hook, pp. 151, 
152), nor quite extinct in other countries. 

It has sometimes been imagined that the 
Hebrew prophets and priests were tlie phy- 
sicians of their times. With regard to the 
prophets, the notion has arisen from mi- 
raculous cures occasionally performed by 
them (e.g. 2 Kings v. 10). But as well might 
it be said tliat the apostles were the phy- 
sicians of their day because they received 
power from the Lord to heal (Matt. x. 8 ; 
Mark xvi. 18), and because people in conse- 
quence resorted to them (Acts v. 15). With 
regard to the priests, they were commis- 
sioned to examine persons suspected of 
leprosy, and to pronounce them, according 
to certain symptoms, leprous or clean (Lev. 
xiii., xiv.) ; but it does not appear that they 
treated them medically, or had the power of 
cure. It is of course not improbable that 
Levites or priests, who often devoted them- 
selves to other studies, and were lawyers or 
judges, might some of them profess the 
healing art ; but they were not physicians 
hy office. The priests themselves were sub- 
ject to special diseases : they are said to 
have ministered barefoot, and thence to 
have been subject to colds, &c. A medical 
officer was therefore in later times always 
attached to the establishment of the temple 
(Bee Winer, Bibl. UWB., art. ' Arzneikunst'). 

There must probably have been some 



[piece of money 



knowledge of anatomy. The slaying and 
dissecting of the sacrifices would afford 
an insight into the construction of a vic- 
tim's carcase ; and embalming, so far as 
it was practised, might exhibit somewhat 
of the human frame. Some have imagined 
that knowledge of this kind might be traced 
in such passages as Job x. 8-11 ; but the in- 
dications are too faint to build upon. See 
Winer, uM. supr. ; Saalschtitz, Arch, der 
Hehr., cap. 44, vol. ii. pp. 60-G5. 

It is not easy to enumerate the various 
diseases mentioned in scripture, partly as 
they are often described by general names, 
and partly because maladies change their 
type according to climate and lapse of time. 
Eruptive diseases were common ; boils with 
blains were among the plagues inflicted on 
the Egyptians (Exod. ix. 10). Also we have 
consumption, fever, inflammation noted 
(Deut. xxviii, 22), the botch of Egypt, eme- 
rods, scab, itch (27, 35), leprosy, already 
mentioned, blindness, partial or total, pro- 
bably ophthalmia {Qen. xxix. 17 ; Luke 
xviii. 35), dysentery (2 Chron. xxi. 15, 19), 
probably sun-stroke (2 Kings iv. 18, 19), pes- 
tilence (Numb. xvi. 46-49 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 15), 
palsy (Matt. iv. 24), issue of blood (ix. 
20), dropsy (Luke xiv. 2), boil breeding 
worms (Acts xii. 23) : see also Exod. xxi. 22 ; 
1 Kings xiii. 4, xv. 23 ; 2 Kings xx. 1, 7 ; Job 
ii. 7, 8, vii. 4, 5, xvii. 1, xix. 17, xxx. 27, 
xxxiii. 21 ; Isai. i. 5, 6, xxvi. 18 ; Mark i. 30 ; 
Acts xxviii. 8 ; 2 Tim. ii. 17, and elsewhere, 
for notices or allusions to various forms of 
disease. Wounds also are frequently men- 
tioned (e.g. Numb. xxi. 6 ; 2 Kings i. 2, viii. 
28, 29 ; Ezek. xxx. 21, 22, 24, 25). 

The term physician is sometimes applied 
figuratively. Sin is the disease of the soul ; 
and he who cures that is the most skilful 
of physicians (Isai. i. 5 ; Jer. viii. 22 ; Matt, 
ix. 12 ; Rev. xxii. 2). 

PI-BE'SETH {abode of Pashtl). A city of 
Egypt (Ezek. xxx. 17). It appears to have 
had its name from Pubasti, or Bubastis, an 
Egyptian goddess (Bast, or Pasht : see 
Egypt, p. 243), whom Herodotus identified 
with Artemis or Diana (lib. ii. 59, 60, 137, 
138, 156), in whose honour a great festive 
pilgrimage was yearly made thither. It was 
on the western side of the Pelusiac branch 
of the Nile ; and, though its walls were de- 
stroyed by the Persians, it continued to be 
a place of consideration (Bubastus) under 
the Romans. The site of the ancient city 
is now called Tel Basta. There are mounds 
of great extent, and masses of broken pot- 
tery. The temple which Herodotus charac- 
terized as, though not the largest, one of 
the most beaixtiful in the country, is en- 
tirely destroyed ; but there are remnants of 
the very fine red granite of which it was 
constructed. 

■ PICTURES (Lev. xxvi. 1, marg. ; Numb, 
xxiii, 52 ; Isai. ii. 16). In most of these places 
idolatrous representations arc intended 
(see Chambers of Imagery, Painting), 
sculptured and coloured work. In Vvov. 
XXV. 11 the idea is fruit or foliage of gold 
surrounded with carvedmouldiugs overlaid 
with silver. 

PIECE OF MONEY. 'Pieces of gold' 
(2 Kings y. 5) and 'pieces of silver ' (Gen, 



pigeon] 



704 



XX. 16, and elsewhere) probably mean 
shekels, not the coins so called, hut as 
measured hy weight. In the New Testament 
' pieces of silver ' (e.g. Matt. xxvi. 15) repre- 
sent shekels or coins eauivalent thereto. 
The 'piece of money' (x-vli. 27) was the 
stater; the 'piece of silver' (Luke xv. 8) 
the drachma. See Money. 
PIGEOK See Dove. 
PIETY (1 Tim. v. 4). Dutiful respect is 
here meant, if, as is most prohahle, the 
conduct of the children and grandchildren 
is alluded to. Some, however, w^ould in- 
terpret of the widows ruling religiously 
their households. 

PI-HAHI'PtOTH (tlw place ivliere grass or 
sedge grows). A spot before which the Is- 
raelites encamped on their departure from 
Bgjvt w^hen Pharaoh's host overtook them 
(Exod. xiv. 2, 9 ; Jsumh. xxxiii. 7, 8). It 
must have heen near the northern end of 
the western arm of the Red sea, or gulf of 
Suez,perhaps eastwardof Baal-zephou. There 
are still places which hear the name GJm- 
iveyocl el-Boos, ' the hed of reeds ;' and it has 
heen thought that one of these might indi- 
cate Pi-hahiroth. But the identiflcation is 
very douhtful, the more because the face of 
the country has probably changed, the head 
of the gulf running anciently farther to the 
north. 

PI'LATE. Pontius Pilatus, ordmanly 
called Pilate, was (as usually reckoned) the 
sixth Roman procurator of Judea, succeed- 
ing Valerius Gratus. It was under his go- 
vernment that John the Baptist commenced 
his ministry (Luke iii. 1) and that our 
Lord was put to death. This last fact is con- 
firmed by the Latin historian Tacitus 
iAnnal, lib. xv. 44). Pilate entered on his 
office at the end of 25 or beginning of 26 a.d., 
in the reign of Tiberius : he held it about ten 
years, till a short time before that emperor's 
death. He was unscrupulous in the exercise 
of his authority ; and instances- are recorded 
by Josephus of his contempt of the Jews, 
as bringing the Roman standards with 
the emperor's image into Jerusalem {Antig., 
lib. xviii. 3, § 1 ; Bell. Jud., lib. ii. 9, § 2). An 
atrocity is also referred to by St. Luke (xni 
1) which Josephus does not notice. Hisbe^ 
haviour was equally tyrannical towards the 
Samaritans ; and, on their complaint to 
Yitellius, president or prefect of Syria, 
Pilate was ordered to go to Rome to answer 
for his conduct before the emperor. Hia 
deposition must have occurred in 36 a.d., 
most probably prior to the passover. Before 
he arrived in Rome, however, Tiberius was 
dead (March 16, 37 A.D.). Pilate is said to 
have been banished by Caligula to Vienne 
in Gaul : according to Eusebius, he put an 
end to his own existence {Ilist. Eccles., lib. 
ii 7). 

The crime in which Pilate, as our Lord's 
judge, was involved is so frightful, that we 
are almost involuntarily led to charge more 
of its malignity upon him than upon a fair 
examination he would seem to deserve. 
The history is f amiUar to every reader, and 
need not he here repeated (Matt, xxvii.; 
Mark xv. ; Luke xxiii. ; John xviii. 2S-40, 
xix.). Pilate was sensible that Jesus was 
without blame, and would have released 



him, had he thought it possible without 
peril to himself. He was alarmed at the po- 
litical charge urged against Christ making 
himself a king, and believed with reason 
that if he spared one so accused the empe- 
ror's jealousy would be roused. He was 
perplexed at our Lord's behaviour before 
him, utterly unlike that of an ordinary 
criminal, and at his being said to be the 
Son of God, and must have thought of the 
demi-gods of legendary story, and perhaps 
apprehended if he condemned such a man 
that the wrath of some deity would light 
upon him. He was further troubled by his 
wife's dream and message (for at that time 
: procurators took their wives with them 
into their provinces : see Tacitus, Annal., 
lib. iii. 33, 34). He tried therefore to cast 
the responsibility on Herod. He scourged 
Jesus, hoping that that punishment woiUd 
move to pity and be deemed sufficient. He 
proffered the people the choice between the 
Lord and Barabbas, trusting that they could 
never prefer the robber ; and as a last 
miserable expedient he washed his hands m 
public, as a token that he w\as guiltless of 
the Saviour's blood. ' He was,' says bishop 
EUicott, ' a thorough and complete type oi 
the later-Roman man of the world. Stern 
but not relentless, shrewd and world-worn, 
prompt and practical, haughtily just, and 
yet ... . self-seeking and cowardly, able to 
' perceive what was right, but without moral 
strength to follow it out, the sixth procu- 
rator of Judea stands forth a terrible in- 
stance of a man whom the fear of endan- 
gered self-interest drove not only to act 
a"-ainst the deliberate convictions of his 
heart and his conscience, but further to 
commit an act of the utmost cruelty and m- 
iustice, even after those convictions had 
been deepened by warnings and strength- 
ened by presentiments ' {Rist. Lect , p. 3o0 : 
comp. pp. 340-351, and Winer, Bibl. EWB., 
art. 'Pilatus.' -,• + 

The name of Pilate's wife according to 
tradition was Procla, or Claudia Procula. 
Some memorials called thereto Pilatiyfere 
probably sent by the procurator to the em- 
peror : if so, the genuine documents have 
perished : those afterwards so termed were 
forgeries. See Winer, vM sifj;?-. ; Gieseler. 
Kirchengescli., vol. i. pp. 84, 85, note 3._ iis^- 
chendorf's judgment may be found m his 
JSvang. Apocr., Prol. pp. liv.-lxvii. 

PIL'DASH {flame ?). One of the sons of 
Nahor, Abraham's brother, by Milcah (Gen. 

^PILE'HA (a slicer). One who sealed the 
covenant (Jsch. x. 24). _ , , 

PILL, PILLED (Gen. xxx. 37, 38). Peeled, 
stripped off. 

PILLAR. Pillars are spoken of in scrip- 
ture as supporting a building (Judges xvi. 
''G 29: see House), or placed for ornaments 
(l' Kings vii. 15-32: see BoAZ, jAcms). 
Pillars were sometimes set up as trophies or 
memorials; and with a rehgious purpose 
libations were poured upon them: they 
were also inscribed (Gen. xxviii. 18, xxxv. 
20 ; Exod. xxiv. 4 ; 1 Sam. xv. 12, where 
' place ' in our version ; 2 Sam. xviii. 18). 

The word is often used in a symbolical 
sense; as to describe the columnar form 



706 



in which the divine Ptesence was mani- 
fested (Exod. xiii. 21). So the earth is re- 
presented as resting on pillars (1 Sam.ii.8); 
and eminent persons are thus designated 
(Gal. ii. 2). ♦ The plain of the pillar ' (Judges 
Ix. 6) is rather the ' oak of the pillar,' an 
oak-grove planted near a memorial stone, 
perhaps that mentioned in Josh. xxiv. 26. 

PILLAR OF SALT (Gen. xix. 26). See Lot. 

PILLOW. See Bed. 

PIL'TAI (whom Jehovah- delivers). A 
priest in the days of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 17). 

PIN (Judges xvi. 14; Ezek. xv. 3). See 
Naid, "Weaving. 

PINE, PINE-TREE. There are many spe- 
cies of trees belonging to the genus Pinus. 
Most of them are timber trees, growing 
generally in various temperate countries of 
the northern hemisphere. We find ' pine ' 
or 'pine-tree' only three times in our version 
of the scripture (Neh. viii. 15 ; Isai. xli. 19, 
Ix. 13) ; and in all these places the trans- 
lation is erroneous. In the first-named the 
oil-tree, perhaps the wild olive, oleaster, is 
meant. In the two other passages, though 
Henderson renders • pine ' and others pro- 
pose elm and plane-tree, Gesenius with 
more reason prefers hard oak, holm, ilex. 
The 'ash' (xliv. 19) in all probability desig- 
nates a pine. See Ash-tree. 

PINNACLE. The devil is said to have 
placed our Lord upon a pinnacle of the 
temple (Matt. iv. 5 ; Luke iv. 9) : as the 
definite article occurs, some special * pinna- 
cle ' is intended. The word used in the 
original may well signify a pointed roof 
or gable. It is probable therefore that the 
place intended was the roof of Herod's royal 
portico, which overhung the ravine of the 
Kidron at such a height that, according to 
Josephus, if any one standing on it looked 
down into the valley, his eye could scarce 
reach the iMtom (see Alford on Matt. iv. 5). 

PI'NON (darkness). One of the 'dukes' 
of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chron. i. 52) ; or 
possibly the name of the district which the 
' duke ' ruled. See Punon. 

PIPE. The Hebrew word which we 
translate ' pipe ' (l Sam. x. 5 ; l Kings i. 40 : 
Isai. V. 12, XXX. 29 ; Jer. xlviii. 36) signifies 
' bored through.' It would seem to have 
been a pipe furnished with holes. The an- 
cient Egyptian instrument was very similar 
to that now in use in western Asia. It was 
quite straight, generally about eighteen 
inches in length, but sometimes longer or 
shorter, with mouth-piece made of reed 
Some had three holes, others four. Actual 
specimens have been found. Occasionally 
this pipe was double, consisting of two tubes 
with a common mouth-piece : the left-hand 
one had fewer holes and emitted a deeper 
sound : the other had more holes with a 
sharper sound. This pipe is still used in 
Palestine. It was very suitable for festive 
occasions; but sometimes for lamentation. 
Thus our Lord found pipers in the ruler's 
house whose daughter was dead ; and these 
he ordered away (Matt. ix. 23). 
PI'BA (1 Esdr. v. 19). 
PIR'AM (wild-ass-like, i.e. indomitable). 
The king of Jarmuth, one of the Amorite 
chiefs who leagued against Israel after the 
Bubmission of Gibeon (Josh. x. 3). 



[pit 



PIR'ATHON (perhaps chief). A place in 
the land of Ephraim (Judges xii. 15). It is 
now called Fer'ata, six miles from Nablous. 

PIRA'THONITES. The inhabitants of 
Pirathon (Judges xii. 13, 15 ; 2 Sam. xxiii, 
30 ; 1 Chron. xi. 31, xxvii. 14). 

PIS'GAH (2jari, piece). A ridge or summit 
in the mountains of Abarim, on the east of 
the Dead sea, towards the wilderness. It 
was on the southern border of Sihon's king- 
dom, and inthe territory afterwards assign- 
ed to Reuben, consequently to the north 
of the Arnon (Numb. xxi. 20, xxiii. 14; Deut. 
iii. 27, iv. 49, xxxiv. 1). The view from Pis- 
gah must have been extensive, as it was 
to the point Nebo, probably the loftiest 
height of the ridge, that Moses was com- 
manded to ascend in order to feast his eyes 
before closing them in death with the view 
of that delightful land which for his sin he 
was forbidden to enter. See Ashdoth-pis- 
GAH, Nebo. 

PISID'IA. A region of Asia Minor, no- 
ticed in the New Testament as bordering 
on Pamphylia, and containing a city called 
Antioch (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 24), sometimes 
regarded as a Phrygian town. This district 
stretched along the maritime province or 
Pamphylia, on the declivities of Taurus, 
and was inhabited by a warlike people whom 
the Persians were never able to subdue. 
Even under Alexander and his successors 
they preserved their independence and 
made inroads on the level country. As the 
Syrian power sank, they extended them- 
selves and appropriated several towns, An- 
tioch being of the number, splitting into 
various petty sovereignties. The Romans, 
to whom they had been useful auxiliaries, 
left them to themselves, but took posses- 
sion of Antioch, where they established a 
colony, and other towns in the plain country. 

PI'SON (overflowing). One of the four 
rivers into which the stream that watered 
Eden was parted. It is described with 
great particularity by the sacred writer, as 
if less clearly known than the rest. It is 
said to compass the land of Havilah, which 
might be distinguished as producing good 
gold, bdellium, and the onyx-stone. See 
Havilah. Conjectures as to the Pison are 
almost innumerable. Some identify it with 
the Phasis, others with the Nile : some will 
have it the Danube, others the Araxes, and 
others again the Ganges. See these opinions 
examined by Kalisch(Comm. on Old Test.Gen., 
pp. 92, 93, 96), who decides for the Indus. 
A still greater number of conjectures are 
enumerated in Dr. Smith's Dict.ofthe Bible, 
art. 'Eden.' It may be sufficient here to 
cite the opinion of Col. Chesney, who thinks 
that 'the rivers known by the comparative- 
ly-modern names of Halys and Araxes are 
those which in Genesis have the names of 
Pison and Gihon, and that the country 
within the former is the land of Havilah, 
whilst that which borders upon the latter 
is the still more remarkable country of Cush' 
(Exped. to Euphrates and Tigris, vol. i.p. 267). 
See Eden. 

PIS'PAH (dispersion 1). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 38). 

PIT. There are several Hebrew words 
Which are more or less frequently rendered 



fITCE] 

c?stern or tank constructed as a receptacle 
fnr rain-water. See Cistbrx. And, as 
ifese XcIs wien empty were used as dun- 
geonsf the word Has the signification of a 
mison CZech. ix. 11): it also denotes a grave, 
Sr feSichrehewn in tl^e.rocli (PsaL xxvin 
1 • T^ai xir 15, 19, xxxviu. IS), llie woia 
L'JS/rS^^ only once (PsaL cxl. 
it means whirlpools, ^Wsses of water. S/^^^^ 
math properly is a sinking ; hence a pit or 
rhasin used for a pit-fall (Ezek. xix. 4, a;, 
anrflguratiTely .lor Plot«. treachery, o 

drakes a 1 ole or cistern with mire at the 
Stom, Is in Job ix. 31, where .ou>: .^ f^ 
?„rs render 'ditch.' It also s.gmfles t e 

S-S^e&"J't,^o?^«rt?iioSJe?JSe^;eSc^ 
ofdSirAvi 10, xlix. 9) : comp. the phrase 
?L'e tot? Ulxxiix. 49) is olt.n ^^^^ 

^- I fiv trpp« There is another terra, 

niue vol ii pp. 880, 881, helieves that the 
ffvip ^nrds designate mineral pitch m 
^eeal^Te^"^^^ 

To ^^.^ ^^"^^^^ 

pScHER. Besides the leather or skin 
hntti es f-ee Bottle) in common use among 
^hf Hehiw^ keeping liquids, earthen 
5'ch''e?f rau^t have ^^een einployed for 
drawing water (Gen. xxn^ U, lo IJ 4?, 4^^^ 
T Qin iv 2 • Mark xiv. 13 Liuke xxii. i-vj. 
ind'iideedhoth sorts of pitchers may he 
^mnmonl^ seen so ^sed now ; and also aiv 
cient Assyrian and Egyptian ones ha^^ 
hppn discovered. As to the pitcneis. la 
whSh Gideon placed his lamps (Judges vii. 
S 20^ Dr. TSomson has often seen lamps 
earned at niglit in a pitcher or earthen 

Atum'^) One of the treasure-cities which 
the Israelites huilt for Phamoh ^xod 1^ 
Tt is helieved to he identical with tne 
mumos mentioned hy Herodotus (lih 11 

nf the Wadv et-Tumeyla,t. 

PT'THON (the meaning can only he 
gtfe.sed at). A descendant of kmg Saul (1 

^^^^''ki^A grace which feeling 
for the distress of others prompts us to re- 
ffpve them God is said to pity those who 
f par him as a father pitieth his children 
& ™i. 13)V such a temper in one man 
to Another is inculcated in 1 Pet. ill. 8. 
PLAGUE. The words * plague' and 'pes- 



706 



tiience' are used with laxity in our ver- 
sion. The former does not even alYays 
imply a disease (e.g. Rev. xvi. 21). And. 
when diseases are meant, it is not always 
one particular type : thus we read of the 
pfaVie of leprosy (Lev. xiii. 2), of an issue 
Sf hlood (Mark v. 29). And often ho h 
words seem to imply any deadly epidemic 
But it can hardly he douhted that some of 
these must have heen that fatal sickness 
which has even to our own time speciady 
ravaa-ed Egypt and the east, and which 
Srmerry visited western Europe, tlie 
plague, described as virulent typhus m the 
hioiiest degree contagious, andaccompanied 
with extreme dehility. On an uncertain 
day of the disease there is an ertiption^^^^^^ 
huhnes or carhuncles, and at the fliht oii.- 
h?eak it is usually fatal in a few days, per- 
haps hours. The ^o^d ' league' is some^ 
times used symholically (1 Kings vni. 38) 

PLAGUES OP EGYPT. Tnis is the or- 
dinary appellation of those ten fearfu 
iiid-ments which were in fiicted on_ Pharaoh 
liKfhis people on account of their unjust 
detention of the Israelites m slavery. Re- 
duced they had heen without reason to 
bondage hy a king unmindful of the heue 
fits which Joseph had conferred on Egypt : 
they were made, too, to serve with rigour 
(Exod i 8-14); the demand therefore to le- 
lease them was one most proper to he en- 
forced. Jehovah apprised Moses of , his 
intent on to hring the Israelites into 
Snaan? hut vet he instructed him at first 
to ask only leave for three days' journey 
into the wilderness to offer a great sacrifice 
to God (iii 8, 17, 1S\ It was soon, however, 
perfectlv understood that the tribes once 
dl ivered would return no more : otherwise 
the act of Pharoah in pursuing--daiing 
madness as it was-would l^ave had no 
shadow of reasonable f; i^Af^^^ 

be thought, therefore, that the Egyptians 
cut thefr jewels (xii. 35, 36^ in expectation 
oTtheir being returned. They were gifts 
— 1 rio-hteous recompence, so far as it 
went, for the injustice committed against 

^Thf scene of the plagueswas Lower Egypt, 

^^^^^^^ 
^^^iSS^^iSi^'-^terthe^^^^ 
Aaron's rod becoming a serpent, which the 
magicians Imitated (Esod vii. 10-lo>, was 
thp chant?ing of water into blood, that is, 
S?o?oSing resembling bloo^^ 
vncter so pestilential that the fish (wbicn 
;^e abundant in the Nile) died, and no man 
'Jould drink of the river (which ordinarily 
wii held sacred). The Egyptian magicians 
£c ed a kind of imitation of this p ague, 
which lasted seven days ; and Pharaoh still 
hardened his heart (U-25). 

The second was the plague of trOoS. 
Tlicie creatures have a sacred character m 
E Tpt and still abound there in summer 
and autinnn. But this jtidgment was in- 
licted in early spring ; and grievous niuht 
ti P infli^ction have been. The magicians, 
T^^weve contriV^ to imitate it; though 
t ad been more to purpose if they had re- 
moved tSss tha swarmed everywhere. 



ro7 



instead of gathering more. And still Tha- 
raoh hardened his heart (viii. 1-15). 

Next was a plague of lice, or it might 
possibly have been mosquitos. Both these 
kinds of insects are common in Egypt, and 
are an intolerable annoyance. Multiplied 
as they were by the miracle, the magicians, 
unable any longer to rival Moses and Aaron, 
were constrained to acknowledge, 'This is 
the finger of God ' (16-19). 

The fourth was the plague of flies, from 
which, it is expressly said, Goshen was to 
be free. Travellers speak of common flies 
covering the food, and producing ophthal- 
mia by their pertinacious clustering round 
the eyes of the Egyptians. But it is not quite 
certain that flies are meant. Some have 
suggested beetles, and some gad-flies : cer- 
tainly, when the infliction is mentioned 
elsewhere, the devouring of the people is 
spoken of (Psal. Ixxviii. 45), which must at 
least mean some venomous bite. Pharaoh 
now was inclined to yield a little : still on 
the removal of the plague he again hardened 
his heart (Bxod. viii. 20-32). 

The fifth was a grievous murrain on the 
cattle, some kinds of the animals destroyed 
being accounted sacred (as, for instance, 
oxen). And none of those belonging to the 
children of Israel died (ix. 1-7). 

Still more appalling was the sixth plague, 
boils upon man and beast— perhaps, it has 
been thought, the disease specially termed 
the plague, which is characterized by fear- 
ful swellings; or it may have been ele- 
phantiasis, the black leprosy or 'botch of 
Egypt ' (Deut. xxviii. 27). And these boils 
were upon the magicians (Exod. ix. 8-12). 

The seventh was ushered in by a solemn 
warning. It was thunder and hail so terri- 
fic as to destroy the growing crops, to break 
trees, and smite down men who were ex- 
posed to it. And again Goshen was spared. 
Pharaoh again in his alarm— for any visita- 
tions of the kind are very rare in Egvpt, 
where rain seldom falls — relented, but 
hardened once more his heart when the 
judgment was withdrawn (13-35). 

A plague of locusts was the eighth. 
But on the announcement of it Pharaoh's 
servants remonstrated with him, and 
l>rought him to make some further conces- 
sion ; but it vv^as not enough ; and he con- 
temptuously dismissed Moses and Aaron 
from his presence. Then came the locusts 
in frightful myriads, and consumed all that 
the hail had spared. Now Pharaoh in haste 
summoned the Hebrew chiefs, and seemed 
inclined to submit ; but again when there 
was a respite he held out (x. 1-20). 

A thick darkness for three days next 
hung upon Egypt-there being light in 
Goshen. It might be the samoom, or suifo- 
cating wind which fills the air with sand, 
intensely aggravated; and spirits of evil 
may have been at hand to increase the hor- 
ror (Psal. Ixxviii. 49). For three days no 
man could rise from his place. Great was 
the obstinate king's alarm : he entreated 
mercy, and made a further concession ; but 
he did not yet grant all that was required, 
and turning upon Moses in his impotent 
folly threatened him with death if again he 
saw his face (Exod. x. 21-28). 



It was an ominous threat ; and awful wem 
the words of Moses in reply, ' I will see tby 
face again no more ' (29). There was one 
more stroke for which the thick darkness 
seemed a preparatory mourning. The first- 
born, the choicest in every house, was smit- 
ten. And a fearful wail burst forth at mid- 
night through all the land of Egypt: 
' there was not a house where there was not 
one dead.' Now the rebel will was subdued 
Pharaoh thrust the Israelites out, shrieking 
after them in his terror : ' Be gone, and 
bless me also ' (xi., xii. 29-36). In that crisis 
waa the passover instituted. 

Generally we may observe on the course 
of these plagues their gradually-increasing 
severity, their peculiar fitness to show the 
vanity of Egyptian idols, and their close 
connection with natural phenomena, and 
yet_ so timed and so aggraA^ated as to ex- 
hibit unmistakeably miraculous power, and 
to prove that the great agent was ' the finger 
of God.' 

PLAIN. By this word is frequently to 
be understood the Arabah, which see 
Other plains were that of Jezreel or Es- 
draelon, the Philistine plain, and that of 
Sharon. See Esbraelon, Philistia, 
Sharon. The term, however, is often im- 
properly used in our translation, as the 
rendering of various Hebrew words imply- 
ing meadow, downs, &c. &c. These cannot 
be enumerated and distinguished here 
They must be sought rather in a lexicon 
than in a work like the present. 

PLAIT, PLAITING (1 Pet. iii. 3). See 
Hair. 

PLANE-TUBE (Ecclus. xxiv. 14). Tho 

Platanus orientalis. 
PLANETS (2 Kings xxiii. 5). See Maz- 

ZAROTH, 

PLASTER. The use of plaster was well 
known to the ancient Hebrews. Notices of 
Its being employed may be found in Lev. 
XIV. 42, 48 ; Deut. xxvii. 2, 4. It was used, too, 
in Babylon, where the brick materials were 
coated with stucco or plaster (Dan. v. 5). 

PLEDGE. Something deposited as se- 
curity for an act to be done or a payment 
to be made. Thus Judah gave his signet 
to Tamar as security for the kid he pro- 
mised to send her (Gen. xxxviii. 17, is) 
The Mosaic law was very tender to the 
debtor in respect of pledges. If the rai- 
ment was taken, it was to be restored be- 
fore sunset (Exod. xxii. 26, 27). Neither 
the upper nor the nether mill-stone was to 
be taken in pledge ; because the want of 
it would interfere with the daily food of 
the household (Deut. xxiv. 6). The creditor, 
moreover, was not to enter a house for a 
pledge, but to wait at the door till the 
debtor brought it him (10, 11). Various 
other merciful regulations were made (12, 
13, 17) ; and harshness in retaining pledges 
was often censured (Job xxii. 6, xxiv. 3, 
9 ; Ezek. xviii. 7, 12, 16, xxxiii. 15). The 
'pledge' (1 Sam, xvii. 18) must have been 
some token which David was to bring back 
from his brethren. 

PLEI'ADES. A well-known cluster of 
stars in the shoulder of the constehatiou 
Taurus, the Bull. According to Greek 
mythology, seven daughters of Atias'beiug 



plotjgh] 



708 



t^nrsued l3y Orion were changed Isy Jupiter 
toto doves! and then placed in tlie heavens. 
Their names were Electra, Maia, Taygeta 
Alcyone, Celseno, Sterope, and Merope. Six 
IS if this group are visihle to the naked 
eye, hut many more with the aid of the 
telescope The Pleiades are mtenaed hy 
ihe Hebrew word Cimah or Ktmah (Job ix. 
9 xx^^iii 31) : the same word occurs m 
Ai^s™8, hut there it is rendered 'the 

''plough! The ancient Syrian Plo^fJ^ 
was a very simple instrument— at first per- 
haps hut an irSprovement on the hoe with 
which originally the soil was broken up 
Si was a stake from which pro]ected a 
ISortl? pointed piece of wood Afterwaras 
■it consisted of a pole, a point or share, a 
handle, and a yoke. This is the plough now 




Ancient Egyptian plougli. From a painting at 
Thebes. 

in u=e, very much resembling the ploughs 
figured on the Egyptian monument^. It is 
a most imperfect implement, makmg no 
proper furrow. Ploughs were drawn by 
oxen, driven by a goad or long pole fui- 




Plough still used in Asia Minor. 

nished at one end with a flatpiece of metal 
to clear the plough, and at the other with 
a spike : see Pict. Bible, note on Hos. x. 11. 
Dr. Thomson describes the Arabs as fond of 
ploughing in company, both for protection 




Modern plough, used in Armenia. 



and because the land is cultivated in com- 
mon, and says that he has seen as many as 
twelve ploughs closely following m a hne 
(1 Kings xix. 19) ; one sower being enough 
tor the whole company (The Land and the 



Book; pp. 143-145). Our Lord takes an apt 
illustration fi'om the plough (Luke ix. 62). 
The labourer must look forward at his fur- 
row : if he turns his eyes aside, his woik 
will be spoiled. See Agriculture. _ 

PLUMB-LINE. A well-known instru- 
ment by which exact perpendicularity is 
secured; It is symbolicaUy used m scripture 
to denote the strict line of justice accordmg 
to which God would act towards those who 
provoked him (Amos vii. 7, 8: comp. 2 
Kin^s xxi. 13 ; Isai. xxviii. 10. 

PO'CHERETH OP ZEBA'm ^snaring or 
getting aliead of tlie roes). It is Probable 
that Pochereth-hatsebaim is one app^Ua- 
tive; being the name of a person whose 
descendants, caUed Solomon's servants, re- 
tumeS from captivity with Zerubbabel 

^""POET p6lT|^:'lfis obvious that the 
poetical' element prevaHs largely m the 
composition of the sacred volume. Lideed 
some of the books have been specially 
classed as ' the poetical books,' an appella- 
Sonwlichwas liven them If a variety of 
ancient authors. These ^^oo^s which aie 
almost-whoUy metrical, are Job, the Psalms, 
the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Oanti- 
cles or Song of Solomon. ^i.^ia 
But they by no means contain the whole 
of Hebrew poetry. Large parts of the 
prophetic writings are ii^^ei'^e ; and, b^ 
Bides, there are to be found many detached 
poems and stanzas in the historical Portions 
of the bible. Examples of these might be 
readily produced : it is sufficient heie to 
name the addi'ess of Lamech to his wives 
(Gen iv. 23, 24), the triumphal ode& ot 
Moses and of Deborah (Exod. x"^- /; ; j 
Judges v.), and in the New Testament the 
canticles of the Virgin, of Zacharia|, and ol 
Simeon (Luke i. 46-55, 68-79, "•29-32). 

It was natural that poetiy should be de- 
veloped among the Hebrews For it is the 
expi^ssion of high-raised thought. Any- 
thing which lifts the mind above the_ rou- 
tine of ordinary events, as it furnishes 
poetic material, seems to require poetic 
utterance. Some high and noble object to 
he gained, the rapid change, the exultation 
of success, the misery of failure, nay even 
natural scenes of loveliness or grandeur- 
these cannot be told of in unimpassioned 
words. The pulse will quicken and the 
tongue break forth in metaphoric language • 
the ideas will be adorned with imageiy ap 
propriate 'to the various moods of minds 
iubilant or sorrowful. Israelitish history 
was specially calculatedlto kindle the poetic 
rapture. The chosen people were brought 
into communion with the Highest. The 
wonders that were wrought for them, the 
motives made to tell on them, the myste- 
rious depths into which they might look, 
must have given them alof riness of thought, 
to which less-favoured nations could not 
reach. And, when, besides, there was vouch^ 
safed a marvellous ajfflatns, that mdescnb 
able influence which brought the human 
mind into near relation with the dmue 
while the secrets of Deity were revealed to 
man, inspired poetry, it is evident, must be 
the Aoblest of all poetry. Truly the harp ol 
Zion was attuned to glorious themes : no 



709 



wonder that its strains have sounded clear 
above the world's din, through all the gene- 
rations ol the world's history. The grandeur 
of Its thoughts, then, is the pre-eminent 
feature of Hehrew poetry. And because of 
that very grandeur it has not been solici- 
tous about external form. Other nations 
have been more attentive to the harmony 
of expression. They have cast their verse 
m^u ° i^easure, or fettered it by rhyme, 
ihey have wrought it and polished it with 
a nnished art, to which the sublime concep- 
tions of the Hebrew bards could not stoop. 
It must not, indeed, be supposed that poetry 
Avas not cultivated at all in Israel. It is very 
likely that in the schools of the prophets 
tne taste of the young disciples was taught 
and refined. They were occupied, we know, 
m hymning Jehovah's praise, their choral 
chants accompanied with instrumental mu- 
^- 5,xix.20). And afterwards 
we find the sweet psalmist of Israel appoint- 
ing large companies of Levites for the 
choral worship of the sanctuary, under the 
presidency of masters whose poetic com- 
positions have come down to us— Asaph 
Heman, and Jeduthun (1 Chron. xxv.). But, 
though cultivated Hebrew poetry preserves 
fi natural simplicity and freedom, it is not 
destitute of the characteristics of verse 
1 cculiar words and grammatical forms are 
introduced. Imagery is employed, borrow- 
ed from various sources. And there is an 
elevated tone and a majesty or tenderness 
of thought and diction, observable gene- 
rally in all poetical compositions. Josephus 
professes to discover in it metres, like those 
of the Greeks and Romans (Antiq., lib. ii 16 
§ 4, lib. IV. 8, § 44, lib. vii. 12, § 3) ; and Ori- 
gen, Eusebius, and Jerome seem to have 
adopted the same notion (Euseb., Prcep 
Evang., lib. xi. 5; J er., Ptcg/. in Chron. Euseb', 
1 reef, in Job.) ; yet no such metres are per- 
ceptible to modern senses ; nor can it rea- 
sonaljly be imagined— making allowance 
tor the loss of the ancient pronunciation— 
that they ever existed. 
. we can discover one great character- 
istic of Hebrew poetry, a characteristic, 
too, most consonant with its principle. Its 
pre-eminence has been said to consist in the 
loftiness of its conceptions ; and its mode 
of expression is found in what has been hap- 
pily called ' thought-rhythm.' It is not the 
language which has been reduced to verse : 
It IS the thought that arranges itself in a 
wonderful correspondence which, like the 
lights and shades of a picture, like the echo 
repeating the song of the swain, was pro- 
minent m those antithetic strains which 
celebrated their great deliverance (Exod. 
^II. -^'-J^^' is the measure generally 
of trie Hebrew poetical idea (see Saalschutz, 
Arch, cler Jleb., cap. 26, vol. i. pp. 267, 268). 
There IS a certain equality, resemblance, or 
relationship visible betAveen periods or 
verses— a rhythinus of propositions ; so that 
thought m successive lines answers to 
thought, and things to things. Such is the 
general character of Hebrew versification ; 

^^'^^ V(^^'(^llelism occurs in every part of 
Old Testament poetry. An example will 
best explain the meaning of paralleUsm. 
Take then the following :— 



[poetry 



* Doth the wild-ass bray over his grass ? 
Doth the ox low over his fodder r 
-i-r X, . vi. 5. 

Here there is an equality in the number 
of words with exact proportion of thought. 
All the examples of parallelism of course 
do not resemble that just given. There 
are varieties and gradations ; and the cor- 
respondence is sometimes more accurate 
and manifest, and sometimes more vague 
and obscure. It is therefore necessary to 
classify and arrange the different species 
of parallels. This has been done by bishop 
Lowth in his Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, 
and by bishop Jebb in liis Sacred Literature. 
The principles on which they have proceed- 
ed will be illustrated by the following re- 
marks. Poetical parallelism may be taken 
to consist of four species— parallel lines 
cognate or graclational, parallel lines anti- 
thetic, parallel lines sy7ithetic or constructive 
and parallel lines introverted. 

1. Parallel lines cognate or gradational 
are those which correspond by expressing 
the same or a similar sentiment in different 
but nearly-equivalent terms. Occasionally 
as member succeeds member there is a gra- 
dation of thought, a kind of ascending (or 
sometimes descending) scale in the related 
terms andperiods,with a marked distinction 
of meaning. This species of parallelism is 
perhaps the most frequent of all. The fol- 
lowing may be taken as examples :— 

' O the happiness of that man 
Who hath not walked in the counsel of the 
ungodly. 

And hath not stood in the way of sinners 
And hath not sat in the seat of the scorn- 
, Psal. i. 1. 

Again : 

Who^shall ascend the mountain of Jeho- 

And who shall stand within his holy place ? 
The clean of hands, and the pure in heart.' 

^ Psal. xxiv. 3, 4. 

The next examples are from the prophets • 
Seek ye Jehovah while he may be found 
Call ye upon him while he is near : ' 
Let the wicked forsake his way. 
And the unrighteous man his thoughts. 
And let him return to Jehovah : and he 

will compassionate him ; 
And unto our God ; for he aboundeth in 

forgiveness.' Isai.lv. 6, 7. 

How shall I give thee up, 0 Ephraim ? 
Abandon thee, O Israel ? 
How shall I make thee as Admah ? 
Place thee in the condition of Zeboim ? 
My heart is turned upon me : 
My bowels yearn all together. 
I will not execute the fury of mine anger 
I will not return to make destruction ol 

Ephraim. 
For God I am, and not man. 
The Holy One in the midst of thee, al> 
though I am no frequenter of cities.' 
Hosea xi. 8, 9 (Horsley's transl.) 
2. Parallel lines antithetic are those which 
correspond by an opposition of terms and 
sentiments ; the contrast being sometimes 
m expressions and sometimes only in sense. 
The degrees of antithesis vary from the 
precise opposition of form to form, word 
to word, idea to idea, to a general disparity 



poetey"] 



710 



or contra7ietv in tlie two propositions ' 
ParaUeSsms 6t tliis kind are not so weU 
adapted for elevated and imP/ssioned poe- 
try, as lor tlie expression of moral apko- 
rismrproTerl3S, and detacliedpitliy senten- 
?er^Accordingly many of the proverl^s of 
Bolomon assnme this form and ovre to it 
mncli of their elegance and force. 

« ^wlse son rejoiceth his father ; 
BuTaf ooUsh son is the grief ol 1^;= 

TTpre every word has its opposite. The 
anulhesfs fflels complete in the following 

h^Slmory of the just is a Messing ; 
But the name of the wic^ea sl^^^J^^i^^^^^ y_ 

There are also instances in theVophetic 
writings. The following is a nohle one . 
^For the mountains shall he removed; 
And the hihs shall he ovmhrowii ; 
But my kindness from thee fchall not De 

And the^Svenant of my peace shaU not he 
OTerthrown; i.ai.liv.lO. 1 

q Parallel lines synthetic or construe- 1 
tile ^e those in which there is a similai- ! 
form of construction ; when there is a coi- j 
respondence hetween the different propo- ; 
^.mon^ in respect of the shape and turn of ^ 
the whole sentence and of the constituent 
mrt^ =uch as noun answering to noun, verh ! 

i ?f verb membc-r to member, negative to 
n%\nve, interrogative to interrogative. 

' The wietyof this f onn is SJ'eat ; the pa- 
rallelism being more or less exact Tneiol- 
lowin^ mav be taken as an example : . 
« Slaw of ^Jehovah is perfect, restoring 

The^tettimony of Jehovah is sure, making 
wise the simple : • i 

The precepts of Jehovah are right, re]oic- 
iug the heart : ' 

The commandment of Jehovah is clear, 
enlightening the eyes : . 

The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring lo. 

Theludginents of Jehovah are truth, they 
are iust altogether ; ^ 
More desirable than gold, or than much 

Ancfsweeter' than honey, or the dropping 
of honey-combs.' . 

Psal. xix. 7-10. 
Of these kinds of parallelism there are 
manv subordinate varieties, pointed out by 
bishop Jebb : for an account of which his 
work must be consulted. 

4. Stanzas are sometimes so constructed, 
that the nrst line corresponds to the last,the , 
second to the penultimate or last but one 
and so forth throughout. This is cahed the 
introverted parallelism. The followmg are 
said to be examples : 
* My son, if thy heart be wise. 
My heart also shall rejoice : 
Yea, my reins shall rejoice, 
When thy lips speak right things, 

Prov. xxin. 15, lo. 
The idols of the heathen are silver and 

sold, , 
The work of men s lurnas . 



They have mouths, hut they speak not 
Thev have eyes, but they see not : 
They have ears, but they hear not ; 
Neither is there any breath in their 

Theywhcf'make them are like unto them . 
So are aU they who put t^he^r tr^^t^^^- 

It must be confessed that the ciassifica- 
tion just ffiven is not always quit^ distm- 
gmshable.^ Other critics, tHerefore, have 
proposed different system s._ That of De 
Wette is elaborate and ingenious The fol- 
lowing is a condensed sketch of it. 
There are four different classes-- 
1 The original perfect kind of paralle- 
lism of members, which coincides with 
metre and rhvme, yet without being tue 
same with them. Such is the kmd of paral- 
lelism in which the song of Lamech is 
composed (Gen.iv. 23, 24\ 
2. The uneaual paraUelism, subdivided 

i "^^^^Q) The simple uneaual (Psal. Ixviii. 32). 
N) The complex,with the first or second 
member composed of two proposi- 
' tions. embracing— ^ 

(a) The synonymous (Psal. xxxvi.o,. 
tb) The antithetic (Psal. xv. 4). 
(c) The synthetic (PsaL xv. 5). _ 
(3) That with the simple member dis- 
proportionately small (PsaL xci. 7). _ 
(-0 That with the complex member in- 
creased to three or four propositions 
(Psal. i. 3\ 
(5) That with a short clause or supple- 
ment, for the most part of the second 
member, instead of the full subordi- 
nate parallelism iPsal. xxiii. 3). 

3 The double parallelism, the eauality 
bei'n"- restored by both members becom- 

g complex. Of this kind also there are— 

(a) The synonymous (Psal. xxxi. 10). 

(b) The antithetic (Psal. xxx. 5). 

(c) The svnthetic (Sol. Song ii. 3). 

4 The rhvthmical parallelism, where the 
thourihts do not correspond either by their 
resemblance, or by antithesis, or by synthe- 
ei* but where there is a simply-external 
Rhythmical form. There are various exam- 
ples " 

(1) 'with the number of words nearly 
eaual (Psal. xix. 11). . ^. 

(2) TVith striking in eqiiahry m the num- 
ber of the words (.Psal. xxx. 2). 

(3) With a double and a simple merahcr 

(4) Witii two double members (PsaL xxxi. 

Sei^^ De Wette*s Introd. to the Psahns, 
translated by Torrey. in the American 
Bihl nepos., July 1S33, pp. 496-504. 

De Wttte, Koster, and Ewald have further 
attempted to show that there is a strophical 
character in Hebrew poetry Verses <m)u- 
sist of parallel members ; and so strophes 
are said to be composed of parallel verses 
Koster published the books of Job an^ of 
Ecclesiastes and the Psalms arranged after 
this fashion. 

The whole system of parallelism has been 
i carried too far by many writers. The gene- 
ral principles are plainly enough marked . 
1 but the miiiUi'.Tiubdi visions andclassmca- 



711_ MMZ lttT0£uUtfge* [POMEGRANATB 



tions hardly exist save iu the imagination 
of fanciful critics. With the licence which 
some have assumed, it would not he difficult 
to arrange almost any composition, if at all 
of an elevated or oratorical cast, in paral- 
lelisms of some kind. 

Hebrew parallelism is not confined to the 
Old Testament. It occurs also in the Apo- 
crj'pha : the hook of Ecclesiasticus, for ex- 
ample, is composed almost entirely in this 
way. And in the sententious f ormulee of the 
rahhinical writers the same mode of expres- 
sion is often to he discovered. It is natu- 
ral to expect it in the New Testament, 
written by Jews whose minds were mould- 
ed in the form of their elder sacred writ- 
ings. Accordingly we shall find, not only in 
the inspired songs (Luke i., ii.), but also in 
some of the more solemn discourses and 
pithy admonitions,traces of a parallel struc- 
ture. Yet here there has been exaggera- 
tion to a most ridiculous extent. Bishop 
Jebb professes to iind couplets and stanzas 
in our Lord's speeches. Boys iu his Tactica 
Sacra has arranged several of the epistles 
in parallel lines. And this trifling is carried 
farther still by Forbes in his Symmetrical 
Structure of Scripture. The kind of amuse- 
ment in which such writers have indulged 
merits a grave censure. 

"We may discover in the bible different 
kinds of poetical composition. Here too, 
however, ingenious men have too much in- 
dulged their fancy, and have imagined that 
they could find, besides lyric, idyllic, drama- 
tic, even epic poetry. (1). Lyric poems or odes 
are the most ancient. These were intend- 
ed to be sung or accompanied by music. 
There are many noble examples of them in 
various parts of scripture, as the song of 
Moses (Exod. xv. 1-19) ; that of Deborah 
(Judges V.) ; very many of the Psalms, &c. 
(2). Elegiac poetry is in a mournful strohi. 
Examples are the lament of David over 
Saul and Jonatbau (2 Sam. i. 19-27), and 
the Lamentations of Jeremiah. (3). Didac- 
tic or moral poetry is intended to instruct. 
It is unimpassioned, earnest, and senten- 
tious, often delivering sage maxims in ele- 
gant and pointed verse. (4). Dramatic poe- 
try is characterized by an interchange of 
speakers. We find it in the book of Job 
and in the Song of Solomon. Other kinds 
of poetry can hardly be said to have been 
developed in the remains preserved to us of 
the Hebrew muse. 

The prophets generally adopted poetry as 
the vehicle of their utterances. Many sub- 
hlime odes are to be found in their writings, 
as well as pieces distinguished for solemn 
grandeur,when they threatened tbe impeni- 
tent with the approaching sore judgment 
of Jehovah's anger. Elegiac strains often' 
occur, lamenting the sad fate of Ephraim 
or Judah ; and the return of prosperity is 
described with pastoral images, presenting 
somewhat of the idyllic character. The 
poetic fire burns most brightly in the ear- 
lier prophets: the later ones, Ezekiel, 
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, are more pro- 
saic ; much of what they penned is simple 
prose. 

A few words must be added on tlie alpha- 
betical structure of some of the Hebrew 



poems. These are twelve in number, viz. 
Psalms XXV., xxxiv,, xxxvii., cxi., cxii., 
cxix., cxlv. ; Prov. xxxi. 10-31 ; Lam. i., ii., 
iii., iv. They have not all, however, the 
plan perfectly carried out. In Psalms cxi,, 
cxii. each line or half-verse begins witlithe 
letters successively of the Hebrew alpha- 
bet. In Psal. cxix. ; Lam. iii. there are ! 
series of verses each having the same ini- j 
tial letter in regular order. In the rest ' 
there are certain irregularities and changes. 
Perhaps it was intended by this structure 
to facilitate the committing of these poems ! 
to memory. 

The highest excellence of Hebrew poetry 
consists (as ahove noted) in its religious cha- 
racter. It is stamped with a divine impress. A 
loftier element pervadesit than can be found 
in the most noble productions of theheathen 
muse. This must be borne in mind by the 
interpreter. He must mark its oriental 
form. He must acquaint himself with the 
modes of eastern expression, its luxuriant 
imagery, its boldness of metaphor. And he 
must take care to distinguish what is sym- 
bolical from what is literally intended, lest 
he mistake the drapery for the substance of 
the composition. But, while using all dili- 
gence in these respects, and observing 
many of the rules according to v/hich poe- 
try in general is expounded, the student of 
the poems of scripture must never forget ! 
that they come from him who is the Holy and I 
the True One. Their meaning must not be 
frittered away, as if it were but exaggera- 
tion and flourish. The poetry of scripture 
was delivered ' by holy men of God, who 
spake as they v^ere moved by the Holy 
Ghost' (2Pet.i. 21). 

Some of the Greek poets are quoted in 
scripture; as Aratus (Phcenomena), by St. 
Paul (Acts XYii. 28) ; Menander {Thais}, by 
the same apostle (1 Cor. xv. 33) ; and also 
Epimenides a Cretan (Tit. i. 12). See Quota- 
tions. 

POISON. The original word translated 
poison (Deut. xxxii. 24, 33 ; Job vi. 4 ; Psal. 
Iviii. 4) implies 'heat,' and thence poison aa 
causing inflammation. There is another 
word which signifies the poppy, hence, with I 
' water of prefixed, poppy -juice, in our ver - j 
sion 'water of gall' (Jer. viii. 14, ix. 15, \ 
xxiii. 15) : this is sometimes used for poison ' 
generally, and even for the poison of ser- ' 
pents : it is rendered ' venom ' and ' poison ' i 
in Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job xx. 16, and else- [ 
where 'gall.' See Gall. Poison in the I 
passages here named is introduced by way of i 
illustration : comp. Rom. iii. 13 ; James iii. 8. 

POLL (2 Sam. xiv. 26 ; Ezek. xliv. 20). To 
cut or clip. I 

POL'LUX (Acts xxviii. 11). See Castor. ' 

POMEGRANATE. This, the Punica (jrcma- ' 
turn of botanists, belongs to the natural fa- I 
mily of plants called Myrtacece. There is said 
to be but a single species of pomegranate, ' 
though there are certainly varieties. Tlie 
pomegranate was well known to the Greeks; 
among whom parts of it were used medi- 
cinally. It has been highly valued iu various 
countries, from Syria to the north of India, 
it was cultivated also in Egypt and otlier 
parts of northern Africa. Its dark-grt'cn 
foliage, ils conspicuous liowera— of wiiiclj , 



pommel] 



712 



tbe flower-cup, Dell or tulip-shaped, and 1 
petals are both of a crimson polour-and its 
large reddish-coloured fruit, filled with 
uify pleasant-flavoured pulp, which covers 
its numerous seeds, make it one of the most 
desirahle products of warm countries. One 
kind is very large and douhle out it Dears 
n^fruit, and il cultivated merely for its 
hrilliant hlossoms. Dr. Thomson thus de- 
scrihes the pomegranate : ' There are some 
pomegranate hushes in this neighhourhood 
(Hehron) which may even he called trees hy 
way of courtesy, hut in reality these large 
Tnd delicious "apples" S^ow on a^ stout 
thorny hush. There are several kinds ot 
tSin this country. In Jehaah, on Leha- 
non, there is a variety perfectly hlack on 
?^e outside. The general colour however 
is a dun green, inclining to yellow ; and 
some have^even a hlush of red spread oyer 
a part of their surface. The outside rmd s 
?hinhut tough; and the hitter juice oi it 
stains everything it touches with an uncle- 
S hu?indelihle hlue. The average size 
is ahout that of the orange ; l^^t some of 
those from Jaffa are as large as the egg of 
an ostrich. Within, the. "grains" aie ai- 
ranged in longitudinal compartments as 
compactly as corn in the coh, and they 
cSy resemhle those of pale red corn, ex- 
rpDt that they are nearly transparent and 
vt?4 Sutifui. A dish flUed with these 
« grains " sS out is a very handsome 
orfament on any tahle ; and the fruit is as 
sweet to the taste as it is Pleasant to the 
eve They are ripe ahout the middle of 
g'ctoher. and remain. in good condition all 
winter. Suspended in the pantry they are 
kept partially dried through the whole year. 

. . The fruit was greatly esteemed m 
kncient times, and is mentioned hy Mo^^^^^ 
as one of the exceUences of the promised 
land (Deut. viii. 8) ; and by divine command 
hTwasto make pomegranates on the hem 
oi the ephod-a golden hell (the blossom) 
and a pomegranate alternately round ahou^ ! 
the hem of the rohe (Exod. xxviii. 33, 34) , ana 
thiy were re-produced in the temple upon 
'the nitwork that covered the chapiters on 
the ton of " Jachin and Boaz," those nohie 
piUars of hrass-two hundred pomegranates 
in rows round ahout (1 Ji^l^ J^if 15-21j. 
Solomon of course adornshis Son^g of Songs 
with aUusions to this heautif ul and Pleasant 
fruit (Sol. Song iv. 3, 13, vi. 7, vni. 2) , ana 
whileadmirinfit wemayenter more^^^^^^^^ 
into the gorgeous chamher of ima^eiy 
where that poetic monarch delighted to 
dwell and to revel ' {Tlie Land and the Book, 
Sd 583 584). The last allusion isprohahly 
??the practice still common of pressmg out 
Jhe juice into a kind of wme or sher^)et 

POMMEL (2 Chron. iv. 12, 13). A Piojtcb 
ing oniament belonging to the capital of a 
Snar • it is called a ' howl ' in 1 Kings vii. 41. 
^ PONDS (Exod. vii. 19. viii. 5). The sheets 
of water left after the inundation of the Nile. 
S'TIUS PI'LATE. see Pilate. 
PON'TUS. A region of Asia Minor. It is 
safd^S^ liave derived its name from Us Ijnng 
n non the Pontus Euxmus, the JiiUxmc sea. 
?Sr the Roman emperors the name com- 
1 SdtWiole districtalougthesou ue^ 
hay of the Euxiue, from the nvci llai> b lo 



Colchis and Armenia, separated on the south 
hv lofty mountains from Cappadocia. In 
the south-east it was mountainous, m other 
m?ts level and fertile. After the defeat of the 
famoS t?^^^^^ king of Pontus, 66 B O., a 
division of it was made, a portion heing 
added to the Roman province of Bithynia 
the rest heing parcelled out among petty 
Sfnces In Nero's reign Pontus he came a 
Roman province, under one administration 
w?fh raDuadocia. We learn from, the New 
??BtaS?Saf jews ^ad estahlished^hem- 

POOL A large reservoir for water. Foun- 
tains in sSne parts of Palestine were rare ; 
and st?elm^ failed during the summer and 
autumn • it was therefore necessary to col- 
lect t^ewate^ in cisterns and in ponds or 
Dools, hoth for culinary uses, and |or the 
Supply of cattle. The drying-up_ of these 
pools was a grievous calamity (Isai. xlih 15). 
The people now take little pains to keep the 
pools hy modern Syrian villages clean and 
?onseQuently travellers often complain of 
?Sffihhiness of the lignid they are obliged 
S drink See Dr. Thomson, TJie Land and 

''ThereVe?e man^pools in the neighbour- 
hood of Jerusalem for the water-supply of 
?l?e city : such as the pool of Bethesda the 
pool of Siloam, &c. ; accounts of w^ich aie 
given under their respective names. The 
Dools of Solomon, however, shall be briefly 
described here. These lie in a narrow 
vSley between Beth-lehem and Hebron 
Ihout eight miles short of the laf -named 
Slace The valley faUs away eastward : a 
farge castellated Saracenic l^nilding called 
Kasr-el-Burak, stands in it ; and ]ustabi east 
Sis castle is the nppermost pool each of 
the two others being on a lower level than 
A-np -nrpcedins" it. The natne rotjs. 
formfthe bed T^e sides are waUs bnilt up 
wfth larle regularly-sauared stones ; and 
' Se style of thi masonry bespeaks great aii^ 
tiQuity The bottom and sides have been 
Suliy 'coated.^ The dimens ons given by 
Dr. Robinson iBiU. Bes vol i. PP. 475, 
476), are-for the first, that most to the 
liJt feet by 207 and 50 deep, the 
second I23 by 250 and 39 deep, the third 
Iso by 236 and 25 deep. But they are.all 
narrower at the upper end; the first being 
?48, the second 160, the third 229 feet bix)ad 
there These pools are supplied with water 
mafniy fiSm a large fountain not far from 
Se north-west angle of the upper poo It 
is a large subterranean chamber, neariy 50 
feet long, and half as broad, into which, at 
four pohits, the waters gathered from the 
surrounding country well up : they are con- 
ducted hence by an underground passage 
?o ?he pools! According to ti^dition this 
was the ' spring shut up the f ountam 
sealed,' of Sol. Song iv. 13. The whole of the 
water from the fountain does not fall into 
the higher pool, but passes (about one half 
of it) into an open channel running along 
the north side. From this channel, and 
^rom ti e overflow of the higher the lower 
pools are supphed. Beneath the lowest is a 
vaulted chamber, explored by Dr Barclay, 
who says : ' I was delighted to find as vent- 



713 



able an arch as ever was made, and witli a 
true key-stone too ! (City of the Great King, 
p. 102). Beyond the pools tlie valley Into 
wlilcti they lead down is Wady TJrtas, 
garden-like, and in a high state of cultiva- 
tion. Some have helieved that here we find" 
the ' garden enclosed ' of the Hebrew poet 
(Sol. Song iv. 12). A conduit on the face of 
the hiU overhanging the north side of Wady 
Urtas carries off the water. It is some- 
times of mason-work, coated with cement 
inside ; sometimes pipes of baked clay, 
rising and falling with the varying surface 
of the ground, so tbat the hydrostatic law, 
that water rises to the height of its source, 
was known to the constructors ; and it fi- 
nally enters the south-west corner of the 
temple area (Thomson, itdi supr., pp. 603-606 ; 
Buchanan, Notes of Cler. Furlough, pp. 226- 
230). Many are disposed to believe that these 
gigantic reservoirs were really the work of 
Solomon (Eccles, ii. 4-6). 

POOR. The poor were tenderly cared for 
by the Mosaic law. Their rights were 
specially secured in the administration of 
justice (Esod. xxiii. 6; Lev. xix. 15; Deut. 
i. 17) : they were not to be oppressed (Prov. 
xiv. 31); God being specially the defender of 
the poor, a,ud engaging to listen to their 
cry (Exod. xxii. 25-27). Many privileges 
also were granted to them. They might 
bring the least expensive sacrifices (Lev. 
V. 7, 11, xii. 8) : to them specially belonged 
the gleanings and remnants of the fields 
and vineyards (xix. 9, 10 ; Deut. xxiv. 19-22). 
The produce of the sabbatical year was 
theirs (Exod. xxiii. 11): they were to be 
freely invited to the sacrificial feasts (Deut. 
xiv. 28, 29, xvi. 10, 11, xxvi. 12, 13) ; and they 
were to be liberally assisted in their ne- 
cessities (XV. 7-11). There were various 
provisions of the Hebrew polity which 
tended to diminish pauperism. Thus land, 
any man's inheritance, could be sold only 
for a term of years : at the jubilee it would 
return to its original owner, or his heirs 
(Lev. XXV. 23-28) : wages, too, were to be 
punctually paid (xix. 13) A family there- 
fore was not likely to be permanently re- 
duced. The same kindly treatment of the 
poor is inculcated in the New Testament 
(jMatt. V. 42, XXV. 34-40 ; Gal. ii. 10 ; James ii. 
1-5; 1 Johniii.l7). The word 'poor 'is some- 
times used in a figurative sense, for those 
who are humble of heart (Isai. Ixvi. 2 ; Matt. 
V. 3). And it was declared to be a peculiar 
mark of the gospel that it was preached to 
the poor (xi. 5) ; there being no respect of 
persons with God. 

POPLAR. The Hebrew name of the tree 
so rendered implies whiteness. It is very 
probably the white poplar, Populus alba, 
found in most parts of Europe in woods 
and thickets in a moist soil. It is mentioned 
twice in scripture (Gen. xxx. 37; Hos. iv. 13). 
Some have imagined that the tree intended 
is the Styrax officinale. Duns however, ap- 
parently with reason, combats this opinion 
(BiN. Nat Science, vol. ii. pp. 522, 523). 

PORA'THA (perhaps given hy lot). One 
of the sons of Haman (Esth. ix. 8). 

POPtCH. A vestibule, corridor, or en- 
trance-passage. See House, Temple. 

POR'CIUS FES'TUS. See Festus. 



PORTER. When David arranged the 
offices of the Levites, 4000, we are told, were 
appointed porters (1 Chron. xxiii. 5). The 
classification of these porters we find made, 
according to their families, of the Korhiteg 
and of the sons of Merari (xxvi. 1-19). The 
principal duties of the porters were to open 
and shut the doors and gates of the temple- 
courts, at which they attended during the 
day to prevent the entrance of any person 
or thing unclean or injurious. They were 
to take part in the guarding of the temple 
at night. They had also charge of the 
treasure-chambers in their respective wards. 
Thus we find four chief porters holding this 
trust (ix.26) ; and, again, a porter is specified 
as having charge over the free-will offerings 
(2 Chron. xxxi. 14). Occasionally also they 
were employed as musicians (1 Chron. xv. 
18). The word 'porter' occurs, moreover, 
for the keeper of a city-gate (2 Kings vii. 
10, 11), analogous to the door-keeper of 
a house rjohn xviii. 16 ; Acts xii. 13). 

PORPHYRE, or PORPHYRY (Esth. i. 6, 
marg.). Probably white marble. 

POSIDO'NIUS (2 Mace. xiv. 19). An en- 
voy sent by Mcanor to Judas Maccabeus. 

POST. Runners, swift of foot, were em- 
ployed to carry intelligence (2 Sam. xviii. 19- 
32). See FooTMAif. These runners are re- 
peatedly mentioned, and are the 'posts' of 2 
Chron. xx. 6, 10 ; Jer. li. 31 : .'they supply 
an apt comparison to Job (Job ix. 25, 26), 
whose days, he says, were swifter than that 
which moved most rapidly by land, by sea, 
or through the air. But it" was in Persia 
that a regular establishment of couriers 
was first organized. It is said that, the 
necessity of rapid communication between 
the seat of government and the provinces 
having impressed itself on the mind of Cy- 
rus, that prince ascertained how far a good 
horse might be expected to go in a day; 
that he then caused stables to be erected at 
specified distances. At each of these was a 
postmaster, and a sufacient number of 
horses and attendants. The postmaster's 
duty was to receive the despatches and for- 
ward them immediately by fresh mounted 
couriers. Hence the posts travelled night 
and day, and were proverbially said to fly 
faster than a crane. Mules, camels, and 
dromedaries were also used on this service 
(Esth. iii. 13, 15, viii. 10, 14). A similar 
usage, according to the Jesuits' Mevioires 
sur les Chinois, existed very early (at least 
230 B.C.) in China. 

The word 'post' is sometimes found in 
another sense, for lintel, threshold, &c. 
(Isai. vi. 4, and elsewhere). 

POT. See Potter, Pottery. 

POT'IPHAR (belonging to, or consecrated 
to, the sun). The captain of the king of 
Egypt's guard, or ' chief of the slaughter- 
men' (a position analogous to that of the 
Kapidji-bashy at the modern Turkish 
court), to whom Joseph was sold. He lirst 
treated Joseph well, and gave hira charge of 
his house ; but afterwards, deceived by his 
wife's false accusation,he threw hira into the 
prison (Gen. xxxvii. 36, xxxix.). Some mo- 
dern critics have objected to the narrative, 
and pretend that xxxix. 20, 21-23, and xl. 4 
are irreconcilably at variance. But they are 



voti-pherah] 



714 



euilty of tlie error of confomidiug ttie 
' captain of the guard ' witli the ' keeper of 
the prison.' Potipliar, it i= true, ^^■a5 at tlie 
same time captain of the guard and cliiet 
superintendent of the state-prison. But it 
is not likelv that he would personally or 
ilone undertake the oversight and care of 
prisoners : he had doubtless a keeper under 
him. And, as Potiphar himself pre^nously, 
so this subordinate keeper soon hecame 
avrare of Joseph's capahility and trustiness, 
and was glad to employ him. When distin- 
guished court-ofacers had offended the 
kin^, it was very natural that Potiphar him- 
self^should he husied and careful for their 
treatment. Accordingly he appears again; 
and, either having learned fi'om his suhor- 
dinate how useful Joseph had proved him- 
self, or recollecting from his own expe- 
rience Joseph's ability, the captain felt he 
should do best for these notable prisoners 
bv charging Joseph with them. All is thus 
natural and consistent. See Kurtz, JEinlmt 
(ler Genesis, p. 192. . 

POTI'-PHERAH (2(1, Potiphar being a 
contracted form of Poti-pherah). The priest 
of On, or Heliopolis, whose daughter Ase- 
nath was given in marriage to Joseph (i^en. 
Xli. 45, oO.'^xlvi. 20). 

POTSHERD. A fragment of eartnenware. 
The word is used to denote something 
worthless (Psal.xxii. 15 ; Prov. xxvi. 23 ; Isai. \ 
xlv. 9). Kitto {Ctid. of Bibl Lit.) remarks 
that the sites of ancient towns are often 
covered with a mass of broken pottery, 
which is seuerally of coarse texture and 
gla-^ed. He supposes that this is only when 
the citv was built of unburnt brick, the 
ruins of which are disintegrated and worn 
away by time and weather, so as to leave 
just the potterv,which was not likelyto be so 
di^=olved. Towns built with stone or kiln- 
burnt bricks do not exhibit this form of ruin. 
The expression of Isai. xxx. U is admi- 
rably illustrated by modern Syrian habits. 
It is customary for children to bring a 
sherd of pottery to the public ovens in an 
evenina-, and the baker puts into it a few 
glowins embers, that they may warm up 
, their evening meal with them. The ae- 
i strnction foretold by the prophet was to 
be so complete that not a fragment large 
enoush for this service would remain. 
POTTAGE (Gen. xxv. 29-34). See Lex- 

TILES. 

POTTER, POTTERY. The art of pottery 
is very ancient. Earthenware vessels were 
u«ed by the Israelites in the wilderness; and 
we find the employment of them common 
afterwards for both culinary and other pur- 
poses The potter and his wheel are often re- 
ferred to in scriptm-e. The potter's wheel is 
a simple machine, depicted on Egyptian 
monuments, of the same kind as is now m 
u=ie It consists of a horizontal wheel, fixed 
onthe top of an axis,the lower part of which 
is sometimes in a pit in which the potter 
stands. Sometimes he sits at his work at a 
kind of .table : he gives the necessary mo- 
tion with his feet to another wheel at the 
bottom of the axis, and moulds the clay 
with his hands. The process is exactly 
described by an apocryphal writer (.Eeclus. 
sxxviii. 29, G'J). I>r. Thomson mentions it 



as now practised: 'There was the potter 
sittinsr at his "frame," and turning the 
" wheel" with his foot. He had a heap of the 
prepared clay neai- him, and a pan of water 




Egyptian potters at work. From an ancient Egyp- 
tian painting at Thebes. ChampoUion. 

by his side. Taking a lump in his hand, he 

placed it on the top of the wheel (which re- 
volves horizontally) and smoothed it into a 
low cone, like the upper end of a sugar-loaf; 
then, thrusting his thumb into the top of it. 




Modern Egyptian potter. From an original sketch. 

he opened a hole down through the centre, 
and this he constantly widened by pressing 
the edges of the revolving cone between 
his hands. As it enlarged and becauie 
thinuer, he gave it whatever shape he 
pleased with the utmost ease and expedi- 
tion. This I suppose is the exact point i-i 
those biblical comparisons between the hu- 



ri5 



[PEAY, PEAYEI^ 



man and tlie divine potter (Jer. xviii. 4, 6). 
. . . . From some defect in the clay, or 1)e- 
cause be liad taken too little, the potter 
suddenly changed his mind, crushed his 
growing jar instantly into a shapeless mass 
of mud, and, heginning anew, fashioned it 
into a totally-different vessel (comp. Rom. 
Ix. 21). ... The potter's vessel was the sy- 
nonym of utter fragility .... for this 




Early Egyptl-an and Assyrian pottery. Brit. 
Museum. 

country it is still as appropriate and forcihle 
as ever. Arah jars are so thin arid frail 
that they are literally " dashed to shivers " 
hy the slightest stroke' (27ie Land and the 
Book, pp. 520, 521). 

The lying ' among the pots' (Psal. Ixviii. 
13) may seem to require a word of explana- 
tion. Avery ingenious one is given hy Mr, 
AVilton in Good Words, Dec. 1863, p. 852, as 
communicated by a lady resident in the east 
• The roofs are usually in a great state of 
litter .... One thing never seemed cleared 
away .... and that was the heap of old 
hroken pitchers, sherds, and pots, that . 
are piled up in some corner ; and there is a. 
curious ohservation to he made in connec- 
tion with this. A little hefore sunset 
numbers of pigeons suddenly emerge from 
behind the pitchers and other rubbish, 
where they had been sleeping in the heat of 
the day, or pecking about to And food. They 
dart upwards, and career through the air in 
large circles,their out-spread wings catching 
the bright glow of the sun's slanting rays, 
so that they really resemble shining yellow 
gold : then, as they wheel round and are 
seen against the light, tbey appear as if 
turned into molten silver; most of them 
"being pure white, or else very light-colour- 
ed. This may seen fanciful ; but the effect 
of light in those regions is difficult to de- 
scribe to those who have not seen it ; and 
evening after evening we watched the cir- 
cling flight of doves, and always observed 
the same appearance.' 

Various words are used in the original to 
denote different kinds of pots ; and some- 
times earthen and metal vessels are distin- 
guished (Lev. vi. 28). The use to which 
pots were put is occasionally defined by an 
adjunct, as ' flesh-pot,' ' wash-pot,' ' fluing- 
pot' (Exod, xvi. 3; Psal. Ix. 8 ; Prov. xxvii. 
21); and the blaci:eniug of such, vessels is 
alluded to (Joel ii. 6, marg.). Tbe water- 
pots at the marriage in Caua (John ii. 6) 
■were of a considerable size : that carried by 
the Samaritan woman (iv. 28) may have been 
a leathern bucket, for such are used now ; 
but see Pitcher, 



POTTEP^'S FIELD (Matt, xzvii. 10). See 

ACELDASIA. 

POU]S'"D. This word is used (1 Kings x 
17 ; Ezra ii. 69 ; Neh. vii. 71, 72) for the He- 
brew maneh. It occurs also in the New 
Testament for money (Luke xix. 13, 16, 18, 
20, 24, 25), the mina, and also for weight 
(John xii. 3, xix. 39). See Money, "Weights. 

POWER. Ability to act. All power is of 
God (Psal. Ixii. 11), and from him it is de- 
rived to creatures. Angels are called 
' powers ' (Col. i. 16) ; and earthly magis- 
trates are designated as ' powers,' to whom 
by God's ordinance due obedience must be 
paid (Rom. xiii. 1-3). A^arious interpretations 
have been given of the text that a woman 
should haA^e ' power ' on her head (1 Cor. xi. 
10). The context evidently shows that a 
veil is meant. The woman has no power 
over her own head : she is under the power 
of her husband ; and for this reason she is 
to be covered. The holy angels are present 
in Christian assemblies,' dehghting in the 
due order and subordination of the ranks of 
God's servants ; and by a violation of that 
order we should be giving offence to them' 
(Alford, note on 1 Cor. xi. 10). 

PR.^:T0'RIUM, PRETO'RIUM. The word 
often occurs (Matt, xxvii. 27, rendered 'com- 
mon-hall,' ' governor's house,' marg. ; Mark 
XV. 16 ; John xviii. 28, rendered ' hall of 
judgment,' 'Pilate's house,' marg., as also 
33, xix. 9; Acts xxiii. 35, ' Herod's judgment- 
hall'; Phil i. 13, 'the palace,' ' Cissar's 
court,' marg.). It was the head-quarters of 
Roman military commanders. There they 
not only resided themselves but had some 
of their troops quartered in attached bar- 
racks ; and there were kept persons under 
arrest. For such purposes the palaces that 
wereformd in provincial cities were com- 
monly used : thus in Jerusalem Herod's pa- 
lace was the prEetorium of the Roman pro- 
curator, justice being often administered 
in the open court before it— so also in Ca^sa- 
rea. It is true that some doubt has been 
felt whether the governor did not rather 
occupy the tower of Antoniaat Jerusalem ; 
but, as Herod's palace was generally empty, 
it might have been taken as the head- 
quarters of the governor with a body-guard, 
and the rest of the troops have been quar- 
tered in Antonia. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., 
art. 'Rich thaus.' For explanation of Phil, 
i. 13 see Palace. 

PRAISE. A thankful setting-forth of 
God's perfections and goodness (Psal. 
cxxxviii. 1 ; Rev. xix. 5) ; a commending 
of the good actions of other men (Prov. 
xxvii. 2) ; the matter or object of ou.r com- 
mendation (Deut. X. 21 ; Psal. cxlviii. 14) ; 
approval (Rom. xiii. 3 ; 1 Pet.ii.14) ; praise- 
worthy deeds (Psal. cvi. 2). 

PRAY, PRAYER. Prayer, or the ex- 
pression of human wants to the Deity, is 
both a duty and a privilege. It is fitting 
that subjects should present their petitions 
to their Sovereign : it is great condescen- 
sion when the Lord of the universe permits 
the creatures of his hand to speak to him 
with assurance of a favourable hearing. 

We do not find in the earlier parts of 
scripture an express command to pray: 
nor have we definite oxam])k'ti before tUo 



PEAY, prayer] 



716 



time of AlDraliam of the practice of prayer. 
But it can hardly he douhted that sacrifices 
were accompanied with some kind of inyo- 
cation or uttered desire ; and, if we might 
interpret Gen. iv. 26 according to onr ver- 
sion, we should find in it the establishment 
of regular worship. Laying, however, no 
stress on this, we cannot hut see that prayer 
was familiar to Abraliam and his immediate 
descendants (xii. 8, xv. 2, 3, xvii. 18, xvni. 
23-33, XX. 7, 17, xxiv. 12-14, xxv. 21, xxxn. 
9-12, 24-29). And, just as in other respects 
there were gradually clearer manifestations 
for hoth faith and practice, so the duty and 
privilege of prayer became more distmct : 
commands more precise were given for it : 
promises more defluite were made to it ; 
till ultimately it was sanctioned hy the 
Saviour's example, fashioned according to 
his prescription, and so clearly understood 
to he the medium of ohtaiuing divine bless- 
ing that by it men were told they should 
have what they would (Luke xi. 9, 10), 
without it they would be destitute of all 
they desired (James iv. 2). 

There are sundry advantages effected by 
prayer, apart from the obtaining of the 
particular boon asked. For tbe man who 
presumes to speak to his Maker humbles 
himself: his temper is rendered submis- 
sive ; and, as he acknowledges in the act of 
eutreatv the greatness, the mercy, and the 
power of God, so he comes into a position 
and a state of mind befitting the relation 
between himself and the Deity. Faith is 
exercised : love is called forth ; and obedi- 
ence virtuaUy pledged. 

Some are disposed to consider this— the 
moral effect upon the praying man himself 
—the only benefit of prayer. They will not 
aUowthat God's purposes, nay, the machi- 
nerv of the universe, can be affected by the 
breath of a human desire. All things occur 
in orderly sequence ; and it is presump- 
tuous, they think, to imagine that this can 
be broken, as it must be if ^prayer could 
prevail to alter results. Such a view has 
a show of humility ; but, if followed out to 
its ultimate consequences, it would leave 
the world bound in a miserable fatahsm, 
under which, as creatures would be power- 
less, moral responsibility would cease, and 
man must only bear as he might his inevi- 
table destiny. Such a theory implies that 
the Creator did not foresee, made no pro- 
vision for, the exercise of those powers and 
faculties with which he endowed his crea- 
tures—in a word, that all the play of 
thoughts and feelings and desires of hiiman 
agents was never counted as a part of the 
HiachineiT which the Almighty will would 
control, and which he would use m the 
bringing about of his great designs It 
really deposes God from his office of go- 
verning.^^^ allowed that God created the 
visible universe, the finite must stand in a 
certain relation to the infinite, and there 
must be some point of contact between the 
natural and the supernatural. You may 
track causation for a long distance, but you 
must come somewhere to a point beyond 
which you cannot ascend— you must acknow- 
ledge at last the touch of the divine finger. 



It is just here that the prayer which enters 
the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth reaches. It 
neither asks nor expects that the chain of 
cause and effect be miraculously broken, 
but it is taught to ask and to believe that 
he, who first sets cause in motion and links 
to it its orderly effect, would so at the be- 
ginning by his gi-acious influence deter- 
mine the line of action as that this might be 
found one of the means by which the end 
is reached. This is contrary neither to 
reason nor to sound philosophy. The uni- 
formity of nature is not violated ; and yet 
the-infiuence of God's moral government is 
felt. Dr. Chalmers admirably discusses 
this, and has shown how the Deity has, from 
tbe first constitution of things, taken ac- 
count of all the properties of matter and of 
all the impulses of mind, and made provi- 
sion for every result. His vast plan, then, 
may well include answers to prayer by no 
violation of, but in exact harmony with, 
and even by means of, the laws of nature. 
Chalmers supposes the prayer of a mother 
who dreads the storm for her child upon 
the ocean : ' God might answer the prayer, 
not by unsetthng the order of secondary | 
causes, not by reversing any of the wonted | 
successions that are known to take place in 
the ever-restless ever-heaving atmosphere, 
not by sensible miracle among those nearer 
footsteps which the philosopher has traced, 
but by the touch of an immediate hand 
among the deep recesses of materiahsra, 
which are beyond the ken of all his instru- 
ments. It is thence that the Sovereign of 
nature might bid the wild uproar of the ele- 
ments into silence.' And again : ' Thus . . . 
is met the cry of a people under famine ror 
a speedy and plenteous harvest, not by the 
instant appearance of the ripened gram at 
the bidding of a voice from heaven, not 
preternaturally cherished into maturity m 
the midst of storms, but ushered onwards 
by a grateful succession of shower and 
sunshine to a prosperous consummation. 
An abundant harvest is granted to prayer, 
yet without violence either to the laws of 
the vegetable physiology, or to any of the 
known laws by which the alterations of the 
weather are determined' {The Two King- 
doms, disc. ii. in. Select Works, vol. m. pp. 
617-634). It is no ' subservient accommo- 
dation on the part of the Creator to the 
creature. It is simply the Creator carrying 
into effect his own established processes 
ad., Nat. Tlieol., book v. chap. iii. vol. v. 
pp. 432-459). ^ 

And this is in exact accordance with the 
divine word, with the invitation and the 
promise. A remarkable corroboration is in 
the fact that prayer in time of drought, 
famine, pestilence, &c. is regarded m scrip- 
ture as a means towards relief (1 Kings 
viii. 35-40). But it must be observed that 
men are to ask according to God's will (1 
John V. 14), and in Christ's name (John 
xvi. 23, 24). It is thus alone that we can ask 
with that faith with which only man can 
acceptably approach his Maker (Heb.xi. 6; 
James i. 6, 7). The promises within the 
compass of which the praying soul must 
come are very precious. The Holy Spirit is 
to help our infirmities (Rom. viii. 26) ; and 



ri7 



Christ is to make intercession for those 
who come to God hy him (34), 

Prayer has sometimes been considered as 
Including invocation, confession, thanks- 
giving, and ascription of praise, as well as 
supplication. Buc these are, more properly, 
parts of worship— prayer heing essentially 
petition. And, as it was observed before 
that there was an advance in the distinct 
Inculcation and definite promises of prayer 
as revelation expanded, so we may perceive 
in the prayers contained in scripture an 
enlargement of character and greater spiri- 
tuality of tone. The recorded prayers of 
Abraham, though doubtless implying spiri- 
tual blessings, have not the full grasp of 
them which those of Paul present. 

Forms of prayer in the Old Testament are 
found in Numb. vi. 24-26, x. 35, 36 ; Deut. 
xxvi. 5-15. And there can be little doubt 
that some of the Psalms were so used; at 
all events they imparted a colouring to the 
expressions of prayer. That which Christ 
gave his disciples (Matt. vi. 9-13 ; Luke xi. 
2-4). whether in some degree adopted from 
existing forms need not here be enquired, 
has always been taken as the model of 
Christian devotion. It was to the urging 
of these petitions, to the use and amplifica- 
tion of the prayer, that the first disciples 
gave themselves ; and how it was incor- 
porated into every early liturgy and used 
on every solemn occasion the history of 
ecclesiastical antiquity sufficiently testifies. 
The ancient use, too, of liturgical forms is 
fully established (see Bingham, Orig. JEccles., 
book xiii,). 

Of the practice of and promises to prayer, 
private, social,and public, we have abundant 
scriptural examples (Matt. vi. 6, xviii. 19, 
20 ; Luke vi. 12 ; Acts i. 14, x. 9, xx. 3G). 
And accounts of successful prayer are 
furnished in order that we may imitate 
those who so obtained their petitions for 
their own personal wants or for their bre- 
thren (James v. 16-18). 

The frequency and usual times of prayer 
mav have somewhat varied. Three are 
often spoken of— morning, and evening, or 
the hours of the daily sacrifices, and mid- 
day (Psal. Iv. 17 ; Dan. vi. 10, ix. 20, 21 ; 
Acts iii. 1, X. 3, 9) : prayer, too, was offered 
at meals (Matt. xv. 36) ; so that when all 
the occasions were numbered they would 
sometimes amount to seven (Psal. cxix. 
164). Prayer was occasionally uttered 
standing (1 Sam. i. 26 ; Luke xviii. 11, 13) ; 
more frequently kneeling or prostrate, with 
a stretching-out of the hands, and a direc- 
tion of the face towards Jerusalem (2 
Kings vi. 13 ; Dan. vi. 10 ; Matt. xxvi. 39 ; 
Luke xxii. 41; Acts vii. 60, xx. 36). The 
temple was used as a place of prayer (Luke 
xviii. 10 ; Acts iii. 1), even by those who 
offered up private devotions : hence it was 
called 'the house of prayer' (Matt. xxi. 13). 
Prayer also accompanied the ritual offerings 
(Luke i. 9), and formed a part of the syna- 
gogue service. 

PREACH, PREACHER, PREACHING. 
These words are for the most part used in 
scripture for the announcement of a mes- 
sage, doctrine, or warning, rather than in 
the technical sense in which we now employ 



them. Thus Noah is said to have been 'a. 
preacher of righteousness' (2 Pet. ii. 5). 
the author of Ecclesiastes calls himself ' the 
preacher' (Eccles. i. 1, 2, 12, xii. 8, 9, 10): 
Jonah's warning to the Ninevites is term- 
ed 'preaching' (Jonah iii. 2). Sometimes 
' preaching ' is put for ' doctrine ' or mode 
of teaching (1 Cor. i. 18, ii. 4, xv. 14 ; 2 Cor. 
i. 18, marg.) ; and sometimes to 'preach' is 
equivalent to ' assent ' or ' declare ' (Rom. ii. 
21). Discourses or addresses delivered in a 
synagogue more nearly resembled preach- 
ing as now understood (Luke iv. 18-27 ; 
Acts xiii. 15-41). There are also instances 
of preaching in Christian assemblies (xx. 
7-12); in regard to which St. Paul gives 
sundry directions (1 Cor, xiv.). A full ac- 
count of preaching and the usages relating 
to it in the ancient church is given by 
Bingham, Orig. Eccles., book xiv. cbap. iv. 

PRECIOUS STONES. See Stones, Phe- 
cious. 

PREDESTINATE. A word signifying 
the sovereign purpose of God as the ruler 
of the universe (Rom. viii. 29, 30 ; Eph. i. 
5, 11). The same word is sometimes ren- 
dered 'determined before' (Acts iv. 28), 
'ordained' (1 Cor. ii. 7). It would be of 
course beside the purpose of the present 
volume to enter on the controversies which 
have been provoked on the subject of pre- 
destination. The following sentences may 
be cited from Dr. Alford's note on Rom. 
viii. 28 : * It may suffice to say that, on the 
one hand, scripture bears constant testi- 
mony to the fact that all believers are 
chosen and called by God, their whole 
spiritual life, in its origin, progress, and 
completion, being from Mm ; while, on the 
other hand, its testimony is no less precise 
that he willeth all to be saved, and that 
none shall perish except by loilful rejection 
of the truth. So that, on the one side, GocVs 
sovereignty, on the other, mcm's free-will, 
is plainly declared to us. To receive, believe, 
and act on hath these is our duty and our 
wisdom.^ 

PREPARATION (Matt, xxvii. 62; Mark 
XV. 42 ; Luke xxiii. 54 ; John xix. 14, 31, 42). 
The preparation of the sabbath which fell 
in passover-week. So Wordsworth ; but 
some differ. See Passover : comp. Wiese- 
ler, Clironol. Synops., pp. 335, &c. 

PRESBYTER, PRESBYTERY (1 Tim. iv. 
14). See Bishop, Elder. 

PRESIDENT. A great officer of the 
Persian court. The title is given to the 
three highest ministers (Dan. vi. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7). 

PRESS (Joel iii. 13; Hagg. ii. 16). See 
Wine-press. 

PREVENT (Psal. XXI. 3 ; 1 Thess. iv. 15). 
To go before, anticipate. 

PRICKS. To 'kick against thf pricks' 
(Acts ix. 5, xxvi. 14) is a proverbial expres- 
sion referring to oxen at plough, which on 
being pricked with the goad kick against it. 

PRIDE. Inordinate self-esteem, gene- 
rating often insolent behaviour to others. 
Scripture is full of warnings against it 
(e.g. Prov. xvi. 18, 19 ; Dan. iv. ; l Pet. v. 5). 

PRIEST. This word (contracted ni our 
language from presbyter, i.e. elder) is the 
representative of kliuhen in the Old Testa- 
ment and of hiereus in the New. Critics are 



priest] 



718 



not exactly agreed on the ground-meanmg 
j)f the Hebrew word. Gesenius imagines 
that it implies the notion of presaging or 
divining, hence one who communicates the 
divine will to men. Saalschlitz prefers the 
idea of ministering or serving {Arch, der 
ITebr., cap. 78, vol. ii. p. 353). It is sopie- 
thnes therefore used of secular function- 
aries apart from any sacerdotal office, in 
the New Testament Mereus is applied not 
to the Christian ministry hut to the He- 
brew and heathen priesthood. 

From the beginning the necessity of pre- 
senting some acceptable service to God was 
understood ; and sacrifices appear to have 
been the earliest mode of worship. See Sa- 
crifice. It was a natural step to establish 
what might be termed a household priest- 
hood, in which the most honourable of the 
family drew near to God in the name and as 
the representative of the rest, and offered 
for all that victim which it was hoped 
would propitiate the divine favour. So we 
find the patriarchs, Noah, Abraham, and 
others, offtciating as the priests of their 
households (Gen. viii. 20, xii. 8) ; and the 
priestly dignity was regarded as descending 
by a kind of right to the first-born No 
trace was yet visible of a sacerdotal body or 
caste. It was not merely in the chosen race 
that this was the practice ; elsewhere we 
find persons conspicuous for dignity, tne 
heads of houses or of tribes, denominated 
nriests : Melchizedek and Jethro are exam- 
')les (xiv. 18 ; Exod. ii. 16). In Egypt, how- 
ever, at an early period, the priests were a 
separate class distinguished by special im- 
munities (Gen. xlvii. 22, 26). The idea 
therefore, must have become familiar to 
the Israelites during their residence m that 
land Yet thev do not seem to have acted 
on it. The first demand for liberty was 
that they might sacrifice to the Lord 
fExod V. 1,3); and it is probable, corrobo- 
•ated the fact that each head of a family 
was to kill the paschal lamb, that the house- 
hold priesthood still prevailed among them, 
and that the priests mentioned before the 
Riving of the law were those that m every 
house held the sacred ofilce (xii. 3-6, xix. 22). 
Indeed there are traces of the custom at a 
much later date. i 

It pleased God, however, to select pne 
family of Israel to be his priests (xxviii. 1 ; 
Ileb. V. 1-4), the family of Aaron, of the 
tribe of Levi. This selection did not pass 
without question. There was at one time a 
combined opposition from members ot the 
tribe to whom by right of primogeniture 
the priesthood might seem to have belong- 
ed and from Levites who were displeased 
that the high office should be entrusted to a 
single family and not shared generally 
among their tribe. This opposition was 
quellcHl by the supernatural interference 
of God himself (Numb, xvi., xvu.). At what 
precise period it occurred wo can but con- 
jecture : perhaps it was not till after some 
years' sojourn in the wihlcrness. 

Some of the hishost functions were re- 
served for the high priest (see High 
PRIEST) ; imdcr whose authority tlie ordi- 
nary members of the sacerdotal class would 
Bcem to have been placed. But it may bo 



generally said that these were to conduct the 
customary services of the sanctuary, to pre- 
pare and offer the daily,weekly, and monthly 
sacrifices, and those which from time to 
time were brought by individuals, on spe- 
cial occasions, or at the great annual festi- 
vals : they were to officiate at purifications, 
and pronounce judgment in cases of alleged 
or apprehended leprosy : they were to have 
charge of the holy vessels, watching the sa- 
cred fire, and feeding the golden lamp, co- 
vering also the sanctuary and its furniture 
when the camp was moving : they were to 
conduct the trial of jealousy, and to esti- 
mate the redemption-money for avow: they 
were to preserve and teach the law, and 
to bless the people : they v/ere employed as 
judges and magistrates, and in war they 
carried the ark of the covenant, sounded 
the holy trumpets, and animated the people 
to combat. But in the more laborious duties 
connected with their office they were to be 
assisted by the Levites (Exod. xxvii. 20, 21, 
XXX. 7, 8, 18-21 ; Lev. i.— vii., x. 8-11, xu — 
xiv., xxiv. 1-9, xxvii.; Numb. iv. 5-16, v. 
11-31, vi., X. 1-10 ; Deut. xvii. 8-13, xxi. 1-9, 
xxxi. 9-13, xxxiii. 10). . 

The descendants of Aaron were priests by 
hereditary right. But there were certam 
blemishes and imperfections which, it they 
were found in any man, disqualified him 
from performing the functions of his office, 
though he might partake of the sacred food 
which belonged to the order. These ble- 
mishes are specified in the law (Ley. xxi.l6- 
24) • they have been largely multiplied by 
the rabbins ; according to whom first the 
genealogy and then the freedom from de- 
fect were carefully ascertained before a 
young priest was admitted to perform 
any sacerdotal ministration. There were 
certain "regulations, too, to which a priest 
must conform. He must not mourn or de- 
file himself at the death of any except his 
nearest relatives- the high priest defiling 
himself for no one, how near of kin soever 
—he must not practise those cuttings and 
shavings which were common among the 
heathen: he must not i^f^ij ^ woman of 
bad character or divorced— the high pi iCbo 
was to marry only a virgin of his own pco- 
ple-and his family 'were to be pure m con- 
duct (1-15). He and his household were to 
eat of the sacred things, save when disqua- 
lified by uncleanness : his daughter, if she 
married a stranger, must not touch this 
hallowed food ; but if as a widow she re- 
turned to her father's house she might par- 
take of it, as in licr youth (xxii. 1-13). All 
these rules had a pregnant Jneaniug : they 
bore witness to the purity of Jehovah, and 
rc'ul the lesson that they that approach the 
holy God must not be defiled with evil. 

The priests were to have a special conse- 
cration. The ceremonies were careful y 
proscribed to Moses, and were accurntely 
carried out by him at the cousocrat ion ol 
Aaron and his sons. They consisted ni c er- 
tain sacriiices, Avashmgs, the P}^t i''»;T,* ' 
the holy garments, the ^^''1^^^''',^^'^^' 
and the alioiutiug with oil, nnd ■'^ 
qeven days (Exod. xxix. 1-37 ; Lev. vni., ix-), 
ili^^her rites as well as more beautiful 8;;u- 
lucnts were prescribed for Aaron than for 



719 



[lis sons; and most likely lie alone was 
anointed. Provision, too, was made for the 
inauguration of succeeding hlgli priests 
the solemn putting-on of the pontifical 
robes seven days, and receiving unction in 
them (comp. Numb. xx. 25-28) ; hut it is very 
douhtful whether at the succession of ordi- 
nary priests there was any kind of conse- 
cration repeated. 

Particular vestments were appropriated 
to them. These were— 1. Linen drawers 
(Exod. xxviii. 42); 2. A white linen tunic, 
fitting closely to the hody, and reaching 
from the neck (in which it differed from 
the Egyptian priestly tunic) down to the 
ankles : it had tight sleeves, and appears to 
have been woven wi-thout seam. 3. This was 
confined by a linen girdle, curiously em- 
broidered with blue, purple, and scarlet. 
4. A tiara or bonnet, composed of several 
folds of linen, said to have been originally 
of a pointed shape, but afterwards almost 
globular (40, xxix. 9, xxxix. 27-29). It has 
been thought that other garments were 
prescribed for priests, which were called 
' clothes of service' (xxxi. 10, xxxix. 1, 4l) ; 
bnt these were much more likely those 
cloths which were used for covering the 
sacred furniture (Numb. iv. 6-13). That the 
holv vestments were worn only while the 
priests were ministering in the sanctuary 
is indeed very probable (Ezek. xlii. 14) ; and 
it is said that they were never washed when 
soiled, but used to make wicks for the 
lamps of the temple. There is no mention 
of shoes or sandals ; we may therefore con- 
clude that the priests ministered barefooted 
(see before, p. 703), contrary to the Egyptian 
practice (see Fairbairn's Tyi)ol. of Script, 
book iii. chap. iii. sect. iii. vol, ii. p. 264). ' A 
linen ephod' was also worn by the priests 
generally (1 Sam. xxii. 18). See Ephod. 

The maintenance of the priests was pro- 
vided on, at least a fair, probably an ample 
scale. Very likely, amid the degeneracy of 
the nation and disregard of the law which 
so often recurred, the priesthood did not 
receive all to which they were entitled ; and 
there are occasional indications of their 
suffering from poverty (e.g. 1 Sam. ii.36): 
there are also on the other hand indications 
o£ Q-rasping wealth and power (13-16 ; Jer. 
V 31), which drew down on the offenders 
deserved and terrible threatenings. Thir- 
teen out of the forty-eight Levitical cities 
were assigned for their residence : see Le- 
viTES. Besides, they had tithes, and first- 
fruits, redemption-money, and portions of 
many of the sacrifices. The tenth of the 
produce of the land was assigned to theLe- 
vites generally, and of this a tenth, the 
bept, was to be the priests' (Numb, xviii. 
21-30). In addition thereto there was a 
special tithe every third year (Dent, xiv.28, 
xxvi. 12), tbe tenth of Avhich we may pro- 
bably suppose was also given to the priests. 
The flrstrfruits are prescribed in Exod. 
xxiii. 19 ; Lev. ii. 14 ; Deut. xxvi. I-IO : these 
offered to the Lord became the portion of 
the priests. The redemption-money was 
levied' on account of persons, animals, or 
things devoted to God (Lev. xxvii.), and for 
the first-born of men and beasts (Numb, 
xviii. 14-18). The shew-bread, too, and the 



flesh of offerings— of the sin-offering, the 
trespass-offering, and parts of the peace- 
offering, also the meat-offering— belonged 
to the priests, and formed their ordinary 
diet (Lev. vi. 26, 29, vii. 6-10, x. 12-15, xxii. 
10-13 ; Numb, xviii. 8-13). These seem to have 
been the regular sources of the priests' 
subsistence : sometimes there would be the 
dedicated portion (the per-centage differing) 
of the spoils of war; of which there is a 
notable example in the conquest of the 
Midianites (xxxi. 25-47). It is probable also 
that they might like other persons acquire 
and hold private property (Jer. xxxii. 1-15). 
The high priest, no doubt, received a greater 
proportion from the different sources of 
income than the inferior priests. 

In early times the number of priests must 
have been few : we read of several at the 
passage of the Jordan (Josh. iii. 6), and of 
seven who sounded the trumpets, besides 
those who carried the ark round Jericho 
(vi. 4, 6). But it Is not likely that they could 
at once occupy the cities allotted to them. 
And even at a later date they were not very 
numerous : at the sacking of one of their 
cities, Nob, only eighty-five priests were 
slain (1 Sam. xxii. 18, 19). We read little of 
them in the time of the judges ; and it may 
nave been because they were so few that 
sometimes priestly functions were per- 
formed by others. In David's reign, how- 
ever, they had largely multiplied. For 
3,700 joined him at Hebron on his succeed- 
ing to the sovereignty of all Israel (1 Chron, 
xii. 27, 28). Indeed so many were they that 
that monarch divided them into twenty- 
four courses (sixteen of the family of 
Eleazar, eight of that of Ithamar), so that 
they might minister in rotation (xxiv. ,1-19). 
It would seem that these courses changed 
every sabbath (2 Chron. xxiii. 8), and that 
the special functions of individual priests 
were assigned by lot (Luke i. 9). According 
to this arrangement each course would be 
in ordinary attendance at the sanctuary 
about twice in the year : the rest of the time 
they could spend in their cities. But ques- 
tionless at the great festivals large numbers 
were present at Jerusalem, where the ser- 
vices of many priests Vv'ould be required ; 
and it is understood that any one might at 
any time be voluntarily in attendance, and 
minister, provided he did not interfere with 
those who were officiating in regular turn. 
The time of commencing their functions 
was probably at twenty years of age 
(2 Ohron. xxxi. 16, 17). And Aristobulus, the 
last of the Asmonean family, is said to have 
officiated as high priest at seventeen. 

David's distribution of the priests was 
preserved through succeeding reigns. Of 
course they adhered to the kingdom of Ju- 
dah ; their cities being in the southern divi- 
sion of the land. And there can be littio 
doubt that the priests partook of the de- 
generacy of later times. Among so large a 
l^ody— though some estimates of their num- 
ber are probably exaggerated— many must 
have been of an inferior class, ign(n-ant 
very likely, and demoralized. As a Dociy 
they ought to have had and must have had 
great influence. And yet we seldom hear 
of them acting in a body, or m masses; and 





in times of reformation, instead of taking 
tlie lead, tliev vrere ratlier behind tlie Le- - 
rites and others (xxis. 34, xxx. 2, 3). 
' Iseitlier did tliey make the hold stand they 
ouffht to have made against the idola- 
, try of the kings ; rather they helped on 
their exil courses (2 Kings sA'i. 10, 11, 15, 
16). Ko wonder, therefore, that we find m 
the prophets repeated denunciations 
against the unworthy priests (J er. i. 18, r. 
31, xxxii. 32; Lam. ir. 13; Ezek. xxii. 26; 
Hos. Ti. 9 ; Mic. iii. 11 ; Zeph. iii. 4). Indivi- 
dual cases indeed there were of zeal and 
piety in the priestly class ; and some of 
them we know, faithful men, were called 
to the prophetic office (2 Kings si. 4-20, xn. 
2 ; 2 Chron. xix. 11, xxir. 20-22, xxri. 16-20 ; 
Ezra Tii. 1-5 ; Isai. viii. 2 ; Jer. i. 1 ; Ezek. i. 3). 

It has heen already said that the courses 
arranged hv David continued in suhsequent 
time5^(2 Chron. xxxr. 2-5). At the captivity 
naturally everything fell into confusion. 
On the return 42S9 accompanied Zerubhahel; 
apparently hut four out of the twenty-four 
courses (Ezra ii. 36-39; Xeh. vii. 39-42) ; and 
among these we do not find that of Ahijah, 
to which, long after, Zacharias, John Bap- 
tist's father, belonged (Luke i. 5). To ac- 
count for this, Prideaux out of Jewish 
wi-iters says that ' the old number of the 
courses, as established by king David, were 
still kept up. For of the four courses that 
returned each subdivided themselves into 
six ; and the new courses, taking the names 
of those that were wanting, still kept up the 
old titles' (Connect., xol. i. p. 115, under 536 
B c). Lord A. C. Hervey, however, is dis- 
posed to think this statement erroneous, 
and shows that is ehemiah has enumerated 
twenty-one or twenty-two courses as being 
at Jerusalem after the exile. He has also 
constructed two tables, one exhibiting the 
original courses and those of them m post- 
exilian times which correspond, the other 
those which cannot be identified, having 
P'^^rhaps adopted from some distinguished 
member fresh titles. These tables are on 
the opposite page, introduced fi'om Smith s 
Diet of the Bible, vol. i. p 946. 

There was still occasion after the return 
to complain of the irreverent conduct of 
the priests (Mai. i. 10, ii. 1-10). And, it may 
be added, there were those who claimed the 
priesthood, but who, because they could not 
prove their line of descent, were not admit- 
ted to the function (Ezra ii. 61-63 ; Is"eh. vii. 
63-65). Isevertheless there were many zea- 
lous men in those days, whose names_ are 
recorded with honour ; and the provisions 
for their maintenance were re-enacted ac- 
cording to the law (yiii. 13, x., xn. 30, 41, 44- 
47) The Maccabees, later, were a priestly 
family (1 Mace. ii. 1), and are deservedly 
celebrated as having delivered their coun- 
tiw from the intolerable Syrian yoke. Of 
them came a line of high priests several of 
whom united with their sacerdotal office 
the royal dignity. ji ^.t ^ 
In Ivew Testament times some of the 
m-iests were of distinguished piety : such 
were Zacharias and John the Baptist ; but 
the mass appear to have been formalists and 
worldly men. Accordingly we always find 
the priests forward among those that re- 


sisted Christ (Matt. xvi. 21, xxi. 15, 23. 
s:xvi. 3, 14, 47, xxvii. 1, 6, 12, 20, 41, 6^ 
^xviii. 11). The leaders of the body espe 
-^iallv they were, men of the greatest In 
Quence among them, called chief priests 
those who were heads of the courses, witt 
such as had borne the office of high priest. 
For that great dignity was no longer for 
life in regular descent, but was transfeijed 
fi-om one to another by the violence of fac- 
tion and at the will of their foreign masters: 
=ee High Priest, i^ext to him it may be 
ob-erved was the second priest (2 King« 
XXV IS^ called bv the Jews the sagan. 
Aiter our Lord's ascension, when his disci- 
ples besan to preach the gospel, we find 
the same general temper among the priests. 
Thus they lost the opportunity of concentra- 
ting the iiew dispensation within the Jew- 
ish nationality. And so the decay of Israel 
became 'the laches of the Gentiles' (Rom. 
xi 12), and a larger platform was prepared \ 
for God's wonderful dealings. True_ 'a j 
sreat company of the priests were obedient \ 
to the faith' (Acts vi. 7) ; but, so far as we j 
know, none was distinguished as a Chris- ! 
tian leader or preacher. Corruption went j 
on among the remnant : fearful acts were 
done in the very temple ; till at last the day 
of yenseance came: Jerusalem was destroy- 
ed: and now, though claims have been made, ] 
there is perhaps no man who can satisfac- 
torily prove that he is a descendant of 
Aaron. Those, however, who are so re- 
garded enjoy some honorary privileges, the 
chief being that they receive the re- j 
demption-money for the first-born (MiUs | 
^rrtis/iJeJfs, parti, chap. i. p. 15). ^ ^. , \ 
It matters not. TTe have a great High j 
Priest, who having offered a perfect sacri- : 
flee with his own bloodbath entered into the 
holiest, even into heaven itself. He ' hath ^ 
an unchansreable priesthood,' and 'ever . 
iiveth to make intercession' for those that 
come to God by him (Heb. ii. 17, m. 1, i^. 
14-16, Y. 1-10, vi. 20, vii., viii. 1-6, ix. 24-2S, X. 
1-92) And •'ust as every thing, their free- 
! doni'from blemish,their beautiful garments 
betokened holiness in the Levitical priest- 
hood, so was Christ ' holy, harmless, imde- 
filed ; ' as the Hebrew priest was anointed at 
his consecration, so was Christ ordained, 
the Spirit without measure being poured 
upon him, made with the high sanction ol 
an oath ; as the priesthood of the law was 
the only means of access to God, so by a 
new and livinsr way through Christ alone 
can sinners approach the Father. Far more 
effectual is the offering of Christ s blood 
than the blood of bulls and of goats sacri- 
ficed under the law (ix. 11-14). And, as the 
ancient priest had nearness of access to 
God, and bore the names of Israel on his 
breast, so does Christ as our representative 
enter the very heavenly presence for us, 
bearing ever the cause of his people in ms 
heart when he gives them boldness to come 
to the throne of grace by him. While the 
Levitical priesthood typified Christ, it fell 
far short in its pre-significations— as farm- 
deed as ' the law of a carnal commandment 
falls short of ' the power of an endless life. 
Christ, then, was made a priest for ever 
after the order of Melchizedek, the glors 



721 



[PEIEST 



COTJBSES OF PJRIESTS. 



T Tl 

xn USiVlCl S TQl^Ylf 1 


In list m Jiizra ii. ', 


Inlsehemiah stinie, 


In ^ Zeruhhabel's 


Cliroii. xxiv. 


iTeli vii. 


Neh. X. 


time, Neh. xii. 


1, Jehoiaril),! Chron. 


— 


— 


Joiarih. 


ix. 10 ; Nell. xi. 10. 








2. Jedaiab. 


Children of Jedaiah. 


— 


Jedaiah. 


3. Harim. 


Children of Harim. 


Harim. 


Rehum (Harim, 15). 


4. Seorim. 


— 


— 


— 


5. Malcliijali. 


Children of Pashur, 


Malchijah. 


— 




1 Chron. ix. 12. 






6. Mijamin. 


— 


Mijamin. 


Miamin (Miniamin, 


7. Hakkoz. 






17). 


— 


Meremoth, son of 


Meremoth. 


8. Abijah, 




Hakkoz, Neh. iii. 4, 




— 


Ahijah. 


Abijah. 


9. Jesbuah. 


House of Jeshua ? 


— 


— . 




Ezra ii. 36 j Neb. 








vii. 39. 






10. Shecaniah. 


— 


Shehaniah. 


Shechaniah (Sheba- 








niah, 14). 


11. Eliashib. 


— 


— 


— 


12. Jakim. 


— 


— 





13. Huppali. 


— 


— 


— 


14. Jesliebeab, 


— 


— 


— 


15. Bilgali. 




Bilgal. 


Bilgah. 


16. IniDiGr 


Children of Immcr 


Amariah. 


Amariah. 


17. Hezir. 








18. Aphses. 








19. Pethahiah. 








20. Jeliezekel. 








S'l. Jachin, Heh. xi. 








10 ; 1 Chron. ix. 10. 








22. Gamul. 








23 Delaiah. 








24. Maaziati. 




Maaziah. 


Maadiah (Moadiah, 








17). 



Post-exilian Courses, which cannot be identified with original c 



Feh. X. 



Seraiah. 

Azariah. 

Jeremiah. 

Pashur. 

Hattush. 

Malluch. 

Obadiah. 

DanieL 



Seraiah. 

Ezra. 

Jeremiah. 

Hattush. 
Malluch. 
Iddo. 



Neh. xi. ; I 
Chron. ix. 



Seraiah ? 
Azariah. 



Adaiah ? 



'Neh. iL, 



Ginnethon. 
Baruch. 
Meshullam. 
Shemaiah. 



Neh. xii. 



Ginnetho. 



Shemaiah 
Sallu. 
Amok. 
Hilkiah. 
Jedaiah (2). 



Neh. xi.; 1 
Chron. ix. 



and dignity of his person being indicated 
thereby, as the nature of his work was by 
the similitude of the order of Aaron (see 
on this subject Fairbairn, iM supr., pp. 267- 
275). And, as his people are vitally united 
to Christ, so they have according to their 
measure the gifts and dignity which have 
been bestowed on the Mediator (Rev. i. 5, 
6). They are priests, and offer up spiritual 
sacrifices : they are kings, and have even 
now the Spirit of power. Anrl eventually, 
' when Christ's work in them is brought to 
its proper consummation, they shall, as 



kings and priests, share with him in the 
glories of his everlasting kingdom.' 

It is not necessary to do more than refer 
to the idolatrous priests mentioned occa- 
sionally in scripture. The doings of the 
priests of Baal in their worship arc de- 
scribed in 1 Kings^xviii. 26-29. Jeroboam 
I. consecrated priests for the perfor- 
mance of his unhallowed worship (xii. 31) ; 
and ' priests of the high places' arc men- 
tioned in Josiah's reformation (xxiii. 9, 10, 
20). See Chemamm. The priest of Juiuter 
is spoken of in Acts xiv. 13. For much in- 
3 A 



pbikce] 



722 



information as to tlie HelDrew priestliood 
tlie student may consult Saalscliiitz, Arch, 
der Hebr., capp. 78, 79, vol. ii. pp. 342-369. 

PRINCE. This word is used in our trans- 
lation with considerable latitude of mean- 
ing, and as the representative of more than 
one original term . Thus Ahraham is called 
*a mighty prince' (Gen. xxill. 6) ; the He- 
brew word ndiSl signifying an exalted per- 
son, and heing applied sometimes to kings 
(1 Kings xi. 34 ; Ezek. xii. 10, xxi. 25, xlv. 7); 
also to the heads of the tribes of Israel 
(Numb. i. 44, vii. 10), and of Ishmael (Gen. 
xvii 20). It designates, too, the heads of 
families (Numb. iii. 24, 'chief in our ver- 
sion, xvi. 2 ; 1 Kings vili. 1). Another He- 
brew word sar, 'one having dominion,' is 
applied to the principal rulers of a na- 
tion under the sovereign a Sam. xxix. 3), 
the chief officers or ministers of state 
(1 Kings iv. 2 ; Job xxix. 9 ; Isai. xxx. 4), 
local governors or magistrates Q. Kings xx. 
14). It designates the merchants of Tyre who 
were wealthy as princes (Isai. xxiii. 8), the 
priests, or 'princes of the sanctuary' (xliii. 
28), the foremost angels (Dan. x. 13, 20, 21). 
And this word is applied to the Deity, as 
' Prince of princes ' (viii. 25), and to Messiah 
• the Prince of peace ' (Isai. ix. 6). In the 
feminine it is princesses, ladies a Kings 
xi. 3 ; Esth. i. IS ; Isai. xlix. 23). Another 
word, n&gU, ' tl^e foremost,' is used for kings 
(1 Sam. ix. 16, X. 1, xiii. 14, generally ' cap- 
tain' in our version), nobles (Psal. Ixxvi. 
12), Messiah (Dan. ix. 25), 'the prince of 
the covenant' (xi. 22). Other words are 
used, as in vi. 1, where the ' princes ' corre- 
sponded to the satraps afterwards appoint- 
ed through the Persian empire. In the New 
Testament a word Implyiug 'leader' or 
'governor' is rendered 'prince? Thus 
Christ is the ' Prince of life ' (Acts iii. 15), 
' the Prince of the kings of the earth ' (Rev. 
i. 5) ; and Satan is 'the prince of this world' 
(John xii. 31), ' the prince of the power of 
the air' (Eph.ii. 2). 

PRINCIPALITIES (Rom. viii. 38). See 
A^^GEL. (Tit. iii. 1). Magistrates. 
PRINTED (Job xix. 23). Rather, inscribed. 
PRIS'CA {ancient) (2 Tim. iv. 19). The 
same person with 

PRISCIL'LA (diminutive of Prisca) (Acts 
xviii. 2, IS, 26 ; Rom. xvi. 3 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 19). 
The excellent and active wife of Aquila. 

PRISON. We first read of a prison in the 
history of Joseph. It was ' a place where 
the king's prisoners were bound,' and was 
under the charge of a great omcer, assisted 
by a subordinate keeper (Gen. xxxix. 20-23, 
xl. 3, 4). Imprisonment was not one of the 
punishments prescribed by the Hebrew law; 
we therefore read little of it in the earlier 
parts of the sacred history, more especially 
as trial and condemnation almost imme- 
diately f oUowed apprehension. In the wil- 
derness two persons were ' put in ward,' 
but merely to detain them till God's mind 
was known (Lev. xxiv. 12 ; Numb. xv. 34). 
Samson was a prisoner, condemned to ig- 
nominious labour (Judges xvi. 21, 25) ; but 
that was among the Philistines. In Ahab's 
reign there was a prison in Israel, possibly 
attached to the king's palace (l Kin gs xxii. 2G, 
tt). So in Jadah (2 Cliron. xvi. 10 ; Neh. liL 25; 



Jer. xxxii. 2, xxxvii. 21). There were prisons 
also in the houses of private persons (15) 
Very doleful places were some of these 
prisons. Joseph was cast into a pit by his 
brethren (Gen. xxxvii. 24) ; and such a pit or 
cistern, where indeed there was no water 
but soft mire, was that in which Jeremiah 
was at one time confined (Jer. xxx viii. 6). 
Sometimes, however, friends were allowed 
access to people in prison (xxxii. 2, 8-15). 
Thus it was in New Testament times, when 
charitable persons could minister to those 
confined (Matt. xi. 2, xxv. 36, 43). There was 
a prison attached to Herod's palace, or to 
some of his fortresses (xiv. 6-11 ; Luke iii. 
20, vii. IS, 19). The Jewish council had a 
prison (Acts v. 18, 23, viii. 3). The P*,oman5 
used the castle of Antonia at Jerusalem as 
a prison (xxiii. 10), and Herod's ' judgment- 
hall' or preetorium at Csesarea (35). The 
Roman mode of securing prisoners is indi- 
cated in xii. 6, xvL 24, xxviii. 16, 30. In the 
last-named passage Paul is represented as 
living in his own house, only under guard. 

PRIZE a Cor. ix. 24 ; Phil. iii. 14). The 
reward, a chaplet or crown, bestowed by 
the judsres in the ancient Games, which see. 

PROCH'OR.US {Imder of tlie chorus or 
dance). One of the seven appointed to dis- 
tribute the alms of the church (Acts vi. 5). 

PROCON'SUL, PROCURA'TOPv. The 
designations of two Roman provincial 
officers, usually given in our version as 
'deputy' and ' governor': see Dspcty, Go- 
VERifOB.. The proconsuls administered the 
senatorial provinces, discharging civi] 
functions, without the power of life and 
death. They were appointed for a year. 
The procurators represented the emperor, 
had the power of life and death, and held 
their office at the emperor's wilL They used 
the military dress, and were occasionally 
sent into the senatorial as well as the im- 
nerial provinces. Pilate was procurator, but 
was subordinate to the governor of Syria. 
The usual residence of the procurator of 
Judea was at Oaesarea (Acts xxv. 1, 4). 

PROGNOSTICATOr^S, MOi*THLY (Isai 
xivii. 13). See Divest atioi?, Stas-gazers. 

PROMISE. As understood in scripture, a 
declaration or assurance of the divine will, 
in which God signifies the particular bless- 
ings he will bestow, or evils he will remove. 
Promises are opposed to threatenings, the 
former being declarations of good, the 
latter denunciations of evil. The promisor's 
of scripture have been divided into classes. 
We may note promises of the Messiah 
flowincr from God's mere mercy, and made 
the ground of all subsegiuent promise and 
blessing. These promises are nearly allied 
to predictions (e.g. Gen. iii. 15, ixii. 1S\ 
There are also promises that God would 
give his Son a people, that his mediatori:il 
work should be effectual to the bmlding-up 
of a church, his own purchased possession 
(e.g. Psal. ii. 7, S ; Isai. liii. 11, 12\ Further, 
there are promises to the church, promises 
of acceptance to those who come to God on 
the ground of his covenant, promises of 
blessing both temporal and spiritual, en- 
counigiug to the exercise of those graces 
and fulfilment of those duties whlcli go to 
constitute the Christian character. Sucb 



723 



[prophecy 



are the promises of answer to prayer (Psal. 
1. 15 ; Luke xi. 9-13), of grace to the humble 
(1 Pet. T. 5), of everlasting life to the be- 
liever (Johniii. 14, 15), of larger talents to 
him who has improved those already given 
Olatt. XXV. 29), &c. Those promises which 
are made in one case may he applied 
to other similar cases, consistently with 
the analogy of faith. Thus the promise 
given to Joshua (Josh. i. 5) is applied to the 
believing Hebrews (Heb. xiii. 5), it being in 
its nature of a comprehensive character ; 
but those which were made to individuals 
imder special circumstances are not to be 
taken as intended generally (Mark xvi. 
17,18). God has suited his promises to his 
precepts (comp. Deut, x. 16 with xxx. 6), and 
to the necessities of his people ; it being 
always remembered that, where anything is 
promised to obedience, the contrary is im- 
plied to disobedience. 

PROPHECY. Prophecy is not only the 
predicting of future events : it had the 
larger office of receiving and communi- 
eating generally the will and purposes of 
God. It was revelation, in fact, the dealing 
of the Creator with his creatures, disclosing 
his high pleasure for the interests of truth 
and righteousness in the government of the 
world, occupied with both the past and the 
present, and laying open the future only so 
far as was required for the accomplishment 
of its great object. So that we find in 
scripture prophecy instructions, warnings, 
rebukes, as largely as predictions of things 
to come. And men are termed prophets, 
Abraham for example (Gen. xx. 7), of whom 
it is nowhere recorded that they uttered a 
single prophecy in the common acceptation 
of the word. Christ, moreover, in whom 
the promise of Deut. xviii. 15-19 was to have 
its ultimate and complete fulfilment, and 
who was to be the great Prophet of the 
church, performed that office, not so much 
by actual predictions (for, though the whole 
future was before his eye, his predictions 
were hut few), as by teaching all that it 
was needful the world should know, as the 
depository and the channel of divine wis- 
dom, dispensing the riches thereof, that the 
mystery of God might be fully apprehended. 
The way, too, in which prophecy is spoken 
of in the apostolic writings goes to establish 
the same fact. It is described as touching 
the heart and conscience, convicting, in- 
structing, edifying, comforting (1 Cor. xiv. 
1, 3, 24, 25). The heathen had little con- 
ception of prophecy in this its largest and 
most excellent sense : they deemed it but 
an inexplicable knowledge of futurity. 

Prophecy was manifested in every phase 
of its comprehensive character from the 
very earliest times. But these we may pass 
over, and rather direct our view to its de- 
velopment among the chosen people. 
When the priesthood was defined in Israel 
by Moses, there was another minisitry con- 
nected with it, not discordant, not in oppo- 
sition, but still intended to be in advance 
of it, leading on the law, so to speak, and 
enabling it for its office as introductory to 
the gospel. The law by itself would have 
left men stationary: they would not have 
Been through its shadows the substance it 



was intended to pre-flgure. But the 
prophetic ministry, opening out its 
spiritual meaning, and ever tendhig 
forwards, carried on the education of the 
elder charch, and trained men to look 
for redemption in Jerusalem. So that the 
gospel when it came was not altogether 
new : it was the bright day which had been 
preceded by the dawn. And Christ could 
appeal to the Old Testament scriptures as 
testifying of him, in whom all that was 
' written in the law of Moses, and In the 
prophets, and in the psalms' should be ful- 
filled (Luke xxiv. 44). 

It is a serious error to represent prophecy 
as merely a refinement of heathen sooth- 
saying. Its essence was truth, the highest 
truth; and that can proceed from God 
alone. Men might cultivate and refine 
their minds to the utmost, without attain- 
ing the gift of prophecy : they might be 
trained in the prophetic schools ; but 
God's Spirit alone commissioned and sent 
them. ' The essence and subjective spe- 
cialty of prophetic inspiration,' says Ha- 
vernick {Einleit. in das A.T., § 199, vol. ii. 
2, p. 80), 'lies herein, that it does not find 
its origin in the unassisted intelligence of 
man, in his natural parts and powers, how- 
ever great, but proves itself to be the higher 
supematm-al working of the Spirit of God,' 

With regard to the modes of divine com- 
munication little need be said. There were 
! some which might be called official, as the 
voice which spoke from out of the ShecMnah 
or clouded presence resting on the mercy- 
seat (Exod. XXV. 22, xxix. 42, 43 ; 2\umb. vii. 
89), and the responses by Urim and Thuin- 
mim (Exod. xxviii. 30 ; IS'umb. xxvii. 21). 
But to the prophets God's will was made 
known by dreams or visions, by internal im- 
pression on the mind, by angelic message, 
or by audible voice.* 

Of prophetical dreams we have an exam- 
ple in that of ISTebuchadnezzar, in which as 
interpreted by Daniel, also from a dream, 
the destiny of four successive earthly king- 
doms was depicted, to be succeeded by that 
kingdom of C4od which should never be 
destroyed (Dan. ii.). In vision, again, 
Isaiah, when he received his prophetic 
commission, saw the glory of the divine 
Lord (Isai. vi.) ; and the visiuns of God were 
vouchsafed to Ezekiel on the banks of Che- 
bar (Ezek. i.). It has, indeed, been ques- 
tioned whether these visions were real, or 
whether they were but the dress in which 
the prophets clothed their conceptions. It 



* A convenient distribution has been 
made, of civil, sacerdotcd, and pro-phetic 
communications with God (see Carpzov, 
Introd. ad Lib. BiU. Vet. Test., pars iii. pp. 
14, &c.). For examples of the first we have 
the casting of lots (Josh. vii. 16-18 ; 1 Sam. 
X. 20, 21, xiv. 41, 42) : the priestly was by 
Urim and Thummim ; the prophetical by 
dreams, &c. According to Jewish tradi- 
tion, the Batli Kol, i.e. ' the daughter-voice' 
or 'daughter of a voice' was heard as a 
voice fi-om the aerial regions, after the 
cessation of regular prophecy; and pas- 
sages in the New Testament have ground- 
lessly been thouglit to confirm the notion. 



prophecy] 



724 



is of no great moment to decide. But cer- 
tainly Jolm xii. 41 seems to siiow that the 
spiritual forms actuaUy shaped themselves 
to the mental eye, communicating ideas 
transcending human experience and which 
could not he embodied in human language. 
The colouring, no doubt, of such visions, 
when afterwards, so far as they could he, 
described, was taken from the scenes m 
which the prophet lived. And it is very 
noteworthy that Ezekiel'g imagery bears an 
evident relation to the figures lately dis- 
covered in the Assyrian palaces. Dr. Lee 
iThe Insp. of Roly Script., lect. iv. -P- 18f» 
2nd. edit.) observes a striking fact which 
shaU be given In his own words, closely 
connected with the imagery of prophetic 
visions : ' There was one topic which was 
not submitted ' to the prophets' ' own style 
of representation. Amid the copious and 
varied symbolism of scripture, we can ob- 
serve how the pictures of those visions m 
which Jehovah himself is revealed always 
preserve a character quite peculiar, al- 
though, when describing ceHain attributes 
of Deity— which in no case can be describ- 
ed otherwise than by metaphors— each pro- 
phet still employs his wonted imagery. 
When Jehovah himself, appears, the sacred 
writers borrow no colouring from external 
sources : were they to do so, indeed, they 
would manifestly abandon the whole ge- 
nius and spirit of the theocracy ; and this 
uniformity in describing their visions of 
God characterizes the compositions of all 
the prophets, notwithstanding the promi- 
nence, in other parts of their writings, of 
their own individuality. To satisfy our- 
selves of this fact, it will be sufficient to 
compare the accounts of the visions of Je- 
hovah vouchsafed to Isaiah, Daniel, and 
Ezekiel (Isai. vi. 1-4; Dan. vii. 9, 10; Ezek. i. 
26-28 : comp. Exod. xxiv. 10 ; 1 Kings; xxn. 
19 ; Rev. iv.).' 

Prophetic communication was also made 
by the suggestion of ideas to the under- 
standing without the kind of representa- 
tion implied by visions. We continually 
find narratives in scripture of such sugges- 
tion, often suddenly produced, as in the 
case of the old prophet of Beth-el, who 
while sitting at meat with the man of God 
that came from Judah had the message of 
the Lord imparted to him a Kings xiii. 
20-22). And then there was the word brought 
by an angel, as to Daniel (Dan. ix. 20-27, x. 4- 
14) ; and, further, sometimes the articulate 
divine voice was heard ; as when in the 
still night it echoed through the chambers 
at Shiloh, and summoned the youthful 
Samuel to listen to the heavy woe that was 
denounced against the family of Eli (1 Sam. 
iii) To Moses this was specially vouch- 
safed ; and he the great lawgiver of Israel 
stands out distinguished from other pro- 
phets in the near access he had to God 
! (Numb. xii. 6-8 ; Deut. xxxiv. 10). 
I It was not always to men of piety exclu- 
Bively that prophetic communication was 
made. He who can use every instrument, 
and make even his enemies contribute to 
his praise, was sometimes pleased to speak 
immediately to sinful or even heathen lueu. 
Thus Abimelech (Gen.xx. 3), I'haraoh (,xli. 1- 



7), Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. ii. iv.)had prophe- 
tic dreams ; and Balaam uttered prophecies 
(Numb, xxiii., xxiv.), teaching us that the 
rarest gifts may be possessed, and yet no 
grace (1 Cor. xiii. 2). But still, generaUy 
speaking, the prophets were ' a goodly fel- 
lowship,' and it is rightly said that personal 
piety was a necessary qualification of those 
who were to bear the holy message of the 
Lord. And, though the communication was 
entirely the gift of God, yet it was to be 
humbly sought; as Daniel fasted and prayed 
when he would interpret Nebuchadnezzar's 
dream, and know the destiny of the captive 
Jews (Dan, ii. 17, 18, ix. 2, 3). And the 
mind must be serene and freed from earth- 
ly passion. Thus we find that Elisha de- 
sired a minstrel to play to him ; and then 
' the hand of the Lord came upon him 
(2 Kings iii. 15). It must have been an 
awful moment when this hand of the Lord 
grasped his creature, and the mind of the 
Infinite came into contact with the finite 
feeble mind of a child of the dust. No won- 
der that the divine word was as ' a burning 
fire shut up in the bones' (Jer. xx. 9). No 
wonder that the soul soared aloft m its 
high communings ; and that the body w^as 
faint and trembled under the visions of 
God (Dan. x. 7, 8). But stiU the human 
agents' intelligent consciousness was pre- 
served, while their natural faculties were 
elevated for the reception of the di\^ne 
suggestions. The whole extent of these, 
indeed, they could not comprehend (l Pet. 
i, 10, 11) ; and very likely their minds were, 
when the spiritual intuitions ceased, exer- 
cised, like those of ordinary men, upon the 
things they had themselves uttered. But 
the rational powers of the prophets were 
not (as is affirmed of heathen soothsayers) 
suspended. Certain bodily functions might 
not be actively employed in sleep or m 
ecstatic vision ; but the mind was awake; 
and, had not consciousness been retained, 
the scenes on which the internal eye had 
looked could not afterw^ards have been de- 
scribed, the words which were spoken to 
the inward ear could not afterwards have 
been recorded. We must not forget that 
the prophets did not speak in ecstasy. 

The prophetic word communicated m 
some of the ways above noticed was va- 
riously announced. Sometimes a symbol 
was used ; as when Ahijah foreshowed the 
revolt of the ten tribes (l Kings xi. 26-39). 
Whether, however, the symbolical actions 
we find occasionally mentioned were always 
really done may admit of question. ThuS; 
though Jeremiah wore literally the symbo 
lie yoke which Hananiah broke from his 
neck (Jer. xxviii.), yet it may be doubted 
whether he actually made the two long 
iourneys to Euphrates to hide and to reco- 
ver a linen girdle (xiii. 1-11), and stiU more 
wdiether Hosea contracted literally those 
symbolical marriages of which we read in 
Hos. i., iii. The actions might be proclaim- 
ed without being really performed; for 
they were intended but as a vehicle to con- 
vey to the people the message the prophet 
had received. ^ , . 

In regard to predictions of future cvcutL, 
there are two particulars which must 



MUt ^IXf^MtiSQt. [PEOPHECl? 



725 



be noted. They bear a certain relation to 
the iflode in which the images of the fu- 
ture were presented to the prophet's mind, 
hut a more immediate one to the mode 
in which they were placed on record. 
Thus, first, the way in which remote 
events are presented is remarkable. The 
prophet stands like a watchman on some 
high hill or lofty tower, scanning the dis- 
tant horizon, and tells what meets his gaze. 
To one who so looks out the far and the near 
lie apparently in contact: the fore-ground 
has a distincter outline, [r.and its colours 
are more vivid ; but a multitude of things 
are blended together, and the haze through 
which the distant objects are seen ob- 
scures their figure and relative proportions. 
The prophet describing what is so placed 
before him describes as he sees, and there- 
fore not in historical or chronological 
order ; so that it is hard before the accom- 
plishment to distinguish which of the 
events is near at hand and which more re- 
mote. This is called the 'perspective' 
character of prophecy, and illustrates the 
juxta-position in the prophetic writings of 
utterances to be immediately fulfilled with 
those before the fulfilment of which ages 
must roll by. An example may be given from 
Zech. ix. First— the prophet sees the tri- 
umphant march of Alexander (1-8) : he then 
beholds Messiah in the distant future (9, 
10), and afterwards reverts to the age of the 
Maccabees (11-17). On the same principle 
our Lord's discourse (Matt, xxiv.) may be 
interpreted; as also those passages in which 
the apostles seem to describe the final close 
of all things as to occur in their days. 

The other point which was to be noted is 
the re-production of past events. There is 
an organic unity in God's plans, the earlier 
being the type of the later, and the later 
exhibiting, only with higher combinations 
and in a more perfect form, that which had 
appeared before. It was convenient, then, 
to describe the future in language borrow- 
ed from the past. Thus Messiah is said to 
renew the rule of David : the final triumphs 
of the church are coloured with the ima- 
gery of the fall of Babylon; and the full 
blessedness of God's people is represented 
as a return from captivity into the peaceful 
possession of the land of Canaan. We see 
here how futile the objection is that the 
prophet's eye cannot reach to the far-dis- 
tant future, nor his tongue describe ene- 
mies or empires not in his time in exis- 
tence. He is furnished from the past with an 
alphabet for the future. And it is not always 
past events which are so used. Events 
may have not yet occurred, which when 
they do occur shall be the ground and the 
type of others similar yet greater to occur 
thereafter. This is what is termed the 
double sense of prophecy ; and it is impos- 
sible to shut our eyes to the fact of it. The 
return of small caravans of exiles from 
Babylon under the edicts of the Persian 
kings, who re-peopled their cities, and re- 
built their temple in fear, vassals to a 
foreign liege-lord, cannot exhaust the 
magnificent predictions of the ransomed of 
the Lord coming to Zion with songs and 
everlasting joy upon their heads (Isai. 



XXXV. 10). There was joy, indeed, when the 
foundation of the new temple was laid, but 
there was weeping too (Ezra iii. 11-13) ; and 
not then were the walls of restored Jeru- 
salem salvation, nor her gates praise (Isai. 
Ix. 18). The prophecy had an accomplish- 
ment in Zerubbabel, but a fuller one in 
Messiah ; and it is travelling onward still, 
with Messiah's extending kingdom, not to 
be satisfied till the Redeemer King shall 
manifestly reign amid the splendours of 
the New Jerusalem. There is no real 
ground for objecting to this ; for why 
should not the near event be brought for- 
ward as a pledge of what lies far beyond? 
The principle is admitted in regard to types: 
for the typical rite had its instruction and 
its value for those who joined in it, while 
at the same time it pointed to some greater 
object : why, then, should it be denied In 
prophecy? No element of uncertainty is 
Introduced. ' The double sense of prophecy, 
says Mr, Davison (Discourses on Prophecy, 
disc. V. part. ii. pp. 144, 145, 6th edit.), ' is of 
all things the most remote from fraud and 
equivocation, and has its ground of reason 
perfectly clear. For what is it ? Not the 
convenient latitude of two unconnected 
senses, wide of each other and giving room 
to a fallacious ambiguity ; but the combi- 
nation of two related, analogous, and har- 
monizing, though disparate subjects, each 
clear and definite in itself ; implying a two- 
fold truth in the prescience, and creating 
an aggravated difficulty, and thereby an 
accumulated proof in the completion. For 
a case in point, to justify the predictions 
concerning the kingdom of David in their 
double force, it must be shown of them, 
that they hold in each of their relations, 
and in each were fulfilled. So that the 
double sense of prophecy in its true idea is 
a check upon the pretences of vague and 
unappropriated predictions, rather than a 
door to admit them,' It may be added that 
it is by no means intended to assert that 
prophecy has always a double sense : many 
predictions, e.g. Mic. v. 2, point to one sin- 
gle event by which alone they are perfectly 
fulfilled. And in all cases it is wide enough 
of the cheating ambiguity of heathen re- 
sponses which were made to answer equally 
well to two opposite events. The double 
sense is applicable only where through one 
event another is foreshadowed. For scrip- 
ture has no other meaning in addition to 
the simple meaning of its words; but yet 
under this it again has the same, only lying 
somewhat more deeply.lmbedded. 

That there is great difficulty in the inter- 
pretation of prophecy the fact that inter- 
pretations are so discordant sufilciently 
proves. Yet it is not impossible to clear 
away many difficulties, if we are disposed 
to use the necessary means. By diligent 
reading and meditation, comparing scrip- 
ture with scripture, the writings of the Old 
Testament with those of the New, and pre- 
eminently by earnest prayer for the gui- 
dance of God's Spirit, a great knowledge 
may be obtained of the meaning and object 
of prophecy. A complete system of rule^ 
cannot here be given: it must sufiice tp 
point out some general principles. And if 



peophect] 



726 



these be tliorongWy appreliended the ap- 
pUcation of them in detaU wUlnot he hai'd. 
Ther inrolve the phraseology, the Jnstoncal 
rdahons, and the doctrinal type of prophecy. 

1. It mnsz he the first hnsiness to arrive 
at the just understanding of the vrords and 
sentences in which the prophetic declara- 
tions are conveyed. In many respects pro- 
phecv has a language of its o-vrn. Symhone 
term= are emploved (vrhich must he consis- 
tent Throueh The same prophecy) ; a="5vhen a 
heast denotes a power, and a candlestick a 
Christian church. These must he carefully 
i noted, that it may he understood whether 
I the expressions are to he construed literally 
j orfleurativelv. The figurative and, as some 
would sav. hyperholic character of prophetic 
speech is hot capricious, not just to he as- 
cribed to the cast of the oriental mind, hut is 

■ definite in its measure, and results from the 
i principles already laid down of prophetic 
' communication hy vision, and the clothing 

of the futui-e in forms taten from the past. 
' And so the past is frequently used m 

■ speaking of the future, and described as 
done when it is to de done, because the 
prophet looting on with prescient eye be- 

• held it within his horizon. Hence too the 
=ucce==ion of events in relation to each 
crher, rather than as arranged according to 
chronoloeical order. >'or must the poetical 
cast of prophetic diction be overlooted— 
not poetical simply and altogether : it had 
too definite a bearing upon the practical 
life of men, but yet too elevated in thought 
and tone to sink into bare prose.* _ These 
various characteristics must be diligently 
studied and clearly apprehended by him 
who would interpret prophecy aright. Care- 
f-al examination therefore there should be, 
the C'-^mparison of one part of scripture with 
another, the laying over-against the predic- 
tion of the fulfilment it has received, i| it 
should have already been f ulfiUed, guided by 
the declarations of our Lord and his apostles, 
i who pour a flood of light upon the utterances 
of the ancient seers. And, it may be added 
■ here, separate prophecies must as far as 
possible be accurately distinguished ; the 
ordinary division into chapters occasion- 
allv breakins up a single prophecy. 

2 The historical relations must also be 
a-certained, under what circumstances a 
prophecT was delivered, by whom, and on 
what occasion. The condition of the cove- 
nant-people among whom the prophet stood, 
the events on which he was commissioned 
to speak, the sins he was to reprove, the 
judgments that were impending, the fears 
he was to soothe, and the position of sur- 
rounding nations, whose deeds and whose 
hi=tory had an influence on Gods church 
and people, should he scrutinized ; else an 



* The threefold character of prophetic 
stvle and diction-poetical elevation, figu- 
rative representation, and the exhibition of 
events as present, or successive only m rela- 
tion to each other, rather than a. linked 
to cleflnite historical epochs, is fully illus- 
trated by Dr. Fairhaim, Prophecy viewed ra 
respect to its Distimtive p^^^. ?^f, "Spjf/f 
Fiinctioyi, and Proper Interpretaiwn, paic i. 
ehap.T. pp. 121-176 



interpreter might readily apply to one time 
or event the predictions which were clearly 
directed to another. The historical portions 
of the scripture should be paralleled with 
those that are prophetical 

3. And then there is the doctrinal aspect 
to be known. This is based on the covenant- 
relationship of God to Israel Sin is view- 
ed both as treason to a sovereign, and as 
unfaithfulness to a husband. The desperate 
guilt of it, and the greatness of the mercy . 
that remits it, are thus most largely illus- j 
trated. And prophecy, in accordance with ; | 
this type, while denouncing sin and pre- ■ j 
dieting judsrment, runs on to the fulfilment j 
of the divine purpose, the highest develop- ^ ' 
ment of the covenant-relation, when the 
faithless spouse, poUuted no more, shaU be 
reinstated in the love she had outraged 
—when the rebellious subjects, disloyalty 
pursed out for ever, shall be gathered m 
peace and prosperity beneath the beneficent 
sceptre of the universal King. 

These observations are but outlines : they 
may serve, however, to point out the true 
mode of prophetic inteiTretation. It Is ne- 
cessary now to direct attention to the ac- 
complishment of prophecy. ^ , 

To examine this with any fulness would 
reauire a far greater space than can 
be here allowed. For volumes have been 
filled with the mere Ust of the predictions 
which have been accompUshed. To such 
volumes the reader must he directed. And 
to pick out a few of those on which espe- 
ciallv the seal of fact has been placed is to 
occupv a disadvantageous position. For it 
i- ea=ilv forsrotten, when particular ex- 
amples *are discussed, and perhaps objec- 
ts' on^ are ursed against them, that the 
subject has really a far wider sweep. The 
accomplishment of a single prediction may 
be note-worthy ; but it is in Its connected 
chain it ^s in its accumulated evidence, 
that the supernatural character oi pro- 
phecv is reaUy seen. Particular cases, 
takei severally, may, if not actually paral- 
leled, be likened to the lucky guesses, the 
=a^acious anticipations, the strange coin- 
cidences which from time to time exhibit 
themselves in history, and which are eagerly 
laid hold of by those who are glad to pro- 
duce anv show of argumeut against the 
authority of the divine word. But pro- 
phetic evidence 'does not, says Dr. Fair- 
bairn, in the work already referred to 
I'p 19«^ • consist so much in the venflca- 
tions siven to a few remarkable predictions, 
as in the establishment of an entire series, 
closelv related to each other, and formmg 
an united and comprehensive whole. This 
is peculiarlv the case in respect to the pro- 
phecies wliich relate to the person and 
kinedom of ^lessiah, which more than any 
others form a prolonged and connected 
series.' We have trains therefore of ac- 
complishment, each valuable m itf It Jut 
how much more valuable and weighty when 
thev are found all meeting lu one point. 
Their united force, so brougnt together, 
each receirins as it adds, is infinitely 
Ireater than the mere sum of so many dif- 
1 ferent unconnected events. 
I Perhaps it will be best m the space hew 



allotted to point out some of those general 
features which distinguish prophetic ac- 
complishment, leaving it to the reader to 
examine for himself more minutely the de- 
tails. Prophecies have been variously 
classed. The simplest and commonest ar- 
rangement is— I. Those relating to nations 
in the neighbourhood of Israel. II. Those 
which respect the Hebrew nation. III. 
Those referring to Messiah. lY. Those 
which predict the destruction of Jerusalem. 

I. The nations in contact with Israel, and 
from time to time their conquerors or op- 
pressors, are threatened. Edom, and Tyre, 
and Babylon, and Egypt, have their future 
delineated, their fate distinctly announced. 
jN'ow there is a marvellous diversity per- 
ceptible. Sagacious men, looking at the 
natural causes which tend to the ruin of 
states, or the local reasons why one should 
exalt itself above its neighbours, have often 
been able to anticipate the aggrandisement 
of the first, the misfortune of the other. But 
observe the distinguishing peculiarity of 
scripture prophecy. Edom should cease to 
be a people (Ezek. xxv. 12-14 ; Obad. 18) : 
Tyre should be brought low, should in a 
great measure recover, but should ulti- 
mately be a mere desolate rock, a place on 
which fishermen were to spread their nets 
( f sai. xxiii. ; Ezek. xxvi. 13, 14) : Babylon 
was to be no more inhabited (Isai. xiii. 19-22): 
Egypt was to be humbled yet not destroyed : 
the nation would survive but be the basest 
of the kingdoms (Ezek. xxix. 15). IJow the 
course of events has shown the extraordi- 
nary truthfulness of these prophecies. The 
Idumeans literally ceased to be a people ; so 
thoroughly subdued by John Hyrcanus as to 
be obliged to conform to the law of Moses, 
and to be, to the entire loss of their nation- 
ality, absorbed by the Jews. In this is a 
more complete-fulfilment of prediction than 
in 'the desolate ruins of the country which 
once was theirs— ruins which belonged to a 
later age. Tyre, again, is little more than a 
fishing- village now ; and the plains of Baby- 
lonia lie waste, their teeming population 
gone ; while Egypt, still a busy land, has 
for 2000 years lost its independence, and, ' a 
base kingdom,' has borne a foreign yoke. 
Now it may be asked, How could natural 
sagacity have calculated these 'results? 
What quick-sighted eye of man could have 
foreseen the difi'erent fates of Babylonia 
and of Egypt?— total subversion in the one 
case, perpetual depression in the other ? 

II. The prophecies in regard to the He- 
brew nation have the same specialty. It 
was not extinction as against Babylon that 
was predicted: it was not subjugation as for 
Egypt ; but a scattering throughout the 
earth without absorption by the nations 
among whom they should be mingled; the 
national existence and identity being still 
preserved. The predictions of the Penta- 
teuch (Lev. xxvi. ; Dent, xxvi., xxix.) draw 
the accurate outline of this, to which the 
declarations of later prophets give ad- 
ditional body and colouring. The fulfilment 
is a patent fact. * Every attempt,' says Dr. 
Lee {On Miracles: an Examination of the 
Eemarks of Mr. Baden Powell, &c., p. 42\ 

to explain it by natural causes lias merely 



[PROPHECT 



served to account for the event itself, but 
not for its coincidence with what had been 
foretold many hundred years before. The 
preternatural character of the fact consists 
altogether in the correspondence and coin- 
cidence between ancient predictions and 
the present condition of the Jewish people 
— a condition which one scarcely knows how 
distinctly to express, but in the words of 
the prophetic account of it, given, too, by 
the legislator of the commonwealth whose 
dissolution he is directed to foreshow: 
" Thou Shalt become an astonishment, a 
proverb, and a byword, among all nations, 
whither the Lord shall lead thee" (Dent, 
xxviii. 37).' Supernatural foresight there 
must have been, then, in the old prophets; 
now let us see its bearing on Christianity. 

III. There is the same noticeable pecu- 
liarity in the prophetical promise of Mes- 
siah. It is quite different from what natural 
or national prepossessions would have ima- 
gined. We might suppose the dim ideal of 
a future conqueror and king, with an an- 
ticipation that the destiny of Israel would 
have its highest prosperity under his sway. 
And prophecy accordingly describes the 
glories which should encompass One whose 
throne should be established in righteous- 
ness, and whose rule should comprehend 
the kings of the earth.. But along with 
such a description there runs continuallv a 
darker augury: from the very first intima- 
tion of a Seed of the woman, the bruising 
of his heel is prognosticated (Gen. iii. 15) ; 
and there is the constant witness to mys- 
terious blood-shedding, and f oreshadowings 
of unutterable sorrow to be endured, and 
shame, and rejection, and death ; so that 
thDse who most anxiously looked for the 
fulfilment of the nation's, of the world's, 
hope, were most reluctant to admit that 
such humiliation could touch the promised 
One ; and even in the anticipation of his 
reign they had shaped out a far different 
sovereignty, unconscious of the great prin- 
ciple on which future spiritual glories are 
delineated in language taken from the 
earthly fortunes of their royal house. Now 
here is a whole system of prophetic declara- 
tion, foretelling what human thought would 
have been least likely to conceive ; while 
the fulfilment came in a form so marvel- 
lously strange as to contradict all foregone 
conclusions, and yet so satisfactory as to 
engage men for the truth of it to resign all 
they would naturally covet, and seal their 
belief of it with their blood. The accom- 
plishment of prophecy in' the birth, the re- 
jection, the death, the resuiTCction of 
Christ is complete. And, though he did not 
sway a worldly sceptre, yet his kingdom 
was not the less real : it was that vrondrous 
rule over the hearts of men, that sove- 
reignty, that more than imperial power, 
which gathered him a people from every 
nation of the world. The prophetic de- 
scription of his kingdom is receiving daily 
fresh accomplishment : the stone cut out 
without hands is breaking and subduiiig 
other powers; and things are tending to 
that perfect consummation, when the pride 
and pomp of earthly kings shall have passed 
away, and the universe shall become the 



PEOPHETS] 



728 



one wide dominion of the King of kings 
and Lord of lords. 

lY. Our Lord's own proplie"cy was of tne 
same trpe. TTMle his enemies were 
proudly presuming on some worldly mate- 
rial deliverance, and while his followers 
expected him to restore the kingdom to 
Israel, his eve looked sadly on to the time 
when the holr house of Jerusalem should 
he desolate (Matt, xxiii. 37, 38 ; Luke xix. 
41-44). ' To foresee such results,' says Dr. 
Faii-hairn (iiU supr., part ii. chap. i. sect. 4, 
p. 233)—' results in many respects opposed 
to the intentions, and the general policy of 
the Romans, who were the chief instru- 
ments in effecting it— and with such a tone 
of assurance announce them so long before- 
hand, was not to speak in the manner of 
men ; and no one who looks calmly into the 
circumstances can ever find an explanation 
that will he satisfactoiy to his own mind. 



adequate notion of the force of proof that 
is thus supplied. 

Among the many valuable hooks on pro- 
phecy those of DayisoH and Fairhairn hare 
heen already referred to : there may he 
also named Bp. Is'ewton, DisseHatiojis on 
the Prophecies ; and Keith, Evidence of the 
Truth of the CJrristian Religion derived from 
Fulfilment of Prophecy, both frequently 
re-printed. 

PROPHET, PROPHETS. It is proposed 
in this article to notice some of the his- 
torical and personal particulars respecting 
the prophets of scripture. 

There are three Hebrew words commonly 
used to designate a prophet— 7ic(6!;, which 
most probably signifies a speaker or an- 
nouncer, hhdzeh, a seer, and rdeh, also a 
seer. There is some diversity among critics 
as to the precise use of these terms. NaW, 
however, may be considered as an official 



bv the help merely of some unusual degree ' title. It was applied very early to those to 
of chrewdne«s on the part of Jesus, or of a whom divine communications were made, 
certain peci^ar combination of circum- or who uttered anything by dmne sugges- 
stances in Providence.' tion, even though such utterances had not 

The weisht of prophecv as an evidence i a predictive character. So the name Is 
of the truth of the rehgion of the bible may I given to Abraham (Gen. xx. 7). The Greek 
he in some deeree estimated by what has i word prophetes is or similar character. It 
been =;aid It =^tands alone, Xo other claim I implies one who speaks for another, spe- 
to supernatural foreknowledge can be put \ cially for the Deity, and therefore a-a inter- 



in comparison with it. And no petty objec- 
tion to this or that detail, no fancied dis- 
covery that here or there fumiment has not 
answered to prediction, can be admitted to 
shake such evidence of such a comprehen- 
sive character. . 

It is ti-ue that there are prophecies which 
have not received fulfilment. The predic- 
tion uttered by Jonah against Kineveh is 



xn-eter. Thus prophesying is used in 1 Cor. 
xi. 4, 5 (see Alford, note on 1 Cor. xii. 10) ; 
and thus Aaron is called the prophet, n&hi, 
of Moses (Exod. vii. 1). E6eh has sometimes 
been thought only a more poetical title, 
identical in meaning with hhdzeh. But Dr. 
Lee has noticed a distinction, and is of 
opinion that the hhOzeh was the general 
name of one to whom revelations were occa- 



example (Jonah iii.). But the explana- 1 sionaUy made : ' The ti^es rdeh and nCiM 
timi is verv ea^v. God has a purpose to \ equaUy point out the offlcial prophet (the 
nerform And he uses those means which i former term being merely the archaic and 
are best 'adapted to lead to it. For example, ' popular designation of an office which had 
he ' willeth not the death of a sinner.' And been defined fi-om the very first by Moses) 



it is against men as sinners that his threat- 
enings are directed. So that, if they turn 
from the eiTor of their way, God's purpose is 
accomplished, his mercy is exhibited. ' If 
that nation,' he distinctly says, 'against 
whom I have pronounced, turn from their 
evil, I will repent of the evil that I thought 
to do unto them' (Jer. xviii. 8). This 
sufficiently vindicates from the charge of 
changeableness. 

Little can here be added. But it is sub- 
mitted to the candid reader that, after all 
the deductions which reasonably can be 
made, after every allowance that can be fair- 
ly claimed, prophecy, as exercised amongithe 
chosen people and recorded in their sacred 
books, stands widely distinguishedfrom and 
far above the pretensions of any ordinary 
sages. It is a moral wonder that cannot 
be paralleled elsewhere. If, then, eilects 
have their adeciuate causes, surely the con- 
clusion to be arrived at here is that ' holy 
men of old spake,' not according to their 
own notions, not as evincing mere human 
sagacity, but ' as they were moved by the 
Holy Ghost' (2 Pet. i. 21). And we must 
take this not as an isolated proof that the 
bible is from God, but as one among several 
as weighty departments of evidence, all 
converging to the same point, to have an 



while by hhdzeh are indicated those in- 
dividuals who occasionally, or for some 
specific purpose, were chosen to convey a 
communication from God, and who posses- 
sed the prophetic gift, but not the prophetic 
office: e.g. the authors of sacred poetry, 
such as Asaph (2 Chron. xxix. 30), are so 
called. And hence the ndht might be styled 
hhdzeh, but not conversely' (TJie Pnsp. of 
Holy Script, 2nd edit, append. K. p. 544). 
The term ndM, given as already said to 
chosen persons in very early times, and 
continued, as to Moses, Miriam, Deborah, 
is thought afterwards to have fallen into 
disuse (1 Sam. ix.9), and then from Samuel's 
time to have again become current. But 
it is just possible that the verse referred to 
apphes only to Samuel, and means that he, 
originally a seer, rdeh, was afterwards gene 
rally termed a prophet, ndb7, though the old 
name still lingered in the mouths of many. 

The Hebrew prophets were, as Augustine 
has well said, the philosophers, divines, in- 
structors, and guides of the people in piety 
{De Civ. Dei, lib. xviii. cap. xli. 2, Op., edit. 
Bened. torn. vii. col. 524). They were select- 
ed according to God's sovereign pleasure, 
who imparts his spiritual gifts as he will 
(1 Cor. xii. 11), sending his message occar 
sionaliy even by unworthy messengers. 



729 



[PSOPHETS 



Wlietber tliere was any special inauguration 
of a proplaet may be doubted. Some have 
imagined that prophets were anointed ; but 
this notion has hardly any other ground 
than a misinterpretation of a single text 
(Psal. cv. 15). In the case of Elisha the 
word appears to have been used figuratively 
(1 Kings xix. 16, 19). Means were provided 
for the detection of false prophets. Yery 
often, in order to secure confidence in the 
ultimate purpose of far-reaching prophecy, 
some present sign was given, or some near 
event was foretold (e. g. xiii. 1-5), Men's 
minds were thus fortified ; and faith, 
though it had to wait, need not fail. But 
the mere occurrence of a sign or wonder 
was not in all cases suflacient. There is a 
consistency in God's dealings ; and he can- 
not contradict himself. True prophecy is 
in accordance with its own utterances. 
And, therefore, if any fresh doctrine were 
brought in, if the teaching ran counter 
to the known word of God, the falsity of it 
might be at once concluded. And there 
were two special enactments in the Mosaic 
law intended to meet all such cases. If a 
prophet appeared and gave a sign which 
came to pass, but the prophet's teaching 
tended to idolatry (Deut. xiii. 1-5) ; and 
again, if a prophet spoke in the name of 
the Lord and his prediction was not fulfil- 
led (xviii. 21, 22), then in each of these cases 
the false prophet was to be put to death. 
We see in after-times these criteria referred 
to CJer. xxviii. 9), and God interfering to 
punish the man who had presumptuously 
ventured to speak in his name. 

But, though there was no special in- 
auguration to the prophetical oflQce, yet 
there were schools in which those called 
' sons of the prophets ' were trained under 
the eye of some experienced man of God ; 
and from persons so instructed God did, it 
seems, often choose his messengers. "VVe 
hear of these establishments first in the 
time of Samuel. But perhaps they were 
not then permanently organized. Able 
critics have maintained that it was not till 
the disruption of the kingdom, and the 
want caused in the northern state by the 
departure of the priests and Levites into 
Judah, that these schools were really 
founded, in order to the perpetuation of a 
theocratic spirit in Israel. For this purpose 
they were admirably suited : see Keil, 
Comm. on Kings, vol. i. pp. 368, 369. They 
were located in various towns ; and there 
must probably have been some collegiate 
building, where the young men lived in a 
community. They were instructed, doubt- 
less, in the sacred law, and in psalmody ; 
prophesying, it is said, with psalteries and 
other instruments of music. Samuel, and 
Elijah, and Elisha, if not always resident in 
such establishments, yet exercised careful 
superintendence over them (1 Sam. x. 5, 10, 
xix. 20 ; 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. 38-44, vi. 1-7, 
32). The superior sometimes employed one 
of these scholars on a message which it was 
not expedient he should carry himself (ix. 
1-3) ; and so common, it would seem, was 
God's selection of them for his work that 
Amos notes it as a remarkable thing that 
lie was neither a prophet nor a prophet's 



son when the divine word came to him 
(Amos vii. 14, 15). These schools are sup- 
posed to have continued till the Babylonish 
captivity ; and it might be to some such 
establishment under Ezekiel that they of 
the captivity-resorted for instruction (Ezek, 
viii. 1, xiv. 1, XX. 1). These were imitated in 
later days by the schools of the rabbis. 

With regard to the ordinary mode of life 
of the prophets, we may no doubt say that 
they studied to live above the world, and to 
set examples of simplicity and purity of 
conduct. But this they would do, not 
merely as prophets, but as faithful servants 
of the Most High. Much has been written 
about their ascetism, their poverty and pri- 
vations; and critics have culled' out pas- 
sages from scripture history descriptive of 
periods of famine, war, or other calamity, 
and then, because the prophets living at the 
time were sufirerers, they have very un- 
reasonably inferred that they were in their 
ordinary life similarly pinched and dis- 
tressed. It would be as reasonable to con- 
clude, because'king Joram wore sackcloth 
and suffered privation at the siege of Sa- 
maria (2 Kings vi. 27, 30), that Hebrew kings 
were generally so clothed, and generally so 
impoverished. The position and circum- 
stances of prophets varied, like those of 
other men, with the times. By ungodly 
princes they were often persecuted ; but 
they often held high office, and discharged 
the functions of (as we should say) privy- 
councillors. Even in the reign of such a 
man as Joram Elisha possessed powerful 
influence (iv. 13). Titles of high respect 
were given them (1 Kings xviii. 7, 13 ; 
2 Kings ii, 19, xiii. 14). And, as to their do- 
mestic habits, it is true that they probably 
wore some distinctive plain garment (i. 8 ; 
Zech. xiii. 4) ; but Elijah had his attendant 
even in his hasty flight from Jezreel to 
Beer-sheba (1 Kings xix. 3; : presents were 
made them, which, though sometimes they 
deemed it proper to decline, they at other 
times accepted (2 Kings iv. 42, v. 15, 16, viii. 
9). And some of them were Levites and 
priests, and received, no douljt, the usual 
offerings and advantages ; while those of 
higher station lived, we may well suppose, 
as befitted that station. The pulse on 
which Daniel was for a while sustained 
(Dan. i. 8, 16) was preferred by him, not from 
any principle of ascetism, but in order to 
observe the law while at a heathen court. 

The number of the prophets is very va- 
riously reckoned. Leaving out those so 
called in the earlier times, we may divide 
them into (1) prophets under the law, and (2) 
prophets in New Testament times. 

Of the former we have those in the wil- 
derness, as Moses, Aaron, Miriam, and the 
seventy elders (Numb. xi. 16, 17, 24-30). After 
the entrance into Canaan there have been 
reckoned Joshua, an anonymous prophet 
(Judges vi. 8-10), Deborah and Hannah, 
prophetesses, one who denounced God's 
judgments on Eli's house (1 Sam. ii. 27-36), 
Samuel, Nathan, Gad, David, Asaph, Heman, 
Jeduthun, Solomon, Ahijah the Shilonite, 
(1 Kings xi. 29-39, xiv. 1-18), Shcmaiali (xii. 
22-24 ; 2 Chron. xi. 2-4, xii. 5-8, 15), the man 
of God who went from Judah, and the old 



£»ROPHETESS] 



730 



nrop^iet of Betli-el (1 Kings xiii.), Iddo 
r>Cliron ix. 29,xii. 15, xiii. 22), Jeliutlie son 
of Hanani a Kings xri. 1-4 7; 2 CHron xix 
2 3), Azariali the son of Oded and Oded 
(kr 1-8), Hanani (xvi. 7), Eli^ali, the hnndred 
prophets whom Ohadiali Md from Jezebel s 
fury in a cave (1 Kings xvlii. 4 13j, two, 
prohaWy three, anonymous Prophets wno 
deUvered messages to Ahah (^.13, -,2, 8, 
S5-43), Micaiah the son of Imlah (xxii 8 9, 
13-28) Jahaziel the son of Zechariah (2 Chron. 
XX 14-17), Eliezer the son oi Dodavah (37), 
EUsha, the prophet who anointed Jehu 
(2 Kings ix. 1-10), Zechanah the son ox 
Jehoiada (2 Chron. xxiv. 2022), a prophet 
who dissuaded Amaziah from employing an 
army of Israelites (xxy. 7-9), another wno 
rehuted the same king for idolatry (15, 16), 
Oded (xxviii. 9-11), Joel, Jonah, Amos, 
Hosea, Isaiah, Micali, Nahum, Zephauiah, 
Jeremiali, Hahakkuk, Ohadiah, the prophet- 
ess Huldah (2 Kings xxii. 14-20), TJrijah the 
son of Shemaiah(Jer.xx^a. 20-23) During 
the captiTity, EzeMel and pamel prophe- 
sied, and, after the return from Bahy on, 
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. And then 
the prophetic spirit ceased. • ^ 

In Ifew Testament times, tne divine 
power was again manifested; and, hoth 



where most of all depraration of relimon 
had heen manifested, and where the legal 
services had heen interrupted. 

Manv great prophets did not commit 
their predictions to writing for the future 
advantage of the church. Such predictions 
ref ei-red to their own times, and did not ex- 
tend to distant ages. And we may well 
enough allow that very possihly all the in- 
spired words of those whose hooks we have 
were not reserved. I^ot that any portion 
of scripture has heen lost ; hut that the 
wisdom of God did not design that other 
utterances, whether of propheis or apostle^ 
should form a part of that great standard 
of his oracles which it was needful that the 
church should have to study, to he her 
guide and counsellor until her militant state 
was ended. Isaiah, donhtless, uttered other 
holy words : hut God did not intend their 
memorial to last. St. Paul, no question, 
wrote other epistles : they served a tem- 
porary purpose and have passed away with 
no detriment to the chui'ch. 

The following tahle exhibits the order 
and chronology, so far as it can he deter- 
mined with reasonable probahility, of those 
prophets whose writings form part of tne 

canonical hooks of the Old Testament :— 



Joel 
Jonah 
Amos 
Hosea 

Isaiah 



Micah 
Nahum 
Zephaniah 
Jeremiah 

Hahakkuk 

Daniel 

Ezekiel 

Obadiah 

Haggai 

Zechariah 

Malachi 



Before Christ. 



Between 877 and 847 
Between 820 and 784 
Between 810 and 785 
Between 784 and 723 

Between 754 and 694 



Between 750 and 700 
Between 720 and 698 
Between 628 and 620 
Between 628 and 586 

Between 620 and 609 
Between 606 and 534 
Between 595 and 573 
Between 588 and 583 
About 520 
About 520 

Between 436 and 420 



Kings of Judah. 



Kings of Israel. 



J cash or Amaziah 
Uzziah 

Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, 

Hezekiah 
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, 

Hezekiah, perhaps Ma- 

nasseh 
Jotham, Aliaz, Hezekiah 
Hezekiah 
Josiah 

Josiah, Jehoiaklra, Jehoi- 

aehin, Zedekiah 
Josiah, Jehoahas 



Jehu or Jehoahaz 
Joash or Jeroboam 11. 
Jeroboam 11. 
Jeroboam II. to Ho- 

shea j 
Pekahiah, Pekah, Ho- j 

shea 

Pekah, Hoshea 



prior to and after Christ, the Great Propheu 
of the church, there must be enumerated Za- 
charias, Simeon, the prophetess Anna, John 
the Baptist, Agabus (Acts xi. 28, xxi. 10, 11), 
the evangelist Philip's four daughters (9), 
several of the apostles, as Paul, Peter, Jude, 
John, besides those spoken of in 1 Cor. xii. 
28, xiv. 29-32 ; Eph. iii. 5, iv. 11. 

Balaam and the false prophets are not 
noticed in this enumeration. 

It win be observed that from the time of 
Samuel down to the return from Babylon 
there was an almost-uninterrupted line of 
prophetic men. And many of the most dis- 
tinguished of these were after the disruption 
In the kingdom of the ten tribes; God raising 
up a company to maintain his truth there 



PPtOrilETESS cExod. XV. 20; Judges iv. 
4 ; 2 Kings xxii. 14; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 23; 
Neh. iv. 14 ; Isai. viii. 3; Luke ii. 36). See 
Prophet. 

PROPITIATION. The Greek word so 
rendered (Rom. iii. 25) is elsewhere the 
appellation of the ' mercy-seat' (Heb.Lx.5i; 
and some interpreters imagine that the 
sense of thQ first-named place is grounded 
upon the use of the word as signifying 
raercv-seat. But Dr. Alford very well ren- 
ders ''a propitiatory offering,' which is 
much more consonant with the words that 
f oUow, ' through faith in his blood. A dif- 
ferent hut kindred word occurs in 1 John it 
2, iv. 10 ; on which Dr. Alford says, ' Christ 
has, as our propitiation, i.e. as a sin-offering. 



[PROSELTTB 



reconciled God and ns by nothing else but 
by his voluntary death as a sacrifice, has 
by this averted God's wrath from us.' The 
need of such a propitiation is evident from 
the fallen state of man. He is now a sinful 
being (i. 8, 10), and cannot bear the scrutiny 
of a holy God (Psal. cxxx. 3). See Atone- 
ment. 

PPtO'REX (2 Kings 1. 17, marg.). Viceroy. 
See Jehoeam, l. 

PROSELYTE. The Hebrew nation was 
regarded as God's peculiar people. But yet 
from the very first a way was open to men 
of another race by which they might attain 
to the privileges of the divine covenant. 
Thus Abraham was directed to circumcise 
* all the men of his house, born in the house 
and bought with money of the stranger ' 
(Gen. xvii. 12, 13, 23, 27). And it cannot be 
doubted that Jacob carried with him into 
Egypt not only his sons but his servants, 
and that from the descendants of all his 
household proceeded the Israelitish nation. 
When the law was given, we find repeated 
mention of strangers, of their duties and 
disabilities ; and a difference is made accord- 
ing to the native country of foreigners in 
regard to their being admitted earlier or 
later into ' the congregation of the Lord ' 
(Deut. xxiii. 3, 4, 7, 8). 

Foreigners merely by residing in the 
land became, as was natural in some de- 
gree, subject to the Israelitish law. They 
were to observe the sabbath (Exod. xx, 10) : 
they were punishable for Molech-worship 
and for blasphemy (Lev. xx. 2, xxiv. 16). 
They enjoyed, too, some immunities. They 
were to be kindly treated (Deut. x. 18, 19), 
and they had the protection, in case of need, 
of the cities of refuge (Numb. xxxv. 15;. 
These and some other provisions seem to 
have touched any foreigner who resided in 
the land, without regard to his receiving or 
not the Hebrew faith. He was not com- 
pelled to enter into the covenant ; but he 
must not outrage the laws, civil or religious, 
of the country. Provision seems also to 
have been made for acts of worship to the 
true God without the necessity of submit- 
ting to all the ordinances of the ceremonial 
Jaw. Just as Jethro when he paid his visit 
to Moses in the wilderness (before, indeed, 
the covenant at Sinai) offered sacrifice 
(Exod. xviii. 12), so might a foreigner draw 
nigh to Jehovah with an offering made by 
fire (Numb. xv. 14-16). But, if he wished 
really to share the privileges of the chosen 
people, he must be circumcised. He then 
might eat the passover (Exod. xii. 48, 49 ; 
Numb. ix. 14), of which no uncircumcised 
stranger was allowed to partake. It has 
been supposed that circumcision was ne- 
cessary before -joining in the other solemn 
feasts. The letter of the law certainly does 
not demand it. The observance of the day 
of atonement (Lev. xvi. 29), of the feast of 
weeks (Deut. xvi. 11), and of that of taber- 
nacles (14) is extended to strangers with- 
out any such requirement. 

Proper distinctions have not perhaps 
been always made. The mass of the so- 
called strangers resident in Israel in the 
earlier times of the state must have been 
the remnants of the ancient inhabitants. 



These are represented as kept in a subor- 
dinate position. They were considered as ob- 
jects of charity(xxiv. 17, 19-21). And on these 
certain burdens were laid ; and they were 
compelled to labour in the public works — 
as good a mode of employing them, per- 
haps, as could be devised (1 Ohron. xxii. 2 ; 
2 Chron. ii. 17, 18). It is not likely that any 
who were, properly speaking, foreigners, 
sojourning for trade or pleasure in Pales- 
tine, would be so treated : besides, the 
number of such foreigners in those times 
must have been small. It is elsewhere ex- 
plained who they were (1 Kings ix. 20-22), 
Amorites, Hittites, &c., on whom as stran- 
gers the levy was made. And it may be pre- 
sumed that these persons had not been cir- 
cumcised. For, long after, they are mention- 
ed as having, so far as they could, continued 
to practise their own abominations (Ezra 
ix. 1, 2). Had they become circumcised, had 
they really enteredinto the covenant of the 
law, we may presume that they would have 
been freed from the compulsory service 
above adverted to. For we find repeated 
examples of such men possessing property, 
filling offices of trust, and attaining high 
rank, and therefore must suppose that they 
had become to all intents and purposes like 
home-born Israelites. Such were Uriah the 
Hittite (2 Sam. xi. 6-13, xxiii. 39), Ittai the 
Gittite (XV. 19-22, xviii. 2), Araunah the Je- 
busite (xxiv. 18-24). 

In later times persons of other nations and 
other religions embraced the Jewish faith 
in larger numbers (Esth. viii. 17). The Jews 
were more widely dispersed through the 
world, and had their synagogues in which 
Moses was read continually in numberless 
heathen cities. Devout minds would be 
attracted by the purity of the divine law ; 
and there would be a fulfilment of that 
prophecy, hereafter, it may be, to be still 
more emphatically fulfilled, which declared 
that 'many people and strong nations' 
should \come to seek the Lord of hosts in 
Jerusalem' (Zech. viii. 20-23). Sometimes in- 
deed, when they had the power, the Jews 
were nothing loth to make converts by 
force. A notable instance of this occurred 
when John Hyrcanus imposed circumcision 
on the Idumeans, under pain of banishment 
or death (Josephus, Antiq., lib. xiii. 9, § 1). 

We are prepared, after what has been 
said, to find proselytes spoken of in the 
New Testament. Many of them, we are 
told, were gathered at Jerusalem on the 
great day of pentecost (Acts ii. 5, 9-11) ; 
and, when the seven officers were appointed 
for the daily ministration of church-goods, 
one was a proselyte (vi. 5). 

The Jewish writers say that there were 
two classes of proselytes— proselytes of the 
gate (from the Old Testament phrase, the 
' stranger that ,is within thy gates,' Exod. 
XX. 10), and proselytes of righteousness. Of 
the former the observance of the seven 
Noachian precepts (as they arc called) was 
required : these were prohibitions against 
(1) blasphemy, (2) idolatry, (3) murder, (4) in- 
cest, (5) theft, (6) disobedience to authority, 
(7) the eating of flesh with the blood (see 
Winer, Bibl. EWB., art. ' Proselytcn'). But 
these proselytes were under sundry disa- 



pbosetjcha] 



732 



bilities, and were uot even allowed to study 
tlie law. Sucli proselytes. It is alleged,were 
tlie Romau centurions (Luke yii. 5 ; Acts x. 
1, 2), and the ' devout' persons occasionally 
mentioned (xyli. 4). The proselytes of 
righteousness were those who were actu- 
ally incorporated into the Jewish church. 
These were circumcised : they were after- 
wards baptized, solemnly promising to keep 
the law ; and then they made an offermg, 
two turtle-dores or pigeons, taking when 
the temple was destroyed an oath to ofiEer 
when it should he re-huilt. In the case of 
women the haptism and the oblation were 
sufficient. ^ ^ ^ 

But there have been serious doubts en- 
tertained on some of these points. Many 
have guestioned whether there were really 
two classes such as hare been described. 
Perhaps the truth lies between opposite 
extremes ; and, while there may have been 
some difference, yet probably not any 
such systematic arrangements as the rab- 
bins assert. The baptism of the prose- 
lvte« too, is involved in much uncertainty. 
It is said to have been of equal importance 
with circumcision. And yet we find no 
trace of it in the Old Testament, no mention 
of it by Josephus, Philo, and the old Tar- 
gum« Tet f I cm the fact of John's baptism 
not appearing to be a new ceremony, the 
chief question being whether he hadautho- 
ritv to baptize (Jolm i. 25), and from the 
predilection of the Jews for divers washings 
("Mark vii. 4 : see also John iii. 5), there is a 
considerable presumption that a baptism 
mi°-ht be used on such an occasion. And 
when baptism had become the initiatory 
rite of Christianity we may believe that the 
u^se of it would grow among the Jews. 

"PROSEIT'CHA. This Greek word is gene- 
rally rendered 'prayer' in; our version. 
Sometimes, however, it has been supposed 
to mean a place of prayer, or oratory (Luke 
vi 12 ; Acts xvi. 13\ It is certain that 
there were such places, mostly outside tue 
towns where synagogues could not be 
built, and near water for the convenience 
of ablution. And occasionally the name 
seems to have been applied to large build- 
ings, perhaps even to synagogues. But sucu 
an oratorv cannot well be meant _ m the 
passage first cited above ; and it is ques- 
tionable whether there was any actual 
structure dedicated to devotional purposes 
at Philippi. The places to which the Jews 
under such circumstances resorted appear 
to have been in the open air, in a grove, 
and (as before said) near water by fotmtams 
or streams, or on the sea-shore K was 
most probably to such an open Place that 
Paul and his companions repaired on the 
inbbath for the purpose of instructing 
tho=ethev might meet with there. It 
would seem (xvii. 1) that there was no syna- 

^°|rOA^Rk''a- short sententious saying 
which has become popular from its aPPOsite 
illustration of men or manners. Pro^ ei- 
bM expressions are greatly in use among 
oriental nations; and teachers, of morals 
Itave often enforced and embel ished their 

Instructions ^^^f ^^^^^^^T l?S^*its vei? 1 
verb must be short; else it loses its veiy i 



character : it must have a certain elegant 
or agreeable turn ; else it would not be 
appreciated. Besides the book of Proverbs, 
in which a multitude of these excellent 
moral maxims are contained, we find many 
others, either entire sentences or prover- 
bial phrases, scattered throughout scrip- 
ture. Thus the reader may refer to the 
following places : Gen, x. 9 ; 1 Sam. x, 12 ; 
1 Kings XX. 11 ; Job vi. 5; Jer. xiii. 23; 
Luke iv. 23. Proverbs occurring in scrip- 
ture will generally be explained by compa- 
rison with other passages, or a knowledge 
of eastern habits. ' Proverb' is sometimes 
put for parable, or a metaphorical form 
of expression (John xvi. 29 ; the ordinary 
word for parable not being in St. John). 

PROVERBS, THE BOOK OF. Of the 
canonicity of this book there can be no 
doubt. It is true that one of the Jewish 
schools is said to have fancied some con- 
tradictions in it. But it is in all the He- 
brew catalogues; being ranked among the 
kliethuMm or hagiographa. The book of Pro- 
verbs bears generally the name of Solomon, 
and has for the most part been attributed 
to that prince, who 'spake (we are told) 
three thousand proverbs '(1 Kings iv. 33). 
But it is manifest on looking at the book 
that Solomon did not put it into its pre- 
sent state, and that some, at least, of the 
wise sayings it contains proceeded from 
other sources. ^ . 

We may divide it into four parts. I. This 
portion comprises Prov. i.— ix., a discourse 
extolling true wisdom, and specially urging 
the young, with many arguments, to secure 
so excellent a possession. To this we find pre- 
fixed a title and introduction (i. 1-6), inten- 
ded, it would seem, to apply to the whole 
book. II. A collection of maxims generally 
unconnected, inculcating moral precepts 
which respect both man's duty towards 
God, and his behaviour to his feUow-crea- 
tures (X. 1— xxii. 16). III. A more connect- 
ed address, with various admonitions, and 
a charge to listen to the words of the wise 
(xxii. 17— xxiv. 34). lY. An appendix (xxv. 
— xxxi.), comprising (1) a collection of Solo- 
mon's proverbs which Hezekiah's servants 
copied out (xxv.— xxix.) : many of those 
which are comprised in the second part are 
here repeated : comp. xxv. 24 with xxi. 9 ; 

xxvi 3 with X. 13 ; xxvi. 13 with xxii. 13 ; 
xxvi. 15 with xix. 24 : xxvi. 22 with xviii. 8 ; 

xxvii 12 with xxii. 3 ; xxvii. 13 with xx. 16 ; 
xxvli. 15 with xix. 13 ; xxvii. 21 with xvii. 
3 ; xxviii. 6 with xix, 1 ; xxviii. 19 with xii. 
11 ; xxix. 13 with xxii. 2 ; xxix. 22 with 
XV. 18 : there is also one that is nearly 
the same with a proverb of the third 
part: comp. xxviii. 21 with xxiv. 23 ; it has 
been inferred therefore that Hezekialt's 
servants used the same soiu'ces as the com- 
piler of the second part ; (2) the maxims de- 
livered by Agur to Ithiel and Ucal (see 
AGUE, ITHIEL, UCAL) (XXX.); (3) the ad- 
monitions to king Lemuel by his mother 
(sec LE]MrEL) (xxxi. 1-9) ; and (4) the de- 
scription of a virtuous woman (xxxi. 10-31) ; 
where the initial letters of the verses follow 
tbe order of the Hebrew alphabet. 

There have been doubts as to the author- 
sbip of parts of this book. It is of cour«ie 



733 



generally admitted that many of the pro- 
verhs contained in it are really hy Solomon; 
"but some critics disbelieve that the first 
part (i.— ix.) was composed hy him. The 
style, and diction, and tone, it has been 
alleged, conclusively mark a difference 
from the sententious utterances comprised 
in the second part. The parallelism is said 
to vary, and a higher degree of poetic power 
to be displayed. But these are not sufficient 
proofs. More poetical power would natu- 
rally be developed in a connected piece, such 
as the description of wisdom, in iii. 13-20, or 
again in viii., than when pregnant thoughts 
were to be compressed into brief sentences. 
And a discourse would be more likely to 
furnish scope for synonymous or grada- 
tional parallels, and a series of maxims for 
antithetic ones. It is true that the parts of 
i.-ix. are somewhat loosely connected ; but 
this furnishes no argument against the 
unity of its authorship, or against its being 
the work of Solomon. It is natural to 
believe that, when a collection of moral 
precepts was made containing some of the 
acknowledged productions of the wise king, 
his would be placed first, and those from 
other writers, as we see in the appendix, 
come afterwards. The repetition of titles 
(X. 1, XXV. 1) only shows that the collection 
was not made all at once. Some hasty cri- 
tics have tried to make out a difference of 
authorship from the use of different 
divine names : God (EloMin) occurs twice 
in chap. ii. : the Lord (Jeliovali) is elsewhere 
generally used ; therefore there were dif- 
ferent writers. The fact is that Elohim is 
found only four times in i. 1— xxix. 27; 
first in ii. 5, where, as Jehovah had imme- 
diately preceded, the repetition of the same 
wora would have been awkward ; secondly 
in ii. 17, where according to the genius of 
the Hebrew language Elohim must be used 
because a pronoun had to be joined to it ; 
thirdly in iii. 4, where there is the antithesis 
of 'God and man ; ' fourthly in xxv. 2, 
where there is a similar antithesis, more 
prominent in the original. It is most pro- 
bable then, on the whole, that the first and 
second parts are from the same pen. With 
regard to the third part, xxii. 17— xxiv. 34, 
there may perhaps be greater ground for 
hesitation. It is not unlikely that the 
moral sayings of others might be appended 
to those of Solomon ; and perhaps this is 
intimated in xxiv. 23 where a kind of fresh 
title,* the words of the wise,' seems prefixed 
to the section xxiv. 23-34. But some of the 
most judicious critics ascribe the whole of 
i.— xxix. to Solomon ; and Keil {Einleitung, 
§ 119) produces a number of characteristic 
words and phrases frequently used in these 
chapters and rarely or (some of them) no- 
where else occurring. Of the authorship of 
XXX,, xxxi. nothing can be said. We can 
only suppose that these chapters were 
added before the captivity. 

The book of Proverbs is frequently cited 
or aUuded to in the New Testament: i*, is. 
Indeed, a treasure-house of ethical wisdom, 
filled with choice sententious aphorisms, 
far excelling those of heathen sages, and 
inculcating all moral duties. Hence may 
every class of persons in every condition of 



life derive instructions for the regulation 
of practice : hence may he who learns be 
imbued with the teachings of more than 
earthly wisdom. See Wisdom. 

Of commentaries on this book Holden's 
Improved Translation and Notes, 1819, is 
valuable. The expositions of Mcholls, 1842, 
Bridges, 3rd edit,, 1850, and M. Stuart, 1852, 
may be consulted with advantage. 

PROVIDENCE. This word occurs but 
once in our version (Acts xxiv. 2), and 
there with no reference to the Deity. As 
ordinarily understood, it means the care 
which God takes of the universe, the ad- 
ministrative rule he exercises over his 
dominions for the good of his church and 
people ; of which an eminent example is 
the training of Israel for their inheritance 
in Canaan. It cannot be reasonably sup- 
posed that he leaves events to themselves. 
The whole current of scripture teaching is 
opposed to such a notion. His eye is de- 
scribed as everywhere present (Psal. xxxiii. 
18, cxxxix. 2) ; his ear as open to every 
voice of his creatures (xciv. 9 ; Isai. lix. l) ; 
his hand as that which gives effect to every 
work (1 Cor. iii. 7). God's providence does 
not constrain men ; who act according to 
their dispositions and wishes cisai. x. 7) ; 
nevertheless, he so rules as that their 
doings fulfil his purposes (Acts ii. 23 ; Eph. 
i. 11). It is sometimes said that, though 
God's providence may rule in great things, 
small events must be beneath his notice. 
Our Lord expressly contradicts such a 
notion (Matt, x. 29, 30). Besides, the 
smallest link in the chain is as necessary as 
the greatest : its failure would disarrange 
and dislocate the whole. Time, place, and 
circumstance, minute ingredients, go to 
make up a given result ; and all must be 
cared for. But, though there is a watchful 
providence administering the world, per- 
sons must beware how they let their con- 
duct be guided by what tliey call the lead- 
ings of providence. These may be only the 
leadings of their own inclination, or the 
facilities which Satan offers. The rule of 
life is to be, not God's supposed secret pur- 
pose, but his plainly-declared law. 

PROVINCE. For notice of the differ- 
ence between imperial and senatorial pro- 
vinces under the Roman rule see Pro- 
consul, Procurator. Judea was a sub- 
ordinate province, the procurator being 
accountable to the ' governor' of Syria. 

PRTJNING-HOOK. An implement used 
by vine-dressers. The word is found in 
scripture only in the plural (Isai. ii. 4, xviii. 
5 ; Mic. iv. 3 ; Joel iii. 10 ; in the margin 
generally 'scythes'). It appears that the 
Hebrews were accustomed regularly to 
prune their vines (Lev. xxv. 3) ; and some 
critics believe that the time of this pruning, 
i.e. the spring, is indicated in Sol. Song ii. 
12. But the rendering of our authorized 
version 'singing,' is preferable (see Gius- 
burg, The Song of Songs, note on ii. 12). Tliere 
is a beautiful allusion by our Lord to the 
practice of pruning (John xv. 2) : the barren 
branches of the symbolical vine are alto- 
gether cast away : those that bear fruit are 
cleansed by cutting off the unsound parts, 
and shortening the too luxuriant shoots 



PSALMS, THE BOOK OP] EXtK^XXX^ 0f 



73^ 



So dressed tlie fruit will te more alDundaiit 
and -will ripen better. 

PSALMS, THE BOOK OF. Tliis collec- 
tion laas in the Hebrew tlie title SSpher 
TeliilUm, 'book of hymns' or 'praises, 
because most of the compositions consist 
more or less of hymns of praise. To some 
of the pieces other names are applied; 

tepMllah, ' prayer,' to five (Psalms xvii., 
IxxxYi., xc, cii., cxlii.), sMr, ' song,' to one 
Cxlvi.), also mizmdr to forty-five (e.g. iii., iv., 
v.,vi.),rendered 'psalm,' and meaning proper- 
ly a rhythmical production. Eight are miz- 
mdr-sMr, a 'psalm-song' (e.g. xxx.,lxv.); five 
are sMr-mizmdr, ' song-psalm' (e.g. xlviii.) ; 
one is teUllah, ' praise ' (cxlv.). Other titles 
are maschn, miclitam, which are explained 
in the articles under those names. By the 
Septuagint translators the hook was called 
Psalmoi, whence our name, ' The Psalms.' 

This hook is placed in the Jewish canon 
among the khethuUm, or Imgiographa, the 
third division of the sacred volume. And, 
as it is universally acknowledged that 
many of the psalms were from the i>en of 
David, chronologically prior to most of the 
prophetic writers, we have in this fact a 
proof that the kliethuhimwere not collected 
as fragmentary relics, or as being less 
valued than other books of scripture. It 
was because of their peculiar character that 
they were distributed iuto a distinct class ; 
and the distribution and the acknowledg- 
ment of them as canonical were of extreme 
antiquity ; the Davidical psalms forming 
a nucleus around which other inspired 
hymns and didactic poems might gather, 
and along with which other compositions 
might be reckoned, apart indeed from the 
law, disticguished from the former and 
later prophets, but as precious, as fully the 
voice of God, books to be the study and the 
guide of Israel, and to descend through the 
generations of the church, as part of her 
prized heritage for ever. The canonical au- 
thority of the Psalms cannot be doubted by 
any one who remembers how the divine 
Saviour spoke of them (Luke xxiv. 44), in- 
cluding imder the name the class of writ- 
ings just spoken of, of which the Psalms 
were a principal part,' generally placed first 
in order. Further evidence to their canoni- 
city has been elsewhere produced. See 
Bible, Cano^t of Scripture. 

The authorship of the various psalms has 
occasioned much discussion. Popularly the 
whole book is termed the Psalms of David ; 
and superficial readers have accustomed 
themselves to refer to them all as the words 
of the royal prophet. It is true that several 
of the Christian fathers adopted this no- 
tion ; but there were others of greater cri- 
tical acumen who were well aware of its 
unsoundness ; and certainly no man with 
any pretensions to critical knowledge— it 
may really be said to common sense— would 
now revive the hypothesis. The reader 
may consult on this point Home's Introd., 
vol. ii. pp. 699, 700, edit. Ayi-e, and the re- 
ferences there given. 

The following are the authors to whom 
the various psalms are usually ascribed : 
Moses, David, Solomon, Asaph, Heman, 
1 Ethan, Jeduthun, and the three sons of 



Korah. In endeavouring to apportion to 
these, so far as may be, their respective 
compositions, some use must be made of 
the inscriptions or titles, and of the divi- 
sion of the whole into five books, of both 
which something will be afterwards more 
particularly said. 

To Moses ten (Psalms xc— xcix.) are as- 
signed by Jewish writers. They have laid it 
down as a rule that, if one psalm is attribu- 
ted to a particular author, all the succeeding 
ones are from his pen, till another name 
occurs. But for this rule there is no good 
reason ; and it is clear, from the mention 
of Samuel in xcix. 6, that Moses could 
not have written that. Moses may very 
well have been the author of xc. It is 
thought to correspond in tone and style 
with his acknowledged hymns in Exod. xv.; 
Dent, xxxii. ; and the objection taken from 
the limit of human life being placed at 
seventy or eighty years (Psal. xc. 10) is of 
no weight. Moses and a few of the elders 
lived to a great age ; but the mass of the 
nation in his time died far earlier. 

David's name is prefixed to seventy-three 
psalms (iii. — ix., xi.— xxxil., xxxiv.— xli., li. 
— Ixv., Ixviii.— Ixx., Ixxxvi., ci., ciii., cviii. 
—ex., cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., 
cxxxviii.— cxlv.) in the Hebrew text. In 
the Septuagint at least eleven others are 
assigned to him (xxxiii., xliii., xci., xciv. — 
xcix., civ., cxxxvii.), to wiiich may be added 
X. ; forming part of ix. in that version. 
Doubtless very many of the psalms thus 
attributed to David were wi-itten by him ; 
some of them, hovf ever, must be of later 
date. But then there are others not so distin- 
guished which in all probability are Da- 
vid's. Several illustrate the events of his 
history: he may haA^e written some in 
youth, some when a fugitive from S;iul, 
some when a cro^^med king. We may ex- 
pect, therefore, to find his style and 
thoughts varied. Btit it may be said gene- 
rally that softness, tenderness, and pathos 
characterize the i)roductions of ' the sweet 
psalmist of Israel,' while there are those 
which evince a wonderful force and subli- 
mity ; and the diction is somewhat rugged 
and of an archaic cast. 

The name of Solomon appears to two 
psalms (Ixxii., cxxvii.) ; but the first-named 
was written rather /b?- him than bu him. 

Twelve psalms bear the name of Asaph 
(1., Ixxiii.— Ixxxiii.). But these cannot all be 
justly ascribed to the Asaph celebrated in 
king David's days (1 Chrou. vi. 39) : some 
evidently allude to later events. Hence 
Keil allows only 1., Ixxiii., Ixxvii., Ixxviii., 
Ixxx.— Ixxxii. to Asaph, and assigns Ixxxiii. 
to the time of Jehoshaphat, Ixxv., Ixxvi.to 
the Assyrian period under Hezekiah, and 
Ixxiv., ixxix. TO the beginning of the 
Babylonish captivity {Einleit., § 114, p. 398). 
The family of Asaph are prominentlj men- 
tioned as sacred musicians in 2 Chron. xx. 
14 ; Ezra ii. 41 ; Neh. vii. 44 : some of them 
possibly might wi-ite psalms and prefix 
their great ancestor's name ; for it was very 
c-tmimon in Israel for a representative name 
to distinguish a family for many genera- 
tions. The psalms that bear the name of 
Asaph are doctrinal or didactic, less sweel 



735 MMt ^UGMttS^t. [psalms, the book o» 



than tliose of David, but characterized "by a 
deep vein of tliouglit and a lofty tone. 

Eleven psalms are described as belonging 
to 'the sons of Korah' (xlii., xliv.— xlix, 
Ixxxiv., Ixxxv., Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii.), most 
likely the descendants of the rebel who 
perished in the wilderness (Numb, xvi., 
xxvi. 11). A holy line proceeded from him; 
of whom Heman, grandson of Samuel the 
prophet, is mentioned as 'a singer ' (1 Chron. 
vi. 33). Of these psalms Keil (tcM supr.) 
assigns xlii., xliv., Ixxxiv. to the time of 
David, xlv. to that of Solomon, xlvii., xlviii. 
to Jehoshaphat's reign, xlvi., Ixxxvii. to the 
days of Hezekiah. Of xlix., Ixxxv. he feels 
uncertain as to the date; while he attri- 
butes Ixxxviii. to Heman the Ezrahite (ac- 
cording to the title), who may have been the 
person mentioned in 1 Chron. ii. 6, or his 
descendant, and being incorporated into 
the tribe of Levi may or may not be the 
same with Heman the singer, Psal. Ixxxix. 
is ascribed to Ethan ; but it is probably of 
the time of the captivity. Ethan has been 
imagined identical with Jeduthun (comp. 1 
Chron. xv. 19 with xxv. 1, 3, 6) ; and Jedu- 
thun's name appears in the titles to certain 
psalms (xxxix., Ixii., Ixxvii.) ; but then it is 
rather as the musician than as the writer. 
Also it is far from certain that the Korahite 
psalms are not appropriated to that family 
as musicians or singers, not as the authors. 
Be this as it may, those so distinguished 
are exquisite lyric compositions. 

With respect to the fifty anonymous 
psalms, Keil would ascribe i., ii., x., xxxiii., 
xliii.to the time of David, Ixvi. to the Assy- 
rian period: for Ixvii. he can discover no 
chronological .mark : Ixxi. is after David's 
time : xci. — c. may belong to the period be- 
tween Solomon and the captivity ; cii. to the 
last days of the exile ; civ. — cvi. somewhat 
later ; cvii. very likely written for the first 
celebration of the feast of tabernacles after 
the return (Ezra iii. 1-6) : cxi.— cxvi. belong 
to the early days after the return ; cxvii., 
cxviii. to the laying of the first stone of the 
new temple ; cxix. composed by Ezra. Of 
the songs of degrees Keil thinks cxx., cxxi., 
cxxiii., cxxv., cxxvi. cxxviii.— cxxx., 
cxxxiv. post-exilian, but is in doubt about 
cxxxii. : he places cxxxv., cxxxvi. after 
cxv. and cxviii. : cxxxvii. he thinks of the 
time of Darius Hystaspis, after the second 
taking of Babylon : cxlvi. is a summary of 
the Davidic and exile psalms ; while cxlvii. 
— cl. are probably from the same hand, cele- 
brating the completion of the walls of Je- 
rusalem by Nehemiah (uM supr., § 115). 

If we follow other critics, the arrange- 
ment will be different ; and there are some 
who would bring down the composition of 
several of the psalms to Maccabean times. 
This, however, can by no means be admit- 
ted. The facts that the canon of scripture 
was previously closed, and that the Septua- 
gint translation must have been made prior 
to that period sufficiently disprove such a 
notion. Bleek argues strongly that there 
is no reason to believe that any psalms are 
Later than the time of Nehemiah, and that 
few comparatively are so late. Doubtless 
many were composed in the time of the pro- 
phets, and may be taken as the complaints of 



those holy men for the persecutions they 
had to suffer. Many, too, belong to the 
exile or the period immediately succeeding. 
Thus he places cii., cxxxvii. certainly in the 
exile, probably also cxix., cxxiii., cxxiv., 
and perhaps some others : moreover, cvii., 
cxxi., cxxii., cxxvi., cxlvii., certainly after 
at least the partial return and the re-esta- 
blishment of the polity; probably also 
Ixxxv., xcvi. — xcviii., ciii., civ., cxiii., cxvi., 
cxxv., cxxvii.— cxxix., cxxxv., cxxxvi., 
cxliv., cxlvi., cxlviii.— cl., these all, it is to 
be observed, being in the latter half of the 
book {Einleit. in das A.T., pp. 619, 620). Thus 
very many events in Israelitish history are 
illustrated by these divine songs. 

Amid much diversity of opinion it is not 
easy to form a decided judgment respecting 
the authorship of several psalms ; but the 
last-cited remark of Bleek may throw some 
light upon the question. 

The whole, as above noted, are distributed 
into five books. I. Psal. i.— xli. ; II. xlii.— 
Ixxii. ; III. Ixxiii.— Ixxxix. ; IV. xc— cvi. ; 
V. cvii.— cl. ; at the end of each of the first 
four there being a doxology. It is ques- 
tioned when this distribution was made. 
Most likely it was gradual ; and if so there 
is no reason against the belief that the 
psalms of the first book were gathered by 
David himself, most of them being inscrib- 
ed with his name ; and there being none 
which he might not have written. The ob- 
jections made to v. 7 that it names the 
temple, and to xiv. 7 that a return from 
captivity is desired only convict the objec- 
tors of carelessness. For the tabernacle is 
called the ' temple ' in 1 Sam. i. 9, iii. 3 ; and 
the use of the phrase 'turned the captivity ' 
in Job xlii. 10 shows that it means gene- 
rally deliverance from afiiiction. To this 
first book a second was afterwards added. 
Perhaps it was collected in Hezekiah's 
time. For Psal. xlvi. would seem to point 
to the Assyrian invasion. And, as we know 
that the men of Hezekiah wrote out addi- 
tional proverbs of Solomon (Prov. xxv. l),sa 
it is no unreasonable thing to believe that 
they gathered more psalms of David, com- 
posed after those which he had himself 
collected, and that they added thereto 
other similar inspired poems. Perhaps also 
they were not avrare that any others of 
David existed ; for in Psal. Ixxii. 20 there is 
the note, ' The prayers of David the son of 
Jesse are ended.' This at least proves that 
the collections were gradually made. For 
no mere divider of a book that was alto- 
gether before him wouldhave inserted such 
a note in the middle. A third book was 
added, and then a fourth, and a fifth, we can 
hardly form a conjecture when. But it may 
be observed that, from the comparison of 1 
Chron. xvi. 36 with Psal. cvi. 48, whei-e the 
same doxology is found, Bleek {zibi supr.) 
believes that the fourth book was formed 
before the Chronicle history was written. 
It has been asserted that no Davidical 
psalm is to be found in the third, fourth, or 
fifth books ; and it has been conjectured 
that, as some of those marked Asaph were 
perhaps composed by late descendants of 
Asaph, so those marked David in the lat-er 
books might be the production of someone 



g-SALMS, THE BOOK Of] ^Xm^UX^ Of 



736 



or more of David's posterity. Tlie conjec- 
ture is not liappy: it is not even ingemons; 
and it lias tlie demerit of point-lDlani: oppo- 
sition to our Savionr's assertion that David 
in tlie Spirit uttered Psal. ex. : see Matt, 
xxli. 43-45. The fact is that, though, as just 
shown, the five boots were gradually col- 
lected and arranged, and thus a chronologi- 
cal influence is apparent, yet some other 
principle helped to govern the arrange- 
ment. There is a remarkahle diversity in 
the use of the divine names. It seems that 
Jehovah occurs 272 times in the first hoot, 
Elohim (used absolutely) 15 times ; in the 
second boot Jehovah 30 times, Elohim 161 
times ; in the third Jehovah 44 times, Elo- 
him 43 times ; in the fourth and fifth boots 
together Jehovah 339 times, and Elohim 7 
times. This fact is vai'iously explained. It 
has led some to believe that the entire ar- 
rangement was the wort of a single hand, 
guided largely by the prevailing use of the 
sacred name. To this, as already shown, 
there are objections ; but we may well 
aUow the character and the contents to have 
had some weight in determining the place 
of various psalms, and we are by no means 
obliged to suppose the divisions and distri- 
bution altogetlier chronological. More upon 
this topic cannot here be said ; nor can the 
authorship of each psalm be minutely and 
at length Investigated (see Home's Intro- 
duct., vol. ii. pp. 711, 712). AU that can now 
be added is that it matters not as to the 
canonical authority by whom any particular 
psalm was written; we may certainly re- 
ceive it as from some holy man speating as 
he was moved by the Holy Ghost. One word, 
too, may be said on the allegation that the 
psalms in which Elohim predominates are 
the earlier, those in which Jehovah is used 
the later compositions. Bp. Edw. H. Browne 
has distinctly disproved this in his Pent 
and Eloliistic Psalms, lect. iv. pp. 52-67. Anil 
indeed a mere inspection of the preponder- 
ance of Jehovah in the first boot where the 
earlier psalms are collected is decisive. 

It has been already observed that the 
names of the alleged authors are prefixed to 
many of the psalms. There are other in- 
scriptions of various tinds, the meaning of 
which it is sometimes difficult to explain. ! 
None of these titles or inscriptions are to ; 
be rectoned as canonical or inspired. Many j 
of them are true and to be relied on ; but 
they manifestly express the opinion of a ; 
collector, of (so to speat) editor, rather 
than of the original writer : they are direc- 
tions as to the mode of singing or chanting 
the psalms; and there are notices of the 
occasion on which a psalm is supposed to 
have been wi'itten which are erroneous. 
They vary, too, in some of the old trans- 
lations, as the Greet and the Syriac. They 
are, then,of not much higher authority than ' 
the subscriptions to the apostolic epistles. 
Still there are critics of no mean reputa- 
tion who maintain these titles to be from 
the pens of the respective authors. 

Besides the titles heretofore mentioned, 
there are several which probably denote the 
tunes to which the psalms that bear them 
were suited. Such are Aijdcth'Shahar, 
hind of the morning,' prefixed to PsaL 



xxii. ; Slwshanjiim, ' the lilies,' to xlv.; Jo- 
natli-e-lem-rech-oJcim, ' the dumb dove in dis- 
tant places,' to Ivi. ; ShosTian-eduth, ' the lily 
of the testimony, ' to Ix. ; and Slioshannim- 
cduth, ' the lilies of the testimony,' to Ixxx. 
It was and is still customary in the east to 
give poems names of this Mnd. They pro- 
bably therefore are attached to the psalms 
to denote well-tnown melodies. For a no- 
tice of the psalms called ' songs of degrees,' 
see Deg-eees, Sosgs of. Ten are styled 
Hallelujah-psalms (cvl., cxi. — cxiii., cxxxv., 
cxlvi. — cl.) ; as beginning with that word, 
rendered in our version ' Praise the Lord.' 

Other words prefixed are AlamotJi to xlvL, 
to be Eung with the female voice ; Gittith to 
' viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv., alight joyous air;MaM- 
lath to liii., and IfaJialafJi-leannntJita Ixxxix .j 
: perhaps with a vocal accompaniment ; 
j Mutli-laVben to ix., for a chorus of virgins : 
I I^eginaJi or Keginotli to iv., vi., liv., Iv., IxL, 
, Ixvii., Ixxvi., with an instrumental accom- 
paniment; Neliilofli to v., possibly a wind- 
instrument ; SheminitJi to vl., xii., upon the 
eighth or octave ; SJiiggaion to vii., perhaps 
an elegy. Further observations are made 
on each of these words in the respective 
articles upon them. An address, 'To the 
chief musician,' is prefixed to 55 psalms. 
Attached to it is sometimes the name of the 
author, sometimes that of the musician 
himself, occasionally with the melody, tone 
or tey, or instrument to be used : it cannot 
be doubted that all these directions signi- 
fied that the psalms were to be sung, and 
regulated the manner thereof. See Haver- 
nict, Einleit, § 283, vol. iii, pp. 109-120. We 
further find ' To bring to remembrance ' 
prefixed to xxxviii., Ixx., and ' To teach' to 
Ix. Perhaps the recollection of God's mercy 
was suggested by the first ; while the last 
might Intend that the psalm was to be 
committed to memory. Al-tascMtJi, Kig- 
gaion, and Selali are explained in the 
articles under those words. 

The number of canonical psalms is 150 ; 
and, apart from the five-fold division al- 
ready noticed, they have been classified by 
various modern critics. The-re is little 
practical advantage in such classifications : 
it may be enough to say that Hengstenberg, 
followed by Keil {EinUit, § 112), would ar- 
range them as l. Psalms of praise and thants- 
giving ; e.g. viii., xviii., xix., xxiii., xxix., 
<fcc. ; 2. Psalms expressive of sorrow and 
complaint ; e.g. iii.— vi., &c. ; 3. Didactic 
psalms; e.g. i., xiv., xv., xxxii., xxxvii., 
<Src. In their structure they present almost 
every form of Hebrew poetical composi- 
tion. Some are lyric, others elegiac : some 
exhibit a tind of dramatic form in whidi 
speaters are introduced in dialogue; and 
there are several called alphabetical psalms 
(XXV., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cxii., cxix,, 
cxlv.), because the initials of each line or 
stanza follow the order of the Hebrew 
alphabet. The Septuagint translators have 
added one more to the canonical 150 : it 
is certainly spurious, though it is ancieni 
and has been adopted in the Syriac, Arabic, 
and Ethiopic versions. Its subject is the 
combat of David with Goliath. The Septu- 
agint followed by the Vulgate also divides 
the canonical psalms diiferently from the 



f37 



THE BOOK OP 



Hebrew text. The following table will ex- 
hibit tlie diversity 

Hebrew. LXX. 

i.— viii. !.— viii. 

ix., X. ix. 

xi.— cxiii. X.— cxii. 

cxiv., cxv. cxiii. 

cxvi. cxiv., cxv. 

cxvii.— cxlvL cxvi. — cxiv. 

cxlvii. cxlvi., cxlvii. 

cxlviii.— cl. cxlviii.— cl. 

cli. 

Several of the psalms are cited in the New 
Testament and distinctly applied to Christ 
(e.g. see Matt. xxii. 43, 44 ; Acts ii. 25-31, 
xiii. 33-37). There is indeed a great tend- 
ency in some quarters to limit the Messianic 
character of the psalms, and to argue that 
when cited it is only by way of accommo- 
dation ; so that passages are applied to 
Christ which had no real intended reference 
to him, and were only so used on account 
of a certain similarity of circumstances ob- 
served or imagined between a psalmist and 
our Lord. Some observations disproving 
such a theory will be found in the article 
Quotations, which see. But it may be 
remarked here that we cannot consent to 
sever the close connection which exists 
between the Old Testament and the New. 
The first is introductory to the second : the 
last is the full development of the first, the 
maturity of that which before was but a 
seed. And God has seen fit to describe by 
his dealings with the earlier church what 
he intends to do with the later. All things 
that happened to them were fraught with 
present lessons of mercy and judgment: 
they had specially and thoroughly to do 
with the men of that generation, proving 
them and guiding them and encouraging 
them. But yet they were 'our examples' 
(1 Cor. X. 6, 11) ; and God teaches us most 
effectually not by bare words but by living 
things, in which we may best see his pur- 
poses and the path he would have us to 
walk in. The revelation of the Old Testa- 
ment was to prepare the world for its Sa- 
viour, by the selection of a peculiar people 
who were to be God's witnesses, by the 
severing of a particular line in whom the 
promised One was to descend, by the set- 
ting up of men his prototypes who should 
In one way or other represent the ideal to 
be afterwards fully realized. 

There was a definite relation, then, both 
between Israel God's first-born and the 
Only-begotten, and between David the 
chosen king of the chosen people and the 
great King of whose dominion there should 
be neither limit nor end (Luke i. 32, 33). 
Hence, when the psalmist describes his own 
griefs, his description is not bounded by 
them. In the lineaments of the past, the 
future is depicted ; and the sorrows and 
experience of David, his persecutions and 
his perils, his trust and his victories, the 
treachery practised towards him and the 
establishment of his throne have their in- 
tended and higher counterpart in the 
deeper sorrows and fuller experience and 
more complete triumphs of a more innocent 
sufferer, a nobler King. 

It is this, its Messianic teaching, which 



renders the book of Psalms so precious a 
heritage to the church, and has made it the 
store-house of devotional thought. There is 
eternal life therein,because these scriptures 
testify of Christ (John v. 39). And it is not 
merely one or two that point to some parti- 
cular circumstance in Messiah's history^ 
that exhibit some special trait in Messiah's 
character, but— just as we must read his life 
in the four evangelists to grasp the full 
portraiture of him— there is a prophetic 
tone through the whole collection; one 
part, one sacred song, illustrating the 
others and leading on by historical- note, 
by apt comparison, by definite predict ion, 
to that fulness of Messianic doctrine, which 
renders them even now the best expres- 
sions of a soul that needs a Saviour, that Is 
longing for a Saviour, that has found a 
Saviour, that rejoices In a Saviour's love. 
They must be taken as a whole ; and it is 
truly wonderful to find that they rise with 
the growing development of the divine 
plans, and are yet more adapted to the 
Christian experience than they were to the 
experience of earlier, of Jewish believers. 
Along with this prophetic character there 
is their moral and doctrinal teaching— the 
deep views of sin they present, the spiritual 
character of the divine law, the perfections 
of God, with the faith, hope, and love, 
heavenly graces, implanted in the heart of 
God's people, and the happy prospect of 
eternal life— in all these points we recog- 
nize the same spirit that breathes indeed 
through all the inspired volume. How well 
fitted is this book to promote the soul's 
communion with God ! 

There is one more topic connected with 
the Psalms which must be touched on— it 
can be so but very briefly. In many places 
there are expressions evincing, it has been 
said, the stern spirit of revenge far alien 
from that mild and merciful temper which 
shines conspicuously in the gospel of love. 
Attempts have been made to. explain these 
expressions away— they are but eastern 
forms of speech, they are prophetical of 
what will happen, embodying and intend- 
ing no wish for evil— such are some of the 
modes adopted of solving what has always 
been felt a serious difficulty. It is fair to 
say that explanations like these cannot 
satisfy ; neither can they with any propriety 
be applied to such passages as Psal. cix. 
1-20, cxxxvii. 7-9, or to some of the impre- 
cations elsewhere (e.g. Jer. xi. 19, 20). 

We must admit, then, that there are 
wishes for the destruction of God's enemies, 
of the writer's enemies. But how is this 
to be accounted for ? It is not enough to 
say that the dispensation of the law was 
imperfect, that principles were sanctioned 
and moral feelings indulged by it, which 
the purer spirit of the gospel condemned 
and removed. Men under the law might be 
imperfect, with evil passions ; but we can- 
not conceive of God approving their imper- 
fection, still less instigating to evil. Car- 
nal revenge has always been odious in God's 
sight ; and he has indisputably never read 
the Hebrew law aright who has not dis- 
covered that its provisions went to curt 
evil and unholy tempers. 
3B 



I psaltery] 



738 



we must look higher, therefore we must 
understand the infinite demerit of sm with 
all the vast mischiefs it lias inflicted. It is 
as the exponent of God's hatred of this foul 
reheUion against his sway, of this dai^Wot 
upon the universe, that the sacred writer 
speaks. It is evident that he does not speak 
in a spirit of private revenge. For, though 
David was guick of temper, he ™ emi- 
nently ready to forgive. His conduct to- 
wards his ruthless enemy Saul, when he 
twice had him in his power, is proof enough 
of this. Besides, the strongest expressions 
against the ungodly are closely coupled vath 
the highest feelings of devotion to God (e g. 
Psal V 7-10). It is absolutely inconceivable 
that* he who in ordinary life Y^^^i®^"??,? 
should he then especially actuated with 
hitter and malicious .thoughts when he had 
approached nearest i\cominunion with the 
Holiest. It is not, then, David the man, 
hut David the inspired man who thus speaks 
-rather David the inspired man, hy whom 
God speaks, thus most impressively making 
toow^ to the world his hatred of sm. And 
as he reveals other great truths hy the 
words and deeds, of his frypts, so he acts 
with this. If it is a ]ust thing for God to 
punish iniquity, it cannot he unjust at his 
Command to denounce that punishment: 
and, as it is the Wghest excellence of the 
creature to he conformed m mind and will 
to the Creator, so to acquiesce m his deal- 
ings with the ungodly, yea to exult that his 
pure justice is triumphant over evil must 
he moraUy good. Besides, it is against men 
as tuners that these denunciations are 
nttered (Prov. i. 20-33). Let them repent 
?S of their sins, and forsake their evil 
ways: and no more shall the curses touch 
Siem than the predicted doom uttered hy 
Jonah touched the .Ninevites when they 
repented. StiU further, it is to Inng man 
to repentance that these things ai;e record- 
ed hy revealingthe vengeance of God upon 
fhe ^penitent, and the everlasting shame 
Sly shall suffer in the sight of ange and 
of men-' an abhorring unto all flesh (Isai. 
Ixvi 24). The beacon-light which reveals 
the 'fatal rocks on which so many noble 
vessels have been shattered does not lure to 
destmction, it is thehest safeguard against 
it More cannot be here said;_ but the 
reader may be referred to able discussions 
on the subject by Prof s B B. Edwards and 
Pond in BiUiotli. Sacr., Feb. 1844, Jan. 18o8. 

Commentaries on the book of Psalins are 
very numerous : it must be sufficient to 
name here bishop Home's devotional Co )i- 
S«roftenre-printed,Dr.Wilson'svalu- 
S Exposition, 2 vols. 1860, and Hengsten- 
berg's Comm. uber die Psalmen, Berlin, 1849- 

^^PSALTERT. A musical instrument often 
sDOkSi of in scripture. The Hebrew word 
generally translated ' psaltery.' This 
nstriunent (first mentioned in 1 Sam. x. 5) 
was used on occasions of religious service 
a Chron. xv. 16, xxv. 1 2 Chron. v. 12, 
?xix 25);also at any kind of festivity (xx. 
2?- Isai V 12, xiv. 11, where in the two 
last-named places our version lias 'jiol ) 
It frequently occurs In conjunction with 
I the harp (Psal.lxxi. 22, cvni 2, cl. 3), and 



was, like it, a stringed instrument. But 
in regard to its figure and size there is 
little certainty. It has been said to oe ti i- 
angular, like a cone with the vertex down- 
ward ; and this is in some measure corrobo- 
rated by the name it bears. For nebel signi- 
fies also a bottle ; and a bottle, either a sKin 
or a flask, with the mouth lowest would le- 
semble such afigure. Then Josephus {Antiq^ 
lib vii. 12, § 3) says that it was played on with 
the hand and had t^yelve stnngs We find, 
however (Psal. xxxiii. 2, cxhv. 9), that an- 
ciently it had but ten strings . Perhaps there 
was some variation at different periods , 
or ?2eZ)eJ might be a generic name compre- 
hending more than one stringedmstrument 
The D^altery in David's time was made ot 
?r or cypress (2 Sam. vi. 5), hut by Solomon 
of the more precious almug or algum (i 
Kings X IIX In the Egyptian monuments 
triangular stringed instruments are repre- 
sented : these might be similar to the Heb- 
rew nehel or psaltery. Another word, pesaiv- 
unn, is rendered 'psaltery' m Dan 111. 5, 7, 
10 15. This is most probably the Greek teim 
for the Hebrew neUl ; or (as ithas been also 
supposed) a kind of lyre played with both 
hands. See Winer, BiU. EWB., art. ' Musi- 
kalische Instrumente.' _ Knmrn 
PTOLEMA'IS (Acts xxi. 7). See AcCHO. 
It is frequently mentioned in the Macca- 

^^PTOL'EMEE, PTOLEME'US. 1 (Rest of 
Esth.xi.l). Ptolemy V king of Egypt.-2 
The father of Lysimachus, said to ha^e 
translated the book of Esther into Greek.- 
q fl Mace i. 18, x. 51-58, xi. 1-18 ; 2 Mace. i. 
! 10 iv. 21). Ptolemy VI.-4 (1 Mace. iii. 38 ; 2 
Mkcc. iv 45, 46, vi. 8). A courtier of Antio- 
' chus Epiphanes.-5. An officer who married 
the daughter of Simon Maccabeus and 
afterwards murdered Simon and his tw^c 
sons (1 Mace. xvi. ll-21).-6 (2 Mace. viii. 8 
X 11 12) A governor, 'flrst of Cyprus and 
then of Coele-syria and Phenice, surnamed 

^^As^^everal of the Ptolemies, ki^igs 
Egypt, were intimately connected with 
Jewish histoiT, it may be well to five a 
pedigree of the family : see opposite page. 

It was probably Euergetes H. that is 
mentioned in the second Pi;9lo=^^?,to Eccl^ 
siasticus Other information respecting 
tills race of kings must be sought in secular 
histories. , . 

PU'A onoutli) (Nurah. xxvi. 23). bee 

^PU^AH (id.). I (1 Chron. vii. 1). See 
PHUVAH.--2. A descendant of Issachar 

^'^FWAROnonth, or splendid, one crying 
outi). One of the midwives who refused 
to obey Pharaoh's cruel command (Exod i. 
15-21) These midwives must have been 
superintendents of a class. They were pro- 
bably Egyptians ; and 15 maybe better len- 
dered 'who did the office of midwife to the 
Hebrew women.' „ 
PUBAS'TUM (Ezek. xxx. 17, marg.). See 

^FUBLICAN. A person who farmed the 
taxes and public revenues ; i-e-^ho paid a 
stipulated sum to the gqvernment, what he 
collected being then his own. The office 



739 



Ptolemy I. Soter, son of Lagus, 323-284 b.o. * king of the south' (Dan. xi. 5). 
! 



AFsinoe-Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, 284-247"B:c.=Arsinoe. 

I Under him the LXX. translation was commenced. 



Ptolemy III. Euergetes. I., 247-221 e.g. 
He invaded Syria, and gained great 
advantages (Dan. xi. 7-9). 



Ptolemy lY. Philopator, 221-204 b.c. 
The sons of Seleucus, king 
of Syria, invaded Egypt. 
Ptolemy obtained a vic- 
tory, hut did not reap the 
full fruit of it (Dan. xi. 10- 
12). 



Berenice=Antiochus II., king of Syria 
(Dan. xi. 6) : see ANTIOCHUS, 1. 



Ptolemy V. Epiphanes 204-180 B.c.-CIeopatra, d. of Antiochus the Great : 



Ptolemy was defeated hy 
Antiochus, whom the Ro- 
mans checked in his career 
of conquest: Ptolemy's wife, 
Cleopatra, supported her 
hushand (Dan. xi. 13-11). 



see ANTIOCHUS, 2. 



Ptolemy YI. Philometor 180-145 B.c.=01eopatra (a). 
Warred with Antiochus Epipha- 
nes (Dan. xi. 21-30) : see ANTIO- 
CHUS, 3. 



I I 
Ptolemy YII. Euer-=Cleopatra (a), 
getes II., 170, 145-=01eopatra (b). 

116 B.C. I 

Ptolemy YIII. Soter 
II., 116-80 B.C. 



Cleopatra= Alexander Balas 



C kings 



Ptolemy Eupator. 



=Demetrius II. ^ Syria. 

The dates are those of Winer. 



Cleopatra (b). 



was held by the Roman knights, who had 
inferior officers under them. And occa- 
sionally a company took the contract, ap- 
pointing a manager with suh-collectors. 
Some of these subordinates are called chief 
publicans, as Zaccheus (Luke xix. 2), pro- 
bably as receivers-general of districts. 
Others, like Matthew, styled simply a pub- 
lican (Matt. X. 3 ; Luke v. 27), were officers 
at one particular port or place. The pub- 
] leans were especially odious to the Jews. 
Some classes, as the Galileans, i.e. the 
followers of Judas of Galilee, deemed it 
unlawful to pay tribute to a foreign power ; 
and by all it was felt to be a mark of sub- 
jection and degradation. The publicans, 
moreover, knowing the estimation in which 
they were held, were not careful about their 
modes of proceeding. They were often rapa- 
cious and extortioners. And hence the very 
name became one of reproach (Matt. v. 46, 
47) ; and it was made a matter of complaint 
against our Lord that he associated with 
' publicans and sinners' (ix. 11, xi. 19 ; Luke 
xix. 7). It is said that Jews who were pub- 
licans were laid under various disabilities. 
They were repelled from public worship 
and from judicial posts. A religious man, 
f),<;cording to the rabbins, who became a 



publican was to be ejected from the reli- 
gious society. 

PUB'LIUS. A person in authority at 
Melita, when St. Paul was shipwrecked 
there (Acts xxviii. 7, 8). The designation, 
' the chief man,' seems to have been an 
official title: it occurs in inscriptions in 
Malta. See Alford's note on Acts xxviii. 7. 

PU'DENS. A Christian at Rome whose 
salutation St. Paul sent to Timothy (2 Tim. 
iv. 21). He is supposed to be the husband 
of Claudia mentioned in the same place ; 
and she was, it is likely, of British birth. 
See the question investigated in Savile's 
Introcl. of Christianity into Britain, chap. ii. 
pp. 82-91. 

PU'HITES. A patronymic given to some 
of Judah's posterity (1 Chron. ii. 53) ; it is 
not known on what account. 

PUL (elephant, or more probably lord, 
Jang). An Assyrian monarch who invaded 
the kingdom of Israel and made Menahem, 
then upon the throne, tributary (2 Kings 
XV, 19, 20). Hence resulted the captivity of 
the trans-Jordanic tribes (1 Chron. v. 26). 
Pul was the first Assyrian sovereign who is 
mentioned in scripture. He is with much 
probability identified with Phulukh or Phal< 
iukha (Yul-lush, or Iva-lush, Rawlinson 



calls Mm), who, according to the decipher- 
ed inscriptions, married Sammuramit or 
Semiramis, a foreign princess, invaded 
Syria, and received tribute from Samaria, 
Edom, and Philistia. He also took Damas- 
cus, and forced the king who was, it is 
likelv, the son of Ben-hadad and the father 
of Rezln, to pay him an enormous sum. He 
marched into Armenia and afterwards to 
Bahvlon, received the homage of the Chal- 
deans, and sacrificed in Babylon, Borsippa, 
and Cutha, to the deities Bel, Keho, and 
Nergal. On a statue of Neho now iu the 



740 



flame, and then the grains are ruhbedont 
This is still a favourite article of food. 

PIIXISHXEXT, PUNISHMEXTS. There 
are a variety of penalties prescribed by the 
Mosaic law to be inflicted upon offenders. 
There are also others which, though not 
specially enacted, seem to have grown out 
of circumstances, or to have been adopted 
from foreign nations. There are some, 
moreover, alluded to which were not inflict- 
ed by any Hebrew law or custom, but which 
were used by foreigners with whom the 
Israelites had been brought into contact 




Pul. From the Xiucvcii marb 



British Museum Phuhikh's name is inscrib- 
ed. He is said to have enlarged tlie central 
palace of ^simroud, in the upper chambers 
of which a part of his history has been 
found. Pul possibly commenced his reign 
774 B.C.; but great uncertainty exists re- 
specting him. Some imagine him the Greek 
Sardanapalus ; and it would certainly seem 
that his reisn was closed by a catastrophe, 
and that Tlglath-pileser his successor de- 
throned him. His wife Sammuramit sur- 
vived him, and is believed to have gone to 
Babvlon, being the wife or motber of 2v"abon- 
assaV. See Vance Smitb, Proph. of Kincvch 
ayid the Assijrians, pp. 16-24, 66, 67. 

PUL (meaning uncertain"). A region but 
once mentioned (Isai. Ixvi. 19). Henderson 
following Bochart supposed it the island 
of Philre, and the surrounding region on 
the Nile to the south of Elepbantine ilsaiah, 
p 471); but see Winer, BiblEWB., art. 'Pbul' 
1.* It mav be identical with Put or Pbut. 

PULPIT (iSTeb. viii. 4). An elevated stage 
or scaffold (comp. ix. 4). 

PULSE. This word, occurring in Dan. i. 
12, 16, denotes seed-herbs, greens, or vege- 
tables, in contradistinction to meats and 
more delicate kinds of food. ' Pulse 'is also 
introduced into our translation of 2 Sam. 
XTii. 28. Various kinds of grain are parched. 
The ears are plucked with the stalk, when 
not quite ripe, and beld in bunches In a 



Punishments may be distributed into 
those of a secondary or inferior kind which 
did not touch the life, and those which 
were capital. 

I. Of the former class may be enumer- 
ated :— 

1. VTiipping. This was specially ordered 
for certain offences; and, besides, magi- 
strates seem to have had a discretionary 
power of inflicting it in other cases. The 
number of stripes was never to exceed 
forty (Dent. xxv. 1-3). Conseauently, as a 
whip with three thongs was generally used, 
thirteen strokes were given ; so that the 
actual punishment was 'forty stripes save 
one '(2 Cor. xi. 24). 

2. Retaliation. It was a fitting penalty 
tbat he who had done or sought to do his 
neighbour wrong should suffer the same 
himself. This, therefore, was frequently 
ordered, with a particular minuteness of 
specification, ' breach for breach, eye for 
eve, tooth for tootb,' Szc. (Exod. xxi. 23-: 
Deut. xix, lS-21). It must be remembered 
that retaliation was to be only on judicial 
procedure : it was not to be taken as sanc- 
tioning private revenge. It was in this 
last respect that it was forbidden by our 
Lord Olatt. v. 38, 39). 

3. On a similar principle restitution and 
compensation were to be made. Injury 
was to be redressed, and additional payment 



741 



WiXxaMtiSQt* [punishment 



required. On tliQ like ground it was that the 
trespass-offering comprised amends and an 
addition hy way of fine (Lev. v. 14-] Q, vi. 1-7). 
Under this head may he included the penalty 
exacted from a thief or fraudulent person, 
sometimes douhle, sometimes four or five- 
fold, the compensation for careless damage, 
the fine for slander, &c. (Exod. xxi. 33-36, 
xxii. 1-15 ; Deut. xxii. 18, 19). 

4. Banishment in the form of limiting 
a person to his own estate, or to some 
specified locality, or exclusion from the 
sovereign's presence (2 Sam. xiv. 24; 1 
Kings ii. 26, 36, 37), 

5. Plucking out hair (Neh. xiii. 25), 

6. The stocks (Jer. xx. 2), and 

7. Imprisonment (1 Kings xviii. 27 ; Jer. 
xxxvii. 15, xxxviil. 6) were kinds of punish- 
ment not prescribed hy the law, but intro- 
duced in later times. To these may be 
added 

8. Excommunication, which had more of 
a religious than a civil aspect. See Ex- 

COmiUNICATIOlS'. 

Besides these there are other inflictions 
recorded, which do not exactly come under 
the notion of legal punishments, but were 
rather the pains to which the conquered in 
war were subjected : such were mutilation 
(Judges i. 6, 7), scourging with thorns (viii. 
7, 16), condemnation to hard labour (2 Sam. 
xii. 31). Blinding and still worse cruelties 
were practised by the Philistines, Assyrians, 
and Babylonians (Judges xvi. 21 ; 2 Kings 
XXV. 7) : see Captive. 

Among the Egyptians imprisonment was 
usual (Gen. xxxix. 20-23, xl. 2-4j. Secondary 
punishments inflicted by the Romans were 
v/hipping, imprisonment, the stocks,alsothe 
free custody, as it was called, when a person 
might dwell in a private house chained to 
a soldier (Acts xvi. 22-24, xxii. 24, xxviii. 
16 ; 2 Cor. xi. 23, 25 ; 2 Tim. i. 16). Whipping 
with them was much more severe than that 
prescribed by the Jewish law. Rods were 
used in inflicting it. St. Paul suffered this 
at least thrice. 

II. Of capital punishments. 

1. Stoning may be first mentioned. It 
was the general mode of execution, ordered 
by the law in most cases of capital crime. 
There were to be at least two witnesses in 
order to the condemnation of any accused 
person ; and these witnesses were on the 
Infliction of the sentence to cast the first 
stones; afterwards the people generally 
were to join (Deut. xiii. 9, 10, xvii. 5-7). 
There are very many examples of this 
punishment, and also of a more tumultuous 
kind of stoning, when without judicial pro- 
cedure the people seized stones at once to 
put to death those whom they deemed guilty 
of flagrant crime. This is said to have been 
called the rebels' beating and to have been 
attempted against our Lord (1 Kings xii. 
18 ; John viii. 59, x. 31 ; Acts vii. 58, 59). 

2. After a criminal had been stoned or 
otherwise executed, his body was some- 
times hung, but not for a longer time than 
till sun-set (Deut. xxi. 22, 23 ; Josh. x. 26, 
27). Occasionally, however, hanging was 
the mode of actual execution (Numb. xxv. 
4; 2 Sam. iv. 12, the criminals being first 
mutilated, xxi. 9, 10). In the case last re- 



ferred to some critics believe that cruci- 
fixion was the punishment infiicted ; and 
certainly the bodies were exposed beyond 
the legal time. 

8. There were cases in which burning 
succeeded stoning (Josh. vii. 25). Burning 
too, even in the patriarchal times, was the 
penalty for some kinds of incontinence 
(Gen. xxxviii. 24 ; Lev. xx. 14, xxi. 9). 

4. Beheading is not mentioned in the law. 
There were indeed exceptional cases in 
which it was practised, or a sword or spear 
in some way used as the instrument of 
death (Exod. xxxii. 27 ; Numb. xxv. 7) ; and 
in later times we find frequent mention of 
such modes of execution (Judges viii. 20, 
21, ix. 5 ; 1 Sam. xv. 33, xxii. 18 ; 2 Sam. i. 
15, XX. 22 ; 1 Kings ii. 25, 34, 46, xviii. 40, 
xix. 1 ; 2 Kings vi. 31, 32, x. 6, 7 ; 2 Chron. 
xxi. 4 ; Jer. xxvi. 23 ; Matt. xiv. 8-11 ; Acts 
xii. 2). 

Other kinds of capital punishment were 
inflicted in sudden passion, or, as before said, 
were practised by foreigners. Such were 
precipitation from a height, a building or a 
natural eminence. Instances are recorded 
in 2 Kings ix. 30-33 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 12. It 
was in this way that the people of Nazareth 
attempted the life of our Lord (Luke iv. 
28-30). There were also beating or pound- 
ing in a mortar (Prov. xxvii. 22) ; cutting 
into pieces, or sawing asunder (Dan. ii. 5, 
iii. 29 ; Heb. xi. 37) ; casting to wild beasts, 
into their den, or to fight with them (Dan. 
vi. 7, 12, 16, 24 ; 1 Cor. xv. 32) ; drowning 
(Matt, xviii. 6 ; Mark ix. 42) : strangling, 
too, is spoken of by the Jewish rabbins as 
not uncommon. And then there was the 
most fearful of all, crucifixion, inflicted 
only upon slaves and the most notorious 
malefactors. No punishment included more 
frightful accessories, lingering torture, ex- 
posure, disgrace, and open scandal. WeU 
might the sacred writers take occasion 
hence to magnify the vast love of the Re- 
deemer ; for, ' while we were yet sinners, 
Christ died for us,' and ' for the joy that 
was set before him endured the cross, de- 
spising the shame' (Rom. v. 8; Heb. xii. 2; 
Phil. ii. 8). The punishment of the cross, 
made in our Lord's case of two beams cross- 
ing at right angles, is elsewhere described : 
see Cross. 

Little time used to elapse between sen- 
tence and execution. The trial, condemna- 
tion, and crucifixion of Christ were com- 
pressed into a few hours, an indecency.of 
haste which would now among ourselves 
be deemed horrible in the case of the worst 
malefactor. It is true that there are ex- 
amples of greater delay. Barabbas, it would 
seem, was lying in prison probably under 
sentence ; and so perhaps were the two 
thieves crucifled with Christ. So was Peter 
when seized by Herod, his intended execu- 
tion being deferred on account of a feast 
(Acts xii. 3-6). The place of execution was 
without the camp or city (Lev. xxiv. 14; 
1 Kings xxi. 10, 13 ; Acts vii. 58 ; Heb. xiii. 
12); and there, too, were criminals buried. It 
was also customary to heap stones over the 
bodies of those so put to death (Josh. vii. 26, 
viii. 29 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 17). 
It will not escape the student's notic« 



742 



that there was no recognized executioner. 
Sometimes indeed some high officer of state 
was charged with the task of putting cri- 
minals to death, as Potiphar in Egypt (Gen. 
xxxvii. 36 : comp, niarg.), and Benaiah in 
Solomon's court (1 Kings il. 25, 29, 30, 34, 
46) : sometimes soldiers were employed (1 
Sam. i. 15, iv. 12 ; John xix. 23) ; hut there 
were cases, as we haye already seen, in 
which, while the witnesses were to he first, 
all the people took a part. And, in case of 
murder, the revenger of Wood inflicted the 
penalty at his will (Numb. xxxv. 19, 27). 

TTtiero is one kind of sentence which has 
not yet heen noticed : it occurs frequently 
in the law, 'he shall he cut ofl^ from his 
people,' denounced against wilful sins, 
and various breaches of the moral or 
ritual law, and of covenant engagements 
(Gen. xvii. 14 ; Exod, xii. 15, 19, xxx. 33, 38 ; 
Lev. vii. 25, xvii. 4, 9, xx. 3, G ; Numh. xv. 
30, 31, and elsewhere). It is not agreed 
whether capital punishment is always here- 
by meant, or whether, if it is, it is to he 
inflicted hy human hands. Most probably, 
however, the phrase intends that the trans- 
gressor by his crime cuts himself off from 
the sacred covenant, and thus virtually 
ceases to belong to the holy people. If his 
guilt has been of a social kiud, affecting the 
good order of the community, he is ame- 
nable to public law. Thus for the sabbath- 
breaker, who has not only set an evil ex- 
ample, but disturbed the general rest, the 
human sentence is additionally prescrioed 
(Exod. xxxi. 14, 15) : see Kalisch, Comm. on 
Old Test. Gen., p. 391 ;■ otherwise the culprit 
was left to the judgment of God, who some- 
times marvellously interfered, punishing 
with his own hand the breach of his own 
law (see Saalschiitz, Arcli. cler Eebr., cap. 74, 
vol. ii. pp. 298, 299), unless the punishment 
were averted by humble penitence. 

God reveals himself as the just One who 
must punish obstinate transgressors. And, 
if he does not make them examples of his 
justice in this life, it is clear that there 
must be a time of retribution hereafter. 
What the vengeance of a righteous almighty 
Judge may be in its intensity, none but they 
who suffer it can adequately estimate. On 
the awful subject of eternal punishment 
much cannot be said here ; but a few of the 
leading points may be noted. 

The scriptures describe it in forcible lan- 
guage. They speak— and it is to be observed 
that the words are frequently those of 
Christ himself— of 'everlasting fire,' of 
'everlasting punishment,' of a worm that 
* dieth not; of a fire that * is not quenched ' 
(Matt, xviii. 8, xxv. 41, 46 ; Mark ix. 43-48 ; 
2 Thess. i. 9; Rev. xiv. 10, 11, xx. 10). The 
statement, too, that * it had been good for' 
the traitor ' if he had not been born ' is 
difficult enough to reconcile with any 
notion of the final salvation of all the 
human race. A great deal of ingenuity has 
been exercised in the endeavour to explain 
the expressions just cited as meaning but a 
long time, some great indefinite period. 
But it is replied that the words are the same 
which describe the happiness of the saved 
and the misery of the lost. If the one be not 
endless, why should the other be 1 And we 



may go yet higher. If we hence doubt the 
eternity of punishment, we must beware 
that we do not also raise a doubt of the 
eternity of the divine Son of God. 

If we are to take the scripture only as 
our guide, interpreting its declarations in 
their obvious sense, we can hardly avoid 
the conclusion that the punishment of the 
lost is everlasting— not annihilation, ever- 
lasting non-existence is a contradiction in 
terms— but punishment. And the question 
will extend farther than to men ; for the 
wicked, we are told, are to share the fiery 
beds of the devil and his angels. The same 
arguments, too, against the eternal suffer- 
ing of human beings will apply against the 
eternal suffering of fallen angels. These 
arguments are mainly taken from the sup- 
posed benevolence of the Deity incapaci- 
tatin g him from inflicting an endless penal ty 
on his creatures. But men must take care 
not to confound benevolence with licence, 
and must not be more concerned for the 
happiness of sinners than for the righteous- 
ness of God. It is maintained that God 
cannot be pleased with the sufferings of 
any, and must therefore put an end to them, 
and, again, that, as he dislikes sin, he will 
surely not leave any portion of his do- 
minions infected with it. But such argu- 
ments appear to go too far. They might be 
urged against the allowance of any suffer- 
ing, against the present existence of sin 
(see Dr. Long on Objections against landless 
Punishment in Biblioth, Sacr., Jan. 1860, 
pp. 111-134) ; and it might be asked, Why 
does He, the infinitely kind, not spread joy 
at once into the heart of every sentient 
creature ? Why does not He, the holiest, by 
the exertion of his infinite power, eradicate 
every trace of rebellion against his sway ? 
The question might go higher: Why did he 
ever permit sin and suffering to break in 
upon the universe? The plain answer is, 
we cannot tell. We can reason upwards a 
few steps ; but we must soon stop and con- 
fess that God's ways are higher than our 
ways, and his thoughts than our thoughts 
(Isai Iv. 9) : 'he giveth not account of any 
of his matters' (Job xxxiii. 13). We arc 
not in a position to judge : we do not nee 
far enough : we cannot account for much of 
what vre do see. And therefore we are 
bound on such a subject as this simply to 
receive what God has been pleased to reveal 
in his word. And, if anything we find there 
be astonishing to us, it is our wisdom to 
conclude that the Judge of all the earth will 
do right, and that every attribute of his 
glorious Being, his holiness, his wisdom, 
his truth, his mercy, will be exalted to the 
highest pitch in the sight of all the universe. 
His very enemies shall acknowledge the 
righteousness of the hand that subjects 
them, as well as the saved exult in the love 
which has redeemed them. On high matters 
like these we are to be humble. 

It is also to be considered that punish- 
ment is the natural consequence of sin (see 
bp. Butler's Analo{ni,c\mY>. ii.). And, so Jong as 
a soul is not purified, it must suffer : it can- 
not behold the favourable countenance of 
the holy God : it cannot be meet company 
j for the saints made perfect. Before it cau 



743 



[python 



pass into heavenly mansions a vast change 
must have heen wrought. And what should 
work that change ? If the sufEering of man 
were a means of purifying him, why should 
there have been the precious hlood-shedding 
of the Lord Jesus Christ ? Closely is this 
matter connected with the doctrine of the 
atonement ; and he, that imagines that hy 
penal sufEering righteousness will be at- 
tained, that after this life is ended a hope is 
stillheld out for men's return to God, contra- 
dicts most certainly the scripture warning 
that after wilful sin 'there remaineth no 
more sacrifice for sins ' (Heh. x. 26), and de- 
vises afresh state of prohation,where oppor- 
tunity once lost may he regained. Surely, 
then, so long as God remains changeless m 
his detestation of evil, so long as the smner 
remains unchanged in his state of sin, the 
sentence must hold of departure from the 
Lord's presence : the ungodly one s dwell- 
ing must 1)0 in that outer darkness, between 
which and the light of everlasting life a 
gulf is fixed that is impassable (Luke xvi. 2G). 

Let it not be said that they who so read 
the scripture delight in prophesying evil : 
gladly would they rather, as knowing the 
terrors of the Lord, persuade men while yet 
there is the fullest opportunity, the freest 
invitation, to flee from the wrath to come. 
Doubtless, it may be added, the Doy of any 
one's salvation is enhanced by the thought 
of lohat it is from which he is dehvered. 

PTJ'NITES. A family of Issachar, descen- 
dants of Pua or Phuvah (Numb. xxvi. 23). 

PU'NON (darkness). A place enumerated 
among the stations of the Israelites (Numb, 
xxxiii. 42, 43). It must have been to the 
east of the mountains of Edom, and was 
probably the district which the duke 
mentioned in Gen. xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chron. i. 52 
ruled. See Pinon. There are said to have 
been copper mines here : and here possibly 
the brazen (copper) serpent was erected : 
comp. Numb. xxi. 9, 10. ^ , 

PUR (a lot) (Esth. iii. 7;:ix. 24). See PURIM. 
PURIFICATION, PURIEY. Purifica- 
tions are repeatedly enjoined in the Mosaic 
law, for the purpose of cleansing persons 
and things from ceremonial impurities or 
defilements. Sometimes water, sometimes 
blood, or oil was employed for this purpose 
(Exod. XXX. 25-31 ; Lev. viii. 10, 11, 15 ; Numb, 
xix 7-10 ; Heb. ix. 21, 22). And fire was oc- 
casionally the means of purification (Numb, 
xxxi 22 23 ; Isai. i. 25). The Pharisees added 
many traditions to the rites prescribed by 
the law (Mark vii. 3, 4). These ordinances 
had a religious aspect : but they were also 
especially useful as enforcing cleanliness, 
and conseauently checking those contagious 
diseases which in hot climates are most like- 
ly to spread. They were also full of spiritual 
meaning, they signified that purifying of the 
heart which must characterize the servants 
of God. We find, therefore, perpetual refer- 
ence to purity of principle and character m 
the New Testament (Acts xv. 9 ; Tit. ii. 14 ; 
Heb. X. 13, 14). See Holy, Holiness. 

PU'RIM (lots). A festival celebrated by 
the Jews on the 14th and 15th of the 
month Adar, in remembrance of their 
preservation by means of Mordecai and 
father from the destruction prepared for 



them by Haman (Esth. ix. 20-32). This fes- 
tival was sometimes called 'Mardocheus' 
(Mordecai's) day ' (2 Mace. xv. 36). It was 
observed by reading the book of Esther in 
the synagogue and with general festivity. 
During the reading as often as the name ol 
Haman occurred the people stamped, and 
uttered curses : ' Let his name be blotted 
out.' This custom, however, at least among 
British Jews, is said to be dying out. 

PURPLE (Exod. XXV. 4, xxvi. 1, 31, xxxv. 
6, 23, 25, 35, xxxvi. 8, 35, 37, xxxix. 1-3 ■ 
Numb. iv. 13 ; Judges viii. 26 ; 2 Chron. ii. T 
14, iii. 14 ; Esth. i. 6, viii. 15 ; Prov. xxxi. 22 ; 
Sol. Song Iii. 10, vii. 5 ; Jer. x. 9 ; Ezek. xxviL 
7, 16 ; Mark xv. 17, 20 ; Luke xvi. 19 ; John 
xix. 2, 5 ; Acts xvi. 14 ; Heb. ix. 19, marg. ; 
Rev. xvii. 4, xviii. 12, 16). See COLOUiis. 
PURSE. See Girdle. 
PUT (afflictGd) (1 Chron. 1. 8 ; Jer. xlvi. 9, 
marg. ; N ah. iii. 9). See Phut. 

PUTE'OLI. The principal port of south- 
ern Italy, in the most sheltered part of the 
bay of Naples. It was the great emporium 
for the Alexandrian wheat-ships. Seneca 
(Epist. Ixxvii. 1, 2) gives an interesting ac- 
count of the arrival of a fleet of these. All 
other vessels when they entered the bay 
were obliged to strike their topsails. 
These, therefore, could be distinguished in 
a crowd of ships as soon as they hove in 
sight. Their proximity was announced by 
fast-sailing vessels sent forward with the 
news : all eyes were conseauently expect- 
ing the welcome sight (see Smith, Voyage 
and Shipwreck of St. Paul, pp. 151, 152). Pu- 
teoli is now Puzzuoli, and there are remaina 
of the ancient city. Here St. Paul was per- 
mitted to tarry seven days on his way from 
Malta to Rome (Acts xxviii. 13, 14). 

PU'TIEL (afflicted of God), The father-in- 
law of Eieazar, Aaron's son (Exod. vi. 25). 

PYGARG. A clean animal, whose flesh 
the Israelites were permitted to eat (Deut. 
xiv. 5). It is called in the. margin « bison,' 
but for this there is no authority. It has 
been generally supposed to be the Onya: 
addax, a species of antelope. This is about 
the size of a large ass, with a heavy head, 
thick neck and legs, and switch-tail. The 
horns are round, rather slender in propor- 
tion to their length, twisted outward, and 
describing two turns of a whole spiral. The 
addax lives in pairs in the deserts of Africa: 
it is figured on ancient Egyptian monu- 
ments, from which it appears to have been 
a favourite animal of chase. Duns, how- 
ever, considers the animal in q.uestion the 
common antelope, Antilope cervicapra (Bibl. 
Nat. Science, vol. ii. p. 176) : comp. Smith's 
met. of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 978, 979). 

PY'THON. The damsel at Philippi who 
brought gain to her masters by soothsaying 
is said to have had * a spirit of divination,' 
or ' of Python ' (Acts xvi. 16, marg.). This 
was a name given to Apollo, who dehvered 
oracles, because, it is generally said, he had 
killed a serpent so called. Hence an oracu- 
lar or familiar spirit was termed Python. 
The Hebrews were forbidden to have inter- 
course with such as had familiar spirits 
(Lev. xix. 31 : comp. 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 7-9). 
They were supposed to speak from the 
belly, a;i veutriloauists. Sec DiYiNATiox, 



quail] 



744 



Q 



QUAIL. A -well-known bird. The genus 
Coturnix is one of tlie subdiyisions of the 
Tptraanidw. There are several species, of 
^yhich may he mentioned, the Coturnix 
daciylisonans, the European quail, which is, 
there can he little douht, the cLuail of scrip- 
ture. Other conjectures are not worth no- 
tice. It is a migratory hird, the oHyx of 
Aristotle, and is widely spread orerEui'ope, 
Asia, and Is orth Africa. It is distinguished 
from the partridge hy heing of a smaller 
size, hy ha^^ng a finer hill, a shorter tail, 
and wanting the red'nated eye-hrow, and 
spurs on the legs. Enormous flights of 
quails pass in the spring and autumn over 
ihe southern regions of Europe, making 
brief halt in various islands and coasts ; 
where sometimes their arrival (frequently 
hy night) is the signal for a general shoot- 
ing-match. The quails that were superna- 
turally brought to the camp of the Hebrews 
bad deviated, it is probable, from their or- 
dinary- course ; else they would have been 
expected, and the supply of food from them 
relied upon. It was by the Lord's power 
that at the very time needed they were 
made to abound in the locality where the 
tribes had pitched their tents (Exod. xvi. 
13 ; Xumb. xi. 31, 32; Psal. cv. 40). The two 
recorded occasions on which quails were 
sent seem to have been in the springs of 
successive years; as the flight of the birds 
was from the sea, that is, from that quarter. 
They had come probably fi'om southern 
Egypt, and were proceeding northwards. 
It may be that, fatigued by being long 
upon the wing, they flew near the surface of 
the ground, and were thus the more easily 
caught ; and this may be the explanation 
of the words* two cubits upon the face of 
the earth.' 

QUARRIES (Judges ill. 19, 26). The mar- 
ginal rendering here is graven images. 
Possibly the word signifying 'images' or 
• hewn stones ' is the proper name of a place, 
Pesilim, not far from Gilgal. 

QUAR'TUS ifounii). A Christian of 
Corinth whose salutation St. Paul conveyed 
to the Romans (Rom. xvl. 23). 

QUATERXIOX. A body of four rActs xii, 
4). Four soldiers were appointed to keep 
guard during each of the four watches of 
the night. There were therefore sixteen in 
all. Of each quaternion two were in the 
prison, Peter being chained to them (6) : 
and the other two were sentinels before the 
doors, the first and second guard (10). 

QUEEIN" . A s the Hebrews practised poly- 
gamv, and the kings heaped together wives 
and "concubines in their harems, there was 
no lady exactly in the position denoted by 
our term queen. It is true that we have 
two instances in the Old Testament of 
queens regnant, Athaliah, who usurped the 
throne of Judali (2 Kiugs xi.), and the for- 
eign queen of Sheba a Kings x. 1-10) ; but, 
generally speaking, the queen was merely 
the chief wife who took precedence ni her 
husband's haremiOr who was one of his con- 



sorts ^as distinguished from concubines : 
comp. xi. 3 ; 2 Chron. xi. 21. The mother 
of the reigning sovereign, however, was in 
dignity and power superior to any of his 
wives. Thus Bath-sheba received special 
honour as the king's mother (1 Kings ii. 13, 
19). And Asa found it necessary to depose 
a queen-mother because her influence was 
given to idolatry (xv. 13). It is perhaps for 
this reason that the name of the king's mo- 
ther is usually given when a king of Judah 
acceded to the throne. And this considera- 
tion may serve to explain a difficulty. Maa- 
chah is said to be the mother of Abijam 
and of Asa (2, 10). The dignity of queen- 
mother which she held in Abijam's reign 
she retained in his son Asa's (till, as ob- 
sei-ved above, Asa deposed her), very pro- 
bably because Asa's actual mother was dead. 
"We find the same custom to the latest 
years of the monarchy. Thus Jehoiachin's 
mother is particularly specifled (2 Kings 
xxiv. 12, 15). Jezebel was a woman of re- 
markable energy, and her husband conspi- 
cuous for his weakness : it is not sm-prising 
therefore that she stands out an exception 
to the general rule a Kings xix., xxi.). Yet 
she is nowhere called queen ('lady ' the He- 
brew word means, indicating authority) till 
after Ahab's death (2 Kings x. 13). The fol- 
lowing list of kings' mothers through the 
successive reigns of the monarchs of Judah 
may not be unacceptable. 

Kings. Queen-mothers. 

Solomon. Bath-sheba. 

Rehoboam. Kaamah. 

Abijah. ) Maachah or Michaiah. 

Asa. J 

Jehoshaphat. Azubah. 

Jehoram. not mentioned. 

Ahaziah. Athaliah. 

Joash. Zibiah. 

Amaziah. Jehoaddan. 

Uzziah. Jecoliah. 

Jotham. Jerusha. 

Ahaz. not mentioned. 

Hezekiah. Abi or Abijah. 

Manasseh. Hephzi-bah. 

Am on. MeshuUemeth. 

Josiah. Jedidah. 

Jehoahaz. HamutaL 

Jehoiakim, Zebudah. 

Jehoiachin. Isehushta. 

Zedekiah. Hamutal. 

QUEEX OF HEA^T:X (Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 
17, IS, 19, 25). The marginal rendering in 
the places referred to is 'frame or work- 
manship of heaven.' Some therefore have 
believed that the worship of the heavenly 
bodies generally or some special constella- 
tion was intended. But it is better to sup- 
pose that the moon, reverenced by the 
Phoenicians as Ashtoreth or Astarte, Is 
meant : see Henderson's Jeremiah, pp. 51, 
52. The cakes meniioned have been thought 
to be round and flat like the moon's disk : 
some Jewish authorities say that the image 
of the deity was stamped upon ihem. They 



745 



were made of fine flour, mixed with honey, 
raisins, &c. See Ashtoeeth. 

QUICK, QTJIOKEK ' Quick ' means living 
(Numb. xvi. 30). To ' quicken ' is to give life, 
natural or spiritual (Rom. viii. 11 ; Eph. ii. 
1, 5), also to cheer or excite (Psal. Ixxx. 18). 

QUICKSANDS. Two Syrtes or sand-hanks, 
on the northern coast of Africa, were well- 
known to the ancients. One of these, 
called the Syrtis major, lay between Gyrene 
and Leptis, now the gulf of Sidra, and is 
no doubt the ' quicksand ' alluded to in 
Acts xxvii. 17. A vessel bound westward, 
after passing Crete, might easily be driven 
upon it by a strong north-easterly wind. 
The other, Syrtis minor, the gulf of Gates, 
lay more to the west, near Carthage. 

QUIN'TUS MEM'MIVS (2 Macc.xii. 34). 

QUIVER. The case for arrows (Gen. 
xxvii. 3, and elsewhere). See Arais. The 
word is sometimes used figuratively (e.g. 
in Psal. cxxvii. 5 ; Isai. xlix. 2). 

QUOTATIONS. Nothing is more com- 
mon than to find one writer quoting or re- 
ferring to another. We might naturally 
expect, therefore, that the sacred penmen 
would both cite and be cited. And this, 
accordingly, is the case. In various books 
of the bible we have quotations from other 
books, either as authorities, or for illustra- 
tion, or for the confirmation of some truth. 
While in ordinary authors the scriptures 
are so largely cited that it has been said 
that, if themselves lost, they might be re- 
covered from the pages of those who have 
thus re-produced them. The better a book 
is known, and the more important its con- 
tents, the more likely it is to be often and 
copiously quoted. And so the bible, as 
being incomparably the most important 
volume in the world, has been quoted far 
more frequently than any other. The 
quotations of scripture and in scripture are 
both highly instructive. It will be neces- 
sary to consider them apart. 

I. Tlie quotations of scripture. The bible 
has been quoted by friends and by enemies, 
who have thus done the cause of truth in- 
calculable service. Their quotations are 
among the evidences of religion, and they 
contribute both to rectify and to interpret 
the text. It is self-evident that a book 
must exist before it can be cited. So that. 
If we see in an author who wrote a thou- 
sand years ago a reference to some book, or 
a quotation from it, we are sure that that 
book is a thousand years old at least. Now 
here is a sufficient proof of the great anti- 
quity of the bible. Various books of it are 
cited, and various events are referred to as 
delivered in those books, by the earliest 
Christian authors, bypagan opposers of the 
gospel while Christianity was struggling 
into existence, by Jewish writers, as Philo 
and Josephus in the time of Christ and his 
apostles. Thus we are sure when we find 
David, Isaiah, St. Paul, St. John so appealed 
to that their books were then in the hands 
of men, and were not the composition of 
more modern times. Of course testimony 
of this kind goes higher for the books of 
the Old Testament than for those of the 
New, because the Old Testament was of 
earlier date than the New, But the con- 



[quotations 



elusion is irresistible that the Old Tes- 
tament was extant in our Lord's time, 
that it was cited as at that time an- 
cient, and that very soon after the New 
Testament came into the hands of men 
also. But this is not all. Quotations show 
not merely that there were books in early 
times bearing the same names with those 
we now have, but that their contents were 
the same. Words and sentences are quoted 
as being in those books, and they are the 
very same which we find in the books now. 
We have thus proof that generally they 
have not been tampered with, that they are 
the identical works, honestly preserved and 
handed down to us. In the respects just 
mentioned the later books of scripture bear 
evidence to the earlier. We shall after- 
wards look at the quotations we find in 
scripture under another aspect ; but it is 
quite fair to say that Paul, for instance, 
when he cites Isaiah, is a competent witness 
that the book of Isaiah was extant in his 
time, and that his Isaiah was the same 
Vv'ith our Isaiah, because the quotations he 
makes from it are found in the copies which 
we possess. 

Besides their value as witnesses of the 
antiquity and safe preservation of scripture, 
quotations are of service for the rectifica- 
tion of the text. We do not pretend that 
the bible has come down to us with no mis- 
takes of copyists or printers. Every means 
is to be used to obtain as nearly as possible 
the exact words as the authors originally 
wrote them. And, after making allowance 
for the alleged habits of citing by memory, 
of condensing, of accommodating a passage, 
we may, when on other grounds perplexed, 
not unf requently reach hence af air presump- 
tion as to tbe state of the text at the time the 
quotation was made. Thus the fact that no 
early writer quotes the disputed clause (1 
John V. 7, 8), even when if it then existed 
quotation of it would have been most 
natural, is rightly held a strong additional 
proof that the clause is not genuine, but 
was interpolated at some later time. For 
interpretation, too, quotations are of use. 
For, though we may not base our belief 
upon the authority of men, yet it is a valu- 
able corroboration of a doctrine deduced 
from any passage of scripture to find that 
the same deduction was made, the same 
doctrine received, by those who were 
chronologically far nearer the scripture 
sources than we are. Thus, whereas Faustus 
Socinus affirms that 'all things' (John i. 3) 
mean only the moral world, the Christian 
church, Irenceus (Adv. Seer., lib. iii. cap. 8, 
§§ 2, 3) shows that the interpretation in his 
time was that 'all things' intended the 
universe, the worlds, material and im- 
material, adding thus very satisfactorily the 
stamp of antiquity to orthodox truth. 

II. TJie quotations in scripture must also 
be considered. And it is of chief import- 
ance to examine such as are made from the 
Old Testament by the writers of the New. 
The number of those that are direct is very 
large ; and there are, besides, many allu- 
sions, or cases in which the phraseology of 
the earlier sacred penmen is adopted by the 
apostles and evangelists, without any formal 



quotations] 



746 



citation. A difficulty lias been foima m re- , 
eard to them, botli as to the words ttIiicH are • 
sometimes different fi-om those of the ori- 
Erinal passage, and also as to the way m j 
which they are applied. And, as these , 
points hear particularly upon the question ^ 
of inspiration, they are of no slight mo- . 
ment. We must, then, consider DOih the , 
external and ^?^^er?^a/ forms of scripture quo- i 
tation, how they are cited, and how applied. 

1 Tables have heen constructed which , 
exliibit fuUv the citations of the New , 
Te-tament writers with the con-espondmg j 
pa^sa^es of the Old Testament. Such tables ; 
are of'necessitv Toluminous ; and the reader 
mu-t he referred for them to works in 
which they are printed at large (see Home s 
Introduct, vol. ii. edit. Ayre, pp ll-i-17S\ It 
vdll he evident on inspection that most ot 
the pp^-ages are an exact rendering of the 
orisrinal: it will he seen, however, that 
there are some in which the phraseology, 
the patent sense indeed, is more or less 
altered. It wih he found, also,that the words 
of the Septuagint translation are often so 
exactly or nearly repeated as to maie it 
manifest that it was from that translation 
that the writer quoted. But sometimes the 
Septuasint is left and the original Hebrew 
folio we^d, and sometimes a passage is given 
not precisely accordant with either the 
original or the current version. 

Hvpotheses have been framed to account 
for all this ; one of the most objectionable 
of which is that the apostles and evangelists 
quoted from memory, and that unfortunate- 
ly their memory not unfrequently failed. 
Such an excuse in the case imagined is op- 
posed to common sense : it would hardly 
be admitted in a good textuaiy of modern 
times— much less with men speaking and 
writing in the face of keen opponents who 
would liave been only too glad to convict 
them of garbling the ancient scriptures, 
men, moreover, who had the special pro- 
mise that in their doctrine the Holy Spirit 
would bring all needful things to their re- 
membrance (John xiv. 26). But indeed it 
is contradicted by plain fact. For two dif- 
ferent writers, who could hardly be sup- 
posed to have had the same lapse of ^me- 
mory at the same place, are found to aevi- 
ate in the same way. Thus 31atthew (xi. 
10) and Luke (vii. 27) agree verbatim m 
citing Mai. iii. 1 ; both differing from the 
Sentuagint which exactly represents the 
Hebrew ; and there is a similar agreement 
of Paul in Hom.ix. 33 with Peter in 1 Pet. ii. 
6 8. There must, therefore, have been 
some higher influence which guided the 

^^It i^not indeed possible to assign a gene- 
ral reason for the variations, or to classify 
with accuracv the different quotations ac- 
cording to their presumed relation to the 
Hebrew or the Greek text : each case of 
difficulty must be looked at independently. 
But we may say that it was very natural 
that the apostles should use the Septuagint, 
a translation well-kuown to the Greek- 
speaking communities they addressed, nay, 
very possibly at the tiuic the common bible 
of Palestine. It was not, however, likely 
that they would bind themselves to a trans- 



lation not always accurate, unless the 
reason of the case required it ; as in Acts 
viii 3-'', 33, where the eunuch read the pas- 
=ase from the Greek version, and accord- 
iuS-lv the evangelist accurately copied it. 
The 'sacred writers properly used a freedom 
of expression. They availed themselves of 
the Septuagint sometimes, where verbally 
it differed from the Hebrew, provided by 
any such difference it more fully brought 
out the meaning of the original : they, 
asain, translated for themselves wnere the 
received translation failed to express the 
true cense : thev sometimes also departed 
from both the Hebrew and the Septuagmt, 
when thev wished more thoroughly to _de- , 
veiop the' idea which lay in the original i 
utterance. It was not misapprehension^ it , 
was not caprice which actuated them, i- or , 
explanation, for bringing into clearer light i 
that which lav at first in shadow, for de- ; 
finitely pointing that which was general, or ; 
for enlarffintr that which was restricted, the 
New Testament writers, themselves in- 
spired have sometimes modified the dic- 
tion, but they have preserved the spirit ot 
the ancient oracle. There is an emmeiit 
example in the way in which St. Paul CJ^Ph- 
iv 8) cites Psal. Ixviii. 18. The prophetic 
word describes the triumph of him who 
went up on high, how he was adorned with 1 
gift* • the apostle exhibits the better aspect 
of the same truth : it was not for his own 
advantage : these gifts with lavish hand he 
has bestowed on those that need them. The 
deeper meanine is thus emphatically unfold- 
ed It was so in the earlier revelation. 
Compare Geu. xxiv. 2-8 with 37-41 ; Exod. 
' XX 8 with Deut. V. 12 ; Lev. x. 3 with Exod. 
xix 92 xxix. 43, 44 ; and see how there can 
be "p^-'-fect substantial agreement accom- 
panied with a variation of expression. , 
" 9 We must consider, further, the apph- 
cation of quotations. Here, too, m a vast 
majority of cases there is no difliculty the 
ancient prediction, as of Messiah's birth at 
Beth-lehem, and the event said to fulfil it, 
fit exactly in together. But, occasionally, 
it cannot be denied, the words of the 
elder scripture are applied in a way which 
seems foreign to their original purport. We 
must of course distinguish cases, m -^liich 
language is merely borrowed, from those^in 
whtch a prophecy is said to be accomplished 
™ n which an argument is built. Thus O d 
Testament phraseology is largely used mthe 
book of Revelation, though there is scarcely 
a formal citation in it. This is consonant 
vritii our own practice. We continually 
adopt the words of others without meaning 
to imply that their words had any defined 
or intended relation to our thoughts. We 
must see if the same principle liolds m 
formal quotations. Does our Lord, do tho 
sacred Avi'iters, mean to accommodate the 
Old Testament declarations? do they use 
them apart from their original .purpose, 
merely because there is a chance similitude 
of circumstances? The answer must 1->e, 
unhesitatingly, no. ^ ^ 

The basis from which wo must argue is 
the real connection between the Old Testa- 
ment and the Now, between that dispensa- 
tion which, besides its present use to thP 



747 



[quotations 



worsliippers uuder it, was to delineate in 
shadow the features of that better covenant 
which was one day to he admired in its full 
proportions and life-giving power. If we 
admit at all the correspondence of type 
with anti-type, if we acknowledge prophecy 
and its fulfllment, if we allow that God 
was acting on a definite plan, we cannot 
hesitate also to allow that there must he 
a comprehensive significance in the ancient 
word, a deeper sense to he drawn out at the 
fitting time. This principle is not to he 
accused of straining scripture, of imputing 
meanings which a man's fancy may suggest 
It is not that the obvious signiflcation of 
the terms may be disregarded, or a discord- 
ant sense extracted : it is the same sense 
they ever bore, but only more profoundly 
apprehended. For this our Lord opened 
the understanding of his disciples (Luke 
xxiv. 45) : he showed them what ancient 
sages had not fully discerned (1 Pet. i. 
10-12). But in this respect there was not, 
properly speaking, a new revelation : it was 
a diviner light upon that which had been 
given before. The truth was there ; but 
the eye must be purged from earthly film 
to perceive it. It is, then, because Christ 
by his enlightening Spirit qualified his dis- 
ciples to discern ' the mystery which had 
been hid from ages and from generations, 
that they were made adequate expounders 
of God's will. Had they known but the 
letter, had they cited the scriptures as the 
carnal Jews did, they would have been no 
fitting ministers of the new dispensation, 
they would have incurred the censure 
which their Master pronounced upon those 
whose earthly minds interpreted scripture 
so as to conclude from it that carnal ties 
and sensual gratifications must be fastened 
for ever upon risen and glorified saints 
(Matt. xxii. 23-32). 

Critics have professed to discover a dif- 
ference between the modes in which our 
Lord and his disciples cited and apphed the 
scripture, differences too among the disci- 
ples, distinguishing, for example, Matthew 
from Paul, and Paul from Peter. It is very 
likely— each acted according to the talent 
given him. There was none like the Mas- 
ter, whose mind had devised and whose eye 
comprehended the whole. Inspiration su- 
perseded not a man's natural faculties ; and 
one might still have a higher perceptive 
faculty than another. But every vessel, 
though of different capacities, was full. It 
is in the mode, in the extent, not in the 
truthfulness of the application of ancient 
scripture that apostles and.evangelists vary. 
The gifts may be of different kinds ; ' but 
all these worketh that one and the self -same 
Spirit, dividing to every man severally as 
he will' (1 Cor. xii. 11) ; whether it be Paul 
or Peter, ' according to the wisdom given 
unto him ' (2 Pet. iii. 15),.so he writes. 

Lists have been made of the formulJB 
adopted by different writers of the New 
Testament in introducing citations. It is 
impossible to give them here ; but the 
reader will find a very good classification 
111 Davidson's Sacred Eermeneutics, chap, 
xi. pp. 451, 453. Many of these formulas 
were In common use at the time in which 



the sacred writers lived : they were em- 
ployed by the rabbins to introduce their 
fanciful interpretations. But no exception 
need be taken to them on that account. 
Of course the current words and phrases 
of the dav would be adopted by inspired 
as well as by uninspired writers if they 
wished to be understood. The only point 
of importance is to ascertain whether, by 
the use of a particular phrase and by the 
course of the argument, the writer in- 
tended a real fulfilment of some earlier 
utterance, or merely to use the words for 
illustration. Now there is one rem.arkable 
formula, found specially in St. Matthew, 
which must not be unnoticed— * that it 
might be fulfilled.' The question is. Does 
this denote ^waZ cause or purposel or may 
it not in some cases mean only effect or 
event 1 The former has been called the 
telic, the latter the ecoatic usage. This has 
been keenly discussed. And it is the deci- 
sion of the most competent theological 
scholars that the phrase has the former 
meaning ; so that the sense of the formula 
(see Matt. ii. 15, viii. 17, xii. 17, xiii. 35, xxi. 
4, XX vi. 56, xxyii. 35) is that there has 
been a fulfilment in order to display that 
truth of God which had been announced in 
the prophecy. . , + 

Taking the New Testament as the key to 
the Old we can have no diflSculty in accept- 
ing this conclusion. There is a continuous 
organic unity in the system of revealed 
truth, exhibited by direct prophecy, by 
typical transactions, and by typical and re- 
presentative predictions. The earlier por- 
tion, as a constituent part, and but a part 
of the same whole, is both the appointed 
and the fit representative of the later poi'- 
tion and of the whole. The future is thus 
clothed in forms borrowed from the present 
and the past ; as when the song that cele- 
brates the Lamb's final victory over the 
church's last foe is connected with and 
takes its tone from that triumphal strain in 
which Moses led the joy of the Israelites 
freed from the Egyptian oppres^rs (Rev. 
XV. 2-4). See Prophect, Type. 

It will be well to apply the principles laid 
down to two or three particular cases. The 
words of Hos. xi. 1, cited in Matt. ii. 15, are, 
it is admitted, simply an historical state- 
ment. But the application of them by the 
evangelist is justified by the fact that, 
though the words were not, properly speak- 
ing, prophetical, yet the event they recorded 
was typical. There was a defined relation- 
ship between the literal Israel and the Mes- 
siah. It was in' this way that great truths 
had, as it were, at once a body given them ; 
and the marvellous wisdom of God was 
illustrated in the re-production in a more 
exalted form of that which he had previ- 
ously carried through its inferior develop- 
ment. As Christ was the anti-typical or 
true Israel, so what was done m the type 
must be done again in the Anti-type, in© 
removal of the infant Saviour for a time to 
an asylum in Egypt, and his recall thence 
when the season of danger was over, was 
substantially doing again what had been 
done in the infancy of the national Israel, 
and thereby helping a weak faith to recoff- 



eaamah] 

nize in tMs remarkable Babe tlienew Israel, j 
the Child of hope for the world. 

There is one case in which a citation of 
our Lord has "been misunderstood : it is 
when he alleges Exod. iii. 6 in proof of 
the resurrection (Matt. xxii. 31, 32). Christ's 
argument goes to the fundamental relation- 
ship that must subsist between the Deity 
and those whom he deigns to admit into 
his family. He, the Holy, the Eternal God, 
cannot ally himself with pollution and 
death. As the God of Abraham, of Isaac, 
and of Jacob, he was the God, not of those of 
that had passed away, nor yet of the sentient 
spirits only, but of the entire men. Their 
mouldering bodies, therefore, he must re- 
animate : he will be to them all and do for 
them all that a God who is their God can be 
and do. Body and soul apai't, there would 
be imperfection : therefore, made again 
essentially perfect, body and soul together, 
they shall lire to him. The argument. is a 
conclusive one ; and a very blessed truth is 
illustrated and enforced by it. 

Then, again, St. Paul (Gal. iii. 16) lays great 
stress on the singular number of a word, 
♦not. . . to seeds. . . but. . . to thy seed' 
(see Gen. xxii. 18). From Abraham divers 
nations sprang: he had many sons; but 
one was the child of promise. In Isaac and 
his descendants the blessing rested. The 
promise had a definite posterity in view : 
it was not to seeds, not to Abraham's off- 
spring at large, to the various lines of the 
many who called him father ; but to that 
which combined the spiritual with the car- 
nal bond of relationship to Abraham, the 
seed of which Christ was to be the repre- 
sentative. St. Paul does not mean Christ 
IndividuaUy, but Christ coUectively- Christ, 
it is true, personally first and chiefly, but 
also his body the chui'ch as gathered up m 
him. , , . 

One more remark alone, already m some 
measure anticipated, can be appended here. 



The New Testament writers apply to Christ 
some of the psalms which seem simply 
without ulterior reference to detail the 
circumstances of the psalmist. But, as 
there is a relation (before adverted to) 
between Christ and Israel, so is there a 
special relation between Christ and the 
house of David. It is not a mere resem- 
blance but a defined relation ; and the 
divine Spirit, guiding the utterance of 
David as to the things which befeU him, 
made that utterance significant for the 
history of Messiah who was to be born of 
David's seed. The New Testament wilters 
open out the relation and the significance 
of it. With this principle in view no diffi- 
culty need be felt in respect to the citations 
from such psalms as xxii,, xl., xLi., Ixix., 
cix. So the pregnant variation of the Sep- 
tuagint in Psal. ii. 9 is accepted in Bev. ii. 
27 ; and, whereas in the original text God's 
judgment alone was expressed, in Mes- 
siah's pastoral rule that judgment is shown 
to be tempered with mercy. Por the explana- 
tion of Matt. ii. 17, 18 see Ramah, l. 

There are some other CLUotations in scrip- 
ture v^'hich may be briefly noticed. St. Paul 
(2 Tim. iii. 8) gives the names of Jannes and 
Jambres as withstanding Moses; and St. 
Jud.e (Jude 9, 14) mentions the contention 
of Michael with the devil, and cites a pro- 
phecy of Enoch. It has been imagined that 
the two apostles guoted apocryphal books. 
They may, however, have borrowed from 
oral tradition. But, if they did guote apo- 
crvphal books, such quotation no more 
authorizes those books than the quoting of 
clas-ical authors authorizes them. Some of 
the books which we include under the term 
'Apocrypha 'are possibly alluded to in the 
jS"ew Testament. And there are at least 
four classical citations in the speeches and 
letters of St. Paul : three are noted before : 
see Poetry, p. 711: there is also one of Aris- 
totle, PoZii. lib. iii. cap. in Gal. v. 23. 



R A' AM AH iatrem'blmg'). One of the sons 
of Cush of the posterity of Ham (Gen. x. 7 ; 
1 Chron. i. 9). As Raamah is said to be the 
father of Sheba and Dedan (see Ded.^), we 
may well suppose that his descendants 
settled in Arabia ; and accordingly the town 
Begma on the Arabian shore of the Persian 
gul£ is believed to be the seat of his poster- 
ity. A Cushite city, probably this, is men- 
tioned (Ezek. xxvii. 22) as trading with Tyre 
in spices, precious stones, and gold. 

PlAAMI'AH (whom Jehovah makes to 
tremble). One who returned from Baby- 
on with Zerubbabel (Is eh. vii. 7), probably 
the same with Reelaiah (Ezra ii. 2). 

RAAM'SES (so?i of the srm). The name 
of a province and city in Egypt, called also 
Rameses. When it first occurs (Gen. xlvii. 
11) it is manifestly the province, idciinad 
(i, 6) With Goshen. The city was one of the 



treasure or store-cities built by the Israel- 
ites in their servitude, and perhaps had 
its name from one of the kings of Egypt 
so-called (Exod. i. 11), a name afterwards 
extended to the district round, which 
naturally the historian designates by the 
appellation it bore in his day ; j et it might 
even in the life-time of Jacob be so deno- 
minated. It was from Raamses or Bameses 
the province, though they were probably 
massed about the chief town, that the chil- 
dren of Israel commenced their march (xii. 
37 ; Numb, xxxiii. 3, 5). 

There have been different opinions as to 
the position of Baamses. The Jerusalem 
Targum identifles Pi thorn and Baamses 
with Tanis and Pelusium ; but these were 
bevond the limits of Goshen, Jablonsky 
' fixes on Heliopolis ; but the Septuagmt 
I translators, by their addition to Exod. 1. 11, 



H9 



[rages 



distinctly show that Heliopolisand Raamses 
could not be the same. Heroopolis is an- 
other conjecture. And there is a village 
still hearing the name Bamsis between 
Cairo and Alexandria ; hut this lies to the 
west of the Nile. The city must certanily 
have been in Lower Egypt, to the east of the 
Nile, which the Israelites had not to cross, 
and was perhaps in the south of Goshen, the 
part most exposed to Arab inroads, where 
therefore fortified cities and magazines 
would be most required. It may have been 
inWady et-Tumeylat, which is formed by the 
Nile and a parallel chain of mountains near 
where the canal began. Lepsius thinks it 
is to be sought in the ruins of Abu KesJied, 
north-east of Heliopolis. A group of three 
figures cut out of a granite block has been 
found there representing Ramses II. (Ram- 
ses Miamus, who commenced the canal) 
between the gods Ra and Turn (Kalisch, 
Comm. on Old Test. Exod., p. 12). 

RAB'BAH, RAB'BATH (a great city, me- 
tropolis).—!. The metropolis of Ammon 
(Deut. iii. 11 ; Josh. xiii. 25). It was besieged 
and taken by David for the ill-treatment of 
his ambassadors by the Ammonites; Joab 
having previously after a long siege stormed 
one of the divisions of it, probably the lower 
town, in which was the spring whence a 
Btream of water yet existing flowed (2 Sam. 
xi. 1, xii. 26-29, xvii. 21 ; 1 Chron. xx. 1). 
Afterwards, however, Ammon regained its 
independence (Jer. xlix. 2, 3 ; Ezek. xxi, 20, 
XXV. 5 ; Amos i. 14) ; and Rabbah was a 
strong place. In later times it received the 
name Philadelphia from Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, and by this name it is known in Greek 
and Roman writers and in Josephus. This 
was in Christian times the see of a bishop. 
But the original appeUation lingered among 
the inhabitants, preserved asAvividn to the 
present day ; and there are now extensive 
ruins in an elevated valley on the banks of 
the stream Moiet Amman, after a short 
course flowing into the Jabbok, or Zurka, 
which divided the Hebrew territory from 
that of the Ammonites. Amman is about 
22 miles from the Jordan.— 2. A town in the 
hill-country of Judah (Josh. xv. 60). 

RAB'BI ^master). A title of honour given 
to Jewish teachers : it was repeatedly ap- 
plied to our Lord by his disciples and by the 
people (Matt, xxiii. 7, 8 ; John i. 38, 49, in. 
2, 26, vi. 25). ^ ^ 

RAB'BITH (multitude). A city of Issa- 
cMr (Josh. xix. 20). mi, 

RABBO'NI {my master) (John xx.l6). The 
word is found also in Mark x. 51 in the 
original : it is said to express greater re- 
spect than Rabbi. . 

RAB'-MAG (prince magus, i.e. president 
of the magi). A title given to a great Chal- 
dean officer (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13). 

BAB'SACJSS (Ecclus. xlviii, 18). Rab- 
shakeh. _ . , 

RAB'-SARIS (chief eunuch). The official 
title of an Assyrian or Babylonian officer 
(2 Kings xviii. 17 ; Jer. xxxix. 3, 13). Two 
or three persons would seem to have borne 
it in the places referred to. 

RAB'-SHAKEH (chief cufp-learer). One of 
the principal court-officers of Sennacherib, 
holding a high command in his army. Some 



have believed him an apostate Jew, but with- 
out sufficient grounds. He was despatched 
with Tartan and P^ab-saris and a strong 
body of troops from Lachish to Jerusalem 
to persuade or compel the submission of the 
city; and his bold blasphemous speech to 
the Jewish people, in spite of the remon- 
strances of Hezekiah's officers, is recorded 
at length (2 Kings xviii. 17-37, xix. 4, 8 ; 
Isai. xxxvi. 2-22, xxxvii. 4, 8). The word 
Rab-shakeh is probably the official title, 
not the personal name, of this functionary. 

RA'CA (empty, worthless). A term of 
contempt, the application of which to a 
brother was censured by our Lord (Matt. v. 
22). See Council. 

RACE (Eccl. ix. 11 ; 1 Cor. ix. 24-27 ; Heb. 
xii. 1). See Games. 

RA'CHAB (Matt. i. 5). A Greek form of 
Rahab. Another form (Greek) occurs in 
Heb. xi. 31. 

RA'CHAL (traffic). A place In Judah, to 
the inhabitants of which David sent a pre- 
sent (1 Sam. XXX. 29). 

RA'CHEL (an ewe). The younger of La- 
ban's two daughters, the beautiful and 
dearest wife of Jacob, for love of whom he 
served her father seven years, and they 
seemed unto him but a few days. A cruel 
deception was however practised : for Ra- 
chel Leah was substituted; and, though 
she was soon after given Jacob to wife in 
addition to her sister, seven more years of 
servitude were imposed upon him (Gen. 
xxix.). But Rachel had no children, while 
Leah had borne several sons ; and natural 
impatience breaks out : * Give me children ; 
or else I die.' Rachel's temper was pas- 
sionate and hasty, and she was inclined to 
rest more on the powers real or supposed 
of nature (see Mandrake) than on the 
love of God. Yet we may see a mother's 
joy and a believer's trust, when God visited 
her and gave her Joseph (xxx. 1-25). But we 
cannot excuse her carrying away her father's 
images, through some undefined reverence 
for them (see Teraphim), or the deceit 
she practised to conceal the theft (xxxi. 4, 
14-35). The rest of her story is soon told. 
She was Jacob's cherished treasure (xxxiii. 
1-7): another child, her dearest wish, was to 
be born ; but alas I the birth of the child 
was the mother's death, and in the bitter- 
ness of her spirit she named him, as life was 
ebbing, Benoni, 'the son of my sorrow,' 
though his father called him Benjajnin, 
*son of my right hand.' Near Beth-lehem 
was she buried ; and for long her monument 
remained (xxxv. 16-25, xlvi. 19-22, 25, xlviii. 
7 ; Ruth iv. 11 ; 1 Sam. x, 2). That now 
shown is but a modern building. Rachel is 
further mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 15 ; Matt. ii. 
18, as weeping for her children : see for ex- 
planation Ramah, 1. 

RAD 'DAI (treading down). The fifth son 
of Jesse (1 Chron. ii. 14). 
RA'GAU (Luke iii. 35). Reu. 
BA'OAU(Sum'h i. 5,15). Some place in 
Media is intended ; the word is perhaps 
identical with 

BA'GES (Tob. i. 14, and elsewhere). An 
important city in the north-east of Media. 
Its ruins about five or six miles from Tehe- 
ran are still called Bhc/y. 



die Creasuru 



R \G'rEL r/rw?2c^ 0/ G^ocH. A Midianlte, 
father of Jetliro, the father-in-la^ of Moses 
(K^imh. X. 29). He is called Reuel (the ori- 
giual word heing the same) in our version 
of Exod. ii. 18. See Jetitro. 

EAG'UEL (Toh. iii. 7, 17, and elsewhere). 
The father of Sara whom Tohias is said to 
have married. ^ ^ . , 

R A'HAB ^spacious). A woman of Jericho 
who received the Israelitish spies into her 
house, and, when they were sought for hy 
the kine concealed them and contrived their 
escape.^She believed that Israel was divme- 
Iv commissioned to extirpate the Canaan- 
ites, and in this faith she acted. She was 
not forgetful herein of her kindred, for 
she stipulated that herself and also her fa- 
milv should he spared when Jericho was 
taken. And, accordingly, she was protected 
and was still living in Israel when some of 
' the original narrative of the hook or Joshua 
was written (Josh, ii., vi. 17, 23, 25 ; Heh. xi. 
31 • James il. 25). She no doubt became a 
pro-elvte, and was married to Salmon, 
prince of Judah (Matt. i. 5). See on this 
marriage Mill, Myth. Interp. of Gospels, 
part ii. chap. ii. 1, pp. 161-169. It has been 
questioned whether Rahab was actually a 
harlot, or not rather an inn-keeper. But it 
cannot be assumed that inns existed at that 
early date. Besides, the spies desiring se- 
crecy were much more likely to be unno- 
ticed if they visited a harlot than if they 



I Oh 



RA'HAZM (tlie womh'). A descendant of 
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 44). 

R VHEL (a'/i eit-c). One of the forms m 
which Rachel's name is given in our ver- 
' sion (Jer. xxxi. 15). See Rachel. 
1 RAIMENT. See DiiESS. 

RA.IX. It was one of the special promi- 
se^: made to Israel that the Lord would give 
them rain ' in his due season, the first ram 
' and the latter rain ' (Dent. xi. 14; Joel ii. 23). 
The-e two seasons of rain, therefore, they 
c-necially looked for, in order to the fertihty 
of their land (James v. 7). Sometimes m 
I punishment for their rebellion ram was 
withheld. This was threatened in Deut. xi. 
17 • \iii05 iv. 7 ; and examples of the judg- 
ment are recorded in scripture (2 Sam. :o:i. 
1-1 Kings xvii. 1\ And it maybe that for 
the sin of his people even to the present day 
God does not give his land the rains m their 
• season. For the climare of Palestine is now 
I very variable. The former or autumnal 
! rain= are said to commence in October or 
November, and the latter or spring rains m 
' Februarv or March. But there is generally 
I small interval T^etween them. In the rest 
: of the vear little falls, just as of old m the 
i harvest rain was most unusual (1 Sam. xii. 
■ 17 ; Prov. xxvi. 1). The following table is 
' given in Bonar's Land of Promise, p. 553. It 
' i= extracted from Dr. Macgowan's Register 
i of the fall of rain in inches at Jerusalem, 
; 1846-1856:— 



Early rains— 

October . 
November 
December 
January . 

Total . 

Latter rains— 
February . 
March 
April 
May . 

Total . 


1846-7 


1847-8 


1848-9 


1849-50', 1 850-1 1S51-2 


1852-3 


1853-4 


1854-5; 1855-6 


4-0 
6-4 
0-0 
9-8 


0-0 
0-0 
19-0 
24-6 


0-0 

0-2 
16-0 
19-4 


Not registered. 


0-0 
6-4 
33'S 
14-6 


0-0 
0-0 
15-2 
13-6 


0- 0 

1- 8 
9-4 
4-2 


0-0 
6-0 

12- 4 

13- 2 


3-8 
0-0 

6-4 
32-6 


0- 0 

1- 0 
3-2 

17-6 


20-2 


43-6 


35-6 


54-8 


28-8 


15-4 


31-6 


42-8 


21-8 


32-8 
6-0 
0-0 

0-0 


5-8 
0-0 

0- 2 

1- 4 


13-2 
11-8 
0-0 
0-0 


24-0 
4-0 

0-0 


25-0 

s-s 

0-0 


4-0 
21-4 

1- 2 

2- 0 


20-0 
24-2 
10-8 
0-0 


13-0 
8-8 
2-4 
0-0 


10-2 
24-8 
0-6 
0-6 

35-2 


38'S 


7-4 


25-0 


30-2 


3G-2 


28-6 


55-0 


24-2 


Total for the year . 


' 59-0 


51-0 


60'3 


85-0 


65-0 


44-0 


86-6 


67-0 


i 57-0 



went &o a place of public resort. Had tnere 
been an inu in Jericho, they would rather 
have avoided it. Further, the house being 
called Rahab's, though her parents were 
living, is corroborative proof. We may 
therefore conclude that the common accep- 
tation is the true one. See Winer, Bibl. 
jRTTjB., art. 'Rahab.' 

RA'HAB iviolence, pride, a seaymmister). 
A. symbolical name for Egypt (Psal. Ixxxvii. 
4 ixxxix. 10; Isai. li. 9). There is proba- 
bly an allusion to this name in xxx. 7; 
which Gesenius translates ' Egypt helpeth 
in vain ; therefore I call her : violence i.e. 
the violent {Ealiah in the original), they sit 
ctill,' i.e. boasting and blustering they are 
yet cowards ; probably a proverbial expres- 
Blon. 



Dr. Chaplin, however, in a statement 
' latelv printed, dividin^r tlic rainy season 
; into 'the early, the winter, and the latter 
i rain«. makes the average fall, 1860-1 to 

■ 1S64-5, less than In the above table, viz. 
i 19'S05 inches. 

i The rains often descend with great vio- 
I lence, and sweep away houses and villages 
I built of mud, and bricks or tiles baked in 
i the sun (Ezek. xiii. 10, 11 ; Matt. A-ii.27). 
^ Rain is sometimes used fleuratively (Isai. 
1 xxx. 23 : Ezek. xxxviii. 22 : Hos. x.l2). 
5 R \INBOW. A circular arch of variously- 

■ coloured light seen in the heavens when 
the sun or moon is shining, while at the 

; same time a shower of rain is falling on the 
1 opposite side of the spectator. A second 
bow is often, when the rain is abundant, 



To I 



[aAME>SES 



seen on tlie exterior of the first and con- 
centric with it. Both consist of concentric 
hands of the different prismatic colours, 
arranged as in the solar spectrum ; hut 
their order in the first how is inverted in 
the second. Thus the lower edge of the in- 
terior is violet, and the upper edge red ; 
while the lower edge of the exterior how 
is red and the upper violet. The rainhow 
is caused hy the reflection of the sun's rays 
from tho interior concave of the globules 
of falling water ; and the many-hued con- 
centric hands arise from the different de- 
grees of refrangihility of the differently- 
coloured rays composing a :pencil of com- 
mon light, passing through the water, and 
hack to the spectator's eye. The same na- 
tural causes were in action hef ore the flood ; 
so that the rainbow was no new phenome- 
non. But God saw fit to make it the sign of 
his covenant with Noah that he would no 
more destroy mankind hy a flood of waters 
(Gen. ix. 12-17), impressing a new signifl- 
cance on the well-known sight. The sain- 
how is elsewhere alluded to (Isai. liv. 9, 10 ; 
Ezek. i.28 ; Rev. iv. 3, x. 1). 

RATSmS (1 Sam. xxv. 18, xxx.l2 ; 2 Sam. 
xvi. 1 ; 1 Chron. xii. 40). These appear to 
have heen dried grapes, in hunches, just 
what we understand by the term. 

RA'KEM {variegation, flotver-gardemng). 
One of the descendants of Manasseh (1 
Chron. vii. 16). 

RAK'KATH ishore). A city of Naphtali 
(Josh. xix. 35). The rabbins say it stood 
where Tiberias was afterwards built. 

RAK'KON {thinness). A city of Dan (Josh, 
xix. 46). 

nAM.KTdgh).-l. A son of Hezron and de- 
scendant of Judah (Ruth iv. 19 ; 1 Chron. ii. 
9, 10), called also Aram (Matt. i. 3, 4; Luke 
iii. 33).— 2. Another descendant of Judah, 
the son of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 25, 27).— 
3. A person of whose kindred Elihu is said 
to be (Job xxxii. 2). He has been thought 
to be the same with Ai'am (Gen. xxii. 21). 

RAM. See Sheep. 

RAM (Ezek. iv. 2, xxi. 22). Battering-rams 
had their name from their iron head, shaped 
like a ram's, or because they struck a wall 
with a motion like the butting of a ram. 
See Engine. 
RA'MA (Matt. ii. 18). The Greek form of 
RA'MAH {a high place). The name of se- 
veral places which it is not easy to distin- 
guish or identify.— 1. A town in the terri- 
tory of Benjamin, near Giljeali and Geba 
(Josh, xviii. 25 ; Judges iv. 5, xix. 13 ; 1 Sam. 
xxii. 6, where perhaps the word is not " 
proper name : comp. marg. ; Hos. v. 8). j 
after the division of the kingdom there 
was a continual flow of the more piously- 
disposed Israelites into Judah, Baasha 
endeavoured to prevent this by fortifying 
Ramah : Asa in conseguence stirred up the 
Syrian Ben-hadad to invade Israel, and 
took advantage of his compliance to dis- 
mantle Ramah (1 Kings xv. 17-22 ; 2 Chron. 
xvi. 1-6). Ramah is afterwards mentioned 
as in the line of Sennacherib's advance (Isai. 
X. 29) ; and it was most probably here that 
the captives were assembled after the tak- 
ing of Jerusalem for their melancholy 
march into exile, in which the prophet in- 



troduces Rachel the ancestral mother of 
the tribe as bitterly bewailing her children 
(Jer. xxxi. 15, xl. 1). There was a prospect 
more dark and grief yet more profound 
when the wail of the bereaved mothers re- 
sounded through the district of Beth-le- 
hem, Herod, a nev/ Nebuchadnezzar, hav- 
ing sought to extinguish in blood the Hope 
of Israel ; and the evangelist sees in the 
earlier desolation a type of the later (Matt, 
ii. 10-18). But all was not lost in the first 
catastrophe : the exiles were cheered by a 
promise of return. And in the last the mam 
Object of Herod's fury was preserved ; hid- 
den for a while in a distant land he return- 
to re-establish the throne of David on a 
surer basis for ever. Many of the inhabi- 
tants did return from Babylon ; and Ramah 
was re-peopled (Ezra ii. 26 ; Neh. vii. 30, xi. 
33) ; though it is fair to say that some ima- 
gine that another Ramah (perhaps the mo- 
dern Bamleh) is meant in the last-named 
place. Ramah is now a poor village on a 
hill six miles north of Jerusalem : it is 
lied er-Bain.—2. A city described as being 
in mount Ephraim, the birth-place and 
residence of the prophet Samuel, erro- 
neously supposed to be Arimathea. It is 
called more fully Ramathaim-zophim (1 
Sam. i. 1, 19, ii. 11, vii. 17, viii. 4, xv. 34, xvi. 
13, xix. 18-24, XX. 1, xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). Much 
difaculty has been felt as to the position of 
this Ramah: some would place it near Beth- 
lehem, because Saul on leaving Samuel had 
to pass Rachel's sepulchre (x. 2). But it is 
not at all certain that the prophet was at 
that time in his own city : he might bo 
on circuit. Ramah may have been at Sdba, 
trong-hold on an extension of the ridge 
of Neby Samwil, about five miles west of 
Jerusalem, destroyed by Ibrahim Pacha in 
1834 ; or more probably at Nedy Samioil it- 
self.— 3. A city on the border of Asher, not 
far from Tyre (Josh. xix. 29).— 4. A town of 
Naphtali (36), perhaps that still called Ba- 
meh on the slope of a hill a few miles to the 
east of Safed.— 5 (2 Kings viii. 29 ; 2 Chron. 
xxii. 6). See Ramoth-gilead. 

RA'MATH {height). A city in the ex- 
treme south of Palestine belonging to the 
tribe of Simeon (Josh. xix. 8). It is also 
called Ramoth (1 Sam. xxx. 27) ; probably 
identical with Baalath-beer, which see. 

RA'MATH-LE'HI {the height or hill of 
Lehi, i.e. the jaw-bone, according to our ver- 
sion, marg. the lifting up or casting aivay of 
the jaw-bone) (Judges xv. 17). See Lehi. 

RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH {the height of Mizpeh, 
or of the toatch-tower). A frontier-town of 
Gad (Josh. xiii. 26) ; probably the same with 
MizPEH, 3, and Ramoth-gilead, which see. 

RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM {the double high 
place of the ivatchers) (1 Sam. i. 1). See Ra- 

BA'MATHEM (1 Macc. x. 30, xi. 28, 34), 
One of the governments added to Judca 
from Samaria and Galilee by Demetnus 
Soter, so confirmed by Demetrius Nicator. 
The others were Apherema and Lydda. 

RA'MATHITE. A native or inhabitant of 
Ramah, perhaps No. 1 (1 Chron. xxvii. 27). 

RAM'ESES {son of the sun) (Gen.xlvii.il ; 
Exod. xii. 37; Numb, xxxiii. 3^ 5). See 
Raamses. 



RA3IESSE] 



752 



BAMES'SE g-aaithi. 9). Rameses. 
RAMI' AH (wliom Jehovah hath set). One 
who married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 25). 

RA'MOTH {heights). Anotlier who had 
married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 29). 

RA'MOTH (id.). 1. A city f regnently called 
Ramoth-gilead or Ramoth in Gilead, in the 
territory of Gad, hut allotted to the Levites 
and appointed one of the cities of refuge 
(Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 38 ; 1 Chron. 
vi 80). It was the seat of one of Solomon's 
commissariat officers (1 Kings iv. 13). It 
was afterwards occupied hy the king ot 
Syria : and it was in the vain attempt to 
recover it that Ahah perished (xxn. 
1-36: 2 Chron. xviii.). King Joram was 
wounded in a battle here (2 Kings viii. 28, 
29 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 5, 6) ; yet it seems to have 
heen again in the hands of the Israelites ; 
for Jehu was at Ramoth when he was 
anointed king (2 Kings ix. 1, 4, 14). It is 
sometimes (viii. 29 ; 2 Chron. xxn. 6) called 
Ramah, and may possibly he identical with 
Ramath-mizpeh. It has heen thought to he 
the modern es-Salt, or it may he somewhat 
more to the north.— 2 (1 Sam. xxx. 27). See 
RAiiATH.— 3 (1 Chron. vi. 73). See Remeth. 

RA'MOTH (Joh xxviii. 18, marg.). See 
CORAL.'prohahly the right rendering. 

RAIMS' HORNS (Josh. vi. 4, 5, 6, 8, 13). 
See Trumpet. . 

RAMS' SKINS (Exod. xxv. 5, xxvi. 14, 
XXXV. 7, xxxvi. 19, xxxix. 34). See Dyeiis g. 
Leather. . , „ ^, , 

RANSOM. The price paid for the free- 
dom of a captive, or compensation made for 
the remission of punishment. This idea wa s 
familiar to the Hebrews (Exod. xxi. 30, xxx. 
12 ; Psal. xlix. 7 : see also Numb. xxxv. 31, 32, 
where the same word is found in the origi- 
nal though our translators have given it as 
' satisfaction'). In all these cases the Septua- 
gint uses that term which has been adopted 
in the New Testament in connection with 
our Lord's giving himself to death for man- 
kind (Matt. XX. 28 ; Mark x. 45 ; 1 Tim. ii. 6). 
We hence learn how to interpret these ex- 
pressions, and see that Christ's death was 
truly a satisfaction iov the sins of the world. 

RA'PHA '{high, tall, chief 1). 1. A word 
rendered ' giant ' in our version, though it 
appears as a proper name in 2 Sam. xxi. 16, 
18, 20, marg. ; l Chron. xx. 4, 6, marg. Rapha 
was probably the founder of a family of gi- 
gantic men. See GIA2S-T.— 2. A descendant of 
BeniamixL (1 Chron. viii. 2).— 3. One of Saul s 
posterity (37) : called also Rephaiah (i:?- 43). 

BAPB'AEL (Tob. iii. 17, xii. 15). The 
name given to an angel. He was regarded, 
according to Jewish tradition, as one of the 
four great angels who stand around the 
throne of God ; Michael, Gabriel, Uriel being 

^^^BAPBA'IM (Judith viii. 1). One of the 
alleged ancestors of Judith. 

BA'PHON (1 Mace. v. 37). A city of Gilead. 

RA'PHU (healed). The father of the spy 
selected from Benjamin (Numb. xin. 9) . 

BAS'SES (Judith ii. 23). The children of 
Rasses were a nation said to have been de- 
stroyed by Holofernes on his march to 

"^"^BATH'UMUS (1 Esdr.ii.lO). A form of 
Rchum (Ezra iv. 8). 



RAVEN. The raven, Corvus corax, a well 
known bird of the family of the Corvidce. 
It is first mentioned in scriptm-e as sent by 
Noah from tbe ark to which it did not re- 
turn (Gen. viii. 7). It was reckoned unclean 
by the Mosaic law (Lev. xi. 15 ; Deut. xiv. 
14) The raven is of a brilliant iridescent 
black, alluded to in Sol. Song. v. 11 : it is a 
solitary bird (Isai. xxxiv. 11), and is larger 
and more sagacious than the crow witb 
which it is sometimes confounded. It is 
not, however, quite certain that the raven 
of Palestine is identical with our common 
species ; and the expression of the Mosaic 
prohibition, ' every raven after his kind,' 
would seem to imply that a class rather 
than an individual species was meant (see 
Winer, BiU. BWB., art. 'Rabe'). Ravens 
are said to have supplied Elijah with food 
when he was by the brook Cherith (1 Kings 
xvii. 4, 6). Various hypotheses have been 
devised to explain away this statement; 
but, as Keilwell observes, 'whosoever ac- 
knowledges the living God will confide in 
his omnipotence that he can cause his ser- 
vants to be nourished even by ravens, al- 
though . . . they are otherwise the most 
voracious of birds' (Comm. on Kings, vol. i. 
p. 270). Ravens are alluded to as illustrating 
God's kind providence in Job xxxviii. 41 ; 
Psal. cxlvii. 9 ; Luke xii. 24. 

BA'ZIS (2 Mace. xiv. 37-46). A Jewish 
elder who in the Maccabean wars committed 
suicide; an act which the writer of the 
history approves. Such approval is one 
reason why the book cannot be inspired. 

RAZOPt (Numb. vi. 5 ; Judges xiii. 5, xvi. 
17 ; 1 Sam. i. 11 ; Ezek. v. 1). See Beard, 
HAIR. The word is also used figuratively 
with obvious meaning (Psal. lii. 2; Isai. 
vii. 20). 

REAI'A (whom Jehovah cares for). A de- 
scendant of Reuben (1 Chron. v. 5). This 
name is identical with 

RE AI'AH (id.). 1. One of Judah's poster- 
ity (1 Chron. iv. 2). Possibly he may be the 
same with Haroeh (ii. 52)„— 2. One whose 
children, Nethinim, returned with ZeruD- 
babel (Ezra ii. 47 ; Neh. vii. 50). 

REAP, REAPING. See AGRICULTURE. 
Some kinds of corn were probably reaped 
bv being plucked up by the roots. 

'rE'BA (a fourth part). One of the kings 
or chiefs of the Midianites slain by the 
Israelites (Numb.xxxi. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 21). 

REBATEMENTS (1 Kings vi. 6, marg.). 
Explained as ' narrowiugs' ; 'narrowed 
rests ' in the text ; i.e. ledges, reductions 
being made in the thickness of the walls. 

REBECCA (Rom. ix. 10). The Greek form 
of Rebekah. ^ . 

REBEK'AH (a cord icith a noose, enchain- 
ing). The daughter of Bethuel and sister of 
Laban. She was a woman of personal attrac- 
tions and became the wife of Isaac, to whom 
after twenty years of barrenness she bore 
Esau and Jacob (Gen. xxii. 23, xxi v. 15-67, 
xxv 20-28). Of her sons Jacob was Rebekah s 
favourite ; and she persuaded him to obtain 
his father's blessing by fi'aud (xxvi. 7, 8, 3o, 
xxvii.). In conseguence Jacob had to flee 
from his brother's revenge ; and it is pro^ 
bable that Rebekah saw her best-lored son 
no more (xxviii. 5, xxix. 12, xxxv. 8, xlix..3i) 



753 



[eedemptiox 



RECEIPT OP CUSTOM (Matt. ix. 9 ; Mark 
11.14; Lute V. 27). See Publican. 

RE'CHAB (a band of riders). 1. One of 
the captains who assassinated Ish-bosheth 
(2 Sam. iv. 2-12).— 2. The ancestor of the 
Rechabites, who was of a Kenite tribe (2 
Kings X. 15, 23 ; 1 Ohron. ii. 55 ; Jer. xxxv. 
8-19),— 3. The father of one who helped to 
repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 14). 

RE'OHABITES. A Kenite tribe de- 
scended from Rechab. Jonadab, one of 
their chiefs, probably on some observed oc- 
casion of contamination by intercourse 
with the luxurious and idolatrous inhabit- 
ants of cities, laid an injunction on his pos- 
terity to drink no wine, to build no houses, 
but to dwell in tents. This injunction they 
obeyed fully for 300 years ; but upon the 
Chaldean invasion they were forced to quit 
the open country and live in Jerusalem (Jer. 
XXXV.). Afterwards they probably withdrew 
into the desert. For their obedience a pro- 
mise was given them that their family 
should never be extinct. And accordingly 
at the present day there is an Arabian tribe, 
as Dr. WolfE and other travellers report, 
who claim a descent from Rechab, and pro- 
fess a modified Judaism. 

Of course the opportunity has not been 
lost of representing the Rechabites as reli- 
gious ascetics, and of connecting in some 
degree with -them eminent persons— such 
as Elijah and Elisha, who are supposed to 
hare led a very austere life. But the com- 
mendation of asceticism derived from their 
history must not be pushed too far: it was 
not so much for the habits themselves as 
for the Rechabites' obedience to their an- 
cestor's command, shov/ing in strong con- 
trast to the neglect of Israel, that the pro- 
mise was given. There are other notices in 
scripture of them which are not very clear. 
Thus they are spoken of as 'scribes' (1 
Cliron. ii. 55) ; some of them devoting them- 
selves, it is liKely, to learned pursuits. 
Whether the person (see Rechab, 3) who 
took part in the re-building of Jerusalem 
was of their tribe we can but conjecture. 
There is a singular statement in Euseb., 
Hist. Eccles., lib. ii. 23, that a priest of their 
race remonstrated against the martyrdom 
of James the Just. A writer in Dr. Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. ii. pp. 1007, 1008, ex- 
plains this by supposing that the promise 
to them in Jeremiah's days implied that 
they were ever after to be incorporated into 
the tribe of Levi. But surely this is in- 
consistent with their rule, and is contradict- 
ed by their modern separate existence. 

RE'CHAH (the side, utmost part). A place, 
as it would seem, in Judah (1 Chron. iv. 12). 
But the notice is very obscure. 

RECONCILIATION (Lev.viii. 16 ; 2 Chron. 
xxix. 24; Dan. ix. 24; Heb. ii. 17). See 
Atonement. 

RECORDER. A great oflQcer frequently 
mentioned after the establishment of 
royalty in Israel (2 Sam. viii. 16, xx. 24 ; 1 
Kings iv. 3 ; 2 Kings xviii. 18, 37 ; 1 Chron. 
xviii. 15 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 8 ; Isai. xxxvi. 3, 
22). He must have been a trusted council- 
lor ; and it was his special duty, as the king's 
Historiographer or annalist, to record or at 
all events to superintend and preserve the 



records of the events of the reign. A simi- 
lar office has existed in Persia, in both an- 
cient and modern times : there was also a 
magister memories in the time of the Roman 
emperors Arcadius and Honorius. 

RED (Gen. xxv. 25, 30, xlix. 12; Exod. 
XXV. 5, xxvi. 14, XXXV. 7, 23, xxxvi. 19, 
xxxix. 34 ; Numb. xix. 2 ; 2 Kings iii. 22 ; 
Esth. i, 6 ; Psal. Ixviii. 23, marg., Ixxv. 8 ; 
Prov. xxiii. 31 ; Isai. i. 18, xxvii. 2, Ixiii. 2 ; 
Nah. ii. 3 ; Zech. i. 8, vi. 2 ; Matt. xvi. 2, 3 ; 
Rev. vi. 4, xii. 3). Red is also frequently 
conjoined with sea, the Red sea. Comp. 
Lev. xiii. 19, 24, 42, 43, 49, xiv. 37. See Co- 
lours. 

RED HEIFER. See Heifbr. 
RED SEA. See Sea. 

REDEEM, REDEEMER. The Hebrew 
word gdal, with its particle gOel, signifies to 
ransom something, as a field sold, by paying 
back the price (Lev. xxv. 25, 26), or a slave 
(48, 49). Goel, therefore, is the designation 
of the person who accomplishes such a re- 
demption. The right of thus redeeming 
belonged to the nearest of kin. And, ac- 
cording to what is called the Levirate law, 
if anyone died childless, his brother or next 
kinsman was to marry the widow, to raise 
up children in the deceased's name. The 
Hebrew word given above is applied to this 
act and to the person who performed it 
(Ruth iii, 13). Another duty lay upon the 
gdel : he was to be the blood-avenger of his 
kinsman who had been slain (Numb, xxxr. 
19-29). Erom these duties of redemption or 
avenging falling legally upon the next of 
kin, the term ,gdel sometimes signifies, and 
is in our version rendered, 'kinsman' (Ruth 
iv. 1, 6, 8 ; 1 Kings xvi, 11). The same word is 
often tropically, and with remarkable sig- 
nificance, applied to God as the deliverer of 
his people, e.g. of Israel from Egypt (Exod. 

vi. 6). In Job the term is so used (Job xix. 
25) ; and repeatedly by Isaiah (Isai. xliii. l, 
where a 'ransom' is said to be given, 3 
xliv. 22, xlviii. 20, and elsewhere) ; and oc- 
casionally the blotting out of sins is con- 
nected with the idea of redemption. In the 
New Testament Christ is said to have re- 
deemed men (Gal. iii. 13 ; Rev. y. 9). The 
original word used in these places implies 
paying a ransom, and is the same that is 
elsewhere rendered ' bought ' (l Cor. vi. 20, 

vii. 23). A different word is translated ' re- 
deemed ' in 1 Pet. i. 18, with the same signi- 
fication, bought out by a payment. It is 
very fitting that such words should be ap- 
plied to Him, who became most nearly allied 
to us by assuming our flesh, and who, under- 
taking our cause, ransomed us at his own 
proper cost, by his precious blood-shedding. 

REDEMPTION. This word, occurring in 
the Old Testament, has frequently refer- 
ence to the buying back of fields, &c., as 
explained in the last article ; and a kindred 
word to that there explained is used in Lev. 
xxv. 24, 51, 52 ; Jer. xxxii. 7. A different 
word is employed for the redemption-money 
(Numb. iii. 49), and for the 'redemption,' 
intended figuratively, of Psal. xlix. 8, cxi. 9, 
cxxx. 7. The original idea there is the 
cutting loose, and then delivering, ransom- 
ing, or redeeming. In the New Testament, 
lutrdsis or apolutrdsis, the Greek words ren- 
?i c 



EEEDj 



m)t ^uniwxvi tit 



754 



H^r'S^emptioB; signiftr freeing, a i-an- 
st)m-price being paid for it. .^,^lt^^2]fen' 
r^r^cp (lutToii) Chrisi: is said to Im e gi^en » 

Itelsffwooa ; imd this redemptioii is de- 
nation of tne law, num & ^, ^ 



eaten, stewed in a hot pan ; wMle from tLe 
Sft cellular sulDstance of tlie stem tlie 
mnvrus was made. This plant is not now 
CSdTn Egypt ; but it exists in Syria 
"e'oTf ilerias, and ei^^e 

fXfi^leaves. The flowers form spitelet: 
fike a crown at tlie end of each stem. 

T?#FL AI'AH (Whom Jeliovali makes trem 
Me ff who fears Jehovah). One who re^ 
tm-nedwithZeruhhabel (Ezra ii, 2). He is 
Se iml with Raamiah (Neh. vii. 7). 
BEEL'IUS (1 Esdr. i. 8). , . , 

T?n?<<A T'AS (1 Esdr. v. 8). Keeiaian. 
?f FINE REFINER. Metals were smelted 

ft would seeS that alkaline salts were 

KVope'rly tempe>-ed ; and In this «,e sUU 

?.reful,f?oScrMsTyfn;o^^^^^^^ 

process, ol. refining is flsm.i- 



It are those vrnii-u ai, -"^-j*-;- " ,,,-„ 

'^"\STo^'\\-e's'-;^eirSnTlr'^SAl2;fr'; 
?,S'see, luo'?o'the cultiTated ^^ne^ 



for their eventual ^ood (Psa .Ixvi. 10 Froy 

flj-^i^lSlSlJli^^^^^^^^ 
ch is well illustrated in i\ ^-^^T '5 

« When the alloy is melted • • • 
of the melted meials has a oeep ^^^^"^Yon 

to a considerable height, ana • g^ i^ecomes lighter At .'.q^oe 

iSiiiiiliil^ 

ir^ work : it is withdrawn. 
REFUGE, see Cities of Refuge. 
SeUJEM ar^cJKf). One of the descendants 

On'l^^f ?ie persons sent in the reign of 
Darins to the house of bod (^ecn. mi. 
Spnder'on regards « the house of God' as a 
?roTer in me, Beth-el, and supposes that 
'Sn-melec'h and Sherezer were messen. 

S^JS^«"ti^''--^^^ 



A '^l^Sired-reed' is fi?^^^-\t\^^ly put for^^ 
weak and humbled penitent ; such a f eeble 
one the merciful Saviour will not bieak 
or crush (Isai. xlii. 3 ; Matt 20). A 
vfipfi ^haken with the wind' (xi. 7 , i^uKe 
Tif 24fprobaWy alludes to the reeds on 

Tbere S f^fo'st'sigiit of iBiU. Nat. Science, 
^"^•,;^-?aS?!reoa, ?«m.,ls often t™^^^^^ 

I'Sfr^nSlJ: t'ielor/rVart .as 



755 



state to a state of pristine excellence. The 
word occurs but twice in holy scripture ; 
first in a declaration of our Lord, ' in the 
regeneration when the Son of man shall 
sit m the throne of his glory ' (Matt. xix. 
28), i.e. in that kingdom of grace and 
power, which was designed for the re- 
pairing of the ruin of the fall, peopled 
l»y the preaching of the everlasting gos- 
pel, and destined to have its perfect con- 
summation in the 'new heavens and new 
earth wherein dwelleth righteousness' 
(2 ret. iii. 13). The word is found again in 
reference to haptisni (Tit. iii. 5) ; whereon 
Dr. Alford says, contrasting the two pas- 
sages, that in the former ' it is the great 
second birth of heaven and earth in the 
j latter days; here the second birth of the 
! individual man.' ' The laver of regenera- 
tion' and 'the renewal of the Holy Spirit' 
are both mentioned —' that complete bap- 
tism by water and the Holy Ghost, whereof 
the first cleansing by water Is indeed the 
ordinary sign and seal, but whereof the 
glorious in-dwelling Spirit of God is the 
only efficient cause and continuous agent.' 
Into the controversial question, which has 
grown out of the use of the term ' regene- 
ration' in connection with baptism, this 
work cannot enter. 

IIEGISTER (Ezra ii. 62 ; Neh. vii. 5, 64). 
See Genealogy. 

REHABl'AH (whom Jehovah enlarges). 
A descendant of Moses (1 Chron.xxiii. 17). 

IlERO'B (street, hroacl place).-!. The fa- 
ther of Hadadezer, king of Zobah (2 Sam. 
viii. 3, 12).— 2. One who sealed the coyenant 
(Xeh. X. 11). 

PtEHO'B (id.).—l. 2. Two towns in the 
territory of Asher (Josh. xix. 28, 30). One 
of these is mentioned as being at the ex- 
treme north of ralpstinc (Numb. xiii. 21). 
One, too, was allotted to the Levites (Josh, 
xxi. 31 ; 1 Chron. vi. 75). Also the original in- 
habitants retained possession of one after 
the conquest (Judges i. 31).— 3 (2 Sam. x. 8). 
For Beth-rehdb, which see, 

llEHOBO'AM (he enlarges the 'people'). The 
son of Solomon (the only one mentioned) 
by ISTaamah an Ammonitess (1 Kings xiv. 
21). He sticceeded his father at the age 
©f forty-one years, and reigned seventeen, 
975-957 B.C. 

It appears that the great works carried 
on by Solomon had become oppressive to 
the people : also the jealousy which had 
before occasionally inanifested itself be- 
tween the imperial tril)c of Judah and the 
other tribes (2 Sam. xix. 11-15, 40-43, xx. 1-2) 
revived. It was therefore thought expe- 
dient, perhaps after some little delay, that 
Rchoboam should go for inauguration to 
Shechem, in the heart of the territory of 
Ephraim, the great rival of Judah. And 
there the people resolved, ere they estab- 
lished Rehoboam on the throne, to have 
pledges for a more constitutional govern- 
ment in future, Hehoboam behaved with 
most consummate folly, as if he liad hither- 
to been shut up in a harem, totally ignorant 
of men and things. He demanded three 
days for consideration, thereby destroying 
the grace of the concession if it had been 
made, and allowing the discontented tribes, 



[rehoboam 



who had given proof of their resolution by 
placing Jeroboam at their head as spokes- 
man, time to organize their plans, if their 
demand should be refused. Hehoboam re- 
jected the prudent advice of his more aged 
counsellors, and placed himself in the hands 
of the rash courtiers wdio thought to carry 
everything by violent measures and threats. 
And the consequence, as every man of com- 
mon sense must have foreseen, was the 
unanimous determination of ten tribes to 
cast off his authority. But then the f oolisii 
king sent the worst person he could have 
selected, Adoram, the collector of the taxes 
that were so burdensome. He thought, 
perhaps, that the appearance of this officer 
would awe the malcontents. However, 
Adoram was soon stoned ; and then Reho- 
boam, alive to the real state of affairs, 
went off as fast as he could to Jerusalem. 
Yet he would strike one stroke for his 
dominion. He assembled a great body of 
troops ; but the prophet Shernaiah was 
directed to announce that the expedition 




Ji'cbcboam ? From sculptures fit Karnak, com- 
memorating Sliishak's successes. The inscrip. 
tiou lias been interpreted ' Kingdom of Judah!' 

should not prosper ; and, after this, even if 
Reholjoam had been inclined to proceed, it 
is clear that his army would not have fol- 
lowed him (1 Kings xii. 1-24; 2 Chron. x., 
xi. 1-4). He was still master vOf a powerful 
state : Judah and Benjamin obeyed him ; 
and some of the towuis of Simeon and Dan 
seem to have been added to his territories : 
Edom also continued tributary. Besides, 
the priests and the Levites, disgusted with 
Jeroboam's idolatry, resorted to Judah. 
Rehoboam, therefore, had he learned wis- 
dom by his calamity, might have roigp.ed 
in peace and prosperity. He did take the 
precaution of fortifying several of his cities, 
and furnished them Avith stores ; and he 
had eighteen wives and fiixty concubines, 



eehobothI m)t Crra^ttry ct 753 1 


who bore him many children ; and these 
children he placed, no doubt with faith- 
ful governors, in various cities to secure 
their allegiance (5-23). But this prudence 
lasted a very little while. Rehoboam, who 
should have reflected that the riches of 
Jerusalem would make it a coveted prize 
for neighbouring monarchs, forsook the 
Lord, his only effectual defender, and with 
the mass of his people began to commit 
abominations and seek after idol-gods. 
Their punishment was prompt and severe. 
Shishak (Sheshonk I.), king of Egypt, invad- 
ed Judah (possibly invited by Jeroboam) ; 
and, though, on the humiliation of the king 
and his princes, Shemaiah was instructed 
to promise some remission, yet the rich 
spoil of Jerusalem was entirely carried off 
(1 Kings xiv. 22-28 ; 2 Chron. xii. 1-12) : see 
Shishak. , ^ . , . 

Little remains to be said of this kmg. 
He was always, though not actually at war, 
in a hostile attitude towards Jeroboam. 
His favourite son and successor was Abij ah 
or Abijam, whom Maachah, the daughter or 
granddaughter of Absalom, bore him (1 
Kings xiv. 29-31; 2 Chron. xi. 21, 22, xii. 13-16). 

REHO'BOTH (streets or wide places).—!. 
An Assyrian city (Gen. x. 11) of which no- 
thing definite is known. Kalisch conjec- 
tures that the extensive ruins still bearing 
the name BaUdbeli-vialik on the east bank 
of the Euphrates, about four miles south- 
west of the town of Mayadin, may mark 
the site {Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 261). 
— 2. The name given by Isaac to the well 
in the possession of which he was un- 
molested (Gen. xxvi. 22). This is possibly 
Blr er-Buheibeli : see Wilton's Negeb, pp. 
242, 243.-3. The native city of one of the 
early Edomitish kings (Gen. xxxvi. 37; 
1 Chron. i. 48). This probably lay on the west 
bank of the Euphrates, between Circesium 
and Anah : it is now called er-Bahaheh. 

RE'HTJM (compassionate). — !. One who 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra 11. 2), called also Nehum (Neh.vii. 7).— 
2. A Persian governor, or chancellor, who 
obstructed the Jews in rs-building their 
temple and city (Ezra iv. 8, 9, 17, 23).— 3. A 
Levite who helped to repair the wall of 
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 17).— 4. One who sealed 
the covenant (x. 25).— 5. A priest who re- 
turned from captivity (xii. 3), called also 
Harim (15) ; possibly the same with No. 1. 

RE'I {friendly). A person who adhered 
to David, when Adonijah made his attempt 
upon tlie crown (1 Kings i. 8). He is not 
elsewhere mentioned. Some conjecture 
him to be Raddai, David's brother. 

REINS. The Hebrews regarded the reins 
or kidneys as the seat of various affections 
and emotions, such as we for the most part 
ascribe in common parlance to the heart 
Thus God is said to try the heart and rems 
(Psal. vii. 9 ; Jer. xvii. 10, xx. 12). Hence 
the psalmist says his reins instructed him 
(Psal. xvi. 7), referring to the serious 
thought he had. Sec also Ixxiii. 21; Jer 
xii. 2, and elsewhere. . 

RE'KEM {variegation, floioer-gardemnci) 
1 One of the kings or chiefs of Midian slaiu 
by the Israelites (Numb.xxxi. 8 ; Josh, xiii 
2L) 2. A name in the genealogies of Judah 


where it is not clear whether a person or a 
place is intended (1 Chron. ii. 43, 44). 

RE'KEM {id.). A city of Benjamin (J osh. 
xviii. 27.) ^ „ , 
RELIGION. This word as generally uted 
in our version refers rather to the services 
or mode of worship than to godliness or 
piety of the heart ; which is the sense it now 
ordinarilv bears. Thus we find ' the Jews 
religion' (Acts xxvi. 5; Gal. i. 13, 14), i.e. 
the Jewish religious principles and forms, j 
Religious service is meant in James i. 26, 
27. So ' religious ' in the former of these ; 
verses indicates the observance of Goa's , 
external ordinances, the outward manifes- i 
tation of the principle, i.e. piety, withm. ; 
The original word rendered ' religious in 
Acts xiii. 43 is that below translated, per- 
haps more properly, ' devout ' (50). 

REM4LI'AH (whom Jehovah decks). The 
father of Pekah, king of Israel (2 Kings xv. 
25, 27, 30, 32, 37, xvi. 1, 5 ; 2 Chron. xxviu. 6 ; 
Isai. vii. 1, 4, 5, 9, viii. 6). ^ -r i, - 
RE'METH {height). A city of Issachar 
(Josh. xix. 21). It is possibly the same with 
Ramoch (1 Chron. vL 73). 

REM'MON ^pomegranate). A city ol 
Simeon (Josh. xix. 7). See Rmiio>^ 1. 

REM'MON-METHO'AR {id.) (J osh. xix.l3). 
See RiMMON, 3 : Methoar is not part of the 
proper name. . , 
REM'PHAN or RE'PHAN. This word 
occurs only in the speech of Stephen (Acts 
vii. 43), when citing Amos v. 26. Stephen 
follows the Sep tuagint version, in which the 
Hebrew Chiun is rendered 'P««p«y. It is not 
easy to explain how this change of name 
was made. Hengstenberg. with other critics, 
thinks that it originated in mistake, one 
letter being substituted for another; but 
Winer opposes such a notion and adopts 
the opinion previously entertained by many 
that Rephan is a Coptic word indicating the 
planet Saturn {BiU. BWJB., ai't. 'Saturn-). 
The question is the more intricate, because 
the idolatry referred to would seem to have 
been committed in the wilderness ; and 
there is no mention of Chiun or Remnhan 
in the Mosaic narrative. Hence De Wette 
regards the word as an appellative instead 
of a proper name, and translates ' das Gestell 
eurer Bilder,"the frame' or 'basis of your 
images,' i.e. the pedestal on which they were 
placed or carried. Henderson, identifying 
Chiun with the Moloch of scripture, Saturn, 
renders, ' the Chiun of your images, the star 
of your god,' and explains ' Chiun of your 
images,' i.e. represented by them: the 
model after which they were made. While 
the idol so called, which the Hebrews 
carried about in a sacred shrine, was itself 
a svmbol or representative of one of the 
heavenly bodies, it was in its turn repre- 
sented by a number of copies, or smaller 
images, Avhich they used as penates or 
house-hold gods in the practice of astrolatry, 
(worship of the stars)— Minor Prophets, vv. 
161, 162. Fresh light has, however, of late 
been thrown upon the subject. There is au 
Egyptian tablet in the British Museum, on 
which are represented a group of gods. Of 
these, two bear the names of Reupu, pro- 
nounced Rempu, and Ken. These Mr. R. S. 
I Poole (Smith's Diet of the Bible, vol. iii. pp 



^^7 %mt ^XxmlttS^t. [rephidim 



102M029) beUeves to be the deities of some 
eastern tribe introduced into Egypt, their 
worship being perhaps similar to that of 
Baal and Ashtoreth. These deities might 
become known to the Israelites from the 
stranger population at the time existing in 
Egypt. But for fuller information the 
reader must consult the article referred to. 

REPENT, REPENTANCE. There are 
different original words rendered thus in 
our version of the New Testament. The 
Greek metamelomai implies generally the 
changing of one's care, mind, or purpose, 
after having done or resolved on anvthing 
(e.g. Matt. xxi. 29, 32 ; Heb. vii. 21), also with 
the idea of regret or discomfort superadded 
j (e.g. Matt, xxvii. 3 ; 2 Cor. vii. 8). Another 
word, metanoeo, is to have an after-view, 
that is, to alter one's views, or mind, with 
a feeling of sorrow for them. It is used 
generally (e.g. Luke xvii. 3); and in an 
evangelical sense to indicate pious sorrow 
for unbelief and sin, and the turning from 
these to God and the gospel of Christ (Matt, 
iii. 2 ; Acts xxvi. 20). Genuine repentance 
is attended with external acts (Matt. xi. 21), 
and evidenced by suitable fruit (iii. 8). For 
this true repentance (wrought in the heart 
by the divine Spirit) is not mere remorse, or 
dread of the consequences of transgression, 
but an ingenuous sense of the error, the 
shamefulness, the guilt of sin. It cannot 
satisfy for or expiate evil ; but he who truly 
repents is well disposed to welcome and 
avail himself of the satisfaction and atone- 
ment made by the Lord Jesus Christ. Hence 
the gospel message is compendiously de- 
scribed as 'repentance toward God, and 
faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ ' (Acts 
XX. 21 ; comp. ii. 38, iii. 19). 

The Lord is sometimes said to repent 
(Gen. vi. 6 ; 1 Sam. xv. 11), not as though he 
felt regret as if he had taken a false step ; 
he is incapable of any such emotion or 
alteration of mind (Numb, xxiii. 19), but 
because he appears to change his course of 
conduct towards those who disobey and are 
unfaithful to his command. 

REPH'AEL (whom God heals). One of 
the Levite porters (1 Chron. xxvi. 7). 

RE'PHAH (riches). A descendant of 
Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 25). 

REPHAI'AH (whom Jehovah healed).—!. 
One of David's posterity (l Chron. iii. 21). — 2. 
A captain of the Simeonites (iv. 42).— 3. A 
descendant of Issachar (vii. 2).— 4. A person 
of the line of Saul (ix. 43), called also Rapha 
Kjin. 37).— 5. ' The ruler of the half part of 
Jerusalem,' who helped to repair the wall ; 
(Neh. iii. 9). 

REPHA'IM, REPHA'IMS (giants 1 heal- 
ers 1 chiefsl) A great and mighty people : 
who, though not Canaanites, once held large 
dominion over Canaan and elsewhere, but 
who were wasted and overcome ; so that at < 
the time when the Israelites passed into the : 
promised land there were but some rem- ' 
nants of them, who were for the most part : 
without difficulty subdued and eradicated. . 
The origin of the Rephaim is variously de- i 
Bcribed. Kalisch believes them Japheth- . 
Ites (Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 351). The ' 
first mention we have of them is in connec- 1 
tion with the history of Abraham. They are i 



) said to have been defeated by the eastern 

■ kings (Gen. xiv. 5) ; and again their terri- 

■ tories were to be the possession of Abra- 
; ham's descendants (xv. 20). Branches of 
i them were the Anakims of whom we have 

special mention, the Zuzims, and the Emims, 
whose country was subsequently occupied 
by the children of Lot (Deut. ii. 9-11, 19-21). 
There were other tribes belonging to the 
same great stock : perhaps the Philistines 
were one of these. Miss Corbaux in her 
elaborate memoir of this people (Journ. of 
Sacr. Lit, Oct. 1851, Jan.— Oct. 1852) would 
identify them with the shepherd race who 
held at one time dominion in Egypt. She 
believes them of the stock of Mizraim, and 
traces from Egyptian monuments the en- 
mity and devastating wars between them 
and Egyptian monarchs. She supposes that 
their supreme metropolis in Palestine was 
Salem, afterwards Jerusalem, where the 
feudal head of the nation resided, and re- 
ceived after Abraham's victory a tenth part 
of all ; his supremacy being acknowledged 
equally by the Hebrew sojourner and by the 
Emim king of Sodom (Gen. xiv. 20). It is 
impossible to give here even an outline of 
Miss Corbaux's memoir. Doubtless some 
positions in it are open to objection ; but 
it must yet be admitted that her theory 
throws light on many geographical and 
ethnological questions closely connected 
with the sacred story. In our translation 
some obscurity is occasioned by the word 
being sometimes rendered 'giants' (e.g. 
Deut. iii. 11). Og was one of the last rem- 
nants of the Rephaim race, though some 
men of great stature lived in after ages, 
who probably were of the same stock. 

REPHA'IM, VALLEY OP. A vallev near 
Beth-lehem where David twice defeated the 
Philistines (2 Sam. v. 17-25, xxiii. 13; 1 
Chron. xi. 15, 16, xiv. 9-I6). This valley, 
noted for its fertility (Isai. xvii. 5), is 
thought to be the plain a little south-west 
of Jerusalem. This however hardly answers 
to the word used in the original for 
valley, emek: see Valley. Yet it must 
have been in this immediate neighbour- 
hood ; for the boundarjMine of Judah and 
Benjamin ran by, and it was close upon the 
valley of Hinnom (Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16, 
where ' valley of the giants '). 

REPH'IDIM (refreshments, rests). A sta- 
tion of the Israelites in their way to Sinai 
(Exod. xvii. 1, 8, xix. 2 ; Numb, xxxiii. 14, 15) 
It was here that the people murmured 
against Moses because there was no water ; 
and Moses was commanded to go with some 
of the elders, and smite the rock that was ' 
in Horeb, from which there should then 
flow waters in abundance. The proximity ! 
of Rephidim to Horeb is thus evident. Tra- ' 
vellers are not, indeed, agreed as to its 
exact position ; Robinson placing it at some 
point in the Wadp es-SheiJch, 'not far from 
the skirts of Horeb, and about a day's march 
from the particular mountain of Sinai ' (Bibl. 
Res., vol. i. p. 121), and Stanley imagining it 
to have been in the Wady Feiran (Sinai and 
Palestine, p. 40), a valley south-west of the 
TVady es-Sheikh. But, if there is a doubt of 
the exact locality of Rephidim, there is 
none as to the fact that it was very near 



j beprobate] 



the Place wliere soon aiterwarcls tlie law 
was delivered. The rock that was smitten 
Zll some distance from the camp : tne 
miracle was performed in the sigM not of 
111 the people, hnt of chosen elders ^sho 
fen? wi'th Closes to the sPOt. And thei-e is 
no improhahility m supposing that this was 
hisher ground, and that the st^ea^'^^^^^^ 
culou^^ly produced, flowed down to the en- 
campment, and along with the march, so as 
^0? a coSiderahle time to have supplied 
drink to the trihes. The Jews have a le- 
oi.fl that the very rock in some super- 
fJaSfral manner It'tended the Israelites 
tin ouo-h the whole of their wanderui gs ; and 
T)r All ord insists that St. Paul adopted this 
fe-'etd (1 Co?, s. 4) : see Alford's note on 
niiffext. But surely Bloomfiem^^^ expc.s. 
tion is more reasonable: Chust, ^^^lo^^ 
IvrVed hy that rock, everywhere accom- 
SnSd and was present with them, supply- 
water miraculously furnished, winch, 
' s°it never failed them, might he said popu- 
larly to /o'toii; them, as Christ who_ supplied 
it did ei her reaWj, though invisiDjy, or 
noSmiiviw and spiritually. ^}^^^^^ 
£/id present nelp_and^,in-o^tection C^^^ 



Test , note on 1 Cor. x. 4j. Tlieie i^.^J''^^^'-;. 
lot v-.Pi' «till to he seen in the neighhoui- 
'-^ ^ ^.To-h in. ivL The Wady Leja, which tra 
Smon Ia7es to l e tlia? very identical one 
whicSvo ?5 struck. There are fissures m 
n ^ om wliich water might have flowed 
Dr Koiinson believes them to 'helong 
"to the nature of the ^e-ani/ some of the^n 

possibly enlarged by ^^'^ ^'j'Vf/ifTol'i n 
"nt Dr Olni (Travels in the East, xoL i. p. 

vol i P 149) think them natural. The last- 
m iied traveller, who came to the spot pos- 

^ was baseless, had his mind changed bj ex- 
^ ^mination. ' This stone,' says he, ' made 
: moSipression upon me than any natura 

obTect Saiming to attest 
i See Kitto, Daily Bible Eeadwgs^n^ Sei es 
' Rpventeenth week. Second daj. in iiepni 
Ift^^ A^Silek fought ISe 
nroboblY for the water wuh vhicn tne 
iribes were supplied. And in the battle as 
Vl Ss held up his hands Israel prevailed 
Hither ?t was, too, that Jethro canie to visit 
i his son-in-law, bringing Zipporah and hei 

i *^^REPr6bATE. This word occurs in Jer. 
1 ' vi 30 • where the idea is that of base metal, 

less, and conseaueutly u-jec Utl (U m i. s , 

^.orthless. But I am Persiiaded > ou shall 
■ find that we can bear the tiial. c pi. .n, 

hSwevS- Uiat you may require no such de- 
1 monstration (of power exercised bi u. in 



correction;, "^ut rather that you should do no 
evil : our desire is not that we should gam 
credit, but that you may do that ^vhich la 
eood for your own advantage, even though 
fe lose in reputation by not having to ex- 
hibit our apostolic power. Comp. Alfoid. 

" The wol-ds'J reprobate ' and - reprobation ' 
have in later theological discussion been 
?aken io imply a condemnatory decree of 
God against certain persons. But thia 
meaning does not appear m scripture.. 

RE'SEX (a bridle). A great As^yiian ! 
citv between Kineveh and CalahCGen x. 12) 
It is by some identifled vritlx Nimroud 
See NiXEVEH, pp. 632, 634. Or It 13 likely 
mat^hc^Ifte'of Besen may ^^^^^ 
It is hardly possible to arrive at absolute 
certainty. n nf 

RE'SHEPH {flame, Jigntmng). One oi 
Ephraim's descendants (1 Chron. yu. 25). 

RESTITUTION. An act of ju=tice m 
which that is restored to a man of which he 
had been unjustly deprived. 1^ ^as l)ro- 
Yided in the Mosaic law that fo^,^ctual the t 
restitution should be ^o^^^ o^A^-f^l.'l ' 
trespass, carelessness, misadventure t e 
amount was eraduated according to the 
SXa iliS- (Exod. xxii. 1-15). Hence the 
'eiuence of David against the supposed 
robber of the poor man's lamb was exacti 
according to statute (2 Sam. xn. 6: comp. ^ 

""^Resurrection. The rising again of 
Jesus after he had been cvucifled and buried 
is one of the cardinal points oi Chiisti.in 
Sith (1 Cor. XV. 14-18). It has been eni- 
bodied in the standard creeds of the church 
(Apostles', mcene, Atlumasian),^^^^ 
always been maintained 1^7 orthodox be- 
lievers. Ancient prophecy appeared to toie- 
shadow it cPsal. xvi. 10), and ancient lusto y 
to tvpify it (Jonah i. 17 ; Matt. xii. 40). A d 
ou?Lord himseif in his teaching repeatedly 
told his disciples that he should Ije put to 
death and be raised again the /hud cU> 
'xvi 21 xvii. 9). It is true that thty am 
:fot understand his words : tl^^y could jmt 
hrint^ themselves to beheve that tneu 
Mast'er would be so despitefully treated 
^id sMn-and the less, the higher the view 
Sey took of his personal digaity-so tha 
they puzzled themselves in vain to disco ci 
vhlt the rising from the dead was, of ^^ huh 
he ^polce Olark ix. 10 ; Luke x^ iii. o4 . 

The career of Jesus seemed to worlaly ey es 
•1 failure Rehadpcrformed many wonderful 
works and had awakened vast curiosity 
S •onahonc the country. A few attached 
f lowers accompanied him from place to 
Place ; but he had arrayed no great interest 
n his side : he had failed to rouse the pow- 
erfii masses. His conduct must have 
.eemcd inexplicable to the calm keen ob- 
;er -ers of the world; so rhr.t those who 
naturally would have wi>hod hiiu success 
could not forbear their s^axvtstic conimciits 
nil hi^ nroceedinirs (John vn. 3-o). He had 
en un cod the ruling classes ; and his doc- 
trine was utterly distasteful to theni be- 
cause it involved a project of thorough re« 
f rm. Rejected by the heads of the nation, 
he addressed himself to the poor and d^ 
spisedanduninfluential class; to whom he 



759 



MMt ^llGf^lt^tit. [hesubeectiok 



discoursed in lofty language of a coming 
kingdom of rigliteousness. But, when they 
were moved and would hare rallied round 
him, he strangely shrunk away (vi. 15). He 
seemed afraid to strike a decisive Wow. 
He would not claim openly the Messiahship: 
he forbade his disciples to proclaim it (Matt, 
xvi. 20), and tried to hush even the grateful 
acknowledgments of those he had bene- 
fited (ix. 30, xii. 15, 16). ' The multitudes 
did not understand this: they forsook him: 
his doings were to them unintelligible : 
they affected them no longer. And yet this 
state of things could not continue. He 
himself hastened to bring it to a close. For 
a long time the corners of Galilee had pro- 
tected him against the fierce hatred of the 
mighty. JSTow he disregarded it : he ap- 
peared in Jerusalem no more as a private 
individual, or as a rabbi accompanied by a 
few scholars, but at the head of a huzzaing 
multitude who hailed him as the Messiah, 
to the astonishment of the capital, which 
was deeply agitated by the sight. Retreat 
v/as now no more possible: the fear of his 
opponents was excited : he could only es- 
cape their rage by relinquishing his exer- 
tions, and seeking to save his life in some 
secluded solitude. If he was not disposed 
: to do that, he must now organize a party, 
I and attack before he was attacked. He 
did it not : instead of that, he pronounced 
{ woes over the scribes and Pharisees, dis- 
closed before the whole people their un- 
: faithful hypocritical conduct, roused their 
, malice, and, defenceless and alone, stood 
I before them with no other protection than 
I the truth which proceeded froi^i his mouth, 
j and the patent purity of his life and ac- 
! tions. But truth and innocence are, upon 
the battle-field of history, poor weapons 
against malice and artifice, against trea- 
chery and power. And, consequently, Jesus 
Christ fell in the decisive moment : he died 
as a criminal ; and with him the work he 
commenced fell into ruin, and the Hope of 
Israel was extinguished' (Hoffman, CJiris- 
tianity in First Cent., transl., chap, iii, p. Gl). 

Never was the discomfiture of a party 
more compete: the very embers were 
I crushed out. There v/ere only a few women 
j left to lament the dead one; while two or 
1 three of the better class had the charity to 
' give him burial. There was evidentlv no 
I thought— in the circumstances there could 
I be none— of taking up the work which 
I Jesus had failed to accomplish ; for the 
I strange rumour, three days after, of his 
having been seen alive was altogether 
\ disbelieved by those who had been his dis- 
ciples, and mocked as a idle story. They 
vv-ere far too disheartened to concoct any 
plan of bearding the rulers whose power 
had just been so fatally displayed. 

And yet in six or seven weeks these men, 
of the peasant class for the most part, ap- 
pear again in public, in the heart of Jerusa- 
lem, and, in the presence of the multitudes 
who w^ere thronging to a great national 
feast, begin to preach, not just some frag- 
ments of their dead Master's doctrine, not 
the crude speculations which men devising 
an imposture generally commence with, 
but a matured system, complete in all its 



necessary parts, the Christian religion in 
-such shape, and form, and consistency, and 
fulness, that the accumulated wisdom of 

eighteen centuries, the acutest and most 
subtle minds of the long line of later theo- 
logians, have been able only to illustrate 
that v/hich they received, and have not 
made any real addition to it. And this 
system these unlearned men open out and 
maintain with the most remarkable bold- 
ness, and the most astonishing skill in ap- 
plying the ancient and venerated scriptures 
of the nation to its support, basing the 
whole of their doctrine on this great fact, 
that Jesus, the crucified, was risen again. 
They were men of no political weight : all 
the authority was in the hands of those 
whom they confronted: why did not the 
rulers, if it v>^ere a falsehood, immediately 
expose it ? Besides, the fact insisted on was 
not just that a dead man was living again ; 
it was a life of a different kind that they 
said had appeared, the revelation of a new 
world, a life of immortality existing in a 
mortal body. And the apprehension of this 
gave the disciples perfectly new ideas. All 
in the scriptures heretofore obscure had 
now a flood of light on it, testifying the im- 
portance of the truth made known to them. 

So that this was. not merely a tale of won- 
der which they insisted on for a temporary 
purpose. They persuaded thousands that 
they spoke the truth; and Christianity, 
based upon the fact of the death and resur- 
rection of Jesus, whose work was thus seen 
to be no failure, began at once to exer- 
cise that extraordinary influence which 
even its enemies allow it, of refining and 
purifying those who embraced its doctrines 
and obeyed its precepts, gaining ground 
continually, in the face of the most cruel 
and continued persecutions, till, as our own 
eyes behold, it is accepted by the most en- 
lightened nations ; its tendency being 
everywhere to ameliorate the condition of 
men, to foster the charities of domestic 
life, to establish a standard of morals, to 
which if the world were really conformed, 
certainly the greatest am.ount of happiness 
of which in our mortal state we are capable 
would be attained, 

Now let an unbeliever account for these 
results, if he can. Could the fact on which 
the gospel teaching is based be a mistake ? 
Could it be a concerted lie 1 We have con- 
temporary evidence. Setting apart the nar- 
rative of the four evangelists, let us look 
for a moment at the testimony of St. Paul. 
His first epistle to the Corinthians is ac- 
knowledged on all hands to be a genuine 
production. It was written within about 
twenty-five years of the occurrence of tlie 
alleged resurrection ; and it contains deli- 
berate statements of the facts, a nai'ration 
of Christ's several appearances to Peter, to 
the twelve, to five hundred brethen most of 
whom were still alive, to James, to ail the 
apostles. Let it be remembered that Paul ; 
v/as speaking of what happened in his own 
life-time, when he was grown up, that if 
not at Jerusalem at the juncture he was 
there soon after, that he v/as on intiinate 
terms with the rulers, and must have heard 
from them their explanations, for at first 



eesubeectionI 



760 



Christianity. ^^mBimi couW 
on sucli a man. So that there is no fact m 
history authenticated by fetter eYidence. 

But suppose it false; and what follows? 
Literally that youhave the most remarkahle 
J^sSts-those which have heen touched on 
alTove-results lasting to our own days 
SocSding from no adequate cause. We 
£aU fake the liberty to remind ^^eheYers 
that there are certain laws of nature which 
camiot be transgressed ; that causes are re- 
laSd to and commensurate with their 
efflcts • that events flow on in definite se- 
nStnce n they are credulous enough to 

tSppSsethat the 1^^^^^^/^,?^^ *X*J''"th1 
flPKtitnte of any foundation, that tne 
whSe wL the hiried invention of a few 
eniul^tic men, we H f 

thev to he enthusiastic m such a matter 
h ow came they, utterly disheartened as we 
have se^n they were, dispersed, and ready 
to return to their former humble occupa- 
ffn^r/rohn xsi. 2, 3)-liow came they after 
thei^ Mas?e?fdeath to take up the notion 
whSh thev would not listen to m their 
Master's nfe, and to propound the gospel 
^Rtem as before noted, all at once in its 
breadTh andpower ; when it must Havebeen 
clear to their minds that, whatever the ulti- 
SSrsuccess, to them there could be only 
Same SSd discredit, a miserable life,,and a 
hSisTdeath ? Never was prostration at 
^?t BO complete: never was confidence 
^ Sterwards so certain and successful. An6 
j whv ? There must have been an adequate 
STse lrtle£ Common sense, the ordi- 
' nary laws of reasoning and of nature as- 
sml usthat it could have been only fact. 
Item fact, neither deliberate fraud nor de- 
iSfoUy.that compeUedthem to accept 
the truth of the miracle of Christ s resur- 
Scti^ Yes, indeed, ' now is Christ risen 
from tbe dead, and become the first-fruits 
SThem thaTslept ' a Cor.,xv 20)^ 'Ibave 
been used for many years,' said Dr. -Arnold 
(^Sermons on the Christian Lije, p. 14 , to 
study the history of other times, and to 
Examine and weigb the evidence of those 
who have written about them ; aM I taiow 
of no one fact, in the bistory f^ai^d, 
whicJi is proved by better and fuUer evi- 
d^nSof eve^- sort, to the understanding 
nf a f air enquirer, than the great sign which 
God liven us that Christ died and rose 
again from the dead.' The argument can of 
cSurse be but slightly toucbed on here 
but it is earnestly recommended to every 
thoughtful mind. Let it be coupled AMth 
what iB elsewhere said ^^der CEffiisTiAN- 

MIRACLES, PROPHECY, R^^^J,^^^^' 

rtrVpture : and the result, confirmed on 
aSdMs the same: ' We have not followed 

'^'Sf^n^fXi^s resurrection- 
bodvwe know very little. He took again 
?he fiSb that died ; and there were still the 

t?Sf wIsT Se ior-ti 

^ad put on JiSdt'm; 
times hardly recognized by his fnenas, ini 
'tS? we Sknomi tones and wei^remembercd 
Ictions assured them that jt w^^^^ the Lord 
(Luke xxiv. 16, 30, 31, 37 ; Jobn xx. lo, 16,. 



And he passed strangely in and out among 
tiiem. ltwasnot,perhap5,tillhisa£censK)n 
thit his body assumed that glorious port j 
^^Sr ^^ile it bad. on t^e mount of ^ 
transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 2 ; Mark ix 2 3 : 
Luke ix. 29), and which John beheld m Pat^ i 
imS fSv i 13-16). Butthisitisunpossible 
g?'S lo decide: sufficient that Christ's , 
resurrection put the seal upon his deatn, ; 
and^roved that his sacrifice was adequate i 
tSd accepted. Man's mighty debt was can- i 
c?Ued^ and therefore the prison of the | 
grave wS opened. So that, as tbe aposr.e | 
declares; Cliist' was delivered for our of- , 
fScts? and was raised again for our justifl- , 

^1^°5ptSraiwB Ws the resurrection 

of Christ with that of Ji^^^^'^^?^ -Sf t 
' fchrist the first-fruits ; afterward tney that 
are Christ's at his commg' (1 Cor. xv. 2^). 
Sdeed if he is the head and his servant^ 
the members of one mystical body (^. 2v), 
lifp cannot reign in the one and corruption 
S tb???ber Satherthe life from thehead 
^\VcoSnunicatedtoaUthesubord^^^^^ 
parts: and body as well as soul shall be 
quickened into immortality CJohnxiv. l9; 
Bom. viii. 11 ; PHil. iii- 20, 21). Ivor shall the 
resurrection comprise only „tbe xaitW. 
Our Lord has told us that ' all that are m 
the graves shall hear his voice and shall 
come^ forth' (John v. 28, 2^)- The ^vine 
newer has heretofore raised men from the 
dead - f or he who could at first create comd 
aslasiiy restore the life t^^at had pem^^^^^^ 
Some examples we have m tbe Old Te^ta 

Ssed the dead Mr^self ^d also gve _^je 
same power to his apo-^tles^at^. ix.^ -| , 
Luke vii 11-16 ; John xi. 33-44 , Acts ix. ^o, 
i 1^^9-120. There can be no doubt that. 
SosTso'raised died agam in tbe cmir^^^^^^^ 
nature. But it is probable tbat the sa^nt^ 
who came out of their graves after Christ » 
SurSon received t^en their incori^^^ 
tible bodies, apart oi.the train oi tne 
mlgbty Lord of life and immortality ,Matt. 

"^o'the worldlv-wlse the doctrine of the 
resT^rrectionofthedeadhasalwapapp^^^^ 
i-nrredible Our Lord taught it from the 
Pentateuch to the sneering Sadducees xgi. 
31, 32) ; and Paul preached it to th^mockmg 
philosophers of Athens 
Thp special objection was, How ^e ids 
Jpad raised up ? and with what body do they 
come ?^ a Cor xv. 35). And this is the ob- 
fec^fon whiS is still urged. The body of a 
ifving man is continually ^banging i is 
said, so that the particles which t>elonged 
to it a few years ago are now dispersed and 
belong to it no more, nay, may help to con- 
stitute the body of some one else With 
what body, then, shall the dead come ? What 
narricles shall be gathered to form there- 
fSrectton-body? The apostle indignantly 
Sswers such a question by pomtiug t^ the 
natural -growth of the com: it is not 
qu ck-ened except it die.' And it sprmgsnp 
changed but yet the same, ^eldrng t^e 
counterpart of that which was Bown e3&J8). 
So shall be the resurrection of the dead . 
buried n corruption they rise incorruptible 



f61 



And, just as, though the particles of our 
living hodies are in perpetual flux, we yet 
lose not our personal identity, so doulDtless, 
by the mighty power of God, the changed 
and glorified body will be felt to be the 
same ; with new powers and fresh capabili- 
ties, with vigour expanded and shape (it 
may be, we know not) altered, the deve- 
lopment of eternal life shall not affect the 
man's personal identity— in body as well as 
soul he shall have his perfect consummation 
and bliss (see some good observations on 
this topic in Niven's Victory over Death, 
chap, xii, ; and, for the nature of the risen 
body, Bickersteth's Tlie Risen Saints). 

It will indeed be a wondrous exercise of 
divine power ; and vain man, instead of 
foolishly questioning his Maker's purpose, 
might better be grateful for the high des- 
tiny revealed for those who sball be con- 
formed to the risen Saviour. Well were it 
if each one longed and laboured like the 
apostle to ' know Christ, and the power of 
his resurrection, and the fellowship of his 
sufferings, being made conformable to his 
death, if by any means ' he • might attain 
unto the resurrection of the dead ' (Phil. iii. 
10, 11). A noble hope : why will any one dis- 
own it ? 

RE'U {friend, i.e. of God). One of the 
patriarchs in the line of Shem (Gen. xi. 18-21 ; 
1 Ohron. i. 25). His name in the Greek form 
is Ragau (Luke iii. 35). 

REU'BBN (beJiold a son). The first-born 
of Jacob by his wife Leah, who hoped that 
on the birth of a son she should secure her 
husband's affection (Gen.xxix.31, 32). There 
is a singular incident related of Reuben's 
youth. He had found some mandrakes in 
the field during wheat-harvest, and brought 
them to his mother. Rachel coveted them ; 
and they were given to her on condition of 
her yielding up her husband's bed that 
night (XXX. 14-16). The next notice we have 
of him is a disgraceful one : he defiled his 
father's bed (xxxv. 22). Reuben was weak 
and impulsive ; yet he had some commend- 
able qualities. He would not join with his 
wicked brethren in their cruel plot against 
Joseph. It would seem that he was not 
present when they first devised it; and 
when he knew that they intended to kill 
Joseph he persuaded them to cast him into 
a pit, resolving at a favourable opportunity 
to take him up and restore him to his father. 
This plan was defeated by Judah's proposal 
to sell the lad to the Ishmeelites, when 
again Reuben was absent. His grief on 
discovering that Joseph was gone, killed as 
he believed, is creditable to his fi^aternal 
feelings ; and he was able afterwards to re- 
mind his brothers that, if they had listened 
to his counsel, they might have been spared 
their present trouble (xxxvii. 21, 22, 29, 30, 
xlii.22). We next find Reuben endeavouring 
to persuade hisf atherto let Benjamin accom- 
pany his brethren when they went a second 
time to Egypt for corn. But his arguments 
were coarse : ' Slay my two sons,' he said, 
• if I bring him not to thee ' (xlii. 37). Jacob 
was not likely to be prevailed on by such a 
mode of speaking. Four sons, however, of 
Reuben are named in the list of Israel's 
nouse at the descent into Egypt (xlvi. 9 : 




comp.Numb. xxvi. 5-7). Some difficulty has 
been felt in consequence of this : it has been 
supposed that two of the sons were born in 
Egypt. But it does not necessarily follow 
that such was the case. The sons might 
have been but two when Reuben addressed 
his father ; and two more might have been 
born in the weeks or months which inter- 
vened before the family migrated into 
Egypt. Or the two eldest sons might have 
been about Benjamin's age, and thus have 
been specially offered as fit pledges for his 
safe return : see Birks, Tlie Exodus of Is- 
rael, -p-p. 7, 8. 

In Jacob's prophetic blessing of his sons 
Reuben's incest is alluded to, and an intima- 
tion dropped that he should not have the 
prerogative of his birth-right (Gen. xlix. 3, 
4). Accordingly, though Reuben is usually 
named first in genealogical lists, yet the 
birth-right was transferred to Joseph, the 
progenitor of two tribes, and the imperial 
power given to Judah (1 Chron. v. 1, 2). 

At the first census in the wilderness the 
number of Reubenites was 46,500 (Numb. i. 
20,21): their encampment was to the south of 
the tabernacle ; and on march they were to 
head the second division of the host, Simeon 
and Gad being joined with them (ii, 10-16), 
At the second census tbey had decreased to 
43,730; for of their tribe many had rebelled 
and fallen with Dathan and Abirarn (xvi., 
xxvi. 5-11). In the last year of the wander- 
ing in the wilderness, when the kingdoms of 
Og and of Sihon had been conquered, the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad requested that they 
might be allowed to settle east of the Jordan. 
It was a pasture-land ; and they had very 
much cattle. Moses was at first disposed to 
refuse; but, when they professed their readi- 
ness to aid their brethren in the conquest 
of Canaan westward, he consented. And 
accordingly they at once occupied their 
cities and placed there their wives and chil- 
dren, forming with half the tribe of Manas- 
seh a large division of the whole people, cut 
off in some measure from the rest of the 
nation. 

The territory of Reuben, in the region now 
called the Belka, was divided from Moab on 
the south by the Arnon, and bounded on 
the west by the Dead sea and the Jordan 
(Josh. xiii. 16, 23). To the east it extended 
to the Arabian deserts and the country of 
Ammon, while on the north it bordered 
upon the possession of Gad. But it does 
not seem as if the frontier of these two 
tribes was very exactly defined ; or rather 
the population, feeders of sheep and cattle, 
were migratory in their habits and occupied 
at different times different districts. For 
we find some of the towns, as Heshbon 
(Numb, xxxii, 37 ; Josh, xiii. 17, xxi. 39) and 
Dibon (Numb, xxxii. 34 ; Josh. xiii. 17), as- 
cribed sometimes to Reuben and sometimes 
to Gad. Generally speaking, the towns of 
Reuben are noted in Numb, xxxii. 37, 38 ; 
Josh. xiii. 15-21 ; four of them being assigned 
to the MerariteLevites (xxi. 36, 37 ; 1 Chron. 
vi. 78, 79) ; and one,Bezer, was a refuge-city 
(Deut. iv, 43 ; Josh, xx. 8), 

The prophetic blessing of Moses upon 
Reuben expressed a hope of life and popu- 
lation for the tribe (De«it. xxxiii. 6) : no 



EEUBEXITES] 



762 



brilliant future ^vas anticipated. And this 
vras just tlaeir history. 'Their ahodes 
abounded,' says Dr. Kaliscli, ' in excellent 
pasture-land, forests, and meaaows; and 
mauT became wealthy proprietors of cattle ; 
but they were by these veiy blessings alien- 
ated from the spirit of war and conauest, 
and almost from a progressive political lif e ; 
and in the time of the jtidges they could 
not even bv long discussions be roused to 
abandon for a while their herus and Til- 
laees, and to take part in the glorious na- 
tional war immortalized by the song of De- 
borah, Judges T. 15, Id ' {Coniin. on Old Test. 
Gen., p. 730\ 

The Reubenites with the other trans- : 
Jordanic settlers despatched a large body 
of troops to aid their brethren in the con- 
quesu of Canaan (Josh. ir. 12, 13). On their 
return ther erected an altar of memorial by 
the Jordan, which seemed at first likely to 
cau=e disseusiouamong the tribes (xxii.). we 
afterwards hear lie tie of them. lu the days 
of Saul thev in conjuuctionwith their neigh- 
bours made some successful forays on the 
Ha^arites, and extended their pastures even 
to the Euphrates ; the army of the confede- 
' rate tribes beiug 44.760 (1 Chron. v. 1-10, 18- 
•-'2^ Lars-e numbers of them joined David at 
Hebron rxii. 37), who appointed a separate 
rn^er over them (xxvii. 16) : Solomon, ho^- 
ev-^^- incUided them with Gad in one of his 
commiss'-iriat departments (1 Kings iv. 19). 
On the divisionoftheHi^ingdom they attached 
themselves to the northern state, and were 
' ultimatelv for their sins carried away cap- 
tive bv Tislath-pileser a Gnron. v. 6, 25, 26) ; 
when'theVr country seems to have been 
occupied by 'lloa.h (comp. Josh. xiii. 16-21 
with Isai. xt.\ . . -r^ . 

REr'BE:TITE3 (Xumb. xxvi. , ; Deut. 
Vi V 16. iv. 43. xxix. S ; Josh. i. 12, xii. 6, 
xV'i - xxii. 1 : 2 Kings x. 33 ; 1 Chron. v. 6, 
:\ x:, 4-\ xii. 37s sixvi. 32, xxvii. 16). The 
; "ir -^- ' - ts of Reuben. 
' IIF L"'£L r friend ojGod^.—l.One of the sons 
r.f E*-Tn ;Gen. xxxvi. 4, 10.13.17; 1 Chron. 
■ 35 3:V—2 (Exod. ii. IS). See Jethko, 
IlAGUEL.— 3 c^^nmb. ii. 14\ See Deuel.— 4. 
-V Beniamlte chief a Chron. ix. S.'. 

EEU'AIAH (exalted). A concubine of ' 
Xahor, Abraham's brother cGen. xxil. 24). 

EETELATIO^T. Revelation is the unco- 
Terins and displaying of that which before 
was Iddden. In a theological sense it is a 
disclosure bv the Deity to his creatures of 
i truths which they could not have known by 
i the contemplation of his works or the de-i 
'■ unctions of their natunil reason, 
i The possibilitv of such a revelation can 
i hardlv be denied by those who admit the 
I exi-^^enco of a God and the formation of the 
' universe by his flat. He who could create 
beings with powers of intelligence could 
■surelv ?ct upon these powers and make 
such'beiucrs conscious of the communica- 
tions thev^were receiving. And, if we are 
to re^-ard God as the moral Governor of tlie 
world, there is a high probability that he 
would make his subjects acquainted Avith 
those salutary laws by which he intended 
to rule. To provide them with faculties 
which might be rightly or wrongly iised, 
aud yet to withhold that knowledge which 



' would sufficiently influence them to take 
the right path can hardly be thought befit- 
ting tlie character of a beneficent Father. ! 
There is a Limit by its natural constitution i 
to the powers of a finite creature. He can- : 
not reach, unaided, to the necessary know- 
ledge of the Infinite. It is impos^iV le laliy 
to areue this here. It must be sufficient to 
assert that just reasoning coiTOborates the 
fact that man never does ' by seaixhing find 
out God.' But there is the argument from ex- 
perience and historr^o be briefly adverted 
to. Left to themselves men have, confes- 
sedlv, become debased. Philosophy and , 
i reason have not prored adequate guides to 
I Tirtue. Heathen nations, who may be sup- ; 
posed to have had the light of reason, have 
not improved it ; aud those who have most < 
diligently cultivated philosophic enquiry 
have inVenuouslv confessed that they 
needed some higher guide. The state of : 
morals in countries, both ancient and mo- ; 
dern. where revelation is not knowu,is proof ; 
sufficient that man by himself is unable i 
to apprehend and to attain the chief good, i 
The whole evidence of this cannot be pro- ; 
duced. The fearful state of common social : 
life— known well to classical scholars- 
even in such centres of civilization as ; 
Athens and Rome, must not be opened forth 1 
to general Christian gaze. All that can be | 
said is that St. Paul's picture of it in Rom. | 
i. is far from an exaggeration of the truth. 
And vet men generally have had some 
faint linsrerius gleam of a revelation macie 
to their" remote ancestors. If even with 
this assistance they have failed, how much 
more if left without any divine instruction ? 
If, then, God is to be adequately known to 
his creatures, if his will is to be the rule or 
their rational obedience, if a standard of 
ris-ht and ^vi-ong is to be established, some 
co^mmunication from the Deity must be 
made for the eood order of the world. 

As to the mode of such communication 
or the wav in which the Eternal Spirit acts 
upon the human spirit, and brings men into 
a definite conscious relation to himself, 
uothino: need be said here. Is either is it 
requisite to argue the question whether, 
•the necessitv of a revelation being pre- 
supposed, it would be more desirable that it 
should be made to every individual, or com- 
mitted to a few with sufficient credentials 
to establish it to the satisfaction of tl^e rest. 
Observations bearing on this topic will lot- 
low. We have at present rather to do with 
a question of fact. It is alleged that such 
a revelation has been made, that teachers 
'ipeciallv commissioned by the Deity have 
appeared to make known his will. The 
matter of chiefest import is to ascertain 
whether these teachers h*ve possessed the 
knowledge aud held the commission to 
which they pretended ; or have they been 
deceivers or self-deceived ? 

That impostors and fanatics have ad- 
vanced the largest claims is sufficiently 
evident There must therefore be some 
' criteria which may distinguish fact from 
flction. And it is simply reasonable that, if 
teachers who profess to come from God 
i possess knowledge greater than men can 
I reach, and exercise powers greater than 



763 mMt %tXQMttS^t. 



men can wield, they miist have received 
these from above : to such men we 
may properly conclude that a revelation 
has been made. This knowledge and this 
power are evinced hy prophecy and hy 
miracles, which have heen fairly considered 
adequate proofs of revelation. They are 
appealed to in support of the revelation 
which we maintain. The Deity clial- 
lenges the world to declare, as he can, the 

' future (Isai. xli. 22, 23, 26, xlii. 9, xliv. 7, 8) ; 
and the great Teacher v^ho appeared nearly 
2,000 years ago in Judea pointed to the 
mighty works he wrought as evidence suffi- 
cient of his divine mission (John x. 37, 38, 
xiv. 10, 11). 

If, then, it can he established that events 
in the far future have been long before pro- 
claimed, if it can be shown on sufficient 
evidence that miracles have been perform- 
ed, we are justified in the conclusion that 

, the fiuger of God is here. See Mihacle, 

' PuoPKECY, where these topics are dis- 

; cussed. 

In estimating the truthfulness of alleged 
revelation we have certain checks. God 
cannot contradict himself. He lets us draw 
various plain deductions from wliat we 
: see in the book of nature. These have 
sometimes been thought inconsistent with 
the book of revelation. They may be in- 
consistent with the glosses put upon that 
I book. But the genuine voice of revelation 
has nothing to fear from investigations in 
any other field of knowledge. Sooner or 
; later all that really proceeds from God will 
j be found in admirable harmony. Truth will 
j not suffer by large enquiry. 
1 The preceding observations tend to 
j show the possibility and the necessity of a 
divine revelation, and point outsome of the 
j criteria by which to try the pretensions of 
I that which professes to come from God. To 
! us it presents itself in a written form. The 
communications which are said to have 
; been made by the Deity, by means of seve- 
; ral persons and repeated through succes- 
i sive ages, are embodied for our use in the 
j bible. Some notice therefore must be taken 
of the shape which, so far as it regards our- 
selves, they have assumed. Inspiration was 
necessary to preserve these, and to present 
tliem truthfully to us. Here is the distinc- 
tion to be made l)etween revelation and in- 
'• spiration — the one the supernatural commu- 
nication from God, the other the spiritual 
influence through which the communica- 
ticn is officially proclaimed by word of 
mouth or by writing, that is, the transfer- 
j ence of the communicated truth to the 
I spoken or written word. For revelations 
i may be given which he who receives them 
j is neither authorized nor empowered to de- 
! Clare (2 Cor. xii. 1-4) ; and record may l^o 
! made under spiritual guidance of that 
which has been learned mei'ely by the use 
of the ordinary senses (John xix. 35). - 

The structure of such a record must be 
looked at. It is reasonable to believe that God 
would act towards his creatures on an intel- 
ligent plan, his object in our world being to 
manifest his glory in the restoration of those 
who had wandered from his obedience. This 
plan would be apparent through all the 



[reyelatiok 



parts of a revelation proceeding from him. 
If then we can perceive through the bible, 
the books of which were composed at wide- 
ly-dilferent periods, the same general plan, 
we have a strong presumption in favour of 
its being a revelation from God. K'ow a 
revelation must not only disclose that 
which could not (as above noted) otherwise 
be known— such as the doctrines respecting 
the nature, attributes, and chai-acter of 
God, the sin and condemnation of man, the 
mode of salvation through Christ, and the 
work of the Holy Spirit— but must involve a 
moral probation. Else men would be 
treated as machines, and human responsibi- 
lity would be destroyed. But, if the great 
purpose of probation is to be answered, 
there must be preparation, a training, so 
to speak, of individuals and of the world. 
Revelation could not in this view be en- 
tire at once. Iso single period in the world's 
history could be fixed on in which the 
whole divine plan might be propounded, 
without violating the condition of moral 
probation to most of the generations of 
mankind. There muse be a gradual deve- 
lopment, if the graces of faith' and hope are 
to be exercised with practical effect upon 
human conduct. This is just the nature of 
the bible revelation, propounding truth by 
degrees, human language and human in- 
struments being employed for this, so as to 
give the probationary purpose its fullest 
effect ; sufficient being made known for the 
age to which any part of the revelation was 
made, and further developements coming 
after, not contrary to but illustrative and 
confirmatory of that which had preceded, 
modelled after such a manner that, while 
each, as just said, was thoroughly suitable 
to its own time, the whole should when 
completed be of perfect consistency, and 
continue to serve its purpose of probation 
through the rest of the generations of the ; 
earth. The revelation must be co-extensive > 
with those v^ho were to be benefited by it, 
and must therefore travel along the course . 
of man's historj^ And to answer its end it ; 
must be shaped, without derogation from ' 
God's holiness, so as to meet man's igno- 
rance, weakness, and sin. j 

Kow the revelation of the bible, the more j 
closely it is examined,will be more erldeut- i 
ly see!! to answer to the conditions adverted | 
to. Its forms of history, biography, and 
prophecy, instead of a series of abstract 
propositions, its divine side and its human ' 
side adapting it as the teacher and the 
touchstone of sinful men, and above all the 
marvellous unity of it, the later portions 
being the natural full growth of the earlier 
germ— these considerations, taken together 
with the evidence and criteria previously 
noted, may well convince us that the 
scripture revelation proceeds from God in 
mercy to his creatures. 

IlEVELATIOZ^, THE BOOK OP. The 
closing book of the New Testament, the 
only one therein which can strictly be 
called prophetical. It has its name as the 
translation of a Greek word, which is some- 
times (slightly Anglicized) used as its de- 
signation—Apocalypse. 

It can hardly be doubted that the writer 



EEYELATION, BOOK Qf] €l)t EXtKiXiV^ tit 



7ei 



wished to identify himself with the apostle 
John. For no other eminent man of the 
name is said to have heen in the early times 
of the gospel banished to Patmos(Rev. i. 9), 
and the expression used in i. 2 certainly 
points to the same hand that penned John 
i. 14. xix. 35. Accordingly, we find evidence, 
as soon as we could reasonably look for it, 
that this book was regarded in the church 
as the work of the apostle. At first the 
voice of ecclesiastical writers seems to be 
unanimous. It commences with those who 
actually knew St. John. Thus there is the 
evidence, more or less direct, of Justin Mar- 
tyr, of Melito of Sardis, of Theophilus of 
Antioch, of Irenffius— amost important wit- 
ness, who, having given an interpretation of 
the mystical number of the beast, appeals 
thereon to the testimony of those who had 
seen the apostle. TertuUian and others 
might also be adduced. But by-and-bye 
the unanimity is disturbed ; and Dionysius, 
bishop of Alexandria 248-265 A.D., a pupil of 
Origen, expresses his disbelief that St. John 
was the author of the book. He does not 
deny its high authority; but he thinks, 
from the way in which the name of the wri- 
ter is put forward, and especially from the 
diction, so inferior in accuracy to that of 
the Gospel and of the first epistle, that it 
could not have proceeded from the same pen 
with them, but must, as there were many 
Johns, have been the work of another of the 
same name. The testimony of Dionysius is 
bv far the'most weighty of early times. 
Doubts however increased ; and the result 
may be generally stated that in the eastern 
church the authorship of the apostle was 
questioned or denied, while alter the fifth 
century it was almost universally allowed 
bv the western church. Internal evidence 
has been carefully examined. The faults 
of the diction have been exaggerated ; 
nevertheless it is certainly a problem how 
the same individual could have at various 
times expressed himself so differently. 
Other arguments taken from the subject- 
matter may be satisfactorily explained. Dr. 
Alford has elaborately examined the. whole 
question, and— observing that the external 
evidence i is of the highest and most satis- 
factory kind: it was unanimous. in very 
earlv times. It came from those who knew 
and had heard St. John himself : it.only be- 
gan to be impugned by those who had 
doctrinal objections to the book : the doubt 
was taken up by more reasonable men on 
internal and critical grounds ; but no real 
substantive counter-claimant was ever pro- 
duced'— he expresses his conviction,in spite 
of certain difficulties arising from the style 
and other phenomena of the book, 'that 
the author was the apostle aud evangehst 
St. John ' {Proleg., sect. i.). The reader may 
be referred also to an able disquisition in 
the Bibliotheca Sacr., April 1864, pp. 319-347. 

With regard to the place where this 
work was composed, St. John distinctly 
declares that he was in Patmos when he 
had the apocalyptic visions (Rev. i. 9) : 
the only question is whether he recorded 
them immediately, or not till after his li- 
beration and rettn-n to Ephesus. In favour 
of the first branch of the alternative is x. 4, 



where he describes himself as at once be- 
ginning to write. But we can scarcely 
come to a certain conclusion on this point. 
As to the date, critics are not agreed 
whether St. John was banished under Ivero 
or under Domitian. The testimony of Iren- 
£eus is distinct for the last-named emperor. 
It has been thought, however, that some 
passages (as i. 7, ii. 9, iii. 9, vi. 12, 16, xi. 1) 
were ^composed before the destruction of 
Jerusalem ; and expositors who interpret 
the seven kings (xvii.lO) of Roman emperors 
cannot afford to go so far as Domitian. But 
there is little force in the supposition 
referred to-; and the application of the 
prophecy to individual monarchs is not to 
be allowed. Besides, it is very doubtful 
whether Nero's persecution extended to 
the east. The only reason of any weight 
is taken from the language, more rough, as 
has been noted above, than that of the 
other works of St. John. Indisputably, if 
the Revelation were written early, we might 
well imagine the apostle using his Galilean 
Greek in it ; while his long residence in 
Asia Minor would refine his speech, and en- 
able him to compose his Gospel in a much 
better style. It must be allowed that tbere 
is force in this ; but it can hardly overba- 
lance the positive testimony before referred 
to. We may venture therefore to place the 
date in 95 or 96 a.d. 

The scope of this book is iudicated in i, 
19 : it was to make known the existing 
state of the Asiatic churches, 'the things 
which are,' and to reveal the future history 
of the Christian church through its long 
pilgrimage to its eternal resting-place, 'the 
things which shall be hereafter.' Hence 
we mav thus distribute the contents : 

After the title (i. 1-3) and introduction (4- 
9) we have— 

I. The first vision, in which epistles 
with suitable warnings, exhortations, 
reproofs, and promises are dictated to 
the seven churches in Asia (10— iii. 22), 

II. Other visions, unfolding the mystery 
of God in the future fortunes of the 
church, and the downfall of all her 
enemies, till the final glorious tri- 
umph (iv. 1— xxii. 5). 

III. In conclusion there is a solemn 
asseveration of the truth of what had 
been spoken, a blessing on those who 
keep the sayings of this prophecy, 
corresponding to that in i. 3, and a 
warning to expect their speedy ac- 
complishment, with a final benedic- 
tioii (xxii, 6-21j, 

Of course no interpretation of this book 
can be given here ; and the reader must be 
referred to the works of professed com- 
mentators. It can only be said that there 
have been three main schools of exposi- 
tors :— 

1. The historical, who interpret according 
to the course of events from the earliest 
age to the present time, marking fulfil- 
ments in the successive facts of history. 

2. The xn-aBterists, who consider that the 
whole or nearly all was long ago fulfilled in 
the victory of Christianity over heathenism 
and Judaism. 

3. The futurists, who believe that, witu 



765 



[riblah 



the exception of the seven epistles, the pro- 
phecy refers exclusively to things which 
have not yet come to pass. 

But every devou.t reader, even though he 
may he unable fully to unravel the symholic 
visions of the hook, will find enough in it 
for profit. He cannot fail to see somewhat 
of the conflict in which the Christian 
church has to contend, and to learn the 
glorious rewards of victory. He will he 
stirred up therefore to a circumspect and 
holy walk, and will he encouraged hy the 
gracious invitations and remarkable pro- 
mises abounding herein to press onwards 
in holy hope towards the blessed end. An 
historical interpretation by no means ex- 
cludes a higher spiritual fulfilment. 

Commentaries on the Revelation are 
almost innumerable. Newton's Disserta- 
tations on the Prophecies, 'the expositions of 
Woodhouse (1805), andGauntlett (1821), and 
Elliott's SorcB Apocalypticce, of which se- 
veral editions have been published, are va- 
luable works. 

REVENUE. It does not appear that 
there was any stated public revenue in the 
earlier times of the Hebrew polity. Imposts 
there were for religious purposes, as, be- 
sides the ordinary offerings, the census- 
money (Exod. XXX. 11-16) ; but we read of 
none of a political cast. Great works— as 
the erection of the tabernacle — were com- 
pleted from free-will contributions (xxxvi. 
3-7). But, when the people desired kingly 
rule, Samuel warned them that a king must 
have a revenue (1 Sam, viii. 10-18) ; whereas 
he, as a judge, and most probably the 
judges who preceded him, had not only 
oppressed no man, but had not even re- 
ceived anything from the community (xii. 
3-5). Of course, unprincipled men, as Sa- 
muel's own sons, had plundered and oppress- 
ed them (viii. 3). But these were discredit- 
able exceptions. Under the monarchy there 
were stated revenues. They arose from 
various sources. Such were the customary 
presents, which oriental sovereigns expect 
(X. 27, xvi. 20), and the tenth part of the pro- 
duce of fields and vineyards, flocks, &c. 
(viii. 15, 17). It was probably in the collec- 
tion and management of these dues that the 
ofiQcers mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 7 ; 1 Chron. 
\ xxvii. 25-31, were employed. Other items of 
I public revenue in the Hebrew common- 
wealth have been elsewhere specified. See 
King-, p. 511. In later times, under Persian 
and Roman rule, various taxes and duties 
were collected (Ezra vi. 8 ; Neh. v. 18 ; Matt, 
xxii. 17-21). See Publican, Tax. 

PtE'ZEPH (a sto7Le, heated to roast meat 
or bake bread upon). A place which was 
I destroyed by the Assyrian kings (2 Kings 
I xix. 12 ; Isai. xxxvii. 12). Nine cities still 
; hearing a similar name are enumerated. Pos- 
I sibly the ancient Rezeph may be identified 
with thatbetween Racca and Emesa {Rums), 
a day's journey west of the Euphrates : see 
Keil, Comm. on Kings, vol. ii. p. 96. 

REZ'IA {delight). A chieftain of Asher (1 
Chron. vii. 39). 

RE'Zm {stable, firm).—l. A king of Da- 
mascus who madel alliance with Pekah 
king of Israel against Judah. He was 
Blain by the king of Assyria (2 Kings xv. 37, 



xvi. 5, 6,9; Isai. vii. 1, 4, 8, viii. 6, ix. 11).— 

2. One whose descendants, Nethinim, re- 
turned from captivity with Zerubbahel 
(Ezra ii, 48 ; Neh, vii. 50). 

RE'ZON {prince). An ofllcer of Hadadezer 
king of Zobah, who fled from him when 
David subdued the Syrians, and collected a 
band, at the head of which he led a preda- 
tory life, till at length he seized Damascus, 
and established himself as sovereign there, 
possibly at the end of Solomon's reign, to 
whom he was a bitter enemy (1 Kings xi. 
23-25). 

RHEG'IUM {a breach, broken off). An 
Italian city on the south-west coast over- 
against Sicily (Acts xxviii. 13). It was a 
colony of Chalcis in Eubcea, and was in the 
territory of the Bruttii. It is now a town 
of Calabria and called Reggio. 

Pi,HE'SA (head). A name found in the 
genealogy of our Lord (Luke iii. 27). There 
is great probability that this is not a perso- 
nal name, but the title given to the princes 
of the captivity. Accordingly Dr. Mill 
{Myth. Interp. of Gospels, 2nd. edit, p, 178) 
suggests that the Rhesa of St, Luke may be 
the Hananiah of 1 Chron, iii. 19 ; Hananiah 
being the head or prince after his father 
Zerubbahel. Lord A. Hervey supposes 
Rhesa to designate Zerubbabel himself ; 
the title, originally a gloss against his 
name, having slipped into the text. See 
Genealogies of Jesus Christ, chap. iv. § 5, pp. 
110-114. 

RHINOCEROS (Is^i. xxxiv. 7, marg.) 
See Unicobn. 

PtHO'DA {rose, rose-tree). A damsel inthq 
house of Mary mother of John Mark (Acts 
xii. 12-15). 

RHODES. A well-known island off the 
coast of Asia Minor, over-against Caria. It 
was very fertile, enjoyed a delightful cli- 
mate, and as it lay convenient for commerce 
was well-peopled at an early period. It was 
in the flfth century before Christ that the 
city of Rhodes was built. The Rhodians 
were skilful sailors ; and for a long time 
their fleets ruled the seas. They retained a 
degree of liberty under Roman supremacy ; 
and it was not till the reign of Vespasian 
that Pthodes became a Roman province. 
There was a Jewish population there in 
Maccabean times (1 Mace. xv. 23) ; and the 
more modern history of Rhodes, as the 
strong-hold of the knights of St. John of 
Jerusalem, is very interesting. The present 
population of the island is about 20,000. St. 
Paul touched there on his voyage from Mile- 
tus to Palestine (Acts xxi, 1), 

BHOjD'OCUS (2 Mace. xiii. 21). A Jewish 
traitor. 

M0'Z>C7^(lMacc. XV. 23). Rhodes. 

RI'BAI (for whom Jehovah pleads). The 
father of Ittai one of David's warriors (2 
Sam. xxiii. 29 ; 1 Chron. xi. 31). 

RIl^AND (Numb. xv. 38). See Hem of 
Garment, 

RIB'LAH {fertility). A city on the north- 
east frontier of Palestine, in the territory 
of Hamath, on the great line of road which 
led fromBahylonia into Judea. It was here 
that Jehoahaz was put in bonds by Pharaoh- 
nechoh ; and here afterwards were the 
Chaldean head-quarters in Nebuchadnezzar's 



riddleJ 



Invasion (ISTumlx xxxiv. 11; 2 Kings xxiii. ' 
33, sxv. G, 20, 21 ; Jer. xxxix. 5, 6, lii. 9, 10, 
26, 27). Traces of tliis city exist alDOut 
twenty miles soutli-west of Hums on tlie 
Orontes, still called Eiblelh It is, liowever, 
questionable whether the Rihlah of IMehu- 
chadnezzars time is identical with that 
designated hy Moses as a homidary-place 
of the Israelitish territory. Mr. Grove 
thinks that this last must have heen near 
Banias (Smith's Diet, of tlie Bible, vol. iii. 
pp. 1041, 1042). 

RIDDLE. The Hebrew word so rendered 
means properly something intricate, i.e. 
hard to be disentangled or guessed. There 
is an instance of a riddle in our sense of the 
term in Judges xiv. 12-19, That so called in 
Ezek. xvii. 2-10 has more of an allegorical 
cast. The same original word is rendered 
' hard questions ' in 1 Kings x. 1. The num- 
"ber of the beast (Rev.xiii. 18) i3 a scripture 
riddle on which Innumerable expositors 
have tried their ingenuity. Eastern nations 
have always been fond of puzzles and sen- 
tentious expressions; for an account of the 
"books of them which they possess see 
D'Herbelot, Blblioth. Orient., vol. i. p. 172, art. 
• Algaz.' 

mGHTEOIJS, RIGHTEOUSJfESS. Right- 
eousness is moral perfection ; and that be- 
ing is righteous who possesses such perfec- 
tion. God therefore is righteous, as having 
righteousness in the highest sense of the 
word (Psal. cxix. 137 ; Isai. xlv. 19). But 
man, created upright, is 'very far gone from 
original righteousness'; and it is the most 
Interesting question that can be propound- 
ed. How are those who have committed sin 
to be accepted by a righteous God ? As the 
observations made here upon this topic must 
necessarily be brief, it may be well to pre- 
sent the reader with the substance of De 
Wette's note, cited with approval by Dr. 
Alford (The Greek Test., note on Rom. 1. 17), 
where the expression ' the righteousness of 
God' does not designate his attribute of 
righteousness, but the righteousness which 
flows from and is acceptable to him :— 

' The Greek cUkaiosime and the Hebrew tze- 
dcikdh are taken sometimes for " virtue " and 
•'piety" wl.'ich men possess or strive after; 
sometimes, imputativelj^ for "freedom from 
Tolame," or " justification." The latter mean- 
ing is most usual with Paul : dAkaiosune is 
tiiat which is so in the sight of God (Rom. ii. 
13), the result of his justifying forensic 
judgment, or of " imputation " (iv. 5). It 
may certainly be imagined that a man miglii 
obtain justification by fulfilling the law : in 
that case his righteousness is an "own right- 
eousness" (X. 3), a "righteousness of the 
law" (Phil. iii. 9). But it is impossible for 
him to obtain a " righteousness of his own" 
which at the same time shall avail before 
God (Gal. ii. 1(3). Tlie Jews not only have not 
fulfilled the law (Uom. iii. 9-19), but could 
not fulfil it (vii. 7-25) : the Gentiles likewise 
have rendered themselves obnoxious to the 
divine wrath (i. 24-32). God has ordained 
that the whole race should be included in 
disobedience. Now, if man is to become 
righteous from being imrighteous, this 
can happen only by God's grace, because 
God declares him righteous (iii. 24 ; Gal. iii. 



706 . 



8), the word signifying not only negatively 
to acquit (as in Exod. xxiii. 7; Isai. v. 23; | 
Rom. ii. 13), but positively to cZecZare 77^7ii- 
eous ; never, however, " to make righteous " , j 
by transformation, or imparting oE moral | 
strength by which moral perfection may be i 
attained. Justification must be taken, as 
the old protestant dogmatists rightly took | 
it, in a forensic sense, i.e. imputativeli/ : 1 
God justifies for Christ's sake (iii. 22-28), on j 
condition of faith in him as Mediator : the i 
result of 7n"s j?(si7/icaiio?i is " righteousness 
of faith " ; and, as he imparts it freely, it is j 
" righteousness of God." . . . This justiflca- j 
tion is certainly an objective act of God; 
but it must also be subjectively apprehend- : j 
ed, as its condition is subjective. It is 
the ctcquittal from guilt, and cheerfulness of \ 
conscience, attained through faith in God's \ 
grace in Christ, the very frame of mind | 
which would be proper to a perfect'y-right- ^ 
eons man, if such there were— the harmony , 
of the spirit with God, peace with God. All 
interpretations which overlook the fact of 
imputation are erroneous.' i ; 

It may be added in the words of Hooker . I 
(Disc, on Justification, S) : ' There is a glori- 1 | 
fying righteousness of men in the world to , 
come, as there is a justifying and sanctify- 1 ' 
ing righteousness here. The righteousness j I 
wherewith we shall be clothed in the j | 
world to come is both perfect and i j 
inherent. That whereby here we are jnsti- 1 ; 
fled is perfect but not inherent. That ; | 
whereby we are sanctified is inherent but 
not perfect.' * ' ! ' 

RIM'MOJST (perhaps the exalted). A Syrian ' ; 
idol-god (2 Kings y. 18). A trace of this deity | 
is found in the name Ta.brimon, one of the i 
royal line of Syria (1 Kings xv. 18). It is 
possible that the word may signify (as ! 
Rimmon, the city, below) a pomegranate, ' i 
the symbol of generative power : or the : 
name may be an abbreviated form of Hadad- } ! 
rimmon, and the god be kindred with Ado- | 
nis, so styled after the pomegranate, which ■ i 
was sacred to him. Bee Viinev, Bibl.IiWB., ^ I 
art. 'Rimmon, 5 ; ' Keil, Comm. on Kings, vol 
i. p. 186. i 

RIM'MON (id.). A Benjamite of the town 
of Beeroth, father of the two men who as- 
sassinated Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. iv. 2, 5, 9). | i 

RIM'MON (a 'pomegranate).— I. A city in 
the south of Palestine, originally allotted 
to Judah, afterwards to Simeon (Josh. xv. 
32, xix. 7, in the last place called Rem- , i 
men ; 1 Chron. iv. 32). It is the tov.-n men- : i 
tioned in Zcch. xiv. 10. Tliere c:!n be little | , 
doubt that this is the En-rimmon of Neh. i 
xi. 29, tlint in Joshua and Chronicles Ain | 
and Rimmon should not be separated, and ! 
that this Rimmon may be identified with 
Vm er-llumaviin : sec Wilton's Ncgcb, pp. 
229-233.-2. A rock or peak north-east of 
Goba and Michmash, near the desert, to | 
Avhich the remnant of the Bonjamites re- I 
treated after the destruction of their tribe 
(Judges XX. 45, 47, xxi. 13). This is now \ 
called Biimviun : it is a conspicuous conical I 
hill. There was probably a town on it like 
the present village, or close at liand.— 3. A 
town in the territory of Zebulun, but as- ; 
signed to the Merarite Lcvites (1 Chron. vi, 
77). It is called in our trans'ation of Josh. 



707 



[mVEE 



xix. 13 Remmon-methoar ; "but ' metlioar ' is 
no part of tlie name : the words of the 
clause should he rendered 'it (the horder) 
passed, on io Rimmon, and stretched to 
Neah.' This plaC3 is the modern Rummaneli, 
in the neighbourhood of picturesque hills 
crowded with ruins. 

RIM'MON-PA'REZ (pomegranate of the 
breach). A station of the Israelites in the 
wilderness (Isumh. xxxiii. 19, 20). 

RING. The orientals have always been 
fond of ornamenting themselves with rings. 
There are two Hebrew words which are ren- 




1. With name of a kin;?, successor to 

Amenopli III. 
2. I am the servant of Bast (Paslit). 
5. Gold and lapis-lazuli, v,-ith title of Queen 
ilatasu, Tliebes. 



dered ' ring : ' of these hhotham signifies a 
seal or signet-ring (Exod. xxviii. 11, 21 ; Job 
xxxviii. 14, xli. 15 ; Jcr. xxii. 24) ; tabbaath, a 
signet-ring (Exod. xxxv. 22 ; Esth. iii. lo ; 
Isai. iii. 21), or a ring of any kind (Exod. 
XXV. 12, xxvi. 24, xxviii. 28). The signet- 
ring was worn by the Hebrews on the riglit 
hand (Jer. xxii. 24 : comp. Eccius. xlix. ii). 
Sometimes however, as it is in Persia at the 
present day, it was suspended on the l)reast 
by a string (Gen. xxxviii. 18: comp. Sol. 
Song viii. 6). Many rings of which specimens 
have been preserved were worn by the I 



Egyptians. A king committing his signet- 
ring to any one created him thereby prime 
minister (Gen. xli. 42 ; Esth. iii. 10, viii. 2 : 
comp. 1 Mace. vi. 15). Possibly the giving 
of a ring in Luke xv. 22 may imply the re- 




Porcclam rings. 



investment of the returned son with autlio- 
rity, at least dignity, in the household. 

RIN'NAH (a shout). One of Judahs pos- 
terity (1 Chron. iv. 20). 

RI'PHATH (a crusher ?). A son of Gomer 
(Gen. X. 3), the location of whose descend- 
ants it is not easy to trace. Gomer however 
being probably Bactria, Riphath may de- 
signate the colonists of the Bactrian empire, 
who extended themselves among the 
r^iphgean or Ripasan mountains. These may 
1)0 supposed to be that western branch of 
the Uralian chain in which the Don rises: 
they stretch away southward to the Cas- 
pian, towards the mountains of Circassia; 
though some would have them the Car- 
pathian range. In 1 Chron. i. 6 certain 
copies have Diphath. 

RIS'SAH (a ruin). One of the stations of 
the Israelites while passing through the 
desert (Numb, xxxiii. 21, 22). 

RITH'MAH (broom). Another of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites, as it appears, in the 
wilderness of Paran (Numb. xii. 16, xxxiii. 
18, 19). 

RIVER. Many streams are termed in our 
version rivers which are really but brooks 
or winter-torrents : see Brook. The only 
river of Palestine deserving the name is the 
Jordan. But of course the rivers of other 
countries are often named in scrii)ture. 

The word in general use has commonly 
the proper name of the river added to it, 
as ' the river Euphrates' (Gen. xv. 18), ' the 
river Chebar' (Ezek. i. 1, ,3), Sometimes 
it has the name of the region through 
which the stream flows, as 'the river of 



sizpah] 



76b 



Egypt' (Gen. xv. 18), 'the river of Gozan' 
(2 Kings xvii, 6). In the plural it is thus 
found, ' the rirers of Damascus ' (v.l2), ' the 
rivers of Bahvlon,' i.e. the Euphrates and 
its canals (Psal. cxxxvii. 1), * the rivers of 
Ethiopia' (Isai. xviii. 1 ; Zeph. iii. 10). ' The 
river' generally signifies the Euphrates 
(Gen. xxxi. '21 ; Exod. xxiii. 31), hut in 
Isai. xix. 5 the Nile. There is another word, 
of Egyptian origin, always applied to the 
Nile (Gen. xli. 1 ; Exod. i. 22, ii. 3, vii. 15. 
18), except in Dan. xii. 5, 6, 7. In the plural 
it means the canals through which Nile 
water was distributed through the country. 
There are other words which cannot he 
here noticed. ' The Hebrew language has 
a wonderful copiousness of expression for 
rivers, brooks, and springs. For these three 
words of our own language it has not less 
than eight or ten, each of which conveyed its 
proper distinctive sense to the Hebrew ear' 
(Dr. Lyman's Palestine and tlie Desert, in 
Biblioth. Sacr., Oct. 1864, pp. 752, &c.). The 
'river of Egypt' was generally, though 
perhaps not always, the Nile : see EaypT, 
River of. A writer, however, in Dr. 
Smith's Diet of the Bible (vol. iii. pp. 1046- 
1048\ believing that the Egyptian kingdom 
was bounded by the eastern branch of the 
Nile, regards the Nile as invariably desig- 
nated by the phrase, whether nahar or na- 
hlial be the Hebrew word used. 

A river is often figuratively put for abun- 
dance and prosperity (Isai. xlviii. 18, Ixvi. 12). 

mZ'PAH {a coal, a hot stone for baking). 
„ concubine of Saul whom Abner was ac- 
cused for appropriating, as if thereby aiming 
at the crown (2 Sam. iii. 7). This caused a 
breach between him and Ish-bosheth. Her 
two sons were delivered to the Gibeonites 
to be hanged ; and the story of her affliction 
as she watched her dead is peculiarly touch- 
ing (2 Sam. xxi. 8-11). 

ROAD. See High-v^^ay. The word is 
used in 1 Sam. xxvii. 10 in the sense of raid 
or inroad. 

ROBBERY (Exod. xxii. 1-13). See PrN- 
isHMEXTS, p. 741, Thief). On Phil. ii. 6, 
where the word occurs, commentaries may 
be consulted. Probably the meaning is 'not 
a thing to be caught at,' i.e. Christ, in the 
days of his humiliation, waived, did not 
grasp, his rightful supremacy. See E. H. 
Bicker steth's Comment, note on the place. 
Alford translates ' regarded not as self-en- 
richment his equality with God.' 

ROBE. See Dress. Robes (l Kings xxii. 
10, 30). Royal apparel. 

ROBO'AM (Matt. i. 7). The Greek form of 
Rehoboam. 

ROCK. Besides the ordinary meaning of 
the term ' rock ' it is frequently used in a 
figurative way, or for illustration in a para- 
ble; as for a firm basis (Matt. vii. 24, 25, 
xvi. 18), for a strong-hold (Numb. xxiv. 21), 
to indicate a hard, careless, and obstinate 
disposition (Jer. v. 3 ; Luke viii. 6). And by 
an easy metaphor the term is applied to 
God as being immovable, a strong defence 
to those that trust in him (Deut. xxxii. 4, 
15 ; Psal. xviii. 2, 31). 

ROD. This, the frequent rendering of two 
Hebrew words, ordinarily means a common 
stick, or a shepherd's staff (Exod. iv. 2, 4, 20 ; 



Lev. xxvii. 32, and elsewhere). Sometimes 
it signifies a staff of office, hence rule or stern 
authority (Psal, ii. 9, cxxv. 3). It is also a 
support (xxiii. 4), or a rod for chastising 
(Prov. X. 13 ; Isai. x. 5) ; and thus it comes to 
denote the fatherly correct-ion with which 
God visits his people (Mic. vi. 9). 

PlODA'NIM. This word occurs In 1 
Chron. i. 7 in some copies. If it could be 
proved to be the right reading, the Rho- 
dians would most probably be meant ; but 
it is more accurately, as in the text of Gen. 
X. 41, DODAJs'iM, which see. 

ROE or ROE-BUCK. An animal belong- 
ing to the Cervidce, a family of solid-horned 
ruminants. The roe-buck, Capreolus dorcas, 
is one of the most agile and beautiful of 
European deer. It is shy and cautious, not 
herding in troops, but living singly or in 
small companies, consisting of the male, fe- 
male, and young. It is skilful in avoiding 
the hunters. But the word so rendered in 
our version does not designate a single 
species, but comprises generally gazelles 
and antelopes. They were prized for their 
elegance (Sol. Song ii. 7, iii. 5), were fleet (2 
Sam. ii. 18 ; 1 Chron. xii. 8 ; Prov. vi. 5), 
timid (Isai. xiii. 14), and were among the 
animals whose flesh might be eaten (Deut. 
xii. 15, 22, xiv. 5, XV. 22). It was and is still 
regarded as a delicacy (1 Kings iv. 23). 

RO'GEL (a fuller) a Kings i. 9, marg.). 
See Ek-rogel. 

RO'GELIM {fullers' place). A town m 
Gilead (2 Sam, xvii, 27, xix. 31), perhaps 
within the territory of Gad, 

ROH'GAH (outcry). A chieftain of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 34). 

EO'IMUS a Esdr. v. 8). Rehum (Ezra n. 2). 

ROLL (Ezra vi. 1, 2 ; Isai. nil. 1 ; Jer. 
XXXVi. 2, 6, 20, 21, 23, 25, 28, 29, 32 ; Ezek. ii. 

9, iii. 1, 2, 3 ; Zech. v. 1, 2). See Manu- 
scripts, Writing. 
ROLLING THING (Isai. xvii. 13). See 

ROMAM'TI-E'ZER (I have exaltedhis help). 
A chief of one of the courses of singers (1 
Chron. xxv. 4, 31), 

ROMAN, This word is used in two senses : 
1, Nationally (John xi, 48). 2. With refer- 
ence to civil privileges (Acts xv. 37, 38, 
xxii. 25-27). St. Paul was not a native of 
Rome, or born in Italy, but he had by birth 
the rights of a Roman citizen. 

ROMANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. We 
are not informed in scripture how or when 
the gospel was first preached in Rome. But, 
as we find in the assemblage whom Peterad- 
dressed on the day of pentecost ' strangers 
of Rome,' that is, Roman Jews who were 
then at Jerusalem (Acts ii. 10), we may very 
well conceive that some would cany back 
the glad tidings to their people in the great 
city, and that thus the religion of Jesus 
would be known there. In no long time the 
word of God would increase ; and disciples 
would be gathered into the church. We 
have every reason to believe this to be a fact, 
because St. Paul writing to them declares 
that they had gained a noble reputation ; for 
their ' faith ' was ' spoken of throughout the 
whole world' (Rom. i. 8). And this was no 
recent burst of Christian teaching and 
Christian zeal : for years there had been be- 



769 



lievers in Rome. As-ain and ne-jiin ti.^ 

dears' (XV 9^^^^ says, 'for many 

m^^nw Z' n^^\-T^^^ church was made up 
Panf LSl^^''*'^® converts; for, when St^ 
patched w«f^''. ^^1^^^ letter was des- 
patcned, was actual y in Romp nnd h.i/i 

tS'laS^^^ 

coinmunSv ^^h^t of a 

wTth/nh"\°^ '"^^^"^ members had 
i? 2q^ the Christian church (Acts xxviii. 

from thP ^^^^ *° h^^^ kept aloof 

rrom the movement : see Dr. Alford's notP 
on Acts xxviii. 21. And perhaps the RreS 
SriSn"' ^^^^ were Of Greek 

on tl^ef.c?tf.Tf^^''''' ^^^^^^ to be laid 
fn Greek , rrif^ ^^P.!"^ ™te to them 
i versal ^t^ii"^ ^^™o«t an uni- 

versal language throughout the empire 

?e alut?T^n of those Whom 

ne salutes (Rom. xvi. 3-15) we discover hnt- 
tvvo or three that were reaJly Romln^ ?he 
great majority were Jewish or Gre^k And 
the epistle itself confirms this v^ew Froni 
the topics urged and the course of arguhi- 
we may reasonably conclude that th? T?!f 

i^rentiies— Gentiles, however, not unnf 
quainted with Jewish modes of thought 

Little need be said as to the genuineness 
of this epistle ; from the earlie.s^t timel thl 
evidence is plain and continuous that i? 
was written by Paul. Bleek woum' flSd ai 
lusions to it in the epistle to the HeSrews 
ri/S °f Peter (EinleiUn N T 

p. 215) More certainly may such be di^' 
„«overed in the epistles of Clement of Rome 
and Poly carp ; and somewhat later the S 
monies of Irenasus, Clement of AlexandrS 
and Tertullian are distinct enough («ee Al' 
ford Proleg., sect. l). But, thouf h no one 

generlllv^'?^' f^l''^'' of ?ms ?etTe? 

geneially, yet certain modern critics imi 

Ml'^fn."" f ™' '^'^'^^ the ancient heVe ic 
Marcion, have questioned Rom. xv xvi 
and some other portions, not so much 
denymg that they were written by Paul 
supposing that they were senara/p r.nn.V.L - 
tions adjoined to theSle^'^IUs^^^^^^^^^ 
while to notice such theories 

The date and place of writing mav bo 
readily ascertained. The apostle was then 
on his way to Jerusalem (xv. 25) and was 
odgmg with Gaius (xvi. 23 . iBut Ga^us be 
to the Corinthian church (l Cor i 
14) ; and Paul, we are told (havin- left 
Ephesus), ' abode three months "n Greece ' 
' i . h'^^'^^f! ^e proceeded to Jerusalem which 
he hoped to reach by pentecost (Ac™ xx i- 
3, 16). Putting these notices together and 
o^ «,^erving that prior to his quittifg Ephesus 

+>,^Tn, that he commends to 

the Christians there the deacon™ Phebe 
of Cenchrea (a port of Corinth) who apnear^ 
xvM wf'^ the bearer of the letter^Rom 
a7n cannot doubt that it was written' 

V^v?"''^^ about the beginning ofls i D 
The object with which the apostle wrote 

s evident from the epistle itself 11^ had 
heard much of the Roman Christians ^ 8) of 
their faith, and of the difficulties SwSch 

Of thel'bodf !L'?>,^. ^i^eJSwact'e^ 
or their body, and their peculiar position in 



the capital. Moreover, it was sr^f^^fluT^ 
tmg that he, the apoltle Tthf SleJ' 
should have his mind directed tn S 
mainly Gentile community, and tL Gen Ue 
population around them. Yet f urther f roiS 
the salutations already noticed it xvni?i^ 
seem that many of PaiU'rh^s and pro 
bably disciples were the most promlSent of 

(xy. 20), have been so anxiou! to see "hSn 
Spiritual gifts, therefore, for their estalS* 
ment (i. ii) were needed. And it is a nSS" 
worthy remark of Bleek tharthere coum 
not have been at the time a regularlv ^nn 
stituted church at Rome. Por he S nS 
address the ' church' (7) as he so gcneraHv 

fcomp'phfrf and^SS 
so?i^ of m; o «J^fointed ministers; 
some ot his expressions importino- thlt 
there were only private commSes°(R*om 

Ssl'J 'd S^f'w^^ public body 

[jioi supr., p. 412). We may well understand 
then, how necessary it w4 to laTdown a^^^^ 
enforce the great principles of Ch -f^H?? 
doctrine exhibiting the i4lati ve po^it on of 

daizing party. He would surefy f eel tilS 
a stiH more elaborate exposition of th^ 

the Spirit ; the particular directionlS oth^ 
tie's character appears In hifwrui b^''^ 

m making to forward his main argumezi t hI 
evinces much rhetorical power ; and with a 
fondness for antithesis and Sa^ inoTi 
St.' n? 'T' °^easionalIy in to tSe higK 
Si?? l-^f eloquent demonstration, and in' 
^wt F^'^t subject with such a glo w of 
d vine radiance that the reader takes i?c 
note of thoroughness of language But i? 
if ,n«t always rough; it is moiilded by a skii 
ful hand, and made thoroughly expressive 
while sometimes it flows on in lonid Awn I 
harmony with cadences of grandeuf I'S 



ROME i 



770 



no ear will willingly forget. Even had not 
Paul been an inspired apostle, lie wonld have 
stood in a very prominent rank among the 
mighty masters of speech : see Rom. vii. 7- 
25, viii. 22-S9, xi. 25-36. 

Various divisions of this epistle have 
been nroposed. Bleek would distribute it 
into three parts, and Bengelinto five. Per- 
haps the more natural arrangement is to re- 
gard it as having : 

I. An introduction (llom. i. 1-15). 

II. Doctrinal teaching (16— xi. 36) ; com- 
prising the general statement that 
salvation to Jew and Gentile comes hy 
faith (i. 16, 17). This proposition is 
proved hy showing, 1. that all are 
under condemnation (18— iii. 20), 2. that 
the righteousness revealed hy the gos- 
pel being of faith is universal (21— v. 19). 
3. The moral consequences of justifica- 
tion are exliibited c20-viii. 39). 4. The 
rejection of the Jews is discussed, the 
reason of it stated, while it is shown 
not to be final (ix. 1— xi. 36). 

III. The hortatory or practical part (xii. 
1— XV. 13). 1. Inculcating holiness of 
life (xii., xiii.). 2. With instructions 
how to behave towards the weaker bre- 
thren (xiv. 1— XV. 13). 

IV. The conclusion (14— xvi. 27), in- 
cludes, 1. Personal explanations (xv. 
14-33), 2. Salutations (xvi. 1-23), 3. 
Benediction and doxology (24-27). 

Among the numerous commentaries on 
th's epistle that by Calvin maybe specially 
mentioned. Of modern commentators 
Btuart and Vaughan deserve notice. They 
have been repeatedly printed. 

ROME, CITY AND EMPIRE OP, OR RO- 
IMAN EMPIRE. Little can here be said of 
that great city which reigned over tlie 



God's providence well suited for the intro- 
duction and spread of the gospel at the time 
of our Lord's appearance. The more civilized 
nations of the earth were under one govern- 
ment ; and by means of one or two lan- 
guages, Greek in the east and Latin in the 
west, men might make themselves every- 
where understood. Through all the pro- 
vinces there was ready communication, 
facilitated by the peace which generally 
prevailed in the whole extent of the empire. 
Moreover, the despotism which reduced all 
subjects to the same level, and the corrup- 
tion which had grown through the long 
night of heathenism, and tbe felt insuffi- 
ciency of the popular mythology and the 
refinements of philosophers for the require- 
ments and happiness of men, gave free 
scope to a religion which taught that there 
was a beneficent Creator, who was no res- 
pecter of persons, and who in pity for the 
ignorance of man had sent a divine Teacher, 
to procure and bestow a higher happiness 
than reason ever had conceived . At the fit- 
ting moment the proper remedy was applied 
to the world's need (Gal. iv. 4). It was a wise 
providence that selected the days of this 
empire for the setting up of 'a kingdom 
which shall never be destroyed' (Dan. ii. 44,). 

ROOF (Deut. xxii. 8, and frequently else- 
where). See House, p. 397. 

ROOM. The word, as used ('uppermost 
or ' chief rooin'^ in Matt, xxiii. 6 : Mar:c x:i, 
39; Luke xiv. 7, 8, 9, xx. 46, implies ihe 
highest place on the first couch, on whicn 
men reclined at meals, that being as we say, 
the seat of honour. Eor ' upper room' as an 
apartment (xxii. 12) see House, p. 397. 

ROOT. The Hebrev/ word so translated 
besides its literal signification is often used 
fio-uratively. Individuals and communities 
- ^ the root 



nentioned in the Old Testament. Its name 
first appears in the Apocrypha (1 Mace. i. 10, 
and elsewhere). Of course we find it in the 
New Testament, first in Acts ii. 10. De- 
scriptions of ancient Rome and of its mo- 
dern representative must be sought in other 
books: see Conybeare and Howson's Life 
of St. Paul, chap. xxiv. ; and Smith s Diet, of 
Greek and Bom. Geogr. The population has 
been variously estimated from half a million 
to four, eight, or even fourteen millions. Gib- 
bon's calculation is reasonable and probably 
(400 A.D.) near the truth, 1,200,000 iDecl. and 
Fall, chap. xxxi. vol. v. pp. 275-278, edit. 1838. 
The Roman empire was raised to its 
1 highest pitch by Augustus ; a few additions 
tolts provinces being subsequently made, 
as Britain under Claudius, and Dacia under 
Trajan. Gibbon observes ' that the empire 
was above 2000 miles in breadth from the 
wall of Antoninus and the northern limits 
of Dacia to mount Atlas and the tropic of 
Cancer; that it extended in length more 
than 3000 miles from the western ocean to 
the Euphrates; that it was situated in the 
finest part of the temperate zone, between 
24° and b6=> north lat. ; and that it was sup- 
posed to contain above 1,600,000 square 
miles, for the most part of fertile and well- 
cultivated land' {ubi supr.,\o\. i. p. 46). The 
population he puts at 120,000,000 {ibid., p. 75). 
The condition of the Roman world was m 



1-1^. of the ei' h' (Rev xvfi 18 . It is not 1 are poetically likened to a tree : the root : 
^''^^!.°t:.H^f..^^r.\7r^^^^ Tt= T.. n then designates the chief part mentioned, ; 



then designates the chief p: ^ ^ ^ . 
as of the wicked (Isai. v. 24), of Ephraim 
(Hos. ix. 16). It also implies the lowest part 
of anything, and so a stock, race (Isai. xiv. 
29), the seat or dwelling of a people (Judges 
y. 14), ground of a dispute (Jobxix.28). The 
same word signifies a sprout; and th us is usee! 
metaphorically of the Messiah (Isai. xi. 10). 

ROSE. The original word thus translated 
occurs twice (Sol. Song ii. 1 ; Isai. xxxv. l). 
It is not clear what flower is meant, (^e- 
senius is inclined to believe it the meadow 
'saffron, Colcliicum autumnale; and this is 
favoured by the etymology, as it is com- 
pounded of two words signifying acrid 
and 'bulb.' Dr. Thomson imagines it may 
be the mallow, 9?;a/ra, the Arabic name ot 
which resembles the Hebrew word. He 
says that this flower abounds in Sharc^i, 
and is found large, double, and variegated; 
some beins? perennial and growing into a 
nrettilv-shaped bush {The Land and the Book, 
pp. 112", 513). Dr. Kallsch thinks the Cistus 
roseus the rose of Sharon; for this plant is 
plentiful there (Co??n??.:07i Old Test. Gen., p. 
614\ But roses certainly have flourished in 
Palestine ; and the names of several species 
are known ; as the white garden rose, Bosa 
alba, the damask rose, B. damascenu,the ever- 
green rose, B. sender virens ; and in many 
parts of western Asia the rose is hignly 
fragrant and much cultivated. See a notice ol 



771 



tlie. different flowers supposed by Ginsburg 
The Song of Songs, note on ii. l, p. 141 

ROSH {head, chief).— l. One of the sons of 
Benjamin (Gen. xlvi. 21) —2. The word oc- 
curs In Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, xxxix. 1, where 
in our version it is translated ; but it is pro- 
bably a proper name : 'the prince of Rosh, 
Meshech, and Tubal.' Gesenius is disposed 
to believe that the Russians are intended. 
A Scythian people are described by Byzan- 
tine writers as iii the tenth century under 
the name of Rhos inhabiting the northern 
part ^of Taurus, and, by an Arabian author, 
as Rus dwelling on the Volga. Others ima- 
gine that they find the nation of Rosh in the 
Roxalaui, or by the Caucasus. See Winer 
mblBWB., art. ' Ros ; ' D'Herbelot, BiUioth. 
Orient, art. ' Rous,' vol. iii. pp. 137, 138 
ROSH (Deut, xxix. 18, marg.). See Gall. 
ROSIN (Ezek. xxvii. 17, marg.). Here 
balm is meant, as in the text. See Balm 
But the 'rosin' of the Apocrypha (Song of 
the Three Child. 23) was probably naphtha; 
which is a natural product of Babylonia and 
other parts. The springs of it in Kurdistan 
are described as yielding abundantly. 

RUBY. A precious gem of a rose-red 
colour, belonging to the class corundum. 
The word occurs in several places in our 
version (Job xxviii. 18 ; Prov. iii. 15, viii 11 
XX. 15, xxxi. 10; Lam. iv. 7) ; but it is not 
probable that the ruby is meant. Some 
critics are disposed to understand pearls 
Pearls, however, would ill suit the last-cited 
passage. Mr. Carey endeavours to meet the 
difficulty by observing that pearls are 
sometimes of a slightly-reddish hue {The 
Boole of Job, note on xxviii. 18, pp. 328, 329). 
But it seems more reasonable to under- 
stand, with other critics, red coral. For the 
sardius (Exod. xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10 ; Ezek. 
xxviii. 13) the margin gives 'ruby.' See 
Sardius. Perhaps the word translated agate 
really means ruby. See Agate. 

RUDIMENTS (Col. ii. 8, 20). See Ele- 
ments. 

RUE. A plant on which the Pharisees 
were careful to pay tithe (Luke xi. 42). 
Buta graveolens, common rue, is a native 
of the south of Europe, a half-shrubby 
plant of a peculiar yellowish-green colour. 
Every part of it is marked by transparent 
dots, filled with volatile oil. Rue possesses 
powerful stimulant, anti-spasmodic, and 
tonic properties. The odour is peculiar and 
strong, the taste of the leaves intensely 
bitter and aromatic. Rue is sometimes 
called 'herb of grace,' and cultivated as an 
ornamental plant. 

RU'FUS {red), A Christian whom St. 
Paul saluted, possibly the son of Simon 
the Cyrenian on whom was laid our Lord's 
cross (Mark xv. 21 ; Rom. xvi. 13). 

RUHA'MAH {compassionated, having ob- 
tained mercy). A word symbolically used 
(Hos. ii. 1) to indicate the restoration of Is- 
rael and admission of Gentiles to God's 
favour. 

RULER. See Prince. Ruler of the sy- 
nagogue (Mark v. 22). See Synagogue. 

RU'MAH (loftjj). A place named as the 
habitation of the father of Jehoiakim's mo- 
ther (2 Kings xxiii. 36). It may be the same 
with Arumah. 



THE BOOK OP 



RUSH (Job viii. 11 ; Isai. Ix. 14, xix. 15 
XXXV. 7). See Bulrush, Reed. In the pro- 
verbial phrase 'branch and rush,' the word 
for branch signifies the palm-branch, con> 
pared with which the rush or reed growing 
in loAV marshy tracts is very humble. 

RUST (Matt. vi. 19, 20 ; Jam^es v. 3). Two 
different Greek words are rendered 'rust. 
The first has a more general meaning, per- 
haps equivalent to our 'wear and tear.' 
' Tarnish ' might better express the sense in 
the last-named passage. 

RUTH (female friend). A Moabitish dam- 
sel who was married to Mahlon, the son of 
Elimelech of Beth-lehem-Judah, who with 
his family had retired into Moab during 
the pressure of famine on his own country 
Elimelech and his two sons died in Moab ; 
and Naomi his v/idow after an absence of 
ten years prepared to return into the land 
of Israel, having learned that the famine 
had ceased. Her daughters-in-law were in- 
clined to accompany her; but she kindly 
remonstrated with them; and Ruth alone, 
who had probably become a proselyte to the 
Hebrew faith, held to her resolution of 
abiding with Naomi. It was a great sacri- 
fice ; for Ruth was childless : she was quit- 
ting, it would seem, her own mother (Ruth i. 
8) : she was going into a strange land with 
one who was now desolate and in poverty. 
But her character is beautifully exhibited 
by those most touching words in which she 
declared her fixed determination: ' Entreat 
me not to leave thee,' &c. (16, 17). It was 
the beginning of barley-harvest when the 
two reached Beth-lehem ; and Ruth went to 
glean in the fields of Boaz. Her blameless 
conduct attracted notice ; and after harvest 
(barley and wheat) was over, she was de- 
sired by Naomi to claim marriage with Boa^ 
as a near relative of her late husband, ac- 
cording to the levirate law (Deut. xxv. 5> 
10). A still nearer kinsman having waived 
his prior right, Boaz married Ruth, and she 
bore him a son, Obed, who was the grand- 
father of David. 

It is not easy to fix the time of these 
occurrences: it is simply said (Ruth i. 1) 
that they were 'when the judges ruled.' 
Neither does the genealogy (iv. 18-22) help 
us much, because, as Boaz was the son of 
Salmon by Rachab (generally believed to be 
Rahab of Jericho) (Matt. i. 5), we have 
but three persons intervening between 
Rahab and David, a period of about 360 
years. Various explanations have been 
suggested ; as that David's ancestors were 
peculiarly blessed with length of days: 
Boaz certainly was in years at the time of 
his marriage (Ruth iii. 10) ; and Jesse v/as 
far advanced in life when David was a lad 
(1 Sam. xvii. 12) ; or that certain names 
were omitted in the public genealogical 
tables; or that the sacred writer mentions 
the most eminent of the series. Laying 
various considerations together, perhaps we 
may reasonably believe that ElimeJech was 
contemporary with Gideon ; in whose daya 
we know there was a famine caused by the 
ravages of the Midianites (Judges vi. 1-6), 
about 1240 B.C. The time of Eli fijced by 
Josephus is obviously too low. 
RUTH, THE BOOK OF. This book Is a 



eye"] 



772 



Mnd of appendix to that of Judges, andm- 
troduction to tliat of Samuel. Critics liave 
amused tliemselves by conjecturing tliau it 
is a tale written to enforce tlie duty of a 
man. according to the levirate law, to many 
his kinswoman, or that it is intended to 
moderate the dislike entertained m Israel 
to aUiances with foreigners. It is unne- 
cessarr to arsue seriously against such no- 
tions. The hook is not a fragmentary episoae 
which misht have heen spared : it has its 
Epecial ohject, to illustrate the source ot 
David's line ; and without it the divine pur- 
pose would have appeared incomplete, it 
Eeemedsoodto the Holy Spirit to place on 
record this history of the ancestors of 
David, who were ancestors of Christ, that 
the line which had the promise might be 
distinguished ; teaching also that, as tuere 
were some of his ancestry introduced from 
foreign nations into Israel, so Messiahs 
kinedom should eml->race not alone the 
literal seed of Jacob, hut Gentiles too. 
- The narrative is given with heautif ul sira- 
plicitv: and the spirit of piety evinced in the 
principal persons of this histoiy is remark- 
ahlv instructive. We cannot ascertain who 
the" writer of the book was. It has been at- 
tributed to Samuel, to Hczekiah, to Ezra. 
But these are guesses, and not veij happy 
ones. Critics have examined the diction ; 
and some have thought they detected 
' Chaldaisms: so that the book, they say, must 
' have been wi-itten very late. Others have en- 



deavouredto explain away this alleged proof , 
by savin? that peculiarities of language i 
m'ieht have been provincialisms, modes of : 
spe^ech in use at Beth-lehem; and some have ; 
^one farther and imagined they were im- 
ported from Moab. There is little in all 
this The custom originally observed in 
reeard to the levirate lavr seems at the pe- 
riod of writing to have been well-nigh ob- 
solete : it is described as prevailing m for- 
mer times (Ruth iv. 7) : therefore the his- 
torv was not composed till a while alter the 
events. The judges are spoken of, as if that 
kind of eovernment had ceased (i-D : there- 
fore the" composition was probably dm-mg 
the monarchv. But David's name is the last 
in the pedisree (iv. 22). We shaU perhaps not 
c-reativerr then, if we believe that the book 
of Buth was written in David's reign or 
shortly after. ^ _ , 

It comprises three sections: I. The account 
of Xaomi's sojourn in Moab (i.\ II. The 
transactions at Beth-lehem (ii., m., iv. 1-1.). 
III. The pedigree (iv. 18-22). ^ . _ , . 

BYE. The word, so renaered m j!.xod. ix. 
S-T • Isa'i. xxviii. 25, is translated 'fitches' 
in 'Ezek. iv. 9, ' spelt ' in the margin. Bye 
is a plant of the family of the Grainmece, 
bearine naked seeds on a flat ear furnished 
with awns like barley. It grows on light 
soils unfit for wheat. But there is little 
doubt that the plant intended by the Hebrew 
-word is not iwe, but Spelt, which see. 



S 



CJAB iCH'THA:>I (tnou Mst forsaken me). 
One of the words uttered by our Lord on 
the cross (Matt, xxvii. 46 ; Mark xv. 34). 
See Eli, Eli. , . , i,. 

=;\B ^l'OTH OwsU^. The word is left un- 
translated in Bom. ix. 29 ; James j. 4. The 
Lord of Sabaoth is therefore equivalent to 
the Lord or Jehovah of Hosts, i.e. of the 
armies of heaven. 

SA'BAT (1 Esdr. V. 34). A person not 

^^Ia'SI't (1 Mace. xvi. 14). Sebat. See 

^^Sa!^ATE'AS a Esdr. ix. 4S). Shabbethai 

^'^SAB'ATUS (1 Esdr. ix. 2S). Zabad (Ezra 
■ X T\ 

'SAB'BAy a Esdr. viii. G3\ _ A strange 
corruption for Binnui (Ezra viii. 33\ _ 

SA.BBATH. A Hebrew word signifying 
rest, eenerallv applied to the seventh day of 
the week observed as a sacred season of 
cessation from labour, but used also to ae- 
si^uate other days or times set apart and 
sanctified in a similar way (Lev. xxv. 4\ 
The orieinal term sometimes denotes a week 
(Matt, xxviii. 1 : Luke xxiv. 1 ; Acts xx. 7). 

It is first mentioned when, the work of 
creation throueh six successive periods 
being completed, God is said to have rested 
©n the seventh day and to have sanctified 



it (Gen li. 2, 3\ We do not find in the re- 
cords of the ante-diluvian world or m the 
histories of the early patriarchs any notice 
of the observance of this day. We do, how- 
ever, find the division of weeks (viii. 10, 12, 
xxix. 27, 2S^ : and, as this is an artificial 
division, it has been argued not without 
probable reason that the distribution oi 
time into periods of seven days shows that 
the seven-fold alternation of creative work 
and rest was acknowledged, and that, f ollow- 
ins out the analoery, one day in seven must 
in~those earlv times have been regarded as 
sacred^ The" first distinct mention, how- 
ever, of a weekly sabbath is at the giving 
of the manna, wli en the Israelites were com- 
manded to gather on the sixth day as much 
as would suffice them for two days, seeing 
that it would not fall on the seventh ; and, 
while ordinarily that which was reserved 
became corrupt, yet the additional quantity 
collected and kept according to the divine 
command would continue wholesome on 
the sabbath (Exod. xvi. 22-30\ There would 
seem proof from this account that the 
weeklv sabbath was not then first instituted. 
For, tiioush there were some who went out 
curioas'iv^to see if there were really any 
fresh deposit of manna on the sabbath, yet 
the mass of the people gathered a double 
portion spontaneously on the sixth day 



773 



[sabbath 



This is inferred from ttie report carried by 
the rulers to Moses, as if hardly knowing ; 
whether the right course was taken or not. 
Such a half-questioning report would not 
have heen made, if an order had just hefore i 
been specially proclaimed through the camp. ■ 
And, if the people acted spontaneously, they ; 
must have been in the habit previously of : 
observing the sabbath : at all events, the : 
observance existed before the giving of the 
moral law. 

Into that law it was solemnly incorpo- 
rated, with great particularity of detail, re- 
ference being made both to the six days' 
work of creation and the seventh day's rest, 
and also to the deliverance of Israel from 
bondage (xx. 8-11 ; Deut. v. 12-15). They 
were to remember that they had been bond- 
men, and to grant their bondmen that rest 
which they had not been able to enjoy 
till their deliverance ; which thus became to 
them a fresh inauguration of the weekly 
sabbath. These two references are not con- 
tradictory. It is no uncommon thing for 
an event or ordinance to be connected with 
\ some display of God's power or mercy, aiid 
' to have afterwards an additional signiflca- 
I tion imparted. Thus the rainbow must 
have been a natural phenomenon from the 
j beginning ; but it was invested with a 
special meaning after the flood, when it was 
j taken as a sign of God's covenant with man 
that he would no more destroy the world 
■• by a flood of waters (Gen. ix. 12-17). The 
passo ver, again, commemorated the sparing 
of the first-born of Israel (Exod. xii. 3-28), 
but subsequently, when the tribes were set- 
; tied in the promised land, it became also 
; one of the agricultural festivals, to mark 
the progress of God's bounty in giving them 
the productions of the earth (Lev. xxiii. 
I 9-14). The new aspect was perfectly con- 
i sistent with the older one. It may also be 
; remarked that the six days of creative work 
and the seventh day of rest noted in the 
commandment by no means define the 
j length of the periods spoken of. Nor does 
i the command for its binding efficacy require 
that all, be they longer or shorter, should 
be identically the same in duration. It is 
enough that there was a seven-fold distri- 
bution of working and of rest : that was the 
point seized on and fitly applied to the 
seven-fold week of ordinary human life. 

The sabbath thus commanded was ob- 
served from sunset on one day to sunset on 
the next (Matt. viii. 16 ; Mark i. 21-32 ; Luke 
iv. 31-40), with great strictness by the 
Hebrews. They were to abstain from all 
servile work (Exod. xxiii. 12). The violation 
of its sanctity was rebellion against God, 
and punishable wdth death (xxxv. 2 ; Numb. 
XV. 32-36). In the wilderness, as we have 
seen, they were not to gather manna; and 
generally they were not to light a fire for 
culinary purposes, neither to sow nor reap 
(Exod. xxxiv. 21, xxxv. 3 ; Numb. xv. 32-36). 
Neither were they to make a journey. This 
restriction seems to be based upon Exod. 
xvi. 29 : it w^as afterwards more precisely 
defined to intend that only a short specified 
distance, a sabbath-day's journey, about 
2,000 paces or five or six furlongs— grounded 
on the space prescribed between the ark and 



the people (Josh. iii. 4), the same being 
perhaps between the tabernacle and the 
tents in the wilderness encampment— might 
be traversed on the sabbath. Yet religious 
services, though involving labour, such as 
those of the tabernacle or temple, might be 
performed. Thus sacrifices might be pre- 
pared (Lev. vi. 8-13; Numb, xxviii. 3-10; 
Matt, xii, 5), and persons be circumcised on 
the sabbath (John vii. 22, 23). We have little 
information from the law as to ritual ob- 
servances or special worship on the sabbath. 
There was to be an additional burnt-offer- 
ing of two lambs (Numb, xxviii. 9, 10) ; and 
the shew-bread was then to be changed 
(Lev. xxiv. 8). But in later times it was 
indisputably the practice to meet in the 
synagogues, when the sacred writings were 
read and expounded, and no doubt public 
prayers offered (Luke iv. 16 ; Acts xiii. 14, 
15, XV. 21). And perhaps the psalms which 
were composed for the sabbath-day may be 
taken as testimony that, still earlier, as- 
semblies were held for praise and thanks- 
giving (see Psal. xcii. : conip. 2 Kings iv. 
23 ; Isai. Ivi. 6, 7). Sabbath-observance, like 
obedience to other laws, would seem in 
times of national declension to have been 
little regarded. We find the prophets fre- 
quently rebuking tbe people for their pro- 
fanation or merelj'-formal respect of it 
(i. 13, Iviii. 13, 14 ; Jer. xvii. 21-27 ; Ezek. 
xx. 12-24). The neglect of the sabbath was 
sure to lead to other sins. For the system 
of recurring festivals and observances was 
very much based upon the sabbath, or at 
least on the seven-fold distribution of time. 
Thus seven weeks were to elapse between 
the passover and pentecost ; and, as the 
seventh day was to be kept holy, so was the 
seventh year to be a time of rest, and,when 
seven weeks of years had passed, then the 
trumpet of jubilee was to sound through 
the land. 

On the return from the captivity there 
was a more rigid sanctifying of the sabbath. 
Nehemiah's exertions probably contributed 
to it (Neh. xiii. 15-22). In the Maccabean 
wars the Jews would not at first defend 
themselves on the sacred day; and, when the 
necessity of doing so became apparent, they 
still refrained from attack (1 Mace. ii. .32-41). 
No trace of such scrupulousness is found 
in the Old Testament. But gradually 
Pharisaic tradition overlaid the divine 
command (see Saalschtitz, Arch, der Eebr., 
cap. 76, vol. ii. pp. 308-310), and observances 
were insisted on, which made the salutary 
provision a yoke of bondage. Our Lord rec- 
tified this : he showed that ' the sabbath 
was made for man,' for his welfai'e and 
spiritual training, 'not man for the sab- 
bath,' just to be tied to a hard oppressive 
rule (Mark ii.27). And by his own example 
he maintained the liberty of God's children. 
The Jews accused him of breaking the sab- 
bath (23-26 ; John ix. 16). He did not break 
the sabbath : he disregarded indeed the 
human gloss : he never violated the divine 
law ; just as he repeatedly in other respects 
made the clear distinction between God's 
command and human superstition, cen- 
suring the formal religionists of the day for 
. making void the commaiidmeut of God by 



babbath] 



774 



their traditions (Matt. xy. 1-9). And similar 
Tvarnings were given by the apostles (e.g. 
Col. ii. 16). 

It wo-uld occnpy a large space to enume- 
rate all the observances insisted on by the 
Jewish rabbins : some brief notice, however, 
shall be given of the mode in which the 
sabbath is at present hallowed by that na- 
tion. It commences ordinarily at sunset on 
the Friday, but not later in summer-time 
than seven p.m. ; preparation by cleansing 
the house, providing the necessary meals, 
&c., &c., having previously been made. The 
males of a family attend the synagogue-ser- 
vice and on their return bless their chil- 
dren; after which a hymn to the angels, who 
are supposed to remain in the dwelling till 
the sabbath is over, is recited, Frov. xxxi. 
10-31 read ; and then comes what is termed 
the sanctiflcation of the sabbath. Two 
small oblong loaves or twists called chalotn 
are placed on a table, to represent the two- 
fold portion of manna, and also wine. After 
a blessing this bread and wine are distri- 
buted ; and the evening is closed with 
supper and a special grace. The next day 
certain private rites are performed in the 
familv, and the synagogue-services are at- 
tended ; and the close of the sabbath is 
marked bvthe reciting of certain sentences 
from scripture with a blessing, and the 
sprinkling of some wine. These are the re- 
ligious ceremonies. Besides, it is to be 
noted that they have three meals. Fish is 
generally procured for the first : they have 
also a dish called shalit, * meat, peas, rice, 
&c. put into a pot, and placed on Friday 
afternoon in an oven heated for that pur- 
pose, or under the ashes, and there left 
until Saturday noon, ^vhen, on being drawn 
out, it is found still quite warm.' As to 
work, there are thirty-nine principal occu- 
pations which are forbidden, and, moreover. 



seeking (Mills, Tlie British Jews, part ii. 
chap. iv. pp. 137-146). 

There are many questions connected with 
this subject which have given rise to dis- 
cussion. Some of them must be briefly 
noticed. 

It is doubted whether the sabbath was 
merelv an Israelitish observance or whether 
it waslntended to apply to the whole human 
familv. In some passages already referred 
to it is connected with the deliverance from 
Egvpt, and is termed a sign or covenant- 
symbol of God's promises to Israel. But 
this reference, it has been shown, was in- 
tended for a special purpose ; and, if the 
sabbath was a sign of the Hebrew covenant, 
that by no means interferes with its higher 
object. And, when it is stated just after the 
narrative of creation that God sanctified the 
seventh day, and when this is alleged in the 
commandment, and when that commaud- 
meut is enshrined in the decalogue, confes- 
sedlv standing in the highest position of the 
earlier revelation, it does seem hard to con- 
clude that the sabbath was merely a Mosaic 
rite. Little stress need be laid on the pa- 
triarchal division of weeks, or on the traces 
of such division to be detected in the his- 
tory of various nations. Bather let it be 
asked whether this was a salutary observ- 
ance. Did it tell— not in the minute details 
with which superstition overloaded it, 
but in its grand principle and its practical 
i working— for the good of man and beast ? 
I Was it a suspension, for the time, of the 
original destiny, consequent on Adam's sin, 
of grinding toil ? Was it held out rather as a 
privilege to be welcomed than a burden- 
some dutv uneasily to be discharged ? If 
so, we can hardly imagine that the blessing 
of the earlier church would be withheld 
from the later. If the worshipping of God 
is incumbent on his creatures, and the 



all that are analo^rous to these ; but by cer- | assembling of themselves together neces^ 
an Liidu die ciua ^ 'commixtures' the ' sary for instruction, and for the fostering of 

■ ' piety, we should naturally expect that pro- 



tain regulations called 
extreme strictness of sabbath-observance is 
modified. Thus ' to carry anything froni : 
one house to another is unla^vful ; but, ii 
the householders in a court should join m 
some article of food, and deposit it in a 
certain place, the whole court becomes vir- 
tually one dwelling, and the inmates are en- 
titled to carry from house to house what- 
ever thev please. Also any public place, in- 
closed on three sides, is made private by 
means of a wire or rope. It is unlawful to 
carry a handkerchief loose in the pocket ; 
but, if they pin it to the pocket, or tie it 
round the waist as a girdle, they may carry 
it anywhere.' Some of the more burden- 
some customs are observedby only the very 
scrupulous; but there is one command 
obeyed bv all : they never light fire, lamp, 
or candle on the sabbath. Consequently 
the wealthier Jews employ Gentile servants ; 
and among the humbler classes several 
families club together to secure the help of 
a Gentile neighbour. ' Nothing could wound 
the conscience of a Jew more than to be 
under the necessity of putting fuel on his 
fire or snufQug his candles on the sabbath 
Places of amusement maybe visited; and, 
generally speaking, all but the very strict 
spend the time in recreation and pleasure- 



vision would be made for this, some time 
be marked out when worldly cares might 
be laid aside, and God approached with calm 
serenity of spirit, and the employment be 
begun "in which saved men shall rejoice for 
ever in the world above. If it be said that 
it was typical, that it was a shadow which 
was to pass away,we must ask. Of what was 
it typical ? and to what was it to give place ? 
No good thing or observance of the earlier 
covenant was removed except to be re- 
placed bv something better, more spiritual, 
of higher privilege— as legal sacrifice by the 
oblation of Christ, circumcision by baptism: 
to what, then, was the sabbath to give 
place ? Surely not to unremitting earthly 
labour, not to those sensuous enjoyments 
which debase instead of elevating, which 
enervate instead of strengthening for re- 
newed duties ? If the Hebrew sabbath-rest 
wafi typical, it was typical mainly of the rest 
of eternitv; and, as we have not yet entered 
tbat rest, we still need in our earthly course 
some ligure of it. 

It can hardly be denied that considera- 
tions of this kind have their weight ; and, 
seeing that the profanation of the sabbath 
is always treated as a great moral fault, and 



[sabbath 



that a Wessing is pronounced on those, not 
literally of the seed of Israel, who hallowed 
it (Isai. Ivi. 3-8), it is reasonable to conclude 
that the command touches, in some measure 
at least, the inhabitants of the world gene- 
rally. 

There then arises another question : Is it 
to apply to mankind at large with the same 
strictness as that with which it bound the 
Hebrews ? This may be answered in the ne- 
gative. So far as it is part of the ceremonial 
law it has ceased. We are not prohibited 
from light and fire, or conflned to a nar- 
row space. But as amoral precept of the 
decalogue, in its spiritual application, it 
stands unrepealed, to operate with benig- 
nant influence upon mankind. 

Along with the Jewish sabbath there be- 
gan to grow up the obseryance of another 
day from the time of our Lord's resurrec- 
tion. And Ave read in the Christian church 
of assemblies held on the first day of the 
week (John xx. 1, 19, 26), and of Christ's pre- 
sence there, and of the breaking of bread 
on that day (Acts xx. 7, 8 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 2), 
and of a day— we cannot doubt that it was 
the same— called ' theLord's-day ' (Rev.i.lO). 
Early Christian writers soon begin to men- 
tion it. JustinjMartyr repeatedly speaks of it, 
sliowingthat Christian assemblies were held 
on the Sunday {Apolog. i. 67), which was ob- 
served on account of both the creation and 
our Lord's resurrection: comp. Dial, cuv.i 
TrijjJh., 41. Many other ancient references 
to the observance of the Lord's day might 
I 1;e produced ; but this part of the subject 
can be only touched on here. 

We do not find full cessation of work on 
this day. But we must remember how impos- 
sible under the circumstances this was. The 
Cliristian church, like the Israelitish in 
Egypt, were imder the ban of the mighty of 
the world, compelled for long to hold their 
A^ery assemblies for worship in private,with 
doors closed, many of them being the poor of 
the world — hov/ could they withdraw them- 
selves from their employments, till the 
gospel had so far prevailed and penetrated 
that law-makers professed it, and sovereigns 
gave it free scope? No argument must be 
pressed against Christian Lord's-day observ- 
ance, taken from times when, if observed 
at all, it could only be by stealth. Many 
things, then, may be unlawful or inexpe- 
dient now, many regulations proper, with 
which heretofore the pressure of persecu- 
tion interfered. The reason of the thing, 
guided by general scripture principles, 
would seem to point out A^ery clearly the 
due observance of the sacred day. The 
question being settled for AA'hat it was ap- 
pointed, viz., for re-st from worldly cares, 
and the special service of God, all that may 
promote such objects becomes imperative, 
and all that would nullify them forbidden. 
Physiologists have told us that the human 
frame requires repose, and that, if one 
■ seventh part of time be given to repose from 
toil, it Is a fitting proportion, and the 
; strength will be better kept up. But, laying 
I such a consideration out of question, it 
eeems clear that for God's special worship 
the thoughts should be collected, the ha- 
rassing cares of business be laid aside, the 



dissipation of, mere pleasure be foregone. 
Hence, and not for motives of sour auste- 
rity, such business and such pleasure should 
cease as would indispose mind or body for 
cheerful engagement in sacred duties. 
These present higher business than that o 
the world ; and the pleasure of a rightly- 
ordered mind is greater in them than it can 
be in worldly gaiety. Still further, Ave have 
no right to impose labour on others from 
Avhich Ave would free ourselves. And there- 
fore a Christian man's- employment ought 
to be regulated, not only by that which he 
feels just for himself, but so as not to make 
others Avork for his pleasure, others labour 
that he may repose. Here may properly 
come in the restraints of human law. 
Thoughtless persons object that the laAV of 
the land can noA^er make men religious. No 
one is so foolish as to imagine that it can : 
no one is so fanatical as to attempt it. But 
the law of a Christian state ought to protect 
the religious from the pressure of the irre- 
ligious, and to proA^ide for the entire free- 
dom of him that Avill Avorship God from the 
encroachments of any business-Avorker or 
pleasure-seeker that Avould interfere Avith 
this his rightful freedom. 

The day of Christian rest is the first in 
the Aveek: the Hebrew sabbath Avas the 
seventh. It has been urged that there 
ought to be a special enactment in scripture 
for the change of day, and that, failing such 
enactment, the obligation cannot be sup- 
posed to be transferred. Some learned men 
haA'^e endea,voured to shoAV that the day 
originally sanctified after the creation Avas 
the first of the human Aveek, that a change 
occurred on the deliverance of Israel from 
bondage, and that Ave noAV in keeping the 
day of the Lord's resurrection have reverted 
to the original observance, and are there- 
fore under the original command. All that 
could be said for such a theory Avas pro- 
duced by the late Prof. Lee in his Duty of 
observing the Cliristian Sabdath, 2nd. edit. 
1834; but his conclusion may be thought 
doubtful. Our Lord and his apostles taught 
by example quite as precisely as by precept ; 
•d\\<l their practice is enough to sanction the 
observance of the Lord's day. Besides, the 
dispensation changing, it was but fitting 
that there should be a change in this ; else 
the bondage of the law might have attempt- 
ed to restrain the liberty of the gospel. 

And indeed an observance of the JoAvisli 
sabbath did for some time prevail in the 
Christian church, in connection Avith the 
observance »f the Lord's day. Probably 
this might be, at least at first, to conciliate 
the JoAvs. Care AA'as, however, taken not to 
halloAV it after the Jewish fashion ; and 
censures Avere passed on those that so acted 
(see Bingham, Orig. Eccles., book xx. chap. 
3). The same author shoAvs hoAv the Lord's 
day or Sunday was observed from ancient 
times, in some degree even from the begin- 
ning of the gospel, more specially Avhen 
the authorities of the empire became Chris- 
tian. Thus proceedings at law Avere sus- 
pended, saA^c such a blessed Avork as the 
manumitting of a slave:all secular business 
Avas forbidden, except such as necessity or 
charity compelled men to do; all publifl 



5abbath-day's journey] €i)Z Crea ^urg of 



776 



games and shows also were regarded as un- , 
lawful. Fasting, even in Lent, was proM- ] 
Mted, because Sunday is a joyous festival; 
and customarily did the faithful throng the 
churches, to pay their holy service in the 
Lord's courts (ibid., chap. 2). 

It has been already said that the rest- 
ohservance of the sahbath had a typical 
meaning. It pre-flgured in some degree, 
no doubt, the gospel dispensation, more 
perhaps the millennial state, but in its 
highest and most assured intention the 
eternal rest of that glorious state into 
which God's church will fiuaUy enter— a rest 
not of idleness but of active fulfilment of 
the divine will, not of constraint but of de- 
lightful freedom from all that can grieve or 
injure or annoy, so that every faculty of 
the restored man has its highest and most 
fitting employment and therefore its perfect 
bliss. The apprehension of this, its final ob- 
ject, will furnish no uncertain guide to the 
right mode of hallowing now the day of rest. 

It may be added that St. Paul's caution 
(Col. ii* 16) by no means precludes the con- 
secrated service of the Lord's day : it had 
to do with the Jewish ritual, which, it has 
been already said, is not binding upon the 
Christian church. Besides, the term ' sab- 
bath ' is not restricted to the weekly observ- 
ance : it was applied (as above noted) to 
days in various festivals (e.g. Lev. xvi. 29-31) 
wlien ordinary work was prohibited. 

The treatment of this important topic has 
necessarily been brief ; the reader may be 
referred to Dr. Barrow, Exposition of the De- 
calogue, Works, vol. i. pp. 504-509. A plain 
and excellent book, Tlie Divine Authority and 
Perpetual Observance of the Lord's Day, was 
published in 1831 by bp. Wilson (of Calcutta). 

SABBATH-DAY'S JOUPwNEY. SeeJoUK- 
i;ey. Sabbath. 

SABBATH, THE SECOND AFTER THE 
FIRST (Luke vi. Ij. Perhaps the first sab- 
bath of a year that stood second in the 
sabbatical cycle : see EUicott's Mist. Lect, 
lect. iv. pp. 173, 174. . -u 

SABBATHE'US (I Esdr. ix. 14). Shab- 
bethai (Ezra x. 15). 

SABBATICAL YEAR. See Yeab, Sabba- 
tical. ^, . , 
SABBE'US a Esdr. ix. 32). Shemaiah 
(Ezra X. 31). ^ 

SABE'ANS. There were at least two tribes 
of the name.— 1. Descendants of Seba (Isai. 
xlv. 14).— 2. Those of Sheba, son of Joktan, 
and the tribes associated with his posterity 
(Joel iii. 8). See Seba, Sheba. Possibly the 
Sabeans mentioned in Job i. 15 were a 
marauding race, to be distinguished from 
the other two. The word rendered ' Sabeans 
in Ezek. xxiii. 42 is not a proper name : it 
should be translated ' drunkards.' 

SA'BI (1 Esdr. V. 34). Probably a corrup- 
tion of Zebaim (Ezra ii. 57). 

SAB'TA, SAB'TAH (striking, i. e. 
terror to foes ?). A son of Cush of the fa- 
mily of Ham (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chron. i. 9). Irom 
him descended a tribe of Cushites, located 
probably in the Ethiopian citySaba, or Sabat, 
on the south-west coast of the Red sea not 
far from the present Arkiko. But Kaiiscn 
decidedly prefers the statement of Jose- 
phus who interprets Sabath of the Asta- 



bori, or tribes dwelling near the stream, 
Astaboras (Tacazze)^ which forms the east- 
ern river of the land Meroe, where there 
might formerly be a town Sabtah iComrn. c ;i 
theOldTest.Gen.,-p.^^(y)' 

SAB'TEOHA, SAB'TEOHAH (id.t). The 
youngest son of Cush (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chron. i. 
9), the founder of an Ethiopian or Cushite 
tribe. On Egyptian monuments the word 
SBTK, or Sabatoca, appears as the proper 
name of the Ethiopians ; but the precise lo- 
cality of this tribe has not been ascertained. 
The Targum of Jonathan renders Zingetam, 
Zanguebarl _ , ^, 

SA'CAR (Mre, rewarc[)—l. The father of 
Ahiham, one of David's warriors (1 Chron. 
xi. 35). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 33 he is called Sha- 
rer— 2. A Levite porter (1 Chron. xxvi. 4). 

SAOKBTJT. A musical instrument. The 
word thus (no doubt erroneously) translated, 
sabbecd, occurs only in Daniel (Dan. iii. 5, 7, , 
10, 15). It seems to have really been a tri- i 
angular instrument with four or more 
strings, played on with the fingers, and 
emitting a sharp clear sound. It probably 
resembled the nebel, rendered 'psaltery. 
lAvy complains of minstrels, sambucistria>, 
who used such an instrument, flocking into 
Rome from the east, ffist., lib. xxxix. 6. See 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Mus. Instruraente.' 

SACKCLOTH. A coarse black cloth com- 
monly made of hair (Rev. vi. 12), such as that 
of goats or camels. It was used for straining 
liquids, for sacks, and for mourning gar- 
ments. Sometiuies we find it under the 
ordinary clothes, bound upon the loins, or 
worn instead of any other kind of dress : 
occasionally it was spread on the ground 
to be lain upon (Gen. xxxvii. 34 ; 1 Kings 
xxi. 27 ; 2 Kings vi. 30 ; Isai. Iviii. 5 ; Joel i. 8 ; 
Jonah iii. 5, 6, 8). Deep sorrow was hence 
denoted by sackcloth and ashes (Matt. xi. 
21). Such"garments were sometimes the . 
dress of prophets and ascetics (Isai. xx. 2 ; 
Zech. xiii. 4). See Moukxi>:g. 

SACRIFICE. That the practice of offer- 
ing sacrifice has been widely prevalent 
through the world is a fact sufficiently ob- 
vious. It is a reasonable inference that it was 
derived from a single source ; for it is not 
very likely that unconnected nations would 
have separately hit upon this mode of pleas- 
ing or propitiating the objects of their 
worship. The scripture account is very na- 
tural. Noah, the second father of the hu- 
man race, offered sacrifice (Gen. viii. 20); 
and hence we may suppose the rite con- 
tinued, as we find it practised by the patri- 
archs (xii. 7, xiii. 18, xxii. 13, xxvi. 25, xxxiii. 
20; Job i. 5), until it was enibodied in the 
Mosaic law; continued, too, by those who 
lapsed into idolatry. For both sacred and 
profane history testify the prevalence of 
sacrifice among heathens, and the offering 
of human victims, an abomination most 
displeasing to the true God (Psal. cvi. 37, 38). 

Sacrifice, however, is much earlier than 
the time of Noah ; and aremarkable history 
is given of those offered respectively by 
Cain and by Abel (Gen. iv. 3, 5). It has been 
questioned whether the institution was by 
divine command, or whether it was devised 
by the first family of man. Now, without 
laying anv stress on the skins supplied to 



777 



Adam and Eve for clothing (iii. 21), we may 
observe that there was a difference record- 
ed between the two sacrifices of Cain and of 
Abel. One, that of the firstlings of the flock, 
was graciously accepted ; the other, of the 
fruits of the ground, was rejected. Why, ,lf 
both were devised of the offerer's mind, 
was one approved, the other disapproved ? 
God is not accustomed to approve that 
which a man devises according to his own 
will; and it is not likely that he would 
adopt and perpetuate an ordinance ground- 
ed on a mere human fancy. Besides, Abel 
is said to have sacrificed in faith (Heb. xi. 
4). But faith must have some word of in- 
struction or promise by which to hold ; else 
it is not faith, it is presumption. Therefore 
it seems more reasonable to suppose that 
Kome divine intimation, if not in express 
words yet such as to show God's will, was at 
first given, to which Abel paid exact obe- 
dience, while Cain thought himself at liber- 
ty to modify and alter it. Corroborative 
proof is the fact that prior to the deluge 
animals were distinguished into clean and 
unclean (Gen. vii. 2, 8). This could not have 
I nad reference to diet : the reasonable in- 
ference is that it was to define the victims 
that might be offered in sacrifice. And 
surely, if sacrifice had been but a human 
notion, God, before whom all his creatures 
are on a level, would not have recognized 
the distinction. See F-dixhairn, Typology of 
Script., book ii. chap. 4, vol. i. pp. 248-260. 

There is a further question,whether sacri- 
fice was merely an offering of gratitude, the 
presentation to the Deity of tbat which was 
most highly valued, or whether it was to be 
deemed by the slaying of the victim to 
possess any propitiatory virtue. But certain- 
ly, in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifice was under- 
stood to be a propitiation— not that the 
blood of bulls and goats had power to 
cleanse the conscience, but rather because 
in this appointed mode of worship the of- 
ferer acknowledged his guilt as deserv- 
ing death and appealed to the Lord's mercy, 
and above all because in these sacrifices 
as types there was a purposed foresha- 
dowing of the great effectual sacrifice to 
be made by the incarnate Son of God for 
the sins of mankind. Tlie sacrifices of 
the law did away ceremonial pollution : 
they sanctified to the purifying of the flesh: 
the blood of Christ was the true propitia- 
tion for the guilt of the world (Heb. ix. IS- 
IS). He was at once the priest, the offerer, 
and the victim. And in this view the ac- 
ceptance of Abel's offering is better under- 
stood. He brought a victim, a sacrifice 
for sin : Cain brought a thank-offering, as if 
already in the condition of righteousness 
before God. For further information the 
reader must be referred to other works ; and 
for a notic'e of the legal sacrifices see 
Offerings. 

Christians were not to eat meat sacrificed 
to idols. But this might involve in a hea- 
then city entire abstinence from flesh-meat: 
for animals slaughtered were commonly so 
offered ; insomuch that the words for * to 
kill' and 'to sacrifice' were identical. St. 
Paul therefore gives the reasonable rule 
that meat exposed in the public shambles 



[SADDUCEB 



might be freely purchased and eaten, pro- 
vided it was not specially declared to hav 
been offered to an idol (Acts xv. 29 : 1 Cor 
viii., X. 25-31). 

SACRILEGE (Rom. ii. 22). The crime o| 
profaning sacred things. The Jews wera 
often guilty of it, though the word is noS 
found except in the place noted. It was a sa- 
crilegious act to introduce bargaining and 
trade into the temple (Matt. xxi. 12, 13). 

SADAMFAS (2 Esdr. i. 1). A corruption 
of Shallum (Ezra vii. 2). 

SA'JDASa Esdr. v. 13). Azgad (Ezraii. 12). 

SABDE'USil Esdr. viii. 45). This name, 
apparently identical with Daddeus (46), is a 
corrupt form of Iddo (Ezra viii. 17). 

SADDLE. The ancient saddles were no 
doubt very simple (Gen, xxii. 3 ; Numb, 
xxii. 21), like the saddles of the asses at pre- 
sent in Egypt and Syria, a mat or a quilted 
cloth ; a pad being sometimes used. Hence 
the garments placed upon the ass on which 
our Saviour rode (Matt. xxi. 7). The common 
pack-saddle of the camel is high and made 
of wood ; the camel's hump fills the cavity ; 
and carpets, cloaks, &c. are heaped upon 
this saddle to form a comfortable seat. But 
ladies and sick persons sometimes ride ni a 
sort of covered chair or cradle thrown 
across the back of the camel. It was pro- 
bably in the hollow of the framework of 
the pack-saddle that Rachel concealed her 
father's images (Gen. xxxi. 34). 

SAD' DUG (1 Esdr. viii. 2). Zadok (Ezra 
vii. 2). 

SAD'DUCEES. One of the Jewish sects 
of which we read in the New Testament, 
doctrinally in sharp opposition to the Pha- 
risees, but ready to work with them against 
the person and teaching of Jesus. Their 
origin is involved in some obscurity. They 
are said to have derived their name from 
Zadok a scholar of Antigonus Socho, presi- 
dent of the sanhedrim, who was himself a 
disciple of Simon the Just, and died 263 B.C. 
But this is a very questionable account. It 
was natural, Avhen the Pharisaic tendency 
was developing itself, that an antagonistic 
mode of thought would grow and, as time 
ran on, assume the form of a distinct school. 
And it may be that, when the name Phari- 
sees had been appropriated by the one body, 
their rivals might assume that of Sadducees 
as deduced from a word signifying just or 
righteous. If, however, it was an individual 
from whom the name was derived, it is not 
improbable that it was Zadok, the eminent 
high priest in the time of David and Solo- 
mon. A body of persons regarding them- 
selves as more enlightened than others 
may well have formed a kind of sacerdotal 
aristocracy, and have called themselves the 
company or party of Zadok. 

The tenets of the Sadducees may be 
gathered from the notices we have of them 
in the New Testament, illustrated by the 
account given by Josephus (Antig., lib. xiii. 
5, § 9, 10, § 6, Jib. xviii. 1,'§ 4). They disre- 
garded the traditions and unwritten laws 
which the Pharisees prized so highly, and 
professed to take the scriptures as the sole 
authoritative guide of rehgion. Not per- 
haps that they practically threw away all 
observance of tradition, but they denied Its 



SABOC] 



778 



divine amliority. Some have asserted that 
ihev didiiot receive more than them ehooks 
of Moses. But this appears to he a mistake : 
thev did not disagree "svith the rest of aieii 
nation In regard to the acceptance of the 
^holc sacred canon (seeTPmer, Bibl BWB., 
art. 'Sadducaer'). They denied the exis- 
tence of ansels and spirits, and maintained 
that there was no resurrection (Matt, xxii. 
-^S • Acts xxiii. 8\ The soul according to 
them dving with the body, so that there 
could be no future state of ^'e^ard or , 
punishment. It was their maxim theie- 
1 fore that actions to be virtuous must not i 
be done in hope of recompence. Another ^ 
great principle of their belief was the ab.o- , 
mte freedom of man's will, so that he had 
full rower of himself to do good or evil as 
he cho^e ; and then only could his actions 
have a moral value. But this tenet was 
rushed so far as almost entirely to exclude 
the divine interposition in the government 
of the world. 

The Sadducees were by no means so na- 
merons as the Pharisees ; nor were their 
tenets so acceptable to the bulli of the peo- 
ple Yet many of their body were men of 
wealth and influence. They were found m 
, the supreme council : and it was sometimes 
! a Saddu.ee wi^omied^^^^^ 

i had; mo^eofer; a political complexioii : 
thev ^vere austere, it may be adaed, in then 
habUs, and severe in the admmistration of 
iu^^tice After the first century of the Chii=- 
tian era they disappear from history 

S \'DOC {ju^t\ A person m the line oi oui 
Lord's ancestry (Matt. 1.14) ., 
fiA'DOC (2 Esdr. i. 1^. Zadok (Ezra vu. -\ 
SIFFROX This substance is mentioned 
hi conjunction with various rerfmnes and 
c-uce- iSol. Song iv. 1-1). It consists of the 
flVu-l 5ti^-ira~ of the Crocus sativus, a plant 
^hichls a nalive of Greece and Asia Minor, 
and extensively cultivated m various pai L^ 
of Europe. There are three stigmas in tho 
flower; and these with a Portion or one 
=tvle are plucked out when the calyx i» 
fully expanded, spread upon paper, and 
dried bv kilns or the heat of the sun. They 
are narrow, thread-like, and of an orange- 
vellow colour. They have a penetrating 
Kroraatic odour, with a bUtei-^taste tingiii^ 
the mouth and saliva yellow. The stigma^ of 
nine flowers are required for a gram of bat- 
fron. This is what is called hay-safiron , 
the cake-saffron being a compound of ^at- 
flower, or bastard saffron, gum, &c. Saff oi 
Avas formerlv in hisrh esteem as a medical 
Stimulant : k is still used in the east medi- 
cMiallv. and as a condiment. 

\s\INT The word is applied to persons 
hcJlvbV profession and covenant (Psal. xvi. 
i Phil i. i; Heb. vi. 10); to the angels 
a)eut. xxxiii. 2; Judel4);.to theholy ch^i^^ 
(Matt, xxvii. 52 : llev. xviiu 24). See Holi 

SA'LA (Lnkc iii. 35). The Greek forin of 
S VLAH (shoot, sprout, extens 10 n\ One of 
thtpatriarJhs in the line of. Shem (Gen x 
24, where marg. Shelah, xi. 12-1^)^ In 1 
CI ron. i. 18, 24 the name is given a. b el 1. 

S AL' \MIS. A sea-i.ort town on the eas- 
tern coast of Cyprus with a good harboui. 



It had anciently been the residence of a 
kina- and was always one of the principal 
places in the island. It was at Salamis that 
Paul and Barnabas landed, being the near- 
e=t point to Seleucia (Acts xiii. 4, 5). Many 
Jew* appear to have been residents there, , 
a^ thev had more than one synagogue. | 
P.ninedbvan earthauake under Constantme , 
th'- Great', Salamis was when re-built called 
Con^tauiia, the remains of which are yet to 
' be ==een near the modern Famagosta. 
\ SALASADA'I (Judith viii. 1). An ancestor 
of Judith. , , T • /-f.,7^ 

I SA.L VTHIEL (I have ashed him of God). 
■ The name of a descendant of the royal house 
of David (1 Chron. iii. 17). He is more fre- 
quentlv called Shealtiel m the Old Testa- 
ment. ' SalaChiel seems to have been the sou 
of iS'eri (Luke iii. 27), and he was placed in 
the line of succession to the throne iMatt 
i 1-^) on the failure of heirs through Jehoia 
chin He was the father or grandfather ol 
Zerubbabel. See Gexealogy. 
i SAL'CAH, SAL'CHAH (a pilgriirmgel) 
A. citv on the eastern frontier of Bashau, 
taken bv the Israelites, and assignea to the 
half-tribe of Manasseh (Dent. in. 10; Josu 
xii. 5. xiii. 11: comp. Dent. in. 13}; tac 
border of Gad coming close up to it a CDron , 
V ID It has been identified as the modern , 
Sulkliad, on the southern spur of the Jebei | 
Hauran, seven hours south-east of Busrah, 
and is said to abound in A-ineyards. 

SA'LEM (peace, peaceful). The city ol 
Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. 18). It ha.s been 
auestioned whether the name was really that 
' cif a citv, or rather a title of tne king (Heb. 
vii -7) - 'and then, assuming it was a pxace, 
whether this Salem was Jerusalem, or 
whether it was not rather the town a few 
miles south of Beth-shean, which we after- 
wards meet with under the name of ba im 
Certainly Jerusalem was anciently called 
Jebu* ; but Kalisch is of opinion that Mel- 
chizedek and his subjects were not Jebiv 
=ire== • that it is reasonable to snppoi=e that 
the citv afterwards so distinguished would 
be the scene of Abram's solemnly re- 
clivinc a blessing; that Jerusalem would be , 
iu the^ line of march as Abrara returned , 
S)m his victory ; ruid it ^va| mdubitaW^ ^ 
called Salem by the Psalmist (P.al. lxx^^^^^^^^ 
110-trv often adootin^ archaisms to enliance 
art^tic effect ,c5m»K0», Old Test. Gen.^VV. 
. 360 361\ See Melchizedek. 
1 e'r"r Fir (Judith iv. 4\ It is not quite 
cef^iii wfnSce is intended, perhaps one 

^ s'ISm (Kacf\ A place mentioned to in- 
dicate the locality where John Baptist was 
Santizing (John iii. 23\ It may be tlie .SaZm 
=-iid to be about eight miles south of So- 
niopolis or Beth-shean ; but wo can hardlj 
eUevo it vet exactlv identified. See ,Lsox. 
S \L'L AI ^baskct-maker1).-l. A Benjamite 
(Neh. XI. S).--2. A priest (xii. 20) : he is most 
Ukelv the same with Sallu (7). . 

S VL'LU (iceighed).-l. A Benjamite a 
Chron. ix. 7 ; Xeh. xi. 7).-2. A priest m the days 
of Jeshua (Xii. 7) : th.^ representative of his 
family in the time of Joiakim was I^al ai (20). 
SALLV'MUS a Esdr. ix. 2o). ShaUum 

1 SAviL?,' SAL'MAH (garment). The son 



of Kahshoi], and father of Boaz (Ruth iv.20, 
marg, ; 1 Chrou. ii. 11). He is also called 
Salmon (Ruth Iv. 20, 21 ; Matt. i. 4, 5).— 2. A 

son of Caleb the son of Hur, called the 
'father/ i.e. founder, of Beth-lehem (1 Chron. 
ii. 51). But there is reason to helieve that 
this Salma was identical with the first- 
named, and that he was adopted by Caleb, or 
called his son because his inheritance, Beth- 
lehem, was part of Caleb's territory. See 
Mil], Myth. Jnterp. of Gosp., part ii. chap, 
ii. 1, pp. 1G3-1G5. 

SALMANA',SAB (2 Esdr. xiii. 40) Shal- 
nianeser. 

SALMANAS'SER (Hos. xi. 5, marg.). See 

SlIALlTAXESEB,. 

SAL'MOi^ {clothed) (Ruth iy. 20, 21). See 
Salma. 

SAL'MON (shady) (Psal. Ixviii. 14). Sec 
Zalmox. 

SALMO'iSiE. A promontory at the eastern 
extremity of Crete, which stiil retains its 
ancient name (Acts xxvii. 7). See Smith, 
Voyage and Shipioreck of St. Faul, chap. ii. 
pp. 73-75, for a curious illustration of St. 
Luke's accuracy in describing the weather- 
r.ig of this cape. 

SA'LOM.-l (Bar.i. 7). Shallum, father of 
Hilkiah the high priest.— 2 (1 Mace, ii. 2G). 
Sulu (Numb. XXV. 14). 

SALO'ME {pacific).— I. The wife of Zebe- 
dee, and mother of the two apostles John 
and James (Matt. xx. 20, 21). Some imagine 
her to be the sister of the Virgin; but this is 
not probable. She was one of the women that 
ministered to our Lord, and must, it is clear, 
have been a person of substance (xxvii. 
55, 50 ; Mark xv. 40, 41, xvi. 1). For the 
legends concerning her see 'Winer, Bibl. 
HWB.,'a.n. 'Salome.'— 2. The 'daughter of 
Her(jdias,' though her name is not gi\"en in 
scripture (Matt. xiv. 6), was called Salome. 
She was the daughter of Herod Philip, son 
of Herod the Great and Mariamne : she was 
married to the tetrarch Philip, her father's 
brother, and after his death to Aristobulus, 
son of Herod king of Chalcis, to whom she 
bore three children. 

SALT. This substance is procured in Pa- 
lestine from the rock-sale at tlie south end 
of the Bead sea, and also from the salt de- 
posits on the shores of that lake Csce Zeph. 
ii. 9), and from various marshes. From this 
last source Dr. Thomson tells us that most 
of the salt now used is procured. ' It is not 
manufactured hy boiling clean salt-water, 
nor quarried from mines, but is obtained 
from marshes along the sea-shore ... or 
from salt-lakes in the interior, which dry 
up -in summer, as the one in the desert 
north of Palmyra, and the great lake of 
Jebbul, south-east of Aleppo ' {The Land 
and the Book, p. 382). Much earth and im- 
purity is collected with this salt ; and with 
the chloride of sodium, which easily dis- 
solves in water, much insoluble sulphate of 
lime is mixed ; so that there is an insipid 
residuum, tiie salt which has 'lost its 
savour,' and which travellers assure us they 
have seen literally ' trodden under foot • 
(Matt. V. 13). Salt was used for rubbing the 
bodies of new-horn children (Ezek. xvi. 4), 
for the purpose of hardening tlie skin ; also 
tor seasoning food (Job vi. G). It was mixed 



with the provender of cattle (Isai. xxx. 24 : 
see Henderson's note. Meat-offerings were 
to he seasoned with salt (Lev. ii. 13 : comp. 
Ezek Kliii. 24, where it is prescribed f(U' 
burnt-offerings) ; and it has been thoui^ht 
that the sacred perfume was to have it as 
one of the ingredients (Exod. xxx. 35, marg.). 
Perhaps its preserving quality v/as the 
reason of these directions ; or it might be 
that what man found savoury was regarded 
as most fit to be offered to God. Salt, there- 
iiore, was largely required ; and there seems 
to have been a chamber in the temple in 
which it was stored. 

Salt, however, destroys vegetation. Cities 
when demolished were so^vu with salt 
(Judges ix.45), as devoted to perpetual steri- 
lity. Hence the word is figuratively employed 
to denote barrenness (Dent. xxix. 23 ; Job 
xxxix. 6, marg. ; J er. xvii. 6). For ' covenant 
of salt' see Cove^'ant. The eating of hread 
and salt together is an Arab custom in mak 
ing a covenant : comp. Ezra iv. 24, marg. 

SALT, CITY OP. A town in the wilder- 
ness of Judah. It must have been near to 
the southern extremity of the Dead sea, as 
it is mentioned in conjunction with En-gedi 
(Josh. XV. 62). Perhaps it was in or close by 
the valley of Salt. 

SALT, PILLAR OF (Gen. xix. 2G). Sec 
Lot. 

SALT SEA (Gen. xiv. 3 ; Numb, xxxiv. 12 ; 
Dcut. iii. 17; Josh. iii. IG, xii. 3, xv. 2, 5, I 
xvlii. 19). See Sea, Dead sea. 

SALT, VALLEY OP. A place where 
David gained a victory (2 Sam. viii. 13) over 
the Syrians. It is, however, stated (l Chron 
xviii. 12) that Abishai smote the Edomites 
here. Some have supposed that a slight 
error has crept into the first-named passage 
(Aram for Edom : the difference in Hebrew 
is but a single letter). But it is evident 
that the Syrians were seeking allies from 
all the neighbouring nations : if they ob- 
tained help from Edom, their combined 
army might he called indifferently Syrian or 
Edomite;and such help given" by Edom 
would furnish the reason, which does not 
otherwise appear, why David immediately 
after attacked and suljdued it. Gesenius 
however, suggests that the valley of Salt, 
where David smote the Syrians, might 
he that near Aleppo. "With respect to the 
person in command, Abishai might be at I 
the head of a corps under the direction of 
Joab as commander-in-chief (comp. Psal. Lv. 
title); and, if Abishai's corps was that which 
bore the brunt of the battle, the victory 
might with equal propriety be ascribed to 
hnn, to Joab his immediate superior, or to 
the sovereign whom both of them served, 
and who evidently was directing trenerally 
the operations of his forces (See Winer, 
Bihl. RWB., ^rt. 'David;' Keil, Comm. on 
Kincjs,yf\t\\ Bertheau, Comm. on Chronicles, 
vol. ii. pp. 2G4-266). In this locality Amaziah 
gained a victory over Edom (2 Kings xi\^ 7 ; 
2 Chron. xxv. 11). This salt vale is most 
likely the Giior, to the south of tlic Dead 
sea, adjacent to the great salt hill, ' two-and- 
a-half hours long,' Khashm Usdum : it sepa- 
rated the territories of Judah and Edom. 

SA'LU (iveir/Jted). A Siineonito chief 
(Numb. xxv. 14). 



saxumI 



780 



SA'LUM—l a Esdr. v. 28). Shallum (Ezra v. 9, and elsewhere). Hence it compnses all 

ii 49) _2 d Esdr. Yiii. 1). SliaUum the father the blessings of the new covenant, having 

of the hlih Driest Hilkiah their fulness and consummation in the lifa 

SA^LUTATIOif. There were various of everlasting glory (1 Pet. i. 5, 9). So that 

phrases in use when a Hehrew saluted the gospel is termed ' the gospel of sa^^^^^^ 

another, at meeting and at parting; such as tion' (Eph. i._13). And, as God is the author 
• The Lord he with thee,' ' The Lord hless 



thee' (Ruth. ii. 4), ' Blessed he thou of the 
Lord' (Gen. xxiv. 31 ; 1 Sam. xsiii. 21, sxv. 
33 ; Luke i. 42), ' Peace he with thee 
(Judges xix. 20 ; 1 Sam xxv. 6). To a mon- 
arch a very common address was, 'Let the 
king live for ever' (1 Kings i. 31 ; Neh. ii. 3 ; 
Dan. ii. 4, iii. 9). In the New Testament, 
« Hail,' i.e.'health or joy to thee, is a common 
address (Luke i. 28 ; John xix. 3). At this day 
'Peace he to you' is the commonest salu- 
tation in the east. The gestures varied 
with the dignity of the person saluted. 
Sometimes the right hand was laid upon 
the hreast with an inclination of the body ; 
hut before any one of high rank the in- 
ferior repeatedly prostrated himself (Gen. 
xxxiii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xiv. 22). Sometimes a man 
hent his hand to the ground, and then ap- 
plied it to his lips and forehead. Probably 
this custom may illustrate Job xxxi. 27, 
where it is the gesture of adoration. The 
hand of the superior, too, is kissed, this 
beiug'now the usual mark of respect shown 
by a wife to her husband, by a son to his 
father, by a servant to his master. Or, if 
the superior does not allow this, but merely 
touches the hand of the other, the latter 
puts the hand so touched to his own lips 
and forehead. Kissing the hem or skirt of 
the garment, or even the dust before a su- 
perior, was also practised (Psal. Ixxii. 9; 
Zech. viii. 23). The custom of kissing 
the beard is still preserved, usually on 
meeting after some time of absence. The 
right hand of the person so saluting is put 
under the beard, to support it while the kiss 
is imprinted on it (2 Sam. xx.9). Some- 
times the Arabs lay the right sides of then- 
cheeks together. In Persia the kiss is given 
on the lips, or, if one of the parties is of 
high rank, on the cheek : see Gen. xxix. 
n, 13, xxxiii. 4 ; Exod. iv. 27, xvii-i. 7. 

It is worthy of notice that Christians were 
forbidden to salute those who had denied 
the faith (2 John 9-11). Indeed generally, 
as among the Mahommedans of the present 
dav, salutation was given by the Jews only 
to brethren.' The followers of Christ were 
to have larger charity than this (Matt. v. 
47). The prohibitions against saluting by 
the way (2 Kings iv. 29 ; Luke x. 4) were 
directed against the delay which the formal 
courtesies of the east were likely to cause 
to a journey on pressing business. 

Salutations were also conveyed in letters. 
See for examples Ezra iv. 17, v. 7 ; Acts 
xxiii. 26, 30 ; Rom. i. 1-7, xv. 33, xvi. St. 
Paul, who usually employed an amanucii- 
si«^ added the salutation with his own hand 
(1 Cor. xvi. 21 ; Col. iv. 18 ; 2 Thess. iii. 17). 

SOLVATION. This word is sometimes 
used generally for any deliverance or preser- 
vation (Exod. xiv. 13 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 45\ but 
more frequently and particularly for the 
deliverance of mankind from the power of 
sin and Satan, by the Lord Jesus Christ 
l^Zcch. ix. 9 ; Luke i. 69, 77 ; Rom. i. IG ; Heb. 



tion' (Eph. 

of salvation, he is sometimes said to be the 
'salvation' of his people (Psal. xxvii. 1). 
Similarly salvation is ascribed to him (Rev 
xix. 1), because it is his gift : comp. Eph. 
ii. 8, 9. Christ has procured this salvation 
and therefore it is that emphatically he is 
called the Saviour (Matt. i. 21). 

SAM'AEL (Judith viii. 1). An ancestor ol 
Judith, nerhaps Shelumiel (Numb. i. 6), 

SAMAI'AS—1 (1 Esdr. i. 9). Shemaiah 
(2 Chron. xxxv. 9).— 2 (1 Esdr. viii. 39). She- 
maiah (Ezra viii. 13).— 3 (Tob. v. 13). 

SAMA'RIA iwatcli-vost). A celebrated 
city of Palestine, founded by Omri king ol 
IsraeL The palace at Tirzah, where the pre- 
ceding monarch had resided, was burnt by 
Zimri. So when Omri, after the death ol 
his rival Tibni, found himself firmly seat- 
ed on the throne, he soon began to 
cast about for a fresh capital for his do- 
minions. A hill admirably adapted for the 
site of a great city belonged to Shemer. 
And of him Omri purchased it for two 
talents of silver ; and the city that he built 
thereon he called Samaria, after the name 
of the former owner (1 Kings xvi. IS, 23, 24) 
Thenceforth it was the metropolis of the 
northern kingdom, the rival of Jerusalem, 
and generally the residence of the Is- 
raelitish monarchs (29, xx. 43 ; 2 Kings i. 2) 
though they had also a palace at JezreeJ 
(1 Kings xxi. 1; 2 Kings viii. 29). The 
worship of Baal was set up in Samaria by 
Ahab, who built there an altar and a temple 
to the idol-god (1 Kings xvi. 32), which were 
destroyed by Jehu (2 Kings x. 18-28). 

Samaria was unsuccessfully besieged by 
the Syrians in the reigns of Ahab and J orani 
(1 Kings XX. 1-21 ; 2 Kings vi. 24-33, vii.) 
It was ultimately taken by the Assyrians 
after a siege of three years in the reign of 
Hoshea (xvii. 5, 6, xviii. 9, 10). The in- 
habitants were carried into captivity, and 
colonists put in their place (xvii. 24 ; Ezra 
iv. 9, 10). This city continued a place of 
importance for some time after the Baby- 
lonish exile : then it was taken by Alexander 
the Great, who placed a body of Syro-Mace- 
donians in it. Subsequently Samaria was 
utterly destroyed by John Hyrcanus. It 
must, however, have been ere long re-built ; 
for in the time of Alexander Jannteus it was 
reckoned one of the cities possessed by the 
Jews. Pompev assigned it to the province 
of Syria : Gabiuius fortified it afresh : 
Augustus cave it to Herod the Great, who 
embellished it, settled a colony of veterans 
there, and strengthened its defences. He 
also give it the name of Sebaste in honour 
of the emperor ; Sebastos being the Greek 
equivalent of Augustus. But it began to 
decay, overshadowed by its neighbour 
Nablous, and it is now but a mass of ruins, 
adjacent to the modern village of Sebiistieh 
I see Winer, BiblEWB. art. 'Samaria'). 

Samaria was gloriously beautiful.'a crown 
of pride' (Isai. xxviii. l) upon its fruitful 
hill. ' The site of this celebrated capital. 



781 



[ SAMARITAN 



says Dr. ThomBon, 'is delightful, by uni- 
versal consent. It is a very large isolated 
hill, rising by successive terraces at least 
600 feet above the valleys which surround 
it. In its shape it is oval ; and the smaller 
and lower end unites it to the neighbouring 
mountain on the east. ... The view from 
the topmost terrace of Samaria over the 
rich plains and hills around it, and far away 
to the blue Mediterranean, is truly magni- 
ficent. The remains of the ancient city 
consist mainly of colonnades, which cer- 
tainly date back to the time of the Herods ; 
and perhaps many of the columns are much 
older. There is a group of sixteen standing 
in a recess low down on the north-east side 
of the hill, and a similar group of sixteen 
on the top, though these last are larger ; and 
there are many lying prostrate. The grand 
colonnade, however, runs along the south 
side of the hill, down a broad terrace, 
which descends rapidly toward the present 
village. The number of columns, whole or 
broken, along this line is nearly one hundred', 
and many others lie scattered about on 
lower terraces. They are of various sizes, 
and quite irregularly arranged : but when 
perfect it must have been a splendid colon- 
nade. The entire hill is covered with 
rubbish, indicating the existence and re- 
peated destruction of a large city. The 
modern village is on the south-eastern 
slope, adjacent to the ruined church of St. 
John. . . . The church .... is an interest- 
ing specimen of medieval architecture ' {The 
Land and the Book, p. 468). 

The name Samaria often occurs in a more 
extended sense not only as the capital of the 
northern kingdom, but as that kingdom it- 
self. Thus the sovereigns are called kings 
of Samaria as well as of Israel (1 Kings xxi. 
1 ; 2 Kings i. 3) ; and we also read of ' the 
cities of Samaria ' (xvii. 24). In New Testa- 
ment times Samaria was one oE the great 
divisions of Palestine lying bet\reen Galilee 
and Judea ; so that any one who would pass 
straight from one of these provinces to the 
other 'must needs go through Samaria' 
(John iv. 4). It occupied the ancient terri- 
tories of the tribes of Ephraim and western 
Manasseh. 

SAMA'BIA (1 Mace. v. 66). This can hardly 
be the celebrated city of the name. An error 
has been supposed for Marissa, i.e.Mareshah. 

SAMAR'ITAN. This name must have 
originally and properly designated an in- 
habitant of the city Samaria. But after- 
wards Samaria acquired a more en- 
larged signification, and sometimes was 
taken to include the whole of the northern 
state (1 Kings xiii. 32, xxi. 1 ; Ezek. xvi. 46, 
51, 53, 55, xxiii. 4 ; Hos. viii. 5, 6 ; Amos ill. 
9). Hence the term Samaritan might also 
be extended. It is very questionable, how- 
ever, whether it ever was applied to the in- 
habitants generally of the kingdom ; and 
indeed it is used in the Old Testament but 
once (2 Kings xvii. 29), and there it signifies 
the population introduced by the king of 
Assyria into the cities of Samaria. By these 
'cities of Samaria' of course can be under- 
stood only those in the centre of Palestine, 
north of Judah, and excluding the trans- 
Jordanic territory, and also that of Galilee, 



both which appear to have been previously 
over-run by the Assyrian kings (xv. 29 ; 1 
Chron. v. 26). It was the posterity of this 
population, intermixed with the Israelites 
who had been left, that bore afterwards the 
name Samaritans, as we find it in the New 
Testament. 

Some writers indeed have amused them- 
selves with the fancy that the Israelites 
were bodily and entirely carried off into the 
east (2 Kings xvii. 6, 18, 23), first overlook- 
ing the extreme improbability of such an 
utter deportation, and then forgetting in 
their hurry that Josiah long after made a 
progress through the cities of Samaria, 
putting down the idolatrous high places and 
exterminating the priests (xxiii. 19, 20), and 
actually gathered offerings from those who 
are expressly called ' Manasseh and Epliraim 
and all the remnant of Israel '(2 Chron. 
xxxiv. 9). No doubt the heathen element 
predominated ; but there was an intermix- 
ture of Israelitish blood; and accordingly 
the Samaritans never ceased to claim de- 
scent from Jacob (John iv. 12). The ques- 
tion is well argued by Keil, Comm. on Kings, 
vol. ii. pp. 69-71. 

The introduction of the eastern tribes 
was probably effected by Esar-haddon or 
one of his generals (Ezra iv. 2, 10); and they 
were brought from Babylonia and other 
neighbouring provinces (2 Kings xvii. 24 ; 
Ezraiv. 9): see the articles under the re- 
spective names. These tribes were utterly 
ignorant of the true God, and worshipped 
their own false deities ; and the remnant of 
Israel were but too ready to unite with them 
in their idolatry. But this gross conduct 
in the Lord's land was not to remain un- 
punished. He sent lions among them : for 
the beasts of the field had doubtless increas- 
ed after the desolation .occasioned by the 
Assyrian invasions. Then application was 
made to the king ; and one of the priests 
who had been carried away was brought 
back to teach the people ' the manner of 
the God of the land.' The result was that 
though Jehovah was nominally worshipped, 
it was but as one deity among many, the 
idols of each respective tribe being equally 
honoured by them (2 Kings xvii. 25-41). And 
thus they continued, the mixed population 
of Hebrews and Gentiles, their religion a 
miserable medley in which the false and 
foul far overbore the pure and true. 

We read nothing more of them till after 
the Jews' return from Babylon. Then they 
desired to take part with Zerubbabel in re- 
building the temple at Jerusalem. They 
must have relied on the Hebrew element 
among them. But of course they Avere re- 
fused ; and then filled with envy and bitter 
malice they represented to the Persian 
kings the danger of allowing Jerusalem to 
rise again to honour and influence ; and of 
course in this representation they laid as 
much stress as possible on their being 
mainly composed of eastern nations. Their 
opposition was successful. For several 
years the work was forbidden at Jerusalem 
(Ezra iv.). _ 

Later we find the same enmity (Neli. iv.. 
vi.) 

It was brought to a head by the erection 



PENTATEUCH] CljC EVtK^UX^ fit 



of a rival temple on mount Gerizim. Manas- 
seh, a priest who liad been expelled from 
Jerusalem for an unlawful marriage, ob- 
tained leave from Darius Kothus, king of 
Persia, to build tbis temple about 409 B.C. 
(Prideaux, Connection, vol. i. pp. 357-359). 
And, as various Jewish apostates from time 
to time resorted to them, the Samaritans 
possessed additional claims to Hebrew de- 
scent, and, holding superstitiously to their 
copy of the Pentateuch, professed to ob- 
serve the law more strictly than the J ews 
themselves. The most intense hatred 
thenceforward subsisted between the Jews 
and the Samaritans. All kind of communi- 
cation was forbidden. The productions of 
Samaria, and all articles of diet among them, 
were pronounced asunciean as swine's flesh. 
The Samaritans were never to be received 
as proselytes to the Jews' religion, and they 
were declared incapable of partaking of the 
resurrection to eternal life. The religious 
diflerences between the two peoples are 
largely explained by Prideaux, w&i siipr., 
pp. 36i-368. ^ ^ 

The history of the Samaritans illustrates 
many circumstances in the gospel narra- 
tive. The charge our Lord gave first to his 
apostles was not to go into the way of the 
Gentiles, nor to enter into any city of the 
Samaritans (Matt. x. 5). There they would 
be little likely to be listened to. And, when 
he himself was intending to pass through a 
Samaritan village, and was inhospitably re- 
jected there because it was seen that he was 
journeying to Jerusalem, the old hatred 
readily flamed out in James and John who 
desired nothing less than the utter destruc- 
tion of such a people. Their compassionate 
Master rebuked their fiery zeal : he was 
come ' not to destroy men's lives, but to 
save them' (Luke ix. 52-56). He himself 
once made a deep impression on a Samaritan 
town. It was matter of surprise indeed 
that a Jew should ask drink of a woman 
of Samaria ; but his loving discourse taught 
her her error, and his weighty words over- 
came all national prejudice, so that many 
Samaritans believed on him and besought 
1 him to tarry with them ; nor did he refuse 
' their request (John iv. 1-41). We may from 
' all this understand the point of some of the 
i events and parables which are related. See, 
i for example, how forcible the lesson of 
' brotherlv-kindness is, when, after the priest 
and the Levite had passed heartlessly away 
from the wounded traveller, the man who 
tenderlv relieved him was declared to be a 
Samaritan. Even the carping lawyer was 
obliged to acknowledge that the one who 
showed mercy, Samaritan as he was, was 
'neighbour unto him that fell among the 
thieves' And with searching power must 
the final admonition have rung in his ears, 
' Go and do thou likewise ' (Luke x. 2o-37). So, 
R^ain of the ten lepers that were cleansed. 
< The nine ungrateful ones were Jews: the 
i one that glorified God and gave the great 
Healer thanks was a Samaritan (xvii. 11-19). 
After his resurrection the Lord commanded 
! that his gospel should be preached in 
Samaria as well as in Judea (Acts i. 8) ; and 
i very joyful ere long, we are expressly told, 
was Samaria when the glad tidings of salva- 



tion were proclaimed in her streets, and 
miracles were wrought there, and by the ; 
apostles' hands the Holy Ghost was confer- - 
red (viii. 5-25). And there was joy in heaven 
too, that the wanderers, the despised, and 
the outcast were received into the flock of 
Cfirist. , , . ^ 

It need not be supposed that Samaritans, 
properly so called, occupied all the cities 
and villages of Samaria. It is likely indeed 
that the number of their settlements had : 
gradually diminished, so that in our Lord's ; 
time they were most chiefly congregated m 
the central part of this district. Yet they 
were by no means an unimportant people. 
It was through their complaints of the 
treatment they had received from Pilate 
that that governor was displaced. Yespasiau 
had to deal severely with them (Josephus, 
Antiq., lib. xviii. 5, §§ 1, 2 ; Bell.Jud., lib. in. 
7, § 32) : still thev continued numerous, and 
were considered to be determined enemies 
of Christianitv. Little need be said of their 
later history. They have dwindled down to 
about 200, who still at Kablous tenaciously 
cling to their law, and to the sepulchres oi 
their fathers, celebrating the passover, with 
minute attention to the prescribed rites, on 
mount Gerizim. ^, 

SAMAPtlTAN PEIn'TATELCH, THE. The 
Pentateuch exists in the Samaritan, or the 
ancient Hebrew character : that is, the 
lansuase is Hebrew but written with letters 
varying from those in which for many 
centuries Hebrew has been expressed. Tet 
this Pentateuch is not a mere servile copy 
of Hebrew made by only a change of charac- 
ter : it is an independent edition, preserved 
with jealous care among the Samaritans, ana 
presenting several readings different from 
those in the Hebrew Pentateuch. 

Biblical critics are by no means agreed 
upon its origin. Many imagine that it la 
not older than the establishment, some time 
after the Babylonish captivity, of independ- 
ent Samaritan worship and of a temple oil 
Gerizim. But there are good reasons for be- 
lieving its prior existence. There must 
have been copies of the law among the ten 
tribes at the time of the disruption. For 
it was Jeroboam's great anxiety to prevent 
his people from resorting to Jerusalem for 
sacrifice according to the law, that induced 
him to set up the golden calves at Beth-el 
and Dan (1 Kings xii. 26-33). And we can- 
not suppose Israelitish prophets like Elijaii 
and Elisha ia-uorant of the Pentateuch. 
That there are traces of it in the writings : 
of Hosea and Amos who prophesied chiefly , 
in the northern kingdom has been proved. , 
Copies, no doubt, were rare ; and in a time ; 
of almost-universal apostasy the law would 
be little regarded ; but yet the existence of : 
the book— of course in the old character— ; 
in Israel before the Assyrian deportation ■ 
is most probable. TVhen the Assyrian king i 
sent back one of the priests to teach the i 
mixed people ' the manner of the God of ; 
the land,' though the Avorship continued of 
a debased kind, yet the teachings given wore 
surely based on some written document. 
And then we find Josiah, in his reforma- 
tion, which extended over Samaria, rather 
appealing to ' the book of the coyeuaut, at 



llezckiah liad done before liim, tlian intro- 
ducing it afresh (2 Kings xxiii. 21 ; 2 Cliron, 
XXX, 5-9). It is less lilcely tliat, after tlie 
Babylonish captivity wlien the Samaritans 
were violently opposed to the Jews, they 
would have adopted the sacred book from 
their enemies. And it may be added that 
we have in the existence of the Samaritan 
Pentateuch a strong argument for the 
antiquity of the whole. Had any portion of 
it, as some have imagined, been composed 
and Introduced in the later times of the 
kingdom of Judah, surely we should never 
bave had a Samaritan Pentateuch ; never 
would tho Samaritans bave cared to pre- 
serve what their adversaries had lately con- 
cocted and attributed to Moses. 

This Pentateuch was known to and cited 
by many ancient Christian fathers; but it 
fell into oblivion for many centuries, till 
Joseph Scaliger drew attention to it. Pietro 
della Valle obtained in 1616 a complete copy 
from Damascus. Archbishop IJssher pro- 
cured six more manuscript copies from the 
east: other copies also v/ere obtained ; and 
it was printed for the first time by Morinus 
in the Paris polyglott : it was re-printed in 
Vv^alton's London polyglott ; and a conveni- 
ent edition in Hebrew characters v/as pub- 
lished by Dr. Blayney at Oxford in 1790. 

Scholars have differed respecting the criti- 
cal value of the Samaritan Pentateuch. Some 
have regarded its readings as preferable very 
frequently to those of the Hebrew copies. 
Gesenius, however, is of a different opinion. 
He admits only four readings (Gen. iv. 8, 
xiv. 14, xxii. 13, xlix. 14) to be superior to 
the Hebrew (De Pent. Sam. Orig. Incl. et 
Axict, Halse, 1815, § 17, pp. 61-64). And the 
first of these is the only one of any conse- 
quence ; the words, 'Let ns go into the 
field,' as Cain's address to his brother, being 
introduced. But a writer in the Journ. of 
>Sacr. Lit. (July 1853, pp. 298-327) questions 
Gesenius's conclusions. He has not succeed- 
ed in overthrowing them ; and the Samari- 
tan Pentateuch is critically of little value. 
It may be added that there is a remark- 
al)le similarity, not yet fully accounted for, 
lietween the Samaritan and the Septuagint 
text. 

The Samaritan Pentateuch has been trans- 
lated into the Samaritan dialect, Avhich is 
a mixture of Hebrew and Aramasan. There 
is also an Arabic version extant in Sa- 
maritan characters (see Home's IntroducL, 
vol. ii. pp. 29-33, edit. Ayre). Por an elabo- 
rate account of the Samaritan Pentateuch 
and of Samaritan literature the reader must 
bo referred to Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. 
iii. pp. llOG-1116. 

SAM'ATUS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). 

SAMJEFUSill^lsar. ix.21). Shemaiah (Ezra 
X. 21). 

SAM'GAR-NE'BO (sword or warrior of 
Nebo). One of the king of Babylon's princes 
(Jer. xxxix. 3). 

BA'MI (1 Esdr. v. 28). Shobai (Ezra ii. 42). 

SA'MIS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Shimei (Ezrajx. 38). 

SAM'LAH {garment). One of the ancient 
kings who reigned in Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 3G, 
37; 1 Chron. i. 47, 48). 

SAM'MU8 (1 Esdr. ix. 43). Shema (Iseh. 
Viii. 4). 



fsAMSOH 



SA'MOS. An island in the ^Egean sea, oil 
the coast of Ionia, about 40 stadia (5 milep) 
from the promontory of Trogyllium, over- 
against Miletus. It was celebi-ated as the 
seat of Juno-worship, and as the birth-place 
of Pythagoras. It was a fruitful island: 
see Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Samos.' St. 
Paul put in there when on his voyage to- 
wards Jerusalem (Acts xx. 15). Many Jews 
were settled in Samos (1 Mace. xv. 23). 

SAMOTHRA'CIA. A lofty and conspi- 
cuous island north of Lemnos, in the 
iEgean sea, off the coast of Thrace, where 
the Hebrus disembogues itself. It was for- 
merly celebrated for the mysteries of Ceres 
and Proserpine, Originally called Dardania, 
it was afterwards occupied by the Thracians 
and also at a later period by Samians, whence 
its compound name. It is now called Samo- 
traJci or SamandraJci. St. Paul touched at 
Samothracia on his first voyage to Europe 
(Acts xvi, 11). 

SAMP'SAAIES (1 Mace. xv. 23). Probably 
a place, thought to be on the coast of the 
Black sea. 

SAM'SON" {sun-like). One of the most 
noted judges of Israel. His birth was fore- 
told by an angel of the Lord, who com- 
manded that the child should be 'aNazarite 
unto God from the womb.' Samson was oi 
the tribe of D;in and a native of Zorah,where 
his father Manoah dwelt (Judges xiii.). The 
general features of the district in which his 
youth was passed remain unchanged. Dr 
Thomson was pleased to find his home still 
in existence, a secluded mountain-village 
above 'AinShemsh, and notices the accuracy 
of the sacred narrative. Samson is said to 
have gone down to Timnath. And ' Tim- 
nath still exists on the plain ; and to reach 
it from Zorah you must descend through 
wild rocky gorges, just where one would 
expect to find a lion in those days when 
wild beasts wei^e far more common than at 
present ' {The Land and the Book, pp. 565, 566 ) 

Samson of unsurpassed bodily strength 
was also a man of ungovernable will. He re- 
solved contrary to his parents' wish to con- 
tract a marriage with a Philistine female, 
God, however, can overrule even the most 
unbridled actions of men for the further- 
ance of his own wise purposes ; and it was 
this alliance which first of all inflamed the 
Israelitish champion against the oppressors 
of his countrymen. The marriage at Tim- 
nath was celebrated pretty much after the 
fashion in which weddings are now cele- 
brated in the same region. There was 
jollity and feasting for seven days ; and rid- 
dles were put forth for the amusement of 
the company. Samson had his riddle, from 
his discovery of honey in the carcase of a 
lion he had slain ; but none of the guests 
could solve it. And so quarrels arose ; and 
Samson plundered the Philistines, and left 
his wife, Avho was given to another (Judges 
xiv.). When his anger was appeased, Sam- 
son was desirous of being reconciled to his 
wife ; but, discovering what had been done 
with her, he resolved to destroy the Philis- 
tine's corn. So, having collected 300 
foxes or jackals, he tied them in pairs, 
fastened a fire-brand to each pair, and 
turned them loose. He had become in » 



ty^t ^XtK^XiX'Vi tit 



degree sensible of his mission, to plague 
the enemies of Israel, and lie intendeQ_ to 
inflict a wide-spread desolation. Standing 
corn, shocks, vines, and olires ^vere to he 
de=troyed throughout the whole district : 
hence the number of the jackals employed 
(aee Thomson, uUsupr., p. 552). A train of 
conseauences followed. The Philistines 
madde'ned with the injury they had received 
burnt Samson's wife and her father as the 
orieinal cause of their disasters. And 
Samson took vengeance by a slaughter oi 
the Philistines. This people were now con- 
vinced of the necessity of securing so dan- 
gerous a foe : thev therefore entered the 
territory of Judah in force and demanded 
that he should be given up to them. 
The men of Judah, cowed and fearful, 
agreed to this ; and Samson peimitted him- 
self to be bound. But he was no sooner 
amons the Philistines, who were dehghted 
to see him a captive, than he burst his 
i bonds, and, seizingthe jaw-bone of an ass, 
no doubt a heavy implement, he fell upon 
his enemies and destroyed 1000 of them. 
And, when he was exhausted by this 
achievement, ready to faint with thirst, he 
cried unto the Lord ; and a spring of water 
eu=hed forth from ahollow,not in the ]aw- 
bone, but in the place caUed fehi or ' ]aw 
from the wonderful event which had ]ust 
occurred there. This fountain, ' the spring 
of the caller,' would seem to have been still 
flowing at the time the sacred penman 
wrote, a standing witness of the trutn oi 
the record (Judges xv. 1-19). Of course scep- 
tics have found much to riaicule m this 
narrative ; but he who admits the power of 
God to interfere superuaturally in the af- 
fairs of men will not be perplexea by such 

° S^amion was now an acknowledged chief. 
He 'judged Israel' (20) ; not perhaps as 
an ordinary magistrate in peaceful times, 
or a= a commander heading the hosts of 
Israel in battle ; but rather as a single war- 
rior of nneaualled strength and activity, 
dealing fearful blows, and preparing for 
that more regular national struggle wnerein 
the Philistine voke in the days of Samuel, 
Saul and Davicl would be ultimately broken. 

The next incident in Samson's life "^as an 
illicit connection with a harlot at Gaza. The 
Gazite- bpset the gates, and thought that 
they should trap and kill him. But with iiis 
marvellous arms he tore down the gates, 
and carried them and the posts and the bar 
to the top of an eminence looking towards 
Hebron (xvi. 1-3) Winer calculates the 
distance from Gaza to Hebron ; as 
though Samson bore the gates all the way 
be?ween the two cities iBWl BJ\ B., art. 
• Simson') ; but Dr. Thomson more sensibly 
behoves that the hill was one he saw at 
Gaza, ' yonder hiU toward Hebron (p. ool ) 

Untanght by experience Samson yielded 
a-ain to thelures of a Philistine woman,told 
her the secret of his strength, and was con- 
^eauentlv seized and blinded, and made like 
a slave to work at a mill, such as those, no 
doubt, the sound of which is yet heard ring- 
fngin'Gaza (Judges xvi 4-21). In h^s misery 
thoughts of repentant sorrow filled the 
fallen champion's heart. And his hair be- 



784! 



ean to grow again, and his strength tore- 
turn ; and he had one more opportunity of 
destroving the Philistines. It was the feast 
of their god Dagon ; and they were holding 
festival, and brought out Samson to amuse 
them. Multitudes were congregated in 
Damon's temple, common people and lords 
of hiffh degree; and 3,000 were onthe flat 
roof when Samson, having lifted his voice 
in praver to God, bore down the two pillars 
he had been permitted to clasp, and died 
with the vast assembly in the ruin that en- 
sued. He thus slew more in his death than 
he had done in his life. He was buried in 
thetomb ofManoah his father (22-31). 

There has been much discussion as to the 
form and size of the temple destroyed by the 
breaking of two columns. See House, p. 
397. Itmavbesufficientheretocite there- 
marks of Dr. Thomson : 'The roofs in Gaza , 
were then flat as they are now; and it does 
not reguire a very large space for 3,000 
people, who stand as close as they can 
be packed. So much for the size of the 
building. A further explanation may be 
found in the peculiar topography of Gaza. 
Most of it is built on hiUs, which, though 
comparatively low, have declivities exceed- 
! inelv steep. The temple was erected over 
i one of these, bevond a doubt, for such was 
I and is the custom of the east; and in such 
■ a position, if the central columns were 
taken out, the whole edifice would be preci- 
i pitated down the hill in ruinous confusion, 
i There is such a steep declivity on the north- 
east corner of the present city, near the old 
dilapidated castle and palace; and the 
houses in that vicinity have fragments of 
columns wrought into the walls, and laid 
down as sills for their gates. Somewhere 
inthatneiehbourhood,! suppose, the tem- 
ple stood : and it coincides with this conjec- 
ture that the icilly (station, tomb) of Samson 
is in a garden a little east of it' (pp. 553, 554). 

Samson is reckoned among the worthies 
whose faith is celebrated (.Heb. xi. 32^ 
The date of his story cannot be accurately 
determined: perhaps it coincided with tiie 
priesthood of Eli ; and the festival m the 
house of Dason might be on occasion of tnf 
capture of the sacred ark (1 Sam. iv.). 

S AMITEL Oieard of God). A great prophet, 
the last judee of Israel before the monavchy, 
which he inausrurated, from whom too the - 
succession of the prophets do^vnwards con- ; 
tinned without interruption till after the 
captivitv. He was sou of Elkanah a Levite, 
descended from that Korah who perished 
in the wilderness (Xumb. xvi., xxvi.ll). 

It was at Ramathaim-zophim that Eika- 
nah lived. His best-loved wife Hannah was 
for some time childless ; but on her prayer 
and vow at Shiloh, confirmed by Eli's bless- 
ms, God granted her this boy, whom, when 
she had weaned him, she carried, as she had 
vowed to Shiloh, that he might minister 
there before the Lord. He was a Xazarite 
from his birth, and seems to have been a 
child of eracious temper attracting general 
favour (1 Sam. i., ii. 26\ A remarkable re- 
velation was made to him while yet young 
of the punishment which God would inflict 
on Eli's house for the profligacy of his sons; 
and it would seem that after this, such re« 



785 



SAMUEL, BOOKS OF 



velation being continued, his fame as a seer 
or prophet was established through the 
whole country. The catastrophe followed 
in which the sacred ark was taken ; and Eli 
died. Afterwards, it is difficult to say how 
long, the people were gathered at Mizpeh, 
when a great victory was gained over the 
Philistines, and Samuel's authority as a 
judge was confirmed. Little is recorded in 
detail of his administration. For a num- 
ber of years he judged Israel— this is the 
sum of what is told— though whether his 
authority was recognized by all the tribes 
may admit of question. The places to 
which he is said to have gone on circuit 
were all in the south of Palestine (vii.) ; and 
when he appointed his sons to office it was 
in Beer-sheba, the extreme south. 

Samuel was now advancing in years ; and 
his sons did not follow the pattern of his 
integrity. Public affairs were therefore in 
an unsettled state ; and it would seem that 
an invasion by the king of Amnion was ap- 
prehended (xii. 12). Hence the elders of Is- 
rael proposed the establishment of a mon- 
archy. The proposal was very distasteful 
to the prophet, who appears to have viewed 
it as a reflection on his own administration 
Cviii. 6). But, laying the matter before the 
Lord, he was directed to inaugurate a king; 
and Saul was accordingly appointed. As a 
prophet, however, and possibly as adminis- 
tering justice, Samuel retained all his in- 
fluence (vii. 15). He was authorized to 
convey God's commands to Saul, to re- 
buke him for disobedience, and to pro- 
nounce sentence on him at last, that for his 
sin his kingdom should be transferred to 
another. That other he was commissioned 
to anoint ; though Saul's suspicions were 
now aroused, and it was clear that he would 
not hesitate in revenge to commit any 
atrocious crime (xvi. 1, 2). The person 
anointed was David ; after which Samuel 
dwelt quietly at Ramah, where he had 
gathered prophetical schools, and whither 
David subsequently fled to hira (xix. 18-24) 
Here, too, Samuel died, and here he was 
buried, amid the general lamentation of the 
people (XXV. 1), who when the kingdom was 
established were obliged to acknowledge 
that his conduct had been without a stain 
(xii. 1-5). It is nowhere stated at what age 
Samuel died. He lived, it is evident, through 
the greater part of Saul's reign ; for David 
had come into public life some time before 
the prophet's death, and David was but 
thirty when Saul fell on Gilboa. Winer 
imagines that Samuel died but two years 
before the king {Bibl. BWB., art. ' Samuel '). 

He was mourned by all Israel and buried 
in Ramah (1 Sam. xxv. 1, xxviii. 3), at the 
place, according to an ancient tradition, still 
known as Neby Samwil. 

The appearance to Saul at En-dor has 
much perplexed commentators. Some are 
disposed to believe that it was produced by 
an evil spirit ; and some suspect deception. 
In the scripture narrative, however, the ap- 
pearance is called Samuel ; and the threat- 
ened prediction was fulfilled (xxviii.): who 
shall say, then, that, for wise and sufficient 
reasons, as Moses and Elijah once again re- 
Visited the earth (Matt. xvii. 3), God did not 



permit the awful warning to come even 
from the dead Samuel to the sinful king ? 

Samuel is said by the Jews to have been 
the author of several of the sacred books. 
Probably part of the first book which bears 
his name might be compiled from annals 
which he wrote. The books of Judges and 
Ruth have also, but on no very sufficient 
grounds, been ascribed to him. Eor legend- 
ary stories about this prophet see D'Her- 
belot, BiUioth. Orient, art. 'Aschmouil.' 
Christian expositors, too, have amused 
themselves with fanciful notions (Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1123), as that he 
had a peculiarly loud cry in prayer, &c. &c. 

SAM'UEL, THE BOOKS OF. The two 
books of Samuel were by the Jews con- 
sidered one.. They bear the name of Samuel, 
because the earlier part is occupied with the 
history of that prophet. In the LXX and 
Vulgate versions they are called ' books of 
Kings' or * Kingdoms;' and hence in our 
bibles we find added to the titles, ' other- 
wise called the first (or the second) book 
of the Kings.' 

It has been sometimes imagined that the 
books of Samuel and of Kings are parts of 
the same work, by the same author; but 
there are sufficient reasons for rejecting 
such a theory. Thus in Kings authorities 
are perpetually cited: it is otherwise in 
Samuel. In Kings are many express refer- 
ences to the law; in Samuel none. In 
Kings the exile is often alluded to : it is 
not so in Samuel. The plans of the two 
works vary: Samuel has more of a bio- 
graphical cast-— Kings more the character 
of annals. Moreover, the modes of ex- 
pression are not the same : there are in 
Kings later forms of language, of which 
few occur in Samuel. The only real diffi- 
culty is that the books of Samuel do not 
conclude David's reign, for the end of which 
we have to consult Kings. Some have con- 
sequently supposed that the first two chap- 
ters of Kings ought to be attached to 
Samuel. But it is replied that there is parti- 
cular mention of the law of Moses in 1 Kings 
ii. 3, which as above remarked is not found 
in Samuel. Bleek suggests {Einleitung in 
das A. T., pp. 358-361) that the compiler of 
Kings, intending to carry on the history, 
detached the concluding portion of Samuel, 
augmented it from additional sources, and 
prefixed it to his own work. This is possible, 
but hardly probable. It is, however, of 
little moment to decide the point. 

The books of Samuel present three large 
sections : we have— I. The history and ad- 
ministration of Samuel (1 Sam. i.— vii.). II. 
The establishment of a monarchy, and the 
history of Saul's reign (viii.— xxxi.), in- 
cluding (1) Saul's advancement and ad- 
ministration till his rejection (viii.— xv.), (2) 
his downward course till his death (xvi.— 
xxxi.). IIL The reign of David (2 Sam. i.— 
xxiv.). This, too, divides itself into two 
parts : (1) David's career of conquest and 
prosperity (i.— ix.); (2), his great sin, and the 
troubles which afterwards affiicted his 
house (X.— xxiv.). In all this narrative is 
shown the manifold .wisdom of God, de- 
livering his people, carrying on and de- 
veloping the blessing long ago promised, 
3 E 



SAl^TTEL, BOOILS OF] ^\)t ^^XtKiUXtJ 



786 



and dePignatiiig a family wliose royalty 
sSould alt on, till in the Son of that house 
In everlasting dominion shonld he niaugu- 
rated The narratives, the foreshado^^1ngb 
of Samuel, are eminently instructive and 

is f reelv acknowledged that the author, 
like most other historians had documen s 
hefore him from whicj he gathered his 
matter. The song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii. 
1-10^ the psahn ^^dlich David composed 
(2 Sim. xxii.), the list of his worthies xxni. 
8-39) &c., v-ere douhtless previously in 
writing. But some critics cl^o^f J« "JJP^^^^^ 
to the sacred penman an unskilful Ube of 
these materials, discrepancies and contra- 
dictions, and the recording twice, irora dif- 
ferent sources, of events which happened 
oiilv once. There is no great weight m such 
ciiai-es For to substantiate them they 
milst^prove that the ^'^^ter was not mily not 
inspired, hut careless, ignorant, v.jiniMg ni 
common sense. Thus there are t.^ o e_xpe- 
ditions of Saul related m ^^dllcl he i. in 
David's power, and is spared hy h m (1 Sam. 
xxiii 19-xxiv. 22, xxvi.) ; and these it is 
said,'are hut two traditionary forms of one 
event It is improlvable, we are told, tbao 
circumstances so nearly the same, and so 
singiilar, should liave occurred tw ee. But 
surelv it is much more improhahle that a 
historian possesed of any qualifications for 
s task should have heen so hhnd as not to 
discern one fact at the bottom of two tia- 
dufois, so careless as ^^ot to tiy to sift out 
the truth, so unfortunate as by sticking in 
the discrepant accounts to make bis history 
a caricature of truth ? With all deference to 
?he deepiy-learnedmen who deem Israelitish 
story a not very harmonious mixture of 
two threads of narrative, it is too large a 
demand upon the world's credulity to re- 
q u re assent to a theory which pre-supposes 
that Hebrew historians one aiter anothei 
for from the Pentateuch the notion begins} 
f ound alwavs two traditions ready to then 
iand and one after another made the same 
blunder of giving a double f count of ^^^^^^ 
every great event which befel then mott 

"°(5S?oS|iS-seauence is another d im- 

I ven i i fuller detail, and then they accuse 
flS writer of inaccuracy, as if intend^^^^^ 
to place these facts chronologically afte. 
the point reached in the summary. 5s o 
hStoi? can be written in exact chrono- 
foS^al order. When an event has been men- 
tiSed the writer must return to give some 
of ?lie details, to gather up the thre^ads of 
rontemporaneous occmreucca; to ampiiij 
S d explain what he bad stated, ^.ranting 
this obv\ous principle ^^ry many dim<^^^^ 
will disappear. It is m this waj that tne 
perplexities attending the account of 
DaVid'fcomhat with Goliath have been re- 

^^ishowe™ that there 

are contradictions in the books of Samuel 
TWO or three of these may be examined 
iere. It is alleged that the assertionm 1 bam. 
vii 1^ is in opposition to ix. 16, x. 5, xiii. 6, 
16, 20 But the victory of Mizpeii was 



sained in the early part, perhaps at the be- 
ginning, of Samuel's administration. It is 
not till vears after that we hear again of the 
Philistines; so that the expression may oe 
mo^t fairlv used of a deliverance which 
lasted till ""Samuel had grown old, and his 
';on= were unpopular, and when advantage 
was probably taken of these circumstances 
once more to plunder Israel. It is aUeged, 
again, that two modes of Saul's appoiniment 
as king are narrated— by a special revelation 
from God (ix. 1-x. 16), and by a public as- 
sembly of the people in which he was chosen 
bA lot (X. 17-27). But to call these mcon- 
sfstent is to deny the divine government of 
the worid. To the reverent mmd Prov 
xvii 33 is a sufficient explanation. It is 
further objected that there is an mconsis- 
tencvin the narrative in regard tp Saul s 
not waiting for Samuel at Gilgal : xiii 8 it is 
iiro-ed, must refer back to x. 8: though there 
had certainlv been a meeting of the people 
with Samuel and Saul at Gilgal m the inter- 
val (xi. 14, 15). But much stress need not 
be laid on this. We may fairiy suppose that 
Samuel's charge was intended for a general 
direction, or that, having been obeyed once, 
ic was reiterated on a fresh occasion. And, 
if we are not able precisely to determine 
the exact order of events, surely ic is but 
reasonable to Impute the difficulty to 9ur 
want of information, instead of charging 
the historian with mis-statement. Only 
one more alleged contradiction can be 
noticed. The two passages, 1 bam.xini.27 
and 2 Sam. iii. 14, it is said, do not agree. 
But all appearance of disagreement is re- 
moved by a reference to 1 Sam. xviii. 2o The 
number which the king prescrioea v a= 100 , 
and this was the price which David na urally 
names to Ish-bosheth, though m fact he had 
doubled Saul's demand. , , , , 
It is, moreover, said that the whole work 
is athing of shreds and patches ; that there 
nre summiugs ur, as in 1 Sam. vii lo-a., xiv 
47-52 • 2 Sara. viii. 15-18, xx. 23-26, so that 
+hP narrative besjins asain when it seemed 
be con luded : and^hat therefore it is 
alto-ether a heterogeneous compilation. 
IveS If this were true, it would not affect 
the authority of the record ; but the charge 
hP^S to support it. Till the breaking 
of the Philistine yoke on the great day of 
-.lizneh Samuel's authority, if he really pre- 
viou-^ly exercised any, was not consoli- 
d-*-ed • what mere natural than at such a 
c-f5i-. to t;ive an account of his ordinary ad- 
ministration of justice ? And at the end of 
chap xiv we reach the turmng-pomt ox 
Saul's reign. He bad been hitherto success- 
ful, re^rardless it is true o£ Samuers ch.arge 
in one instance, but not altogether rejected, 
and always victorious in external war. Here 
was the place, then, to give a statement of 
his family and household. Immediately 
after, when proved again with a fresh com- 
mand, he recklessly disobeyed, and i-an with 
ever-increasing celerity the miserable 
course which conducted him to utter ruin. 
There was a sonle^yhat-similar crisis lu 
David's rcis^n. With 2 Sam. x. begins the 
?tory of thai series of events which led to 
ills great sin, and embittered his closing 
i years. And chap. ix. the account of hisi 



787 



kindness to Jonathan's son, is an apt adjunct 
to the enumeration of the ofRcers of his 
kingdom. The list, too, xx. 23-26, is appro- 
priately placed, because David had just heen 
restored to his throne ; and the chaps, xxi. — 
xxiv.are hut a kind of appendix, describing 
the last scenes of his reign and life. We 
may see, then, really the careful hand of a 
single compiler in these arrangements. 

As to the author little can be said with cer- 
tainty. Some have concluded, from IChron. 
xxix. 29, that Samuel, Gad, and Nathan re- 
corded the events of their times, and that 
to them therefore these books must be 
ascribed. But we have just seen that, 
though previously-existing documents may 
have been used, the probability is that a 
single writer composed the whole. And he 
seems to have been somewhat removed in 
point of time from the events he chronicles. 
The expression ' unto this day' (l Sam. v. 5, 
vi. 18, XXX. 25; 2 Sam. iv. 3, vi, 8, xviii. 18) 
may be taken to imply this : so may 1 Sara, 
ix. 9 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 18. Perhaps we may not 
unreasonably assign the composition to the 
time of llehoboam. Commentaries on the 
books of Samuel are included in those 
Which expound generally the Old Testament. 

SANABAS'SAB (1 Esdr. ii. 12, 15). Shesh- 
bazzar (Ezra ii. 8, 11). 

SANABAS'SABUS (1 Esdr. vi. 38, 20). 
Sheshbazzar (Ezra v. 14, 16). 

SAN'ASIB (1 Esdr. v. 24). 

SANBALL'AT {lauded bij the army, giving 
strength to the arviy ?) A Horonite, that is, 
a native of Horonaim in Moab. It is not 
stated whether he was governor under the 
Persian rule over Moab or Samaria ; but he 
seems to have held some post of authority. 
He stirred up the Samaritans to impede the 
purpose of Nehemiah to re-build the walls 
of Jerusalem, and imputed rebellion to the 
Jews (Neh. ii. 10, 19, 20, iv., vi.). When 
Nehemiah returned to the Persian court, 
Sanballat gained great influence in Jeru- 
salem ; and a son of Joiada the son of Eli- 
ashib the high priest became his son-in-law; 
which provoked Nehemiah's auger, when 
he' heard it on resuming his government 
(xiii. 28). Sanballat afterwards obtained 
leave from Darius Nothus to erect a temple 
on Gerizim,where he placed his son-in-law as 
high priest. Josephus mistakenly attributes 
this to the time of Darius Codomannus. 

SANOTIFICATION, SANCTIFY. To 
sanctify is spoken sometimes of God and 
sometimes of men. 

Of God, 'When he manifests his glory, and 
vindicates his high perfections : thus he 
is said to 'sanctify' his great name (Ezek. 
xxxvi. 23). Or when he sets apart some per- 
son or thing to a holy office or use : thus 
the Father is said to ' sanctify ' Messiah 
(John X. 36) : God 'sanctified' the seventh 
day (Gen. ii= 3) ; and so the first-born of 
Israel were sanctified by his command 
(Exod. xiii. 2). Also when he frees anything 
from pollution, imparting holiness or ren- 
dering clean and fit for holy use and service. 
Hence believers in Christ who had entered 
on a new life were said to be ' sanctified' 
(1 Cor. vi. 11), and creatures of God, such as 
meats, to be ' sanctified by the word of God 
and prayer' ITim. iv. 5), 



[sand 



Again, the term is used of men, when | 
they pay fitting honour to the Deity. Thus i 
they are commanded to 'sanctify ' the Lord 
of hosts (Isai. viii. 13) ; and Moses and 
Aaron were censured because they did not 
so ' sanctify ' the Lord in the eyes of the 
children of Israel (Numb. xx. 12). Also 
when they prepare or purify themselves for 
some sacred employment, or seek to show 
the fitting temper for some work or ofllce. 
We find the word so introduced in various 
places (e.g. Exod. xix. 10, 14, 22 ; Numb. xi. 
18 ; Josh. iii. 5) : it is used also of ceremonial 
purification (2 Chron. xxx. 17), of observing 
a sacred day, as the sabbath (Deut. v. 12), of 
consecrating to a religious charge (Exod. 
xxviii. 41). So the altar was sanctified (xxix. 
36), the offering (27) ; and the vestments of 
the priests, the utensils of the tabernacle, 
&c. &c. were regarded as sanctified or holy 
(xxx. 26, 29, xxxi. 10). 

Of sanctification, or the sanctifying right- 
eousness of the Christian, it may be said in 
the Avords of Hooker : ' Now, concerning 
the righteousness of sanctification, we deny 
ifc not to be inherent : we grant that, unless 
we work, we have it not : only we distin- 
guish it as a thing different in nature from 
the righteousness of justification : we are 
righteous, the one way, by the faith of 
Abraham : the other way, except we do the 
works of Abraham, we are not righteous. 
Of the one St. Paul, " To him that worketh 
not, but believeth, faith is counted for right" 
eousness" (Rom. iv. 5). Of the other St. 
John, "He is righteous which worketh 
righteousness." Of the one St. Paul doth 
prove, by Abraham's example, that we have 
it of faith without works. Of the other St. 
James, by Abraham's example, that by 
works we have it, and not only by faith. St. 
Paul doth plainly sever these two parts of 
Christian righteousness one from the other. 
For in the sixth to the Romans thus ha 
writeth, " Being freed from sin, and made 
servants to God, ye have your fruit in holi- 
ness, and the end everlasting life." Ye are 
made free from sin, and made servants unto 
God : this is the righteousness of justifica- 
tion. Ye have your fruit in holiness : this is 
the righteousness of sanctification. By the 
one we are interested in the right of in- 
heriting : by the other we are brought to 
the actual possession of eternal bliss ; and 
so the end of both is everlasting life' {JDisc. 
on Justification, 6). 

SANCTUARY. A holy or sanctified place, 
used apparently for the holy land in which 
God would plant his people (Exod. xv. 17 : 
comp. Psal. cxiv. 2) ; more generally for the 
tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 8 ; Lev. xii. 4, xxi. 12), 
and the temple (1 Chron. xxii. 19 ; 2 Chron. 
xxix. 21); sometimes for the holy place 
exclusive of the court of the tabernacle 
(Lev. iv. 6 ; Numb. x. 21). The word is also 
applied to God's holy habitation in heaven 
(Psal. cii. 19). And, as the sacred places had 
the privilege of an asylum, the term ' sanc- 
tuary' sometimes signifies a place of refuge 
or protection (Isai. viii. 14 ; Ezek. xl. 16). 

SAND. The sand of the sea is often used 
as the symbol of multitude (Gen. xxii. 17, 
xxxii. 12), or abundance (xli. 49) ; also of in- 
tolerable weight (Job vi. 3 ; Prov. xxvii. 3) 



sandal] 



788 



There is a passage in wMcli Jot) speaks of 
multiplying his days like the sand (Job xxix. 
18). Jewish tradition, adopted hy some mo- 
dern critics, Ewald, De Wette, and others, 
would translate,' the phoenix '; as if it were a 
reference to the well-known legendary story. 
But we may rather ahide hy Gesemuss 
opinion : ' Sand is the fi-equent emhlem of 
numerous days ; nor is there any reason to 
depart from the common signification. 
Comp. Torshell on Mai. iY. 2, p. 300, edit. 

^^SANDAL. A covering for the foot. The 
word ' sandal' occurs only twice m our ver- 
sion (Mark vi. 9 ; Acts xii. 8) ; hut the same 
article unguestionahly must often he under- 
stood when we meet with the term shoe. 
The sandal worn hy oriental nations, and 
also hy the Greeks and Romans, consisted 
of a sole, of leather or wood, fastened with 
thongs round the upper part of the foot. 
The untying of these thongs or latchets was 
usually performed hy an inferior or a slave : 
hence the expression of Mark i. 7 ; Luke iii. 
16- John i. 27; Acts xiii. 25 denotes humhle 
suhservience. So also the carrying of the 
shoes after another (Matt. m. 11). The 



common sort must hare heen cheap (Amos 
ii 6 vili. 6) ; hut in later times the Hebrews 
used also shoes more nearly resembling our 
own. The Romans put on shoes when they 
went abroad, and wore slippers or sandals 
iu the house ; it being regarded as effemi- 
hate for a man to appear in pubhc m slip- 
pers. At present both shoes and boots are 
common in Palestine. 

In w^earing sandals the feet were of course 
soiled by a journey ; hence the custom of 
ofEering water to wash the feet of travel- 
lers (Gen. xviii. 4, xix. 2 ; Luke vii. 44). In 
the house and at meals the shoes or sandals 
were laid aside. And, therefore, since the 
Israelites w^ere to celebrate the passover 
as fully prepared for a march, it was spe- 
cially commanded that they should have 
their shoes on their feet (Exod. xii. 11). 








Shoes. Assyrian. From the marbles. 

sandals worn by the Israelites were pro- 
bably very similar to those of the Egyptians; 
specimens and representations of which 
have been preserved. Some of these were 
woven of palm-leaves, papyrus-stalks, &c., 
Others of leather : they were often lined 
with Gloth, on which the figure of a captive 
was painted, illustrating tbe idea of tread- 
ing enemies under foot (comp. Josh. x. 24 ; 
Mai iv.3). Theupper classes and the women 
wore them pointed and turned np at the 
end as is frequently the custom in the cast 
to the present day. Ladies appear to have 
had their sandals highly ornamented (Sol. 
Bong vii. l; Ezek. xvi. 10: comp. Judith 
xvi 9). Sandals from their lightness were 
well suited to a warm climate; and the 




Sandals and shoes. Egyptian. From specimens 

in tlie British. Museum. 
The modern Svrian practice is thus describ- 
ed by Dr. Thomson : * They scrupulously 
drop their slippers, shoes, or boots, at the 
door when they enter a room, and keep 
on their head-dress. ... As they sit on the 
mat, ru£T, or divan, with their feet under 
them shoes would soil both couch and 
clothes, and, besides, would make a very 
uncomfortable seat. The demands of de- 
cency and the calls of comfort introduced 
and enforced the custom of dropping the 
shoe at the entrance into the sitting-room ; 
and it was thence extended to every place 
entitled to respect. From this to the idea 
of defilement from the shoe Avas but a 
step and certain to be taken. Hence the 
strict reciiiisition to put it off on entering 



temples and sacred places of eyery kind. 
Mohammedans have preserved this idea in 
all its force ; and you cannot enter any of 
their mosques or holy shrines with your 
shoes on ' (Hie Land mid the Book, p. 121). 
So we have instances in scripture in which 
the shoe was to he put off in the divine 
presence (Exod. iii. 5 ; Josh. v. 15). Accord- 
ing to Jewish tradition the priests perform- 
ed their sacred services barefoot. And to 
go barefoot was not only a mark of respect, 
hut also a sign of mourning (2 Sam. xv. 30 ; 
Isai. XX. 2, 4 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23). In trans- 
ferring a possession a shoe or sandal was 
delivered (Ruth iv. 7) ; a practice derived 
from or nearly connected with the pro- 
visions of the levirate law, by which, if a 
man unduly refused to take his brother's 
wife, a stigma was infixed upon him (Deut. 
XXV. 5-10). Of course this stigma could not 
attach in a case like that of Ruth, where 
all parties were anxious that the nearest of 
kin should forego his privilege, and no 
claim was made by Paith upon the kinsman 
who was so passed over. See some good 
observations in R.Bernard's Comm. on Ruth, 
pp. 103, 104, edit. 18G5. It seems, further, 
to have been an eastern custom to cast a 
shoe upon anything, as a token that the 
ownership of it was claimed. See Psal. Ix. 
8, cviii. 9. It may be added that shoe- 
makers are mentioned in the Talmud 
(Winer, BiU. RWB., art. ' Schuhe'). 

SAN'HEDRIM or SAN'HEDRm. The 
highest council of the Jews, who attribute 
its origin to the appointment of the seventy 
elders on whom the divine Spirit was pour- 
ed, that they might assist Moses in the ad- 
ministration of affairs (Numb. xi. 16, 17, 24, 
25). See Buxtorf, Lex. Cliald. et Talm., cols. 
1513-1515. There is, however, no further 
notice of such a body in Old Testament his- 
tory ; and it is probable that the appoint- 
ment was but temporary. But, if this 
council did not continue, it might well serve 
as the model of that which we find after- 
wards in authority ; and both the number, 
and in somie respect the powers, might be 
defined according to the ancient type. The 
earliest mention we have of a council likely 
to be the sanhedrim is in the Apocrypha. 
It there appears with some prominence as 
taking part in public business and recog- 
nized by foreign potentates (2 Mace. i. 10, 
iv. 44, xi. 27). It is probable, therefore, 
that it was constituted after the return 
from Babylon ; and as some corroboration 
of this it may be remarked that the name 
is of C4reek derivation, implying a body of 
assessors. In the Mishna it is called Betli- 
din, ' house of judgment.' See Westcott, 
Introd. to Gospels, chap. i. p. 54, note. 

In the New Testament we have various 
notices of the sanhedrim. It would seem 
to have comprised chief priests (perhaps 
the heads of the twenty-four courses, and 
those who had borne the office of high- 
priest), elders, and scribes (Matt. xxvi. 57, 
59, xxvii. 1 ; Mark xiv. 53, 55, xv. 1 ; Luke 
xxii. 66 ; John vii. 45-52, xi. 47 ; Acts iv. 5- 
21, V. 21, 27-41, vi. 12— vii. 60, xxii. 30, xxlii. 
1-9). The 'servants' (Matt. xxvi. 51, 58; 
Mark xiv. 47, 54) very probably were the 
oflacers or bailiffs of the council who were 



[SAPH 



in waiting during its session. The power 
of this body was considerable. It was the 
highest judicial court, taking special charge 
of offences against the sacred law, but ex- 
ercising also other jurisdiction. For Herod, 
when governor of Galilee, was summoned 
before the sanhedrim on the charge of 
having put persons to death without com- 
petent authority (Josephus, Antiq., lib. xiv. 
9, § 4). Its power was acknowledged even 
by those Jews who lived beyond the bound- 
aries of Palestine ; for Paul had commission 
from it to arrest Christians at Damascus, 
and carry them for trial to Jerusalem (Acts 
X xii. 5). According to the Talmud the right 
of punishing capitally was taken from the 
sanhedrim about forty years before the 
downfall of the Jewish polity ; and this 
may be supposed to explain John xviii. 31. 
Still it condemned Stephen (Acts vii. 57, 58). 
And, though this is said to have been a 
hurried rush and illegal, yet, so far as we 
read, no censure for it was ever conveyed 
to the sanhedrim by the higher Roman 
authorities. It may be, therefore, that, as 
at last the charge against Jesus was treason 
against the emperor (John xix. 12)— a crime 
clearly beyond the sanhedrim's cognizance, 
the want of power was alleged on this ac- 
count. See, however, Winer, Bibl. EWB., 
art. ' Synedrium.' 

As to the number of this council authori- 
ties differ : it is variously said to be 70, 71, 
and 72. But the Jews generally hold that 
71 is the true number, on the ground that 
70 elders were appointed to assist Moses, 
who with Moses himself would make up the 
71. The president, very generally the high 
priest (Matt. xxvi. 62), was designated nasi, 
the elevated one. There was a vice-presi- 
dent, styled ' father of the house of judg- 
ment,' who sat at the president's right 
hand. The other councillors were ranged 
in front of these two in the form of a semi- 
circle. Two scribes attended to register 
the. votes, one for acquittal, the other for 
condemnation. 

The place where this council met seems 
to have varied. A ball called gazzUli, at 
the south-east of one of the temple courts, 
and another at no great distance, are said 
to have been successively used. Certainly 
sometimes the sanhedrim met in the high 
priest's palace (3). It was subsequently 
settled at Tiberias. 

According to the Talmud smaller councils 
with the samio name were constituted in 
provincial towns where the inhabitant 
householders numbered upwards of 120. 
These consisted of twenty-three members, 
and sat on the second and fifth days of the 
week. Some have supposed them alluded 
to in Matt. v. 21, x. 17 ; Mark xiil. 9. 

SANHE'RIB (2 Kings xviii. 13, marg.). 
Sennacherib. 

SANSAN'NAH (palm-branch). A city in 
the south of Judah (Josh, xv. 31). Mr. 
Wilton conceives it identical with Hazar- 
susah (xix. 5), or Hazar-susira (1 Chron, iv. 
31), and locates it in the modern Wady es- 
Suny or Sunieh (TJie Negeb, pp. 212-215). 

SAPH (threshold, tall ?), A Philistine giant 
slain by Sibbechai (2 Sam. xxi. 18). He is 
called Sippai in 1 Chron. xx. 4. 



safhatJ 



790 



SA'PHAT a Esdr. Y. 9). Sliepliatiah (Ezra 
li 4) 

'SAPSATI'AS a Esdr. viii. 34). Slieplia- 
tiah (Ezra viii. 8).; 1 1 
SA'PHETH a Esdr. T. 33). Shepliatiali 
(Ezra ii. 57). . , ^ 

6 1'PHIR (/air). A place mentioned onlr 
in Mic. i. 11. From tlie connection in Avliicli 
we find it we may suppose it in tlie Pliilis- 
tiiie plain. RolDinson found tbree Tillages 
bearing nearly the name, hetween Astelon 
and Eleutheropolis. 

SAPPHI'RA (sapphire, or, moreprohahly, 
from the Aramaic, beautiful). The wife of 
Ananias, who with her hushand sold land 
and falsely professed to gire the whole 
price to the apostles. Her sin was punished 
with death (Acts v. 1-11). 

S ^PPHIRE. A precious stone, one of the 
gem sin the high priest's hreast-plate (Exod. 
xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11). The Hehrew name, 
which is similar to ours, implies beauty, 
splendour. Sapphire, being clear bright blue 
in colour, aptly describes the pavement be- 
neath the feet of the Divine Being in the 
manifestation vouchsafed to Moses, Aaron, 
and the elders of Israel (xxiv. 10), as also 
the tint of the throne Ezekiel saw (Ezek.'i. 
26) The sapphire is alluded to by Job (J ob 
xxviii. 6), and is said to have formed one of 
the foundations of the heavenly Jerusalem 
(Rev. xxi. 19). There can be no doubt that 
the true sapphire is intended in these places. 
Plinv, indeed, describes lapis-lazuli under 
the name : but the mention of that stone 
would be 'inapplicable in several of the 
texts in which 'sapphire' occurs: more- 
over, it is not adapted for engraving on 
("Winer, BiM. EWB., art. ' Edelsteine'). The 
oriental sapphire is one of the varieties of 
corundum : it is transparent or translucent, 
generallv skv-blue in colour : it occui's in 
rolled masses and ciTStallized : it possesses 
double refraction, and is inferior in hard- 
ness to the diamond only. 
SA'RA (Rom. iv. 19 ; Heb. xi. 11). Sarah. 
FA'EA (Tob. iii. 7, and elsewhere). The 
person whom Tobias is said to have married. 

SABABI'AS a Esdr. ix. 48). Sherebiah 
(Neh. viii. 7). . ^ 

SA'RAH (princess).—!. The wife of Abra- 
ham, whose half-sister she appears to have 
been (Gen. xx. 12). The tradition that she 
was the same with Iscah (xi. 29) is without 
sufficient foundation. Her name was ori- 
ginally Sarai ; and it was changed by divine 
command at the time when Abram was 
changed to Abraham. Sarah was a beauti- 
ful woman, as is sufficiently shown by 
Abraham's apprehension that she would be 
coveted for the harem of the monarch in 
Egypt, and again at Gerar. She was, how- 
ever, barren. And, though promises were 
made that Abraham should have a son, and 
that Sarah should bear, she manifested 
some incredulity. In Sarah's character we 
see traits of impatience and jealousy ; but 
ber history is so interwoven with that of 
her husband whom she accompanied from 
Ur of the Chaldees, that little need here be 
said of her : see ABRAHAii. Sarah was 90 
at Isaac's l)irth, and died at Hebron aged 127. 
She was buried in the cave of Machpelah 
(xii., xvi., xvii., xviii., xx., xxl., xxiii.). In 



the New Testament she Is called Sara, 
and is commended as the spiritual mother 
of the children of promise (Gal. iv. 22-31) : 
her faith, too, spite of temporary wavering, 
is noted'(Heb. X. 11), and her example as 
an obedient wife propounded to Cnristian 
females (1 Pet. iii. 5, 6).— 2 (Jfumb. xxvi. 

46). See SERAH. . 

SARA'I (my princess, contentious ?). The 
original name of Abraham's ^vife Sarah (Gen. 
xi. 29, 30, 31, Xii. 5, 11, 17, xvi. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, S, 
xvii. 15). „ . ^-u 

SARAI'AS (1 Esdr. v. 5). Seraiah, the 
high priest (Ezra ii. 2). In 1 Esdr. vm. 1 ; 
2 Esdr. i. 1 the same person is doubtless 
meant ; the term ' son ' implying descendant. 

SAB'AMI:l (1 Mace. xiv. 28). A place 
unknown. Some beheve it an honorary 
appellation of Simon the high priest. 

SA'RAPH (burning, venomous). A de- 
scendant of Judah, one of those who are 
said to have had dominion in Moab (1 
Ohron. iv. 22). ^ ^ , , 

SARCHE'DONUS (Tob. i. 21). Esar-had- 
don. . ^ 

SABDE'US (1 Esdr. ix. 28). A strange 
corruption of Aziza (Ezra x. 27). 
SAPtDIi-TE (P^ev. iv. 3). See Saudius. 
SAPc'DIS. An ancient city, the capital of 
Lvdia, where Croesus reigned, seated on the 
river Pactolus, by the side of mount 
Tmolus, in a fruitful plain. It was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in the reign of 
Tiberius, but was re-built by the emperor's 
assistance. To the church there one of the 
apocalvptic epistles was addressed (R_ev. i. 
11 iii.' 1-6) ; in which earnest reproof was 
conveyed for its declining state. Sardis 
was wasted by the Turks, and was destroyed 
bv Tamerlane in the thirteenth centuryj. 
it is now a miserable village, called ^ai-t, 
or San-Kalassi, amid the ruins of the an- 
cient city. - „ , •■ J, 

SAR'DITES. A famOy of Zebulun de- 
scended from Sered a^umb. xxvi. 26). 

SARDIITS. A precious stone; one oi 
those in the high priest's breast-plate (Exod. 
xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10) : it is also mentioned as 
one of the gems in the adornment of the 
king of Tyre (Ezek. xxviii. 13) : in all these 
places the marginal rendering is ruby. 
The Hebrew name 6dem implies redness ; so 
that Gesenius imagines that ruby or_ gar- 
net is meant. The LXX. render this by 
' 'sardius,' the word which occurs m Key. 
xxi '>0 : in iv. 3 it is ' sardine.' And this 
is commonlv taken to mean cornelian, one 
of the varieties of agate, which derives its 
name from caro,carnis, 'flesh, as having, 
the red variety at least, a fleshy coloiir. 
Fine red cornelian is found inleinen, to 
which the Arabs attribute the property of 
checkintr hemorrhage when laid on a fresh 
wound.'' Tlie name 'sardius' is variously 
derived from Sardis iu Lydia, from the is- 
land Sardinia, where it is said to be found, 
and from a fish. . ^ , • 4. r.-r 

SIRDOXYX (Rev. XXI. 20X A variety ol 
the oiiYv, in which the opake white alter- 
nates wiih translucent rich deep orange 
brown. See Onyx. 

SABE'A (2 Esdr. xiv. 24). A scribe whom 
it was said Esdras was to take. 
SAREP'TA (Luke iv. 36). Zarephatli. 



791 



SAR'GON (prince of the sun). An Assyrian 
king mentioned by name but once in scrip- 
ture (Isai. XX. 1), where he is said to have 
sent his general Tartan to Ashdod. We may 
infer, from the prophet's symbolical beha- 
viour and consequent prediction (2-6), that 
the monarch was victorious over Egypt and 
Ethiopia. The deciphered inscriptions give 
us some further information. It would 
seem that Sargon or Sargina usurped the 
Assyria]! throne, succeeding Shalmaneser, 
and reigning from 721 to 703 e.g. It was he 
wlio took Samaria, and carried away captive 
many thousand IsraeIites,whom he re-placed 
: by Assyrian colonists. He built much in 
; Nineveh ; and in the palace of Khorsabad, 
his chief residence, the annals of the earlier 
; fifteen years of his reign are detailed. He 
prosecuted wars with Merodach-baladan, 
king of Babylon, exacted tribute from the 
king of Egypt, the queen of Arabia, and 
j the chief of She])a : he extended his con- 
I quests eastward and westward, warring 
with Medes and Armenians, with cities of 
Palestine, and African tribes, and even made 
an expedition to Cyprus, where a memorial 
tablet of him was discovered, which is now 
in the Museum at Berlin, Sargon was suc- 
ceeded by his son Sennacherib. 

SA'HID (a survivor). A place on the bor- 
der of Zebulun (Josli. xix. 10, 12). 
SA'RON (Acts ix, 35). Sharon. 
SAEO'THIE (1 Esdr. V. 34). 
SAR'SECHIM (perhaps chief of the 
eunuchs). A Babylonian prince (Jer. xxxix. 
3). 

SA'RUCH (Luke iii. 35). Serug. 

SA'TAN {aclversary). This word used with 
the article (except in 1 Chron. xxi. I) in- 
dicates the evil spirit, the devil (Job i. 6 ; 
Zech. iii. 1, 2, and elsewhere). See Devil. 

SATIIEABU'ZANES (1 Esdr. vi. 3, 7, 27). 
Shethar-boznai (Ezra v. 3, 6, vi. 6, 13). 

SATYR. The Hebrew word so rendered 
(Tsai. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14), means he-goat, and 
according to rabbinical tradition must be 
taken here to represent the wood-demons, 
said popularly to resemble goats, which 
haunt desolate places. The same word is ren- 
dered ' devils ' in Lev. xvii. 7 ; 2 Chron. xi. 15, 
the objects of idolatrous worship. But there 
the images of such false deities are meant, 
which were literally fashioned in the shape 
of brute animals ; so that a better word 
than ' devils ' might have been found in our 
version. And we can scarcely imagine the 
prophet Isaiah giving countenance to popu- 
lar superstition, or confirming the notion 
that demons inhabited the ruined cities. It 
seems better, therefore, with Henderson to 
translate literally, ' wild goats.' 

SAUL (asked for, desired).—!. An early 
king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 37, 38) : he is also 
called Shaul (l Chron. i. 48,49). 

2. The first in the regular establishment 
of the Israelitisli monarchy. He was the 
son of Kish a Benjamite, a man of no great 
estimation in his tribe, but of considerable 
property (1 Sam. ix. 1), originally settled at 
Zelah. Saul's pedigree is given in two or 
three difi:erent places, with some variations 
(1 Chron. viii. 29-40, ix. 35-44). These, how- 
ever, may be reconciled by the very natural 
supposition that there were two of the family 



[SAXJl 



who bore the name of Kish. The exact de 
scent would then be : — 

Abiel or Jehiel 



Kish Ker 
Kish 
Saul. 

Or there might be two named Ner. 

When Samuel was advanced in life, and 
his sons by their corrupt and feeble admin- 
istration had disgusted the people,the elders 
came to him to Ramah with a demand that 
he would appoint a king (1 Sara. viii. 1-5). 
The demand was the more urgent, because 
an apprehension (realized not long after) was 
felt of invasion by Nab ash king of the Am- 
monites (20, xii. 12). Samuel was displeased 
at what he deemed a personal slight, but 
was directed by Jehovah to comply with 
the people's request (viii. 7-22). It happened 
about this time that the asses of Kish had 
strayed away ; and Saul was desired by his 
father to go and search for them. He went 
attended by a servant ; but, as after a weary 
journey they were unsuccessful, and they 
had wandered near Samuel's residence, the 
servant proposed that they should consult 
the seer. They therefore proceeded to the 
city, and met Samuel going out to the neigh- 
bouring high place. Samuel had been be- 
fore secretly monished by God that a Ben- 
jamite would come to him who should be 
chosen king. Accordingly on seeing Saul 
he invited him to his house, apprised him 
of his destiny, placed him in the most hon- 
ourable seat, and before he dismissed him 
the next day anointed him, and told him to 
return home, describing certain occurrences 
that would befal him by the way. These 
all happened as foretold ; and as Saul went 
God gave him a nev/ heart, endowed him with 
the spirit of kingly rule and political wisdom. 
Samuel now called the people together at 
Mizpeh ; and there the king was chosen by 
lot. ' The lot is cast into the lap ; but the 
whole disposing thereof is of the Lord' 
(Prov. xvi. 33). He therefore who in his se- 
cret counsel had selected Saul could easily 
by his over-ruling providence make the 
public decision fall upon the same indivi- 
dual. Saul had modestly on the announce- 
ment hid himself among the baggage of 
the assembled tribes ; but, when he was pro- 
duced, he was found to be the goodliest 
person present, of commanding stature and 
noble deportment. He might be, perhaps, 
thirty-five years old at the time ; as we sub- 
sequently find, after the second year of his 
reign, that he had a son Jonathan grown to 
man's estate (1 Sam. xiii. 1, 2). His appear ■ 
ance was the signal of general applause. The 
constitution was formally settled. Presents 
were offered : a band of men held them- 
selves in ready attendance on their new 
sovereign ; though there were some who 
took exception at the appointment. Saul 
then— and it is a singular feature in the 
narrative— returned quietly to his own city 
Gibeah, his usual residence and probably 
his birth-place, and there resumed for 8 
while his ordinary occupations (ix., x.). 



792 



Soon the apprehended Ammonitish inva- 
sion occurred. Nahash invested Jabesh- 
gilead, and would grant the inhabitants only 
ignominious terms.. These they were oblig- 
ed to accept, if no relief reached them in a 
week. The intelligence was carried to Gil- 
boali ; and Saul as he was returning from his 
pastoral employments heard the wail of the 
people. On being informed of the cause, he 
sent, like a king, a hasty imperative sum- 
mons through the coasts of Israel, collected 
in a few days a force of 330,000 men, and 
within the stipulated time defeated Nahash 
and delivered Jabesh. Now indeed his name 
stood high ; and the people would have put 
to death those who had formerly objected 
to him. But he nobly declared: ' There shall 
not a man be put to death this day ; for to- 
day the Lord hath wrought salvation in Is- 
rael.' There was then another rejoicing 
assembly at Gilgal : a fresh solemn inau- 
guration of Saul took place ; and from this 
time he took upon him the government of 
the kingdom (xi.). 

Ingenious men who write in haste have 
fancied a special connection between Jabesh- 
gilead and Benjamin, arising from the event 
narrated in Judges xxi.8-14,whichtherather 
influenced, they think, Saul and the Benja- 
mites to hurry to the relief of Jabesh. But 
two important particulars are overlooked 
in such a fancy : first, the marriage of the 
400 young women from Jabesh occurred at 
least three centuries before, for Phinehas, 
Eleazar's son, was then alive (xx. 28) ; and, 
next, as all their relatives were put to death 
in the fury of the Israelites, Jabesh must 
have been subsequently peopled by other 
f amilies, whose descendants in the time of 
Saul were not more closely related to the 
Benjamites than the tribes generally, as the 
posterity of a common ancestor. It may be 
added here that, whereas objections have 
been made to the possibility of raising and 
setting on march a large army in so short a 
time, these objections have been very satis- 
factorily disposed of by Dr. Kitto in his 
Daily Bible Beadings, thirty-first week, third 
and fourth days. 

Saul had now a noble career before him ; 
and, had he but answered his early promise, 
had he been obedient to the word of the 
Lord, his name might have shone with holy 
brilliancy, and his throne have been in- 
herited in honourable succession from age 
to age by the long line of his descendants. 

He appears to have first turned his atten- 
tion to the relations of Israel with the Phi- 
listines. Philistine garrisons occupied 
many Israelitish strong holds ; and, besides, 
so far as arms went, the Israelites were 
utterly unable to cope with their foes : there 
was scarce an armourer or smith in the land 
—the southern part of Palestine we must 
suppose— so that not merely for weapons, 
but even for agricultural implements, resort 
must be made to Philistine artizans. When 
Saul therefore raised a small body of men 
in the second year of his reign, and Jonathan 
his son at the head of a detachment had 
overthrown a Philistine pillar, wliioh was 
taken as a signal for war, and Philistine 
thousands poured forth to avenge the dis- 
honour done them, and to ravage the 



country, Saul was almost literally defence- 
less. Here was a trial of the king's faith. 
He had been charged generally not to offer 
sacrifice till Samuel came to him. He might 
have known that only as the Lord was with 
him could he hope to prevail in the coming 
struggle, and that he could not expect the 
Lord's aid if he disregarded the solemn 
charge of the prophet. But his impatient 
temper broke out. He could not bear delay. 
He offered his sacrifice ; and just after- 
wards Samuel appeared, and warned him 
that he had failed on trial, and that he must 
not imagine with such a disobedient mind 
that his kingdom would be established. Yet 
after this, by means of Jonathan, the Lord 
wrought a great deliverance for Israel. A 
victory was gained, which would have been 
far more complete had it not been for a 
rash and foolish execration under which the 
king laid the people, and to which he would 
actually have made his son a victim, had 
not the army, with infinitely-better feeling, 
interposed. As it was, Saul had succeeded 
in defeating the Philistines, and he had re- 
ceived a solemn warning, to which if he 
had attended, and curbed his rash folly 
thereafter, his reign might still have been 
glorious (1 Sam. xiii., xiv.). 

Saul was essentially a warrior king. In 
the course of his reign he fought against 
various surrounding nations, generally it 
would seem with success (xiv. 47) ; he con- 
sequently enriched his people with spoil 
(2 Sam. i. 24). He does not appear himself 
to have indulged in the luxurious splendour 
of a court. He was distinguished indeed of 
course by the royal diadem and bracelet (10), 
and on festivals he entertained his high 
ofiicers (1 Sam. xx. 5, 18, 24, 25) ; but he is 
almost always described with his weapon in 
his hand or at his side, the ready soldier 
rather than the peaceful sovereign (xviii. 
10, 11, xix. 9, 10, XX. 33, xxii. 6, xxvi. 7). 

He Avas now to be tried again : a crisis 
had arrived ; and the Lord would see 
whether or no the hot will would yield it- 
self to his command. Saul had a com- 
mission given him quite in accordance with 
his temper. He was to put himself at the 
head of his troops and smite the Amalekites, 
a nation that had been the earliest enemy of 
Israel (Exod. xvii. 8-16), and that had again 
and again vexed them when settled in Ca- 
naan (Judges iii. 13, vi. 3). His partial ful- 
filment of the charge, and his mean defence 
of his conduct to Samuel, are detailed in the 
painful narrative of 1 Sam. xv= ; and he was 
solemnly told that his kingdom should be 
given to another better than himself. 
Grievous was the humiliation to the proud 
and fiery king. He clutched at Samuel's 
garment as the prophet moved mournfully 
away, and begged him to turn with him 
once more. But this was not the genuine 
sorrow of true repentance : it was the fear 
of being dishonoured in the presence of liis 
subjects. Samuel complied in pity for the 
moment; and then he left him, to visit him 
no more in this world ; and sadly did he 
grieve for one who was so fallen. 

The rest of Saul's history must be briefly 
told. His mind preyed upon itself. On 
every man of note in his kingdom his eye 



793 



would rest with an iinquiet suspicion that 
he might be the one to take his throne. The 
Spirit of the Lord was departed from him ; 
and an evil demon mastered him. His an- 
cient valour was well-nigh extinguished. 
He, almost a giant himself, was like his 
subjects cowed at the very shout of Goliath 
(xvii. 11). Relieved sometimes by minstrelsy 
(xvi. 14-23), he began to have a new terror. 
The minstrel, the shepherd-boy who so 
marvellously defeated the monstrous Phi- 
listine, and was'gaining a name, perhaps he 
was the destined future king rxviii. 6-9). 
Saul's moodiness had now an object. It 
was the more bitter to him because at-first 
he had loved David (xvi. 21), the only one 
who seemed able to procure him relief; and 
now to find in him a rival ! Henceforth the 
king's life was but a series of insane at- 
tempts to entrap and to destrov David, 
Thwarted in this by his son Jonathan, and 
imagining that the high priest had leagued 
against him, his passion boiled over : he 
cruelly ordered the slaughter of the priests, 
and scoured the country in search of David. 
Twice was his life in David's power ; and 
twice he melted at David's remonstrances, 
and at the remembrance of the love he had 
once borne him. There is no character in 
history more pitiable than this wretched 
king, swayed by evil impulse, tormented by 
his own conscience, powerless as it seemed 
for everything but mischief. His better 
thoughts, if temporarily awakened, were 
stings and scourges to him (xviii.— xxiv., 

xxvi. ). 

Little chronological information is given 
us of Saul's reign. He is commonly said to 
have reigned forty years. But perhaps the 
text relied on in support of this view (Acts 
xiii.21) included the administration, wholly 
or partially, of Samuel. For Samuel was an 
old man, not able to bear the weight of go- 
rernment, before a king ;was made (1 Sara, 
viii. 1, 5, xii. 2). And yet he lived till nearly 
the end of Saul's reign, certainly till David 
had been some time a fugitive, apparently 
almost to the period when David took refuge 
at the court of Achish, which was less than 
a year and a-half before Saul's death (xxv. 1, 

xxvii. 1, 2, 7, xxviii. 3). Besides, we have 
seen reason to suppose that Saul might be 
thirty-flve at his accession : his last actions 
are not like those of a man of seventy-five. 
Mr. Browne has discussed the matter in his 
Ordo Sceclor., part i. chap. v. sect. 1. pp. 260- 
263. He is unable to fix any precise period, 
but concludes that Saul reigned not less 
than seven years. Winer is inclined to 
suppose twenty years, 1075-1055 BiO. {Bibl. 
BWB., art. 'Saul'). 

We are unable, then, to say exactly how 
long a time had passed from that triumphal 
day when, victor over I^ahash, Saul was 
hailed the mighty king of the Lord's people, 
to the last sad catastrophe. But it came 
soon enough. A dark cloud hangs over the 
closing scene. Occupied with his vain at- 
tempts to seize David, with his cruelties to 
the priests and the Gibeonites (2 Sam. xxi. 
2), the king appears to have neglected to 
secure his dominions against foreign inva- 
sion. Accordingly the Philistines took their 
opportunity, and poured in their troops into 



the very heart of the country. Saul was ter- 
ribly alarmed. In vain he sought to enquire 
of God ; and Samuel was gone. He took the 
very worst course he could have chosen. He 
had in his better days put down those that 
had familiar spirits ; but now he must needs 
find one. And he Crossed the country dis- 
guised, we are told, at night, and desired 
the woman to whom he was conducted 
at En-dor to raise him up Samuel. We can 
hardly doubt that some supernatural ap- 
pearance there was ; and Saul heard again 
the tale of his evil deeds, and the sentence 
that a few brief hours more and he should 
be in the eternal world. He threw himself 
on the ground in dismay, and was with 
difficulty roused to take some sustenance. 
But who can conceive the thoughts of the 
unhappy man as he rode back to his camp ? 
The battle was fought : the Hebrews were 
worsted ; and Saul, miserably wounded, fell 
upon his own sword. Three of his sons fell 
with him. And the Philistines cut off his 
head, and stripped him of his arms, send- 
ing these into their o-wn land to be placed 
in their idol-temples, and in bitter scorn 
suspended his body to the wall of Beth- 
shan. But the men of Jabesh-gilead, mind- 
ful of his early deliverance of them, made a 
bold expedition by night, took do^vn the 
bodies, burnt them, and buried their bones, 
fasting seven days (1 Sam. xxviii., xxix. 1, 
xxxi.; 2 Sam. ii. 5, 6). David uttered a 
noble lament over Saul and Jonathan (i. 
19-27), and subsequently removed the ashes 
to the tomb of Kish, Saul's father (xxi. 12-14). 

3. Saul of Tarsus (A'cts vii. 58, viii. 1). See 
Paul. 

S AV ARAN (1 Mace. vi. 43). An apnellation 
given to Eleazar of the Maccabean family, 
perhaps corrupted from Avaran (ii. 5). 

SAVI'AS (1 Esdr. viii. 2). Uzzi, one in the 
line of high-priests (Ezra vii. 4). 

SAYIOtJR. This word, implying a de- 
liverer, one generally who saves, is used of 
any who preserved or rescued others (Judges 
iii.9,marg.; 2Kingsxiii.5;Neh. ix.27; Obad. 
21). But, inasmuch as such deliverers are but 
instruments in the divine hand, God is more 
especially called the Saviour, and that not 
merely because he delivers from temporal j 
calamities, but from those which are more 
fearful and more lasting (Psal. cvi. 21 ; Isai. ! 
xliii. 3, 11, xlv. 21 ; Jer. xiv. 8 ; Hos. xiii. 4). ! 
Sin is the great evil of creation ; and the i 
penalty and consequences of sin the heavy \ 
burden which presses on the human race. I 
To be delivered from sin and all that sin en- 
tails is to be saved indeed ; and he that so 
delivers is emphatically ' the Saviour.' God 
effects such deliverance by his Son, who 
came into the world for this purpose, and 
bore a name expressive of this power, Jesus, 
for he was to ' save his people from their 
sins' (Matt. i. 21). In the New Testament 
therefore the word is appropriated (Luke i. 
47 being in a degree an exception) to the 
Lord Jesus Christ (ii. 11 ; John iv. 42 ; Acts 
V. 31, and elsewhere). And it is a doctrine 
full of unspeakable comfort that 'he is able 
to save them to the uttermost that come to 
God by him ' (Heb. vii. 25). 

Christ is a Saviour because he became a 
sacrifice for sin. This is the cardinal doc- 



saw] 



794 



trine of the gospel, perpetually Illustrated 
and enforced tliroughout the STew Testa- 
ment. Archblslaop Thomson well shows 
the agreement in teaching between the 
I apostles and their Master on this great 
i matter, and sums up his view of the salva- 
i tion wrought hy Christ, as follows :— ' 1. God 
i sent his Son into the world to redeem lost 
i and ruined men from sin and death ; and 
i the Son -willingly took upon him the form 
j of a servant for this purpose ; and thus the 
! Father and the Son manifested their love 
■ for us. 2. God the Father laid upon his Son 
! the weight of the sins of the whole world ; 
^ so that he hare in his own hody the wrath 
which men must else hare horne, hecause 
there was no other way of escape for them ; 
and thus the atonement was a manifestation 
of divine justice. 3. The effect of the 
atonement thus WTOught is that man is 
placed in a new position, freed from the 
dominion of sin. and ahle to follow holiness ; 
and thus the doctrine of the atonement 
ought to work in all the hearers a sense of 
lore, of obedience, and of self- sacrifice. In 
shorter words, the sacrifice of the death of 
Christ is a proof of divine lots and of divine 
nistice, and is for us a document of obedience ' 
(Smith's Diet, of tlie Bible, voL iii. p. llo9). 
See ATOXEirE^-T. 
I SAW. This instrument was used by the 
Hebrews for sawing both wood and stone 
(1 Kings vii. 9). Ancient saws have been 
discovered, as a double-handed iron one at 
Fimroud. Egyptian saws appear to have 
' been only single-handed ; the teeth inclin- 
i ing, as is now customary in the east, towards 
: the handle, and not from it like ours. It is 
! not quite clear whether David's putting the 
! subdued Ammonites under saws (2 Sam. xii. 
31 ; 1 Chron. xx. 3) implied torture : the 
■ last-named place would certainly favour the 
I notion that it did. Bawing asunder was a 
' punishment, still practised in the east. Ac- 
; cording to Jewish tradition Isaiah was so 
! put to death (Heb. xi. 37). 
' SCAPE-GOAT. One of the two goats pre- 
sented ' before the Lord at the door of the 
tabernacle of the congregation' (Lev. xvi. 
7) on the day of atonement. Lots were cast 
upon them ; one to be ' for the Lord,' the 
other 'for the scape-goat,' or 'for Azazel' 
(8 : comp. marg.). The ceremonies and 
tvpical meaning of the service have been 
ah-eady described : see ATO^-EirEXT, Day 
OF : it is proposed here briefly to enquire 
into the meaning of ' scape-goat ' or ' Aza- 
zel.' Various interpretationshavebeen given 
to the word ' Azazel,' which is used only in 
connection with this goat. Some writers 
would understand the name of a place, as a 
precipice— one not far from Jerusalem has 
been supposed— from which the goat was to 
be thrown, or a desert in which he was to be 
left. But there is little to recommend this 
view. Others translating 'the averter' 
imagine it originally the name of an idol, 
applied to some evil demon, supposed to 
dwell in the desert and to be appeased with 
sacrifices, or even to Satan himself. Tins, 
• a most untenable notion. Dr. 



xiv.). The sins being ' atoned,' he says, are ; 
dismissed, ' by a symbolical bearer, to the \ 
realms of the ideal prince of separation and ; 
oblivion, that they may never more appear 
among the Wxmg' {Typology of Script., A^- , 
pend-C.voLii.). But such a personification, 
apposite in poetry, would hardly find place 
in a legal ceremony. Perhaps the sense put ; 
upon ' Azazel ' ' for complete sending away ' I 
is preferable, with a nearly-similar indica- 
tion, that, as the goat was altogether re- 
moved, so the si«s it symbolically bore were 
carried out of sight. The application of the 
term to the goat itself, as in our version. 
' scape-goat,' i.e. goat sent out, is now gene- 
rally deemed untenable. 

SCARLET (Gen. xxxviii. 28, 30; Exod. 
XXV. 4, xxvi. 1, 31, 36, xxvii. 16, xxviii. 5, 6, 
8, 15, XXXV. 6, 23, 25, xxxviii. 18, 23, xxxix. 
3, 5, 8, 29 : Lev. xiv. 4. 6, 49, 51, 52 ; yumb. 
iv. 8, xix.' 6 ; Josh. li. 18, 21 ; 2 Sam. i. 24 ; 
Prov. xxxi. 21 ; Sol. Song iv. 3 ; Isai. i. 18 ; 
Lam. iv. 5 ; Dan. v. 7. 16, 29: Nah. ii. 3 ; Matt, 
xxvii. 28 ; Heb. ix. 19 ; Pi-ev. xvii. 3, 4, xviii. 
12,16). See COLOUES. 

SCEPTPvE. A rod or staff of anthority, 
often richly decorated (Ezek. xix. 11). Hence 
a king is designated as one that 'holdeth the 
sceptre' (Amos i. 5). At the Persian court 
the holding-out of the sceptre to a person 
was a mark of the king's grace and favour 
to him (Esth, iv. 11. y. 2, viii. 4). A carved 
ivoiy staff found at']simroud is supposed to 
be a* sceptre. The word is often used figu- 
ratively as denoting authority or dominion 
(Gen. xlix. 10 ; Kumb. xxiv. 17 ; PsaL xiv. G ; 
Isai. xiv. 5 ; Heb. i. 8). ! 

SCE'VA (jiUed, prepared). A Jewish priest 
whose sons were exorcists (Acts xix. 14\ 

SCHISM a Cor. i. 10, marg., xi. 18, marg., 
xii. 25\ The word so translated means pro- 
perly a ' rent' (Matt. ix. 16; Mark ii. 21; ; 
hence, figuratively, division of opinion, 
dissension i John vii. 43, ix.l6,x. 19). Schism, 
as nowunderstood among us, is a separation 
in the church for external things as distin- 
guished from heresy,which Is a false opinion 
on some doctrine or article of faith. 

SCHOOL. The education of the young, 
i.e. the training of them in useful (especially 
religious) knowledge, is often referred to in 
scripture and made incumbent upon parents 
(Gen. xviii. 19 ; Exod. xii. 26, 27 ; Dent. vi. 6, 
7 ; Psal. 1 xxviii. 4-8 ; Prov. xxii. 6) ; and 
parents are censured for the neglect of this 
duty, and of the salutary restraint under 
which they should keep their families (1 
Sam. iii. 13). The principle laid down, it is 
natural to suppose that special instructors 
would be employed, and that children would 
be gathered into institutions, or associated 
for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. 
And so, according to Jewish writers, schools 
were established from the earliest ages. 
We read, however, nothing of them in the 
sacred volume, prior to the notice of those 
academies which were termed ' schools of 
the prophets.' That in later times there 
were eminent teachers around whom pupils 
flocked is evident enough. Gamaliel was 
such a teacher ; and it was at his feet that 
St. Paul was brought up (Acts xxii. 3). And 



however, is , , 

Fairbairn thinks that a kind of personiflca- , . . — — , , ^, • -.^ 

tion of oblivion is meant, as we sometimes this phrase expresses very clear y the mode 
version 'hell' (Isai. in which instructions were delivered : the 



find of Hades, 



795 



scholars were literally at their masters' feet. 
The pseudo-Amhrose, describing such a 
school, says that the elders occupied chairs, 
those next to them benches, while the 
juniors were on hassocks on the floor (Am- 
hros. Op.,edit. Bened,, torn. ii.App, col. 159). 
But according to the Talmud the masters sat, 
while the scholars stood. The ' school of Ty- 
rannus ' (Acts xix, 19) may have been the 
lecture-room of a Greek sophist, or, if Tyran- 
nus were a Jew, a private synagogue. The 
schoolmaster (Gal. iii. 24, 25) was the tutor, 
the trusty slave, appointed to exercise a 
general care over his youthful master, at- 
tending to his studies and his recreations. 

SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS. See 
Prophet, p. 729. 

SCIENCE (Dan. i. 4 ; 1 Tim. vi. 20). See 
Philosophy. 

SCORPION. Scorpio is a genus of the 
class Araclmida, order Pulmonaria, section 
Fedifpalpi. This genus is distinguished from 
other groups of spiders, by having the 
abdomen articulated and terminated by a 
curved spur; the palpi are large ; and the 
terminal segment assumes the form of the 
lobster's claw, being in like manner pro- 
vided with pincers. The scorpion properly 
so called has six eyes. These creatures in- 
habit hot countries, and lurk under stones 
and among ruins. They run swiftly, curving 
the tail over the back : this they can turn in 
any direction, and use for attack or defence, 
as it is provided with a sting. Scorpions 
are common in Palestine and the neighbour- 
ing countries (Deut. viii. 15 ; Luke x. 19) ; 
but their sting, though painful, is not fatal. 
The word ' scorpion' is sometimes used figu- 
ratively to describe wicked and injurious 
men (Ezek. ii. 6 ; Rev. ix. 3, 5, 10). Some 
have imagined a resemblance between an 
egg and a scorpion (Luke xi. 12) ; but Dr. 
Thomson assures us that this is a mistake. 
The ordinary scorpion is black, though a 
white scorpion is spoken of by old writers 
(The Land and the Book, pp. 246, 247). The 
' scorpions' of 1 Kings xii. 11, 14 denoted a 
kind of loaded whip. 

SCOURGE. Two modes of scourging are 
mentioned in scripture. One was under the 
Hebrew law. The Roman mode of whipping 
was with rods ; and this punishment could 
not legally be inflicted on a Roman citizen 
(Acts xvi. 22, 23, 37-39, xxii. 24-29 ; 2 Cor. xi. 
25). See Punishments, pp. 740, 741. 

SCREECH-OWL. See OWL. 

SCRIBE. There are two words in Hebrew, 
both implying ' writers,' which designate 
certain classes of men. We And the first 
of these, shoterlm, used at an early period 
for the officers of the Israelites in Egypt 
(Exod. V. 6, 10, 14, 15, 19). Persons to whom 
this appellation is given are mentioned in 
the later history of the nation, and are dis- 
tinguished from other office-bearers, such 
as elders or judges (Numb. xi. 16; Deut. xx. 5, 
8, 9 ; Josh. viii. 33 ; 1 Chron.xxiii. 4). They 
seem to have acted in both a civil and a mili- 
tary capacity. The duties of such persons 
must have required writing for taking ac- 
count of those under them, administering 
justice, mustering an army, &c. ; hence the 
name. In our version the word is almost 
exclusively translated * officers.' The other 



[scaip 



title is sdphertm, usually rendered ' scribes.' 
Some of these were high functionaries (l 
Kings iv. 3). The 'king's scribe' or secre- 
tary (2 Kings xii. 10) was probably the officer 
who wrote down the edicts of the sovereign. 
The ' scribe of the host' (Jer. lii. 25) may be 
supposed to have had charge of the muster- 
rolls of the army. In 2 Ohron. xxvi. 11 one 
of the sopherim and one of the shoterlm (in 
ovir version ' ruler ') are spoken of as num- 
bering the troops under a superior officer. 
In the later books the name suphertm is 
given to a class of persons skilled in the law 
and the sacred writings. Thus Ezra is 
called ' a ready scribe in the law of Moses' 
(Ezra vii. 6) : Baruch,too, was a scribe (Jer. 
xxxvi. 32). 

The scribes of the New Testament were 
of this class ; which no doubt multiplied 
after the return from Babylon. They were 
held in great respect among the people : 
and this they courted (Luke xx. 46) ; and 
their position was acknowledged by our 
Lord himself while he censured their con- 
duct (Matt, xxiii. 2, 3). They are mentioned 
with the chief priests in the temple (xxi. 
15 ; Luke xx. 1), and as a class had more 
authority than the hereditary priesthood : 
they made part of the great council or san- 
hedrim with the chief priests and elders 
(Matt. xxvi. 3 ; Mark xiv. 53, xv. 1 ; Luke 
xxii. 66). They were very numerous, a 
special body found in Jerusalem and in 
the country districts (v. 17), and according 
to Josephus also in Rome (Antig., lib. xviii. 
3, § 5). Besides the position which some of 
them occupied as councillors, they had 
scliools in which they taught their disci- 
ples (Luke ii. 46 ; Acts v. 34, xxii. 3), and 
they gave advice to those who consulted 
them more privately. For the term ' scribes' 
seems to have included those who were 
' lawyers ' or ' doctors of the law : ' it was a 
comprehensive word ; while the 'lawyers,' 
specially, were the jurists whose duty it 
was to interpret the law. It may be added 
that, though the scribes appear most close- 
ly and frequently connected with the Pha- 
risees (e.g. Matt, v.. 20), yet some of them 
must have been Sadducees (Acts xxiii. 9). 

In their teachings and expositions the 
scribes had overlaid the scripture with 
tradition. It is no marvel, therefore, that 
we find them in determined opposition to 
our Lord, and pointed at by his severest 
censures. They were continually trying to 
embarrass and entangle him l)y subtle ques- 
tions : they watched him to find matter of 
accusation against him, and frequently per- 
verted his words and deeds (Matt. ix. 3, 
xii. 38, xxii. 35 ; Luke v. 30, vi. 7, x. 25, xi. 
53, 54, XV. 2, XX. 19-22). With reason, there- 
fore, did he pronounce them hypocrites, 
blind and unfaithful guides, and ask how, 
such being their character, they expected 
to escape a terrible judgment (Matt, xxiii. 
13-33). See Winer, Bibl. RWB., art. ' Schrei- 
ber,' ' Schriftgelehrte.' But yet the name 
was honourable ; and the gravity and learn- 
ing of the conscientious scribe were to be 
imitated by those who would advance the 
kingdom of God (Matt. xiii. 52, xxiii. 34), 

SCRIP. A bag or wallet, often made of 
hair-cloth (1 Sam. xvii. 40 ; Matt. x. 10). Dr. 



scriptukeT Cl^e tlTrta^urt) of 796 


Thomson describes a leathern hag hanging 
from the shoulders of the modern labour- 
ers in Syria, which he thinks identical with 
the ' scrip' of the hihle. It is made of the 
skin of a kid stripped ofE whole and tanned 
hy a simple process {TJie Land and the Book, 
p. 345). The injunction to the apostles to 
carry neither money nor scrip (INIatt. x. 9, 
10) was to facilitate their gaining the con- 
fidence of those among whom they went. 
In the east at the present day the hearts of 
the people are won hy those who freely 
throw themselves on their hospitality. 

SCRIPTURE. The word hy which we 
specially designate the contents of the hihle. 
It does not appear in the Old Testament 
in our sense of it ; the expression of Dan. 
X 21 prohahlv meaning a true writnig; hut 
tlie idea is not unfamiliar in the later hooks, 
where reference is made to a written stan- 
dard (e g. 2 Chron. xxx. 5, 18). In the Xew 
Testament the word graphe frequently oc- 
cur^! with some yariation of form, applied 
exclusively to the sacred writings, some- 
times with a narrower (as to a single compo- 
sition e (x. Acts viii. 32), sometimes with a 
more 'extended meaning. When in the 
plural number the collected inspired books 
are of course more particularly intended 
(e g. Matt. xxi. 42, xxii. 29 ; Luke xxiv. 27 ; 
John V. 39 ; 1 Cor. xv. 3). , ^. -, 

There have been already several articles 
in this volume relating to the scripture, 
indicating its divisions and arrangement, 
the books which have aright to be included 
in it, the reason there is for behevmg it 
God's word, &c : see Bible, Caxo??, Inspi- 
RVTiON- it is proposed in the present 
article to discuss as fully as the allotted 
space may permit the credibihty of the 
scripture; the grounds being succmctly 
stated on which we receive it as containing 
truth The investigation must, of course, 
be mainlv directed to the historical parts. 
The prophecies in it have a confirmation of 
their own. For, if it can be shown tiiat 
many of them have been remarkably ful- 
filled Ion? after they were delivered, It can 
hardly be alleged that they were the happy 
guesses of sagacious men : they must have 
proceeded from One who could declare the 
end from the beginning, and from ancient 
times the things that are not yet done 
(Isai xlvi. 10). The doctrines, also, taught 
in scripture have other authentication: 
their sublimity, the mighty power by which 
thev have been enforced, the revolution 
they have cfTccted in the world,_are proofs 
that they are not the mere devices of the 
human brain. See Chiiistianity. 

Historicallv, then, we want to see if we 
mav rely upon the narratives of scnpture, 
f it is what it professes to be-a genuine 
recm-d of past events, if the persons of 
whom we read in it really lived and acted 
S^we Ir^ told they did, if 
human life it gives is a faitntui lepie- 
iontation which we may accept without 
m si^^'ing The proofs of all this may be 
taken f?om various sources : we may exa- 
Sine the character and. positi^on of the 
writers of scripture, and ]udge of the little 
Mvoiihr,mt there was of their combining to 
deceive we 1^^^^^^^^ together the different 


books, and perceive their admirable consis- 
tency, quite incompatible with fraud. We 
test the scripture by other histories and 
yet-existing monuments, and we shall find 
that there is singular collateral and exter- 
nal evidence that we have truth in the 
revered volume. Let us sift some of these 
proofs. 

That the scripture has come down to 
us uncorrupted and sabstantially the 
same as when its several parts were ori- 
ginally written is sufBciently clear. It has 
always been watched over with jealousy ; 
and endeavours to tamper with it have 
been checked at once. Manuscripts of the 
New Testament have been preserved, da- 
ting but three or four hundred years after 
our Lord's time ; and the numerous cita- 
tions by the very earliest authors. Christian, 
heretic, and even pagan, carry up the proof 
still higher. With regard to the scriptures 
of the Old Testament, they have the sanction 
of Christ himself ; and, besides, we have a 
translation of them made into Greek be- 
tween two and three centuries before the 
Christian era. All this, however, has been 
argued elsewhere (see Ca:^on of Scrip- 
ture, pp. 134, 135) ; and therefore we may 
fair! v assum e th at we are dealin g with works 
of the most remote antiquity, composed, as 
can be distinctly proved of many of them, 
by those who witnessed or took part in the 
events they describe. In estimating the 
credibility of a book, we must ascertain 
whether the writer was well-informed, and 
whether he would be likely to tell the truth. 
Now as it has been just observed, several 
of the scripture Avriters claim to be eye- 
witnesses of what they record. Paul, in 
some respects the most eminent and active 
of the first Christian teachers, was, it is 
acknowledged on all hands, the author of 
several of the letters which have come 
down to u-s. Some of the earlier books of 
scripture were— there is the strongest rea- 
son for believing— at least in part, fi'om the 
pen of Moses the great Hebrew lawgiver. 
Some of the psalms were composed by David 
the renowned king. Ezra, the restorer of 
the Jewish polity, has left annals. And, 
though there are anonymous books m the 
volume, vet the absence of the name by no 
means, w'hen the fact is properly explained, 
detracts from the value of the documents 
preserved. There are in every country 
annals and state-papers: the hand that 
penned them has never been identified ; 
and yet no man on that account impeaches 
their authority. . 

W e cannot then impute want of mf orina- 
tion to the scripture writers. They must 
have known whether Israel was in servi- 
tude in Egypt and was delivered thence. 
They must have known whether a royal 
line reigned in Judea, and whether God was 
worshipped with magnificent rites in Jeru- 
salem. They must have known how the 

-rrr^r-i ■.■.■1-11 n *:irl ond wlint, WPVP til 

country was lumeo, anu \>cic 
calamities inflicted by the Assyrians and 
Chaldeans. They must have had perfect 
knowledge of the life of Jesus, of his teacn- 
ing, his rejection, his death, and the pro- 
mulgation and success of his gospel. They 
were not-this succession of writeTS— the 



797 mUe munlDkXffi?* 



mere collectors of old legends, obliged to a 
painful search amid lialf-obliterated re- 
cords : they lived among the men and 
scenes which they described. So that, if 
they have misrepresented matters, if they 
have given a false colouring, they must have 
acted on design, they must have had some 
purpose to serve, for which they were con- 
tent to disregard truth, and were anxious 
to deceive the world. They were Hebrews. 
Had the history they composed been a 
panegyric on their nation, had it even been 
flattering to their own vanity, or served the 
purpose of advancing them in the worId,we 
might have viewed their productions with 
suspicion. But what do we really find? 
There is no glossing-over of the faults of 
their most renowned ancestors : the na- 
tional history is exhibited in dark tints; 
and we know that it was at the risk of life 
or at least of losing all that could render 
life desirable, that several of these writers 
gave their testimony. If any book, there- 
fore, comes to us with fair presumption of 
truthfulness from the character and cir- 
cumstances of the writer, the scripture has 
the strongest claim of the kind to be be- 
lieved. 

It must not be forgotten that it proceeds 
from a succession of authors in various 
ranks of life, extending in a lengthened 
chain over fifteen centuries. Some of these 
were contemporary ; so that we have the 
same things from dilferent pens. Some 
took up the thread where earlier labourers 
left it, and carrying it on for a while de- 
volved it on those that came after. When 
ordinary historians write, they begin with 
correcting their predecessors. They have 
detected partiality or misapprehension: they 
have obtained access to fresh sources of in- 
formation. And so they give a perfectly-new 
face to things ; and it is not uncommon to 
find a statesman, a warrior, a monarch stig- 
matized by one writer, highly lauded by an- 
other. Bind up all the modern histories 
of any century or reign together, and see if 
you will have a consistent whole. By the 
binding together of the scripture records 
into a single volume, you subject their cre- 
dibility to the severest test. 

In examining the internal structure of a 
book, the first element of credibility is the 
consistency of one part with the rest. 
Faithful history does not contradict itself. 
It is true that such is the imperfection of hu- 
man knowledge, that the most trustworthy 
Writers are occasionally in error,and the most 
Impartial let their own opinions colour the 
narrative they deliver. But we do not for 
small variations impeach any one's general 
credibility, nor, if we are unable exactly to 
reconcile different statements in regard to 
some event, do we at once throw aside the 
whole as a mere figment. On the contrary, 
when we see different writers agreeing in 
the main, though differing in particulars, 
we receive them as independent witnesses, 
and place the more reliance on the facts to 
which each after his special manner gives 
satisfactory testimony. Now the scripture, 
though subjected, as noted above, to a 
severe test, is seen to be throughout con- 
sistent. The events recorded in the earlier 



[sCBrPTUEE 



books are assumed as true and confirmed 
in the later. Thus the creation, the flood, 
the call of Abraham, the bondage of Israel 
in Egypt with the deliverance, the histories 
of David and Solomon, the Babylonish capti- 
vity, &c. &c. appear again and again ; the 
later authors never treating these events as 
legendary or mythical, but basing argument 
and admonition upon them as acknow- 
ledged facts. In the parallel histories, too, 
of the Kings and Chronicles, and of the 
Gospels, we find the same things repeated, 
with additional circumstances doubtless, 
but yet without essential variation. And it 
is worth notice that the more remarkable 
stories, which in themselves might give 
rise to question, receive in this way strong 
confirmation. For example, the history of 
Balaam, and the portent of the dumb ass 
speaking with intelligeut tongue, recorded 
in the Pentateuch (Numb. xxii. 21-35), are 
referred to by an apostle (2 Pet. ii. 15, 16) ; 
and the swallowing of Jonah by a fish, and 
his mission to Nineveh (Jonah i. 17, iii.), re- 
appear in the Gospels with the solemn sanc- 
tion of our Lord himself (Matt.xii. 40, xvi. 
4 ; Luke xi. 29-32). There are yet more par- 
ticular proofs of consistency. Theological 
writers, as Paley in his Morce Paulince, and 
Blunt in his Undesigned Coincidences, have 
used a kind of cross-examination, and have 
thus produced most satisfactory and really- 
marvellous evidence of the credibility of 
scripture. Had there been fraud, it would 
have come out under such a process. And to 
add to the'weight of the argument it must be 
always borne in mind that fraud if commit- 
ted must have been carried on for centuries. 
If the scripture, consistent in its various 
parts as we have seen it to be, be untruth- 
ful, there must have been a combination, 
not of a knot of men at one particular junc- 
ture, not of the members of a sect which 
flourished for a while, but of persons living 
in widely-separated ages and in distant 
lands, of persons in all grades of society, 
with jarring interests and dissimilar ob- 
jects, of hostile principles, Jews and Chris- 
tians, opposed in everything else but accor- 
dant in this— to palm upon the world as 
facts events which never happened, annals 
life-like but of no authority, chronicles 
of kings, accounts of revolutions, and reli- 
gions testified to by all of them, but yet base- 
less and imaginary. Such a combination 
the world never has heard of : it is contrary 
to all experience : the ' verifying faculty ' of 
reasonable men's minds must reject it.' 

It is true that objections have been taken 
to scripture as exhibiting discrepancies. 
We are not concerned to discuss these here. 
For, even if we admit them, they do not 
shake the general credibility of the book. 
But yet we may reply that very many of 
these disappear on more careful examina- 
tion, that tbe advance of general knowledge 
has tended to unravel difliculties heretofore 
considered inexplicable, and that it is but 
fair to conclude that, if we had fuller ac- 
quaintance with all the circumstances, 
many more perplexities would disappear. 
Such discrepancies have been considered 
by various biblical critics ; and to their 
works the reader must be referred. Among 



scripttjre] 



these may "be named Davidson's Sacred Eer- 
vieneutics, cliap. xii. pp. 516-611 : Home's 
Introd., Yol. ii. pp. 432-489. But it is neces- 
sary and fair to add tbat the great mass of 
'tlie alleged discrepancies are of trivial mo- 
ment, concerning dates and numbers and 
inaraes, where especially transcribers were 
liable to error ; and that niinnte accordance 
is the rule, the instances of discrepancy hut 
exceptional. 

The credibility of scripture has been 
argued on the ground of its internal con- 
sistency: we may also notice the moral 
phenomena of which, if true, it offers a 
satisfactory solution. There is much ap- 
parent in the present state of the world to 
pernlex the most acute minds ; and philo- 
sophers of the highest name, sensible of 
their own inability to grasp all that they de- 
sired to know, have expressed their ardent 
longing for some divine teacher. The state 
of man, the prevalence of disease and death, 
ofier problems which mere reason finds it 
very hard to solve ; the existence of an all- 
wise, all-merciful, and all-powerful Being 
being pre-supposed, the Creator and Sus- 
tainer of the world. The scripture pours 
a flood of light upon such topics. Herein 
it stands apart from all other books. It 
contains the highest philosophy, and has 
taken a hold upon mankind which no other 
has ever done. It fits in with all the exist- 
ing phenomena of the world. If it does 
not reduce that which is infinite to the 
level of finite comprehension, it does at 
least deliver that rational history of man's 
formation and man's duties, of his respon- 
sibilities and the penalties of failure, which 
is sufficient for all practical guidance. 
There is philosophy in it most pure, there 
is intelligence most exalted, there is a key 
to mysteries which other theories and other 
books have left in their darkness. The 
preservation of the Jews, again, as a sepa- 
rate people, diffused everywhere yet not 
amalgamated ^^Ith other nations,is account- 
ed for in scripture. The spread and pre- 
valence of Christianity cease to be strange, 
if we accept the narratives which we find 
in scripture. A multitude of particular ex- 
amples might be produced : it must suffice 
to say that, when we find here adequate 
reasons for what we see, we have no con- 
temptible proof that the record which sup- 
plies them is truthful— more especially 
when we remember that this record was 
produced among a people whom the rest 
of the world have disliked and contemned, 
and that it is the only record which is in 
consistency with the moral condition of 
mankind. Can such a book be untrue? 
"We should then have the marvel of mighty 
effects flowing from no adeguate cause. 

But, still further, we have collateral evi- 
dence of the truth of scripture. Such col- 
lateral evidence, indeed, in regard to many 
parts of the bible it was hard to flud. For 
ceveral of the books comprised in it are, or 
at least profess to be, the most ancient m 
existence. Where there are no contempo- 
rary histories, we cannot look for that full 
authentication which is readily forthcom- 
ing in an age of books. The earliest facts 
of scripture then, are to be confirmed by 



traditions, by ritual observances, by inscrip- 
tions and monumentSs all fragmentary in 
their nature, and such as it requires diligent 
research to collect and marshal. But the 
labours of archseologists have not been un- 
rewarded. There are in various parts of 
the world traditions of the creation, the 
flood, the dispersion of mankind, the de- 
struction of Sodom, &c. &c., which, though 
distorted, must be taken to point to facts— 
the very facts which are detailed in scrip- 
ture. Writers have done good service in j 
collecting these traditions ; and the reader i 
may find abundance of them in Rawlinson's 
Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scrip- 
tare Eecords, 1859 : comp. Home's Introd.^ 
edit. 1856, vol. i. pp. 143-199. As we proceed 
down the stream of time, such corroborative ; 
evidence is more abundant and precise. The i , 
histories of Egypt, of Assyria, of Babylon, 
of Persia, of Bome furnish much weighty 
attestation. We know from these indepen- 
dent sources how the Assyrian power ex- 
tended itself, how great was the magnifi- 
cence of Babylon, how that mighty city 
was captured by Cyms, and how Judea was 
reduced to a Roman province— the very 
facts that we find narrated in scripture. 
There is Josephus, also, the Jewish his- 
torian, living in the apostolic age, who 
draws out in his works the ancient fortunes 
of his people, and describes events passing 
before his eyes. The names of personages 
mentioned in scripture repeatedly occur 
there: their actions are commemorated: their 
characters are described ; and thus a gene- 
ral corroboration is given to the record. We 
must be prepared to find differences. Thus > 
Tacitus the P^oman "WTiter {Rist., lib. v. 2-8) 
strangely misrepresents the origin of the 
Hebrew nation. Yet his narrative, warped 
as it was, goes to confirm the fact of the 
deliverance from Egypt, preserves the name 
of Moses, and exhibits some of those pecu- 
liar usa.ges which the law, as we have it in 
the Pentateuch, distinctly specifies. There ' 
is also the testimony of writers immediate- ' 
ly subsequent to the apostles. Christian, 
heretic, and pngan; who concur for the 
most part in facts, however they may differ 
in interpretation or in the doctrines to be 
deduced from them. It is not too much to ■ 
say that no history Is so largely corro- 
borated as the scripture history in all those 
ways which contribute to the settling of 
belief; so that, if we are to discredit the 
scripture, to believe it a romance rather 
than a history, we are much more bound to 
discredit every history, of Greece or Rome 
or England, which exists in literature. 

It may be fairly supposed that there are ! 
now few persons — so strong is the confir- \ 
matory evidence — who do not admit the ge- 
neral credibility of the scripture. But it ' 
has been alleged that with true history ' 
there is much mixed up that cannot be 
literally received, that a supernatural colour^ 
ing has been given, a mythical or legendary- 
element introduced, for which allowance ; 
must be made in sifting out realf acts. These ' 
oljjections are directed almost exclusively 
against the rairacnlous parts of the scrip- 
ture narrative ] and it is held that a writer, . 
whose grave account of kings and of th* 



799 



events in common life may lie implicitly- 
trusted, must be set down as a mere enthu- 
siast, or as adopting pious fraud, when in 
the same paragraph he details with equal 
gravity the occurrence of a wonder or a 
sign. The subject of miracles has ah-eady 
been briefly discussed ; and to the article 
upon them the reader must be referred. But 
it may be well to remark here that super- 
natural relations are so closely interwoven 
with the rest, that the events most objected 
to are so earnestly insisted on, being those 
in which the essence of scripture teach- 
ing consists, that if you reject these as 
' unhistoric ' there is little if anything that 
you can retain. Take, for example, the New 
Testament history : strip it of its superna- 
tural character : suppose Jesus a mere man, 
born in a natural way, only living a peace- 
able, beneficent, andphilosopliic life: sup- 
pose that he was put to death unjustly, but 
that his memory was fragrant among his fol- 
lowers, and that hence they endeavoured to 
dignify him by attributing to him divine 
power and maintaining that he was restored 
to life after his execution : denude his story 
of all that shows the direct interference 
of C4od ; and what have you ? The disciples 
contending, suffering, dying for a phantom. 
Tiie v,^hole is a mere episode. It is a fool- 
ish attempt to strain very ordinary occur- 
rences into something marvellous. So that 
you cannot, if you set aside the Avonderful, 
have anything worth preserving. All left 
the scripture must stand or fall together. 

Besides, very many of the supernatural 
accounts in scripture were written by those 
who profess to have been eye-witnesses of 
them. Even if we were to allow— which 
yet is hy no means to be allowed— that 
those wrought at the deliverance from 
Egypt, in Babylon, &c., were chronicled 
only by later writers, yet we have unques- 
tionably in the New Testament the evi- 
dence of contemporaries. It cannot be said, 
then, that these extraordinary recitals are 
just the exaggerations with which credu- 
lous men or poets are wont to deck out 
events imperfectly known, dimmed with 
the haze of vast antiquity. They stand upon 
the same ground with the records of com- 
mon occurrences ; so that the fair infer- 
ence is that the Avriters, if credible in the 
one class of narrative, are credible also for 
the other : if they can be convicted of un- 
truthfulness in what they relate of super- 
natural events, it is useless to contend for 
their veracity as to other matters. This is 
the plain rule continually acted on in judi- 
cial enquiries. If a v/itness is corroborated 
so far as to gain credit for his statements 
generally, he is believed when he charges 
home a crime upon a culprit. The business 
of life could hardly otherwise go on. 

But, in addition to the more vague cor- 
roborations of scripture which have been al- 
ready referred to, there are other testimo- 
nies of a more particular kind, which may 
be properly introduced here. They are the 
rather valuable, because they are indepen- 
dent : they are continually gaining force ; 
and they apply to some of those statements 
which have been most keenly contested. It 
ia true that we cannot point to a modern 



[SCRIPTXJEB', 



confirmation of miracle ; but we can ex | 
hibit existing proofs of the fulfilment: of 
scripture prophecies. The present state of 
Babylon, of Tyre, of Jerusalem, of Judea 
generally witnesses m.ost forcibly to the : 
credibility of scripture. It is proved to de- 1 
monstration that the threatenings against i 
these countries and cities were uttered 
while they were prosperous and populous, 
at a time when no political foresight could 
have discovered the fate that was in reserve 
for them. It is proved to demonstration that 
the desolations occurred just as they had 
been long before described ; and there they 
are at this very day, patent to all who wifl 
journey thither, testifying that the scrip- 
ture is true and its declarations to be relied 
on. For the full exhibition of this proof 
see Prophecy, and works there noted. 

Another branch of particular evidence is 
to be found in the relations travellers give 
us of the geography, the botany, the 
manners and customs ot biblical coun- 
tries. The scripture is still the best 
guide-book to Palestine, which others can 
only illustrate. Towns and villages are 
f oiind where scripture places them ; hiJls 
and mountains and springs and brooks are 
just as scripture has described them : arti- 
cles of food are still used such as scripture 
mentions. And it is a general remark that 
men who have travelled in scripture lands, 
even if they had their doubts before, 
have been convinced by what they saw of 
the credibility of scripture writers. To 
those who have not had the advantage of 
visiting Palestine the published works of 
accomplished travellers have furnished 
nearly the same amount of testimony. 
Among such may be named Dr. Robinson's 
Biblical Eesearclies, and Dr. Thomson's The 
Land and the Book, so often referred to in 
tl-'.is volume. It would be perfectly useless 
to argue with any one who in studj^ing 
these works did not find in them evidence 
not to be gainsaid that the authors of scrip- 
ture wrote in good faith and are deserving 
of confidence. Such researches have fur- 
nished a full answer to innumerable objec- 
tions. Thus for instance, when it is said 
that in one small district of Bashan there 
were three-score great cities ' fenced with 
high walls, gates, and bars' (Deut. iii. 4, 5 ; 
1 Kings iv. 13), sceptics have been ready to 
deride the credulity of such as would re- 
ceive the statement as a literal fact. But 
travellers have visited the region, and 
have found the cities, desolate it is true, 
but still standing in their extraordinary 
grandeur, the massive walls there, the 
streets with their ancient pavement unbro- 
ken, the houses complete and habitable, as 
if finished only yesterday, and even the very 
doors and window-shutters in their places. 
See Porter's Jlistorico-geographical Sketch of 
Bashan, in Journ. of Sacr. Lit., July 1854, pp. 
281, 282, also his lately-published Giant Cities 
of Bashan. 

Take again the account of St. Paul's 
voyage and shipwreck (Acts xxvii.). Mr. 
James Smith of Jordanhill, in his work 
repeatedly cited in these pages, has care- 
fully investigated the localities : he has 
ascertained the character of the prevalent 



scroll] 



800 



winds : he has calculated, after communica- 
tion with experienced naval officers, the 
rate of drift and the direction a vessel 
would naturally take, and he finds the 
statement of scripture minutely accurate. 
' A searching comparison of the narrative 
with the localities where the events, so 
circumstantially related, are said to have 
taken place, with the aids which recent 
advances in our knowledge of the geo- 
graphy and the navigation of the eastern 
part of the Mediterranean supply, accounts 
for every transaction, clears up every 
difficulty, and exhibits an agreement so 
perfect in all its parts as to admit of hut 
one explanation, namely, that it is a nar- 
rative of real events, written hy one per- 
sonally engaged in them' (Introd., p. xvni.). 

The explorations made of late years in 
Nineveh and Bahylon have tended to con- 
firm the credibility of scripture in many 
disputed points. It is true that we must 
receive the evidence so produced with 
caution. Inscriptions and monumental 
records are more likely to exaggerate the 
successes than to chronicle the disasters of 
the people by whom they were made. We 
could not reasonably expect to find in 
Egyptian monuments any detail of the 
judgments which forced the release of Is- 
rael Neither was it likely that Sennacherib 
would record the fatal overthrow, when by 
God's immediate power his vast army 
perished in Judea. But much information 
may be and has been obtained by incidental 
notices. Thus it had been questioned 
whether such a king as Nebuchadnezzar 
ever reigned. His name, it was said, ditl 
not appear in Herodotus; and objectors, 
ready to avail themselves of every oppor- 
tunity of carping at the sacred volume, if 
they did not deny the existence of the 
conqueror, at least insinuated that a petty 
satrap had been magnified into a great 
king. But now bricks in abundance have 
been disinterred, inscribed with the mighty 
Nebuchadnezzar's name, and proving that 
there was indeed foundation for the boast 
that it was he that had built and adorned 
his magnificent capital (Dan. iv. 30)._ Yet 
more serious doubt was expressed m re- 
gard to Belshazzar ; and consequently the 
narrative of his feast and the awful sign 
which interrupted it was pronounced a 
fable. But it is now distinctly proved by 
the discovery of unquestionable records 
that a sovereign of that name was associated 
in power with his father during the last 
days of Babylon's independence. See Bel- 
shazzar. 

It would be easy to fill pages with parti- 
cular examples of corroborative testimony 
to the truthfulness of scripture, derived 
from coins, tombs, ancient seals, from the 
thousand particular monuments and exist- 
ing proofs which God's providence has un- 
covered to give living testimony of what 
occurred in ancient times. We have there- 
fore the strongest reason to affirm that the 
scripture writers were truthful, that the 
facts they chronicle really occurred, that 
the histories they deliver are credible. Nor 
is this evidence set aside by the assertion 
not unfrequently now made, that the later 



books of scripture were the work of earnest 
conscientious men,who have givenus indeed 
truly the facts of their own times, but who 
ignorantly attributed to the earlier books, 
the writings of a more remote age, that 
authority which they do not really possess, 
and who based much of their teaching upon 
fragments which are now found to crumble 
beneath the pressure. The credibility of 
the early part of scripture has been else- 
where touched (see Pentateuch) ; and the 
way in which Christ used the oldest por- 
tions of the scriptures may well be taken as 
guiding us to a right estimation of their 
value. To those indeed who regard Him as 
a mere man an appeal to his authority will 
seem of little weight. But with such the 
present argument does not deal. To men, 
however, who admit that Christ was a 
divinely-commissioned teacher, his sanction 
not merely to the ordinary facts of scripture 
history, but to the supernatural occurrences 
therein narrated, is of infinite importance. 
He, the founder of the new dispensation, 
besides assuming, as the accounts we have 
of him testify, the power of working 
miracles himself, admitted without ques- 
tion the miracles of the Old Testament 
(e.g. Matt. xxiv. 37-39 ; Luke iv. 25-27), and 
threw no doubt upon the narrative which 
embodied in it such v^onders. The only 
alternative which remains is, if the credit 
of these facts is denied, to deny the com- 
petency of our Lord as a public instructor, 
imputing to him— with reverence be it 
spoken — ignorance and imperfection of 
judgment which would place him far be- 
hind the doctors of the present age. It is 
trusted that no reader of the present work 
is prepared for this awful alternative. 

In scripture, then, we must acknowledge 
a book credible and of the highest authority, 
proceeding, it has been elsewhere shown, 
from persons commissioned by the living 
God. Whgther a work so inspired is neces- 
sarily in all minute particulars infallible need 
not be here argued. We are not concerned 
therefore in this place to unravel every 
apparent difficulty. Such difficulties are 
not greater than nor of kind difEerent from 
those we find in God's works of creation and 
providence. It may therefore be, in conclu- 
sion, said that the objections which have m 
modern times been urged against revelation 
and scripture truth, do not really meet, 
much less disprove, the positive arguments 
by which its authority is affirmatively at- 
tested. 'Not a proposition of them has 
been overthrown: not an argument has 
been weakened ; not a fact changed; not a 
conclusion even involved in doubt.' Such 
is the deliberate judgment of Mr. Garbett 
in his Divine Flan of llevelation, p. 7 ; and 
the reasoning of his book, to which the 
reader may usefully refer, amply vindicates 
his statement, and adds from the orderly 
development, as he traces it, of the whole 
a fresh corroboration to the authority of 
holy scripture. . , .^ mi 

SCROLL (IsaL xxxiv. 4 ; Rev. vi. 14). The 
allusion is to the roll of a book. See Manu- 
scripts, Writing. 

SCURVY. A disease (Lev. xxi. 20, xxii. 
22). The original term conveys the idea of 



801 



scratching or scraping. It Is tliougtit to be 
scurvy of a malignant kind. The same is 
also translated ' the scab' (Deut. xxviii. 27). 

SCYTH'IAN. The Scythians were the 
wild nomadic tribes who, like the more 
modern Tartars, roamed oyer the regions of 
Asia north of the Black and Caspian seas. 
They were most probably the descendants 
of Magog, and were known to the Israelites 
under that name. See Magog. The term 
is used by St. Paul (Ool. iii. 11) to illustrate 
the large mercy of God, free to every nation. 
Comp. 2 Mace. iv. 47. For a disquisition on 
the Scythian dominion in Asia in connec- 
tion with. Josiah's exercise of sovereignty 
in the territory of the ten tribes, see Journ. 
of Sacr. Lit., April 1853, pp. 1-34. 

SGTTHOP'OLIS (2 Mace. xii. 29). See 
Beth-shban. 

SCYTHOPOL'ITANS (2 Mace. xii. 30). In- 
habitants of Scythopolis. 

SEA. This word is used in scripture with 
considerable latitude. Besides designating 
seas properly so called, and that ' gathering 
together of the waters' (Gen. i. 10) which 
we regard as the ocean, it is applied to any 
considerable mass of water, salt or fresh 
as to lakes, e.g. 'the salt sea' (xiv. 3); or 
even rivers, as the Nile (Isai. xXx. 5 ; Nah. 
iii. 8) and the Euphrates (Isai. xxi. 1 ; Jer.li. 
36). The following ' seas ' are specially 
mentioned by the sacred writers :— 

1. The ' sea of Chinnereth' (2^umb. xxxiv. 
11), termed also the lake or ' sea of Galilee' 
(Matt, iv. 18), of ' Gennesaret ' (Luke v. 1), 
and of ' Tiberias (John xxi. 1). See Genne- 
saret, Sea of. 

2. The Mediterranean sea washed the 
western coast of Palestine. This was gene- 
rally callec the ' great sea' (Numb, xxxiv, 6, 
7 ; Josh. i. 4, ix. l, xv, 47 ; Ezek. xlvii. 10, 15, 
20) ; sometimes simply the ' sea ' (Josh. xv. 
46 ; Acts xvii. 14) ; also the ' uttermost,' 
• utmost,' or 'hinder sea ' (Deut. xi. 24, xxxiv, 
2 ; Joel ii, 20 ; Zech. xiv. 8), because the east 
was considered geographically as in front 
of any one ; and the ' sea of the Philistines ' 
(Exod. xxiii. 31), because the Philistine terri- 
tory lay along the coast of the Mediterranean. 
This sea, extending from the straits of 
Gibraltar to Asia Minor, and washing Spain 
and France, Italy and Greece, Syria and 
Palestine, Pprypt and Libya, is of course 
frequently alluded to in scripture. The 
Tyrian commerce traversed it : the apostle 
Paul repeatedly crossed it. But a des-:-,rip- 
tion of it belongs more particularly to a 
work on geography : let it be enough to add 
here the striking words of Johnson : ' The 
grand object of travelling is to see the 
shores of the Mediterranean. On those 
shores were the four great empires of the 
world, the Assyrian, the Persian, the Gre- 
cian, and the Roman. All our religion, 
almost all our law, almost all our arts, 
almost all that sets us above savages has 
come to us from the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean ' {Life, anno 1776). 

3. The Red sea, in places where there 
couldi be no danger of confounding it with 
the Mediterranean, is not unfrequently 
called simply the 'sea' (e.g. Exod.- xiv. 2 ; 
Josh. xxiv. 6). But its special name in 
Hebrew is sUjph', the word signifying a 



woolly kind of sea-weed which is to this day 
plentifully found on the shores of the Red 
sea : it has been thought also to include a 
fluvial rush, such as the papyrus (see Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. lOlO). The Greeks 
gave the name of the Erythraean or Red sea 
not only to that Arabian gulf which we now 
so denominate, but also to the wide sweep 
of the ocean between the Indian andArabiau 
peninsulas. Whence that name was derived 
is not very certain. Some would have it 
taken from the red colour of the moun- 
tains on the western shores, some from the 
red coral, or the red appearance of the water 
occasioned by certain zoophytes; others 
again think that, as the Edomitish territory 
reached down to this gulf, it might be the 
sea of Edom, Edom meaning red ; while it 
has been maintained, perhaps with greater 
reason, as the Himyaric tribes of southern 
Arabia bear a name implying red, that the 
sea was denominated from these red men. 

The Red sea from the straits of Bab el- 
Mandeb to its most northerly point at Suez 
is about 1400 miles in length, from 12^ 40' to 
30° N. lat., its greatest width being about 
200 miles : it is divided at Ras Mohammed 
by the Sinaitic peninsula into two large 
arms or gulfs, the easternmost, or Sinus 
iElaniticus, now Balir eWAJcabah, running 
north-east or northerly about 100 miles, 
with an average width of 15 miles, while 
the westernmost. Sinus Heroopoliticus, 
now Bahr el-Suez, runs north-west near 180 
miles, with an average width of 20. There 
is reason to believe that anciently this last 
gulf extended much farther northward to 
the lake of 'ReroovoliQ,novf Birketel-Timsan ; 
and it was connected by a canal with the 
Nile. Now the country at the head of the 
gulf is a waste and desert region, which 
may be a fulfilment of Isai. xi. 15, xix. 5: 
but, when the Red sea extended through it, 
it was irrigated and fertile. 

The superficial area of this sea is about 
180,000 square miles. It is of great depth ; 
its deepest soundings being upwards of 
1000 fathoms. The navigation is rendered 
difficult by groups of islands, coral-reefs, 
sand-banks, and the prevailing winds. The 
coral is abundant : some of it is red ; but 
more generally it is white, occasionaUy 
beautifully variegated. The African coast 
is for the most part barren and sandy, with 
but a scanty population : the Arabian plains 
are parched ; but the uplands are fertile. On 
both sides of the sea chains of mountains 
rise at some distance from the shore to a 
considerable height; many peaks being 
upwards of 6000 or 7000 feet. 

The principal scriptural interest of the 
Red sea centres in the gulfs of Suez and 
Akabah. It was through some part of the 
former that the passage of the Israelites 
was made on their deliverance from Egypt 
(Exod. xiv.). When at last Pharaoh, com- 
pelled by the destruction of .the first-born of 
Bgypt,"had thrust them out, the tribes pro- 
ceeded, we are told, from Rameses, doubt- 
less in Goshen, to Succoth, where they made 
their first encampment (xii. 37). Their 
journey was not along the ordinary road to 
Canaan, through the Philistine territory 
(xiii. 17), by which we may suppose they 
3 F 




would have rounded tlie bead of the gulf ; 
but they were directed to turu, most 
prohaUly southward, by Etha-ii, an the 
ed^e of the wilderness, to Pi-halnroth,_he- 
.Aveen Migdol and the sea, over-agamst 
"Rqal-zenhon (18, 20, xiv. 1). Aftei then 
SepinuTe Phara^^ who had heen alf righted 
hut not really humbled, determmed to 
pursue them. He had information that 
they had duitted the regular route . they 
were entangled among mountams , and 
their further progress was barred by the 
gea. It seemed as if the mighty arm that 
had hitherto defended them was now with- 
towi The standing force of six hundred 
chariots, with all the other chariots of 
Egypt that could be hastily collected were 
at once in motion. There are no mfantiy 
mentioned ; and the ' horsemen must ha^ e 
been those who rode in the chariot^s each 
Df which usually held two Persons, now pei- 
han« three. This formidable body speedily 
ovei-t"ok the Israelites, ^^hose retreat it was 
evidently Pharaoh's object to c^\^t ok He en- 
camped therefore between them and the 
I head of the sea; while they, ^^tterly dispirited 
at the siaht of their former masters, could 
not , it is clear, have made resistance^ 
Ferhaus it was evening when the Egypuan 
frmv ?ook up their position. And the guid- 
Sg cloud which had hitherto Preceded 
chlnged its place, stood between the two 
Sf a pillar of fire to give liS^J^ o Israel 
! while it cast additional ^100^^^,^°^^,*^^^ 
I Egyptians. Then, on the cry of Moses to 
the Lord, the signal was given, at the lift- 
in- of rod, for the Israelites to move 
on! Their colUn must have been a very 
S?oad one; and as tHey marclied all night 
, the sea was probably some miles ^^^e The 
E^TVDtians soon perceived that the tiioes 
were goSe, and ignorant, it may be thought 
' of the miracle, they Pursued In vain 
tbpv could not come up with Israel : disa=- 
Uvl overtook them: their chariots coula 
make no wav on the unsound ground: per- 
haps there were storms which beat against 
1 fhem (Psal. Ixxvii. 15-20) ; and, when the 
i monnng dawned and Israel was saved, at 
ttie 1 ftUig up again of the wonder-workmg 
' rod the sea returned to its strength, and 
the E-yptians perished. Ever after was this 
Slat deUverance cited as the most marvel- 
loMrinterference of God for his people. 
l^TaSous conjectures l^fve been formed 
with greater or less probabilit3%_as to the 
' point where this stupendous miracle was 
! wrmi-M. It may have been below the 
' moder Suez. But many of tliese conjee^ 
Sires are based on the presumption that the 

'^^^r^^i^s^s^s^si^rss^deiS 

S'tl e gulf extlnSed anciently, as above 
vpmnvked much farther than it now does, 
[t ?s not UD^^^^^^^ to believe that the 

I Hnmp have chosen to imagine tnat tnere 
W^e fori; and that Moses took advantage 



of low water, which the Egyptians disre- 
garding were overwhelmed. Even ii we 
were to concede this, the transaction would 
not be reduced to an ordinary event. 
Whence, it might still be asked, the know- 
ledge that Moses had of the right time to 
cro'^<? and the skill with which he carried 
his^^'vast multitudes safely throu?n ; 
Whence, too, the strange blindness which 
made the Egyptians who must haA-e beeii 
well acquainted with the fords and tne 
tides rush on to inevitable destruction 1 
To explain away the miracle renders the 
whole account unnatural and incredible. 
And how, if it were mere skilful manage- 
ment, could that profound impression have 
been made upon the Canaanitish nations,, 
which we find years afterwards paralyzmg 
them when the people so wonderfully led ap- 
peared before their cities? (Josh. n. 10)- 

The OTlf of Akabah also claims some 
notice It is as it were a continuation of 
the Arabah running down from the Dead 
sea It is enclosed by barren mountains , 
and violent winds and strong currents i-en- 
der its navigationveiTdangerous \et at 
its head were the ancient ports of Elatii 
and Ezion-geber, where ships were prepared 
for the voyage to Ophir (1 Kings ix. 2o, xxii. 
48). Here, too, the hand of God was di^- 
plavcd (2 Chron. xx. 35-37). 

4 The Salt sea bears a variety of names 
in scripture. It Is sometimes simply 'ii'e 
sea' where misconception is impossi. 
(Ezek. xlvii. 8) : it is more frequently t 
' salt sea ' (Gen. xiv. 3 ; Numb, xxxiv 3 . 
Jo=h XV. 2, 5, xviii. 19) : ic is also the sca 
of ttle plain,' i.e. of the Arabah (Deut. iv. 
AO - 9 Kin-s xiv. 25) ; and sometimes tne 
fast two ap°pellations are used together the 
oil as explanatory of the other (Deut i"- ,i 
17 ; Josh. iii.l6,xii. 3) : it is, besides, termed . 
the 'east sea' and the 'former sea, i.e. t.ie , 
sea in front, an observer being supposed to , 
fook towards the east (Ezek. xlvii 18 ; Joel 
ii 90- Zpch xiv 8). By later writers It was 
distinguishes Is ?he Asphaltic lake, and sea ; 
of Sodom; but it is now generally known 
as the Dead sea, from the belief that neither • 
Inhnal nor vegetable life sul3sisted m U or 
indeed near it. The Arabs term it Baur 

^^hinS^Me^expanse of water is ^ I 

?enfnsiila projecting from tj^e east^eni shore 
uear to the southern end, dividing tne 
whole into two reaches wliich conunumcare 
bv a somewhat-narrow channel. The ex 
tieme length is about 46 miles, the greatest 
breadth above 10 miles. The supenlcial 
aieJhas been estimated at about 300 square 
nines ; but, as it would seem that the wat^er 
does not constantly stan4 at th.e same e% el. 
that carried off evaporation not al^xay^ 
balancing that brought in by fjeams, t.V3 
dimensions of the lake a^'e subiec^t to i^»t^ 
inconsiderable variation ^t i^,^ l^>oimdtd 
east and west by lines of l^'-^^'e ''j 
broken bv clefts and ravines, and iude...La 

5 rema?Lble terraces. The eastern ch am 
is the loftier, and is brown or red m colour, 
while the western heights are grey and 

i wh te. There is little vesetation except 



BOS mm mxnmmu^. 



where a spring gushes forth ; and then 
around it are reeds and thorn-hushes and 
palm-trees, with other plants ; but the 
general aspect is burnt and barren, present- 
ing often scenes of rugged and utter deso- 
lation. At the south-western end is a ridge 
of roclc salt, dislocated and furrowed ; de- 
taclied pieces of which look like pillars. On 
the margin on the western side is a beach 
of varying width, of shingJe, sometimes 
intermixed with marl, chalk, and gypsum, 
and various kinds of debris. Mr.' Grove 
mentions three parallel beaches along a 
considerable part of the western shore: 
they are one above the other, the highest 50 
feet above the water. A line of drift-wood 
encircles the lake, branches and limbs of 
trees, brought down by the Jordan and 
other torrents, and marking the highest 
level of the water. There is a salt and stony 
plain at the nortli-east corner, but of the 
eastern side little has been explored. To 
the south is a plain called el-Ghdr, part of 
which is salt and barren and muddy, part 
i fertile, well-wooded and watered. The Ghor 
is closed by hiils to the south, beyond which 
: is the great Arabaii, extending to the 
eastern gulf of the Red sea; and, as the 
Arabah is higher than the Ghor, most of its 
waters drain ofl into the lake. 

The Jordan, also, and various streams east 
and west empty themselves into it. And, 
as there is no outlet, the waters are in- 
i tensely salt, and combined with much 
' earthy matter. Many philosophers have 
analyzed them ; but the results by no means 
agree, perhaps from the water experimented 
upon being obtained at different seasons, 
. places, and depths. A curious table of these 
results may be seen in Smith's Diet, of the 
Bible, vol. iii. p. 1183 c. One thing is certain, 
: that the solid matter in the Dead sea water 
is far greater than that in the ocean : its 
: specific gravity is therefore higher ; so that 
i persons unable to swim elsewhere cannot 
sink in this lake. It was once imagined, as 
above noticed, that life could not subsist 
558re : the waters were said to be almost 
motionless, of a dull leaden hue, and their 
Bteam pernicious. Such notions are now 
proved unfounded. Wild as are some of the 
surrounding heights, the view, generally 
speaking, of the lake is beautiful. The 
colour of its waters may change according 
to circumstances ; but they often are seen 
as blue as in other lakes. Living creatures, 
though of a low type, have been found in 
them ; and animals, birds, and especially 
reptiles, throng the neighbouring thickets, 
I while ducks and other aquatic birds have 
been observed swimming and diving in 
the water. Most of these are said to be of 
^ a stone colour, so as easily to escane notice. 
: Lighted up by the rising or setting sun the 
tints of the mountains are often gorgeous. : 
Still, as Mr. Grove remarks in the article : 
just referred to, ' with all the brilliancy of ; 
its illumination, its frequent beauty of ( 
colouring, the fa.ntastic grandeur of its i 
enclosing mountains, and the tranquil . 
charm afforded by the reflection of that ] 
j unequalled sky on the no-less-unequalled ( 
j mirror of the surface— v^^ith all these there : 
is something in the prevalent sterility, and i 



[SEA 



I the dry burnt look of the shores, the over- 
L powering heat, the occasional smell of sul- 
! phur, the dreary salt marsh at the southern 

■ end, and the fringe of dead drift-wood 

■ round the margin, which must go far to ex- 
I cuse the title which so many ages have at- 

■ tached to the lake, and which we may be 
sure it will never lose ' (p. 1185). 

The most extraordinary fact in regard to 
the Dead sea has yet to be mentioned. It 
lies in so deep a cleft among its mountains 
that its surface is, according to lieut. Lynch, 
13167 feet below the level of the Mediter- 
ranean, but, according to the report of the 
Royal Engineers who lately surveyed the 
country, 1289 feet. The Jordan, as has been 
elsewhere mentioned, flows through a 
sunken valley, the fall along its course being 
rapid and considerable, till it reaches its 
lowest point in this lake. Whether the 
whole line of country was once far more 
elevated, and whether by some great cata- 
strophe it descended to its present position, 
we cannot tell. But it is clear from its con- 
formation that the most extraordinary 
changes would have to be made before the 
Jordan could, as was once a plausible sup- 
position, flow on through the Arabah into 
the Red sea. Moreover, the depth of the 
water of the lake is very great, 1308 feet, at 
a point one-third of the length from the 
northern end ; while south of the peninsula 
it is very shallow. 

It was long the received opinion that the 
doomed cities of the plain lay engulfed be 
neath the waters of the Dead sea. It is now 
generally asserted that at least the northern 
portion of the lake must have existed prior 
to the time of Abraham. Some are disposed 
to imagine that by the catastrophe of Sodom 
the lake was enlarged, the southern or more 
shallow part being the site of the four cities. 
But, besides other objections, the fact that 
Lot saw and chose the fertile vale from the 
mount of Beth-el would seem conclusive 
against the notion that it was the south of 
the lake on which he fixed ; so that if sub- 
merged at all the cities must lie under the 
northern part. There also seems reason 
to believe that instead of anciently being 
dry land the southern part of the lake was 
much deeper than at present. See Sodom. 

The whole question of the origin of the 
Dead sea is large, and cannot be argued 
here ; l;)ut the remarks of Mr. Tristram in his 
lately published Land of Israel, on the sup- 
posed A'olcanic agencies, will be read with 
interest, ' I think there can be no question,' 
he says, 'but that the old notions of vol- 
canic agencies about the Dead sea were 
erroneous, and that many Avriters, like De 
Saulcy, have been misled by endeavouring 
to square their pre-conceived interpreta- 
tion of scripture with the facts they saw 
around them, ., Such traces are not to be 
found , . : the whole region has been slowly 
and gradually formed through a succession 

of ages; and its peculiar phenomena 

are similar to those of other salt lakes in 
Africa, or referable to its unique and de- 
pressed position. But, setting aside all pre- 
conceived notions, and taking the simple 
record of Gen. xix, as we find it, let us 
see whether the existing condition of the 



sea-calves] 



804 



country tlirows any light upon the hihlical 
narrative. Certainly we do observe hy the 
lake sulphur and hitumen in abundance. 
Sulphur-springs stud the shores : sulphur 
is strewn, whether m layers or in fragments, 
over the desolate plains ; and bitumen is 
ejected, in great floating masses, from the 
bottom of the sea, oozes througb the fissures 
of the rocks, is deposited with gravel on the 
beach, or, as in the "WadyMahawat, appears 
with sulphur to have been precipitated du- 
ring some convulsion. We know that at the 
times of earthquakes in the north the bitu- 
men seems even in our own day to be de- 
tached from the bottom of the lake, and 
that floating islets of that substance have 
been evolved coincident with the convul- 
sions so frequent in north-eastern Palestnae. 
Everything leads to the conclusion that the 
agency of fire was at work, though not the 
overflowing of an ordinary volcano. The 
materials were at hand, at whichever end of 
the lake we placed the doomed cities, and 
may proMbly have been accumulated then 
to a much greater extent than at present. 
The kindling of such a mass of combustible 
material, either by lightning from heaven 
or by other electrical agency, combined 
with an earthquake ejecting the bitumen or 
sulphur from the lake, would soon spread 
devastation over the plain, so that the 
smoke of the country would go up as the 
smoke of a furnace. There is no authority 
whatever in the biblical record for the popu- 
lar notion that the site of the cities has been 
submersed ; and Mr. Grove (in his able and 
exliaustlve article in theBibl. Diet., 'Sodom ) 
has justly stated " that there is no warrant 
for imagining that the catastrophe was a 
geological one, and in any other ca|e_ all 
traces of action must at this distance of time 
have vanished." The simple and natural ex- 
planation seems— when stripped of all the 
wild traditions and strange horrors with 
which the mysterious sea has been invested 
—to be this— that during some earthquake 
or without its direct agency, showers of sul- 
phur, and probably bitumen, ejected from 
the lake or thrown up from its shores, and 
ignited perhaps by the lightning which 
would accompany such phenomena, fell 
upon the cities and destroyed them. The 
history of the catastrophe has not only re- 
mained in the inspired record, but is in- 
scribed in the memory of the surrounding 
tribes by many a local tradition and signi- 
ficant name.' . ^ 

5 A 'sea' of Jazer is spoken of m Jei. 
xlviii. 32. For a conjectviral notice of it, 
see JAAZER. - ... 

The term * sea ' is sometimes used symboli- 
callv. Thus in Isai. Ix. 5, ' The abundance 
of the sea shall be converted unto thee : 
here Ave may understand the maritime 
nations of the west. So in Dan. vu 3 ; Rev 
xiii 1 the prophetic seers beheld emblematic 
beasts coming forth from the sea rising we 
may suppose from tumultuous changes of 
the world. Further, ' a sea oE glass mingled 
with fire' is spoken of av. 6, xv. 2) betokeii- 
ng perhaps the calm majesty of the divine 
administration, with which, too D^^dgments 
are intermingled. ' The sand which is upon 
the sea-shore is taken to illustrate the 



greatness of a multitude (Gen. xxii. 17); and 
the phrase ' from sea to sea ' describes un- 
limited extent (Psal. Ixxii. 8). The shores, 
waves, creeks, &c. of the sea are occasion- 
allv mentioned (e.g. Exod. xiv. 30; Psal. 
xciii. 3, 4 ; Acts xxvii. 39, 41). 

SEA-OALTES (Lam. iv. 3, marg.). The 
original word, rendered 'sea-monsters' in 
the'text, probably denotes jackals. 

SE 1, THE MOLTEN. A large urazen 
(copper or bronze) laver which Solomon 
made for the use of the priests in the temple. 
It was to supply the place of the 'laver' of 
the tabernacle. It was five cubits in height, 
ten in diameter, and thirty in circumfer- 
ence ; the thickness of the metal being one 
hand-breadth. The brim was of lily-work, 
ornamented with flowers like lilies ; and ]ust 
underneath was a double border of knops, 
said to be shaped like gourds. The whole , 
was placed upon twelve oxen, in allusion to | 
the twelve tribes, standing with their faces . 
outwards (1 Kings vii. 23-26; 2 Chron. iv j 
2-5). This great basin contained 2000 or 3000 j 
(the number varies, perhaps owing to a 
copvist's error) baths. It was set at the 
south-east corner of the court of the priests 
(1 Kings vii. 39 ; 2 Chron. iv. 10) : it was not 
for them to bathe in, but contained water 
for their ablutions. Ahaz removed the 
oxen from under the sea and fixed it upon 
a stone pavement (2 Kings xvi. 17) : it was 
flnallv broken up by the Chaldeans (xxv. 13). 

Some difficulty has been expressed m re- 
gard to the capacity of this sea ; and it has 
been calculated that if hemispherical it 
could not hold so much water as is stated. 
But we do not know its exact shape : it 
probably bulged out below the brim. 

The water is said to have been originally 
supplied bv the Gibeonites, but afterwards 
from the pools of Betli-lehem by means of a 
conduit. . ^ . 

SEAL. The use of seals is of very great 
antiquity. Thus we And Judah's signet 
spoken of (Gen. xxxviii. IS), worn suspend- 
ed (as is now customary in Persia) by a 
cord or lace upon the breast. Sometimes, 
however, the signet was in a finger-ring 
placed on the right hand (xli. 42 ; Jer. xxii. 
24) As these seals were indispensable 
articles for use, and also were prized as 
ornaments, they became the symbol of 
anything particularly precious: see Sol. 
Song viii. 6 ; Hagg. ii. 23. The art of 
graving upon seals was early known (Exoa. 
Ixviii. 11). Modern oriental seals have 
usually the name of the owner on them, and 
often a sentence from the koran. An 
impression of the seal, made perhaps by 
means of a kind of Indian ink,serves for the 
signature of the individual. In scripture 
"seals were used to authenticate documents 
(1 Kings xxi. S), for the security of deeds 
or writiu£?s which were put in sealed bags 
(Dent, xxxii. 34 ; Job xiv. 17 ; Jer. xxxn. 11, 
14), and for the fastening of doors or gates, 
which were first secured by some ligament, 
over which properly-prepared clay was put, 
and the seal impressed (Dan. vi. 17 ; Matt, 
xxvii. GG: comp. Bel and Dr. 11, 14). Accord- 
ing to Jewish writers the Hebrew women 
used seal rings. The delivery of such a ring 
by a sovereign to a courtier invested hiin 



r 



805 



with autliority (Gen. xli. 42: Estli. iii. lo, 
viii. 2). 

Among tlie Assyrian and Egyptian dis- 




Assyrian seal or cylinder of Sennacherib. 

coveries not the least interesting are many 
pieces of fine clay with impressions, seals 



[season 



cheiih. This may have been the authenti- 
cation of a treaty between Assyria and 
Egypt Cylindrical seals made of iasner 
crystal, and other substances have also 
been found. These are pierced, and no doubt 



i 




V 

7 






u 








V. 




w 


T ? 








r 


m 







Impression of seal on clay. Assyrian. From 
original in British Museum. 

which had been attached to documents. On 
one there is the seal of Sabaco or So,king of 




Impression of a seal of Sabaco the Ethiopian, 
25th dynasty. From original, in clay. 

Egypt (2 Kings xvii. 4), a figure about to 
strike, with hieroglyphic inscriptions. On 



Babylonian cylinder, ^Yith title of Rabut-tsim. 

were furnished with a metal axis, and thus, 
being rolled on moist clay, left the impres- 
sion of the devices and inscriptions upon 
them. Hence the allusion in Job: 'It is 
turned as clay to the seal ' (Job xxiviii. 14). 





the same piece of clay is the impression of 
an Assyrian seal, possibly that of Senna- 



Impressions of seals in clay. Assyrian. From 
originals in British Museum. 

Such a seal is probably alluded to in 2 Tim. 
ii. 19. The clay impressed was sometimes 
afterwards baked. 

We find seals or sealing used metaphori- 
cally to signify that which was to be pre- 
served or permanent (Isai. viii. 16), or which 
was secret (Dan. xii. 4, 9 ; Rev. ix. 4), owner- 
sliip (vii. 2-8, &c. : comp. John iii. 33, vi. 27). 

SEAR (1 Tim. iv. 2). The original word 
means literally to brand-in a mark with a 
hot iron branding-instrument. When a hot 
iron is applied to the skin, it makes it hard 
and dead to sensibility. So the conscience 
may be hardened to bear delusion uncon- 
cernedly, not wincing at a system of fraud. 
But perhaps this explanation does not fully 
reach the apostle's meaning,which is rather 
that ignominious marks were burnt in and 
left there. ' They knew,' says bishop Ellicott, 
' the brand they bore, and yet with a show 
of outward sanctity they strove to beguile 
and seduce others, and make them as bad 
as themselves.' 

SEASON. There are six several seasons of 
the year indicated in scripture, ' seed-time 
and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer 
and winter' (Gen. viii. 22), These may be 
thus . arranged ;~ 



BEAT] 



808 



. "Winter 



( Tisri, latter liaLE 
Seed-time hNlarcliesvaii „,,i.,if 
^ Chisleu or Kisleu, former lialf 
( Cliisleii, latter lialf 
\ Tel)etli 

( Sel)at, former lialf 
( Selxat, latter lialf 

3. Cold season L^dar 

(Nisan, former half 
f >Tisau, latter lialf 

4. Harvest ] Jyar, or Zii 
( Si van, former lialf 
( Sivan, latter lialf 
) Tammuz 
( At>, former lialf 
( Ab, latter lialf 

Hot season - Elul 

Tisri, former lialf 



. Summer 



beginning of October > 
to ^ 
j beginning of December 
1 beginning of December 
C to 
) beginning of February . 
) beginning of February ) 
r to ( 

) beginning of April ) 

i beginning of April 

\ to 

\ beginning of June 

) beginning of June 

V to 

) beginning of August 

) beginning of August 

I to 

) beginning of October 



early rain duo 



latter rain due 



cip.\T The ancient Egyptians used 
cliaiiir^hich very probably were cnstom- 
arv amou;^ the Hebrews. But m latei 
?toes the practice was introduced of reclin- 
ii- at meals. The orientals now sit on 
ow ^ofa? or divans, or on mats or carpets, 
wmi ?S?le°i ent under them. See Meals. 

SEB V (man ?). A son of Cush of the family i, 
of Ham (Gen i. 7 ; l Cliron. i. 9). His de- 
SaitfSpear to have formed a n^^^^^ 
i^n the distant south Psal. Ixxii. 10) . tnej 
?re'menttanea as ol eanal i'W-J'Jf/,-^'^ 
Pc^vnt and Ethiopia (Isai.xliu. 3): they^^ele 

pave to Seba,the 'royal city of Ethiopia, the 
fi ime of ^ieroe, after his sister. Meroe was 
an extensiA^e region enclosed by the rivers 

«elS^?^;^r%i^tS 
th 3 countrv answers all the conditions re- , 
Q .\red?or^he identification of Seba. it was i 
rrii and fertile, with forests and proaac- 
r ve fields. The capital city, :^Ieroe, was 
^ out ninety miles south of the ]unction_ oi 
? e Nile and the Astaboras : the extensn e 
r fns of this place have been discovered 
.bout twentv miles north-east of the I> ubiaii 
?oSm sYieSd^; see Kalisch, Comm. on Oul 
Test. Gen., W.2iS,2i9. „ , . 
SEBA'T (.a sproutl) (Zech. 1. /). See 

^^SECA'CAH (enclosure^ A town in the 

ta ned : possibly it may be the Bn 

QFOT The oriiJiual word so tran^laLcd 
siSes a choic^, a^nd in the New Test.nuent 
ge°ne\?hy a chosen or adoptcxl W of U e^^ 

J^SoZ^ll 8)! Zcdekiah the Icing. 



SEED. By this term i^ gcuerally to be j 
miderstood olispring or descendants Tbe , 
seed of the woman (Gen. lu. lo}, the seea 
of Abraham (xxii. IS ; Acts i"- 2d), the 
seed of David (Bora, i.4), specially designate ! 
Messiah. St. Paul lays great stress (Gal. m. i 
16^ on the singular iiumlier of the woia : 
'^eed' in Gen. xxii. IS: and objection has : 
lieen taken to his reasoning. But the oo- 
ieciion is founded on misconception. 
Divers nations sprang from Abraham ; lor 
he had many sons ; but one alone was tho 
child of promise. In Isaac and his cie- 
scendants the blessing rested The pi-omise 
was not to seeds, not to Abraham s ofl|.priUo 
indiscriminately, not to the various Ime^ of 
the many who called him father, but to thao 
one which combined the 
carnal bond of relationship to ^Abrahani, 
the seed of which Christ was to be the e- 
rresentative. The P^-^P^ecy had a definite 
posterity in view, a behevmg Posteuty. 
And so St. Paul does not mean m- 
diviQually,but Christ col^ectiye4y-Chn^^^^^^ 
is true, personally first ana chieflj = J f Iso 
Pis bodv the church as gathered i^co^" 
SEFD-TP.IE iGen.viii. 22). See Season. 
SFl^R '1 '^--1 i^- See Prophet. 
1 %!^^i^v - -: .-i. 23\ Toboih 
i '^vpf-' —1 The voungest son 

' of Kiel i^ '^' ^ - -vi. 34). See Hiel.-2. A 
' descendant oi'Judah (1 Chron. ii. 21, 22) 
SEIR Oio.iru, bristly). A Horitc chief wlio 
piSbably ^rave name to the mountanum. 
dSrct in which he dwelt (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 
01 • 1 Chron. i. 38). See HORi, 1, Houites. 
' "s'T^in (!cf)— 1. A mountain range an- 
ciently inhabited by the Horites ^(-jmi. xiv. 
6 ; Deut. ii. 12) : it was ';^.^^^i'^^-^^V^\t,^^,^^pr 
^e=^ion of Esau and his posteritj' (Gen. 
xxxii '3, xxxiii. 14, 16, xxxvi. 8, 9_; Deuw n. 
4 o9 . 2 Chron. XX. 10). Hence Seir is some- 
times put for Edom, or the Edomites (Ezelc. 
XXV S> This ranae runs from the soutli 
Palestine near the extremity of the Dead 
sea in a s.nitherly direction to the head of 
the Elanitic eulf. 'The lugli-land itself 
spreads, moreover, westward to the south- 
cUtern' frontier of Palestine, and to the 
borders of the territory ot the Amonte^ 
mid of the tribe of Judah, so that '^cxwdm.. 
to the Greek division, it would form a 
part of Arabia Petra.i ^^^^^^\^P-..^?f,\^'^^^'-o6) 
ii. 8 ; Josh. xi. 16, 1 7, XV 1 ; i K ng. ix b) 
Kalisch, Comm. uii Old Ici<t. hen., pp. -^-> 



807 



353. The northern part of Seir is now called 
Jebal, and the southern esh-Sherah. It is a 
rugged and well-wooded chain, intersected 
hy fruitful valleys and watered hy various 
streams, which, however, in summer often 
fail. But vegetation is abundant, and much 
of the land well-cultivated and fertile, far 
different from the ridge on the opposite 
side of the Arabah, which is less elevated 
I and utterly desolate. The promise, then, 
I was fulfilled to Esau that his ' dwelling 
1 should be the fatness of the earth, and of the 
I dew of heaven from above' (Gen. xxvii. 39). 
; Existing remains show that some parts of 
I the district were once densely peopled. 
; Wilton would distinguish between ' the 
I land of Seir' (xxxii. 3) immediately con- 
I tiguous to the south of Palestine and after- 
I wards occupied by the Amalekites, in which 
i Esau dwelt at first, and ' mount Seir ' subse- 
I guently the territory of Edom (The Negeb, 
I p. 73, note). He also draws attention to the 
I fulfilment of Obad. 19. The inhabitants of the 
: south were to possess mount Seir ; and that 
! the Simeonites,who were intermingled wi tli 
Judah in the south country, did possess Seir 
, is positively stated in 1 Chron. iv. 38-43. 
i 2. A mountain named in describing the 
I limits of the territory of Judah (Josh. xv. 10). 
j SEI'RATH (a she-goat, shaggy ?). A place 
I or district to which Ehud fled after killing 
i Eglon (Judges iii. 26). It was perhaps in 

the mountains of Ephraim (27). 
I SE'LA or SE'LAH (rock). A city in the 
! territory of Edom, probably the capital, 
' taken by Amnziali king of Judah and named 
j l)y him Joktlicel, i.e. subdued of God, in 
I memory of his conquest (2 Kings xiv. 7 ; 
! 2 Chron. xxv. 11, 12). It afterwards passed 
I under the dominion of Moab (Isai. xvi. 1). 

It would seem that this place is meant in 
! two or three places, where in our version 
the word is translated ' rock ' (Judges i. 36 ; 
Obad. 3), There can hardly be a doubt that 
Sola is identical with the Petra of later 
times, celebrated as the chief city of the 
Nabathceans in the fourth century B.C., and 
as a central station for the commerce of the 
east. It was afterwards the residence of 
the Arabian princes who bore the name of 
Aretas, and was subjected to the Homan 
p;)wer by Trajaii : from Adrian it received 
the name of Adriana. 

The remains of the city lie in the Wady 
Mousa about two days' journey to the north 
of the gulf of Akabah, and somewhat farther 
to the south of the Dead sea. It is enclosed 
by rugged clilf s of red sandstone, and rocky 
ravines from 50 to 250 feet in depth, and 
surrounded by a dry and barren desert. The 
plain on which it stands is on a high level, 
and is not more than about a mile square, 
j The ravine of Wady Mousa varies in breadth 
! from 12 to 150 feet ; and the overhanging 
i rocks almost shut out the sun's rays. But 
! It was through this ravine that an artificial 
j passage was made, about a mile long, the 
i only way of access to the town. Along it 
i ran a little river, supplying it with water, 
■ over which bridges were thrown, and by the 
i ' sides of which quays were constructed. The 
! traveller, who penetrates through the sur- 
I rounding dry and desert country to Petra, 
j flnds piles of tombs excavated in the rocks, 



[SELA 



with colonnades, obelisks, &c. &c. of impos- 
ing dimensions. 

These remarkable ruins were first in 
modern times visited and described by 
Burckhardt. Various writers have seen in 
their present state the fulfilment of pro- 
phetical denunciation against Edom (e.g. 
Isai. xxxiv.). To a certain extent this may- 
be admitted : still it must be remembered 
that Petra attained its chief importance 
after the Edomites had ceased to inhabit 
the country, and that the buildings the 
wrecks of which we now wonder at were for 
the most part of the Roman age. 'It was, 
no doubt, during this period that Petra wa3 
adorned with those magnificent archi- 
tectural works which render that town one 
of singular interest for the antiquarian and 
the traveller. The tombs in the ravine 




Sela or Petra. El-Khuzneh. 



leading to the city . . then received their 
comparatively-modern additions of Ionic 
columns and other Roman-Greek orna- 
ments : in another ravine-like but broader 
valley is that astounding structure, eh 
Khuzneh, probably used as a temple, one of 
the wonders of the east ; the f agade of which 
consists of " two rows of six columns over 
one another, with statues between, with 
capitals and sculptured pediments, the 
upper one of which is divided by a little 
round temple crowned with an urn." This 
edifice shines still in all the freshness of 
colour, and attracts notice by the elaborate 



^elah-hammahlekoth] EvtKillX^ tit 



808 



detail of sculptural ornaments; but its 
interior is merely a lofty liall with a chamber 
on each of its three sides. Behind the el- 
Kliuznehthe eye is struck by many beautiful 
and varied f agades, leading to apartments 
excavated in the cliffs, used either as tombs 
or as temples, and, later, as churches ; but 
in a wider part of the valley, on its left side, 
is the splendid Greek theatre, entirely hewn 
out of the rock, 120 feet in diameter at the 
base, with more than thirty rows of seats, 
in the native rock, red and purple alter- 
nately, and holding upwards of 3000 spec- 
tators, surrounded with tombs, and over- 
grown on the sides with the wild fig-tree 
and the tamarisk. In the ancienn site of 
Petra Itself, every variety of ruins, of 
streets, houses, temples, and palaces, be- 
speaks the vanished glory of a town once 
splendidand wealthy— the palace of Pharaoh 



though not uniformly - bright, colours, 
equalling in softness those of flowers or -of 
the plumage of birds, and exhibiting a 
gorgeous crimson, streaked with purple, 
and often intermixed, ribbon-like, with 
yellow and blue: they are of the most 
various dimensions, and serve the most 
manifold purposes. Some are small niches, 
perhaps intended for votive offerings : 
others are designed for tombs, and exhibit 
an endless variety in size, workmanship, 
and style : they consist of spacious cham- 
bers with recesses, sometimes near the 
ceiling, at the height of eight or ten feet, 
and often adorned in the front with archi- 
tectural embellishments of astonishing rich- 
ness and striking beauty. The cloister {deir) 
at the north-western extremity of the cliffs 
(see Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, 4th edit,, 
pp. 96, 97), also hewn out of the rock, with 




Petra. General vie-w, looking towards the theatre. 



(JTasr Faron) ; the isolated column likewise 
bearing the name of the Egyptian monarch 
{Zub Faron), and indicating the former site 
of a large pillared temple ; the remains of 
triumphal arches ; the colossal columns of 
a depraved Corinthian or Doric order, hewn 
out of the solid rock, and still forming part 
of the native mass ; and majestic colon- 
hades, giving the whole base of the moun- 
tain the appearance of a vast pile of grand 
architecture. Astounding and ahnost- 
humberless excavations are everywhere 
wrought in the front of the mountain, in 
its ravines and recesses, and even in the 
precipitous rocks around it, in many cases 
one rising over the other, and sometimes 
several hundred feet above the level of the 
valley, with steps cut in the solid rocks ; 
some widely conspicuous, others hidden in 
the most inaccessible cliffs. These excava- 
tions shine in all the magic of variegated, 



a most splendid fagade, and a vast urn on 
the summit, is accessible through a long 
and tortuous ravine, by a path five or six 
feet broad, and steps cut in the stone with 
immense exertion ; is surrounded by ruins, 
covered with inscriptions in the Sinaitic 
character, crosses, and figures of the wild 
goat or ibex, indicating its sacred charac- 
ter ; but rather modern in effect. All this 
engages and deserves the research of the 
historian' (Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 479, 480. 

Stanley believes that Sela was the site of 
some primeval shrine, and fixes on the ' Deir* 
as the special point, the innermost sanc- 
tuary of the holy place of Kadesh. 

SE'LA-HAMMAH'LEKOTH {rock of es- 
capes). A rock in the wilderness of Maon, 
whence Saul was summoned from pursuing 
David by the news of a Philistine incursiou 
(1 Sam. xxiii. 27, 28). 



S09 mm mnmxttsQt. 



SE'LAH. A word wliicii occurs seventy- 
one times in thirry-nine psalms, also in 
Habak. ili. 3, 9, 13. Tliere are various opinions 
as to the meaning. Thus Gesenius tells us 
ttiat some think it is an abbreviation ; the 
letters of wbicli it is composed each stand- 
ing for a word. By some it is derived from 
a verb signifying ' to raise up ; ' the meaning 
therefore being a raising of the voice, in re- 
sponse to the instruments : this Gesenius 
himself prefers. But others, adopting the 
same derivation, understand ' suspend the 
-voice,' i.e. rest, pause. Sommer has minutely 
investigated the matter. And Keil has 
adopted and illustrated his opinion. They 
suppose that it directs the falling-in of the 
sound of the priests' trumpets into the Le- 
vites' psalm-singing and playing on stringed 
instruments. It occurs therefore where 
very warm emotions have been expressed 
(Keil, Einleitung, § 113, p. 385). Perhaps the 
word rather implied that the music was to 
be loud and clear. Higgaion joined with 
Selah (Psal. ix. 16) is supposed by Gesenius 
to signify ' a louder strain whilst Keil be- 
lieves that it means 'piano.' 

SE'LED {exultation) . One of the descen- 
dants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 30\ 

SELEMI'A (2 Esdr. xiv. 24). A scribe 
Whom Esdras was to employ. 

SELEMl'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 3-4). Shelemiah 
(Ezra X. 39). 

SELEUCI'A. A strong sea-port town on 
the Mediterranean, about five miles north 
of the mouth of the Orontes. It was built 
by Seleucus jS'icator, who was buried there, 
and was called Seleucia Pieria, from mount 
Pierius close by, and Seleucia ad Mare to 
destinguish it from other cities of the same 
name. Under the Syrian kings it Avas the 
capital of the province Seleucis : from the 
time of Pompey it was a free city. From 
this port Paul and Barnabas embarked for 
Cyprus (Acts xiii. 4) : it is mentioned also in 
1 Mace. xi. 8. Some ruins of Seleucia still 
exist by the modern village Kepse. 

SELEU'CUS (1 Mace. vii. 1 ; 2 Mace, iii.3, 
and elsewhere). This king, the fourth of 
the name, entitled Philopator, succeeded 
his father Antiochus the Great, and reigned 
over Syria twelve years, 187-175 B.C. He was 
sometimes called king of Asia. Having 
need of large sums of money to pay the 
tribute imposed by the Romans, he sent his 
officer Heliodorus to plunder the temple at 
Jerusalem— an attempt which is said to have 
been supernaturally defeated (7-40). Seleucus 
was afterwards murdered by this same He- 
liodorus, and was succeeded by iUitiochus 
Epiphanes (comp. Dan. xi. 20, 21). 
SEM (Luke iii. 36). Shem ; a Greek form. 
SEMACHI'AH {JehovaJi sustains him). A 
Levite porter (l Chron. xxvi. 7). 

SEM'EI irenoivned). A person named in 
our Lord's genealogy (Luke iii. 26). 

SEM'EI.— I (lEsdr. ix. 33). Shimei (Ezra 
X. 33).— 2 (Ptest of Esth. xi. 2). Shimei, an 
ancestor of Mordecai (Esth. ii. 5). 

SEMEL'LIUS (1 Esdr. ii. 16, 17, 25,30). 
Shimshai (Ezra iv. 8, 9, 17, 23). 
SEM' IS (1 Esdr. ix. 23). Shimei (Ezrax."23). 
SEIsA'AH {tliormj). A place, the inhabi- 
tants of which returned in large numbers 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 35 ; 



[SENNACHEHIIJ 



IS eh. vii. 38). These are meant in Neh. iii. 3, 
the article being prefixed, so as to form 
the word Hassenaah. 
SENATE (Acts V. 21). The body of elders, 
SE'isEH (Jtliorn-rock) (l Sam. xiv. 4). See 

BOZEZ. 

SEJfl'E, {coat of mail, or cataract). Mount 
Hermon, or a part of it a Chron. y. 23 : 
Ezek. xxvii. 5). See Hermox 

SEXXACH'ERIB (conqueror of armies, or 
Sin (the moon) lias multiplied brethren). The 
son and successor of Sargon king of Assyria. 
Besides the scriptural accounts which we 
have of this monarch, and notices in pro- 
fane historians, some of the deciphered 
Kmeveh inscriptions narrate the principal 
events of his reign. The chief discrepancy 
between these and the sacred record as we 
now have it is in the arrangement of dates ; 
and various modes have been proposed of 
reconciliation. 

It is probable Sennacherib's elder brother 
was made by Ms father viceroy of Babylon ; 
but, that city having been recovered by 
Merodach-baladan, Sennacherib's first ex- 
pedition after he mounted the throne was 
against Chaldea. He was successful ; and, 
having left Bilib, or Belibus, one of his of- 
ficers, governor of Babylon, he directed his 
arras against the Aramceans on the Tigris 
and Euphrates, and then against the Median 
and other northern tribes. In his third year 
he crossed the Euphrates, made the Phoe- 
nician cities tributary, took Ashkelon, also 
Libnah and Lachish, defeated the Egyptians, 
and then, having concluded a treaty with 
them, turned uponHezekiah king of Judah. 
It was in this expedition that he came up 
' against all the fenced cities of Judah, and 
took them,' imposed a heavv tax on the 
Jewish king, and carried off a number ol 
captives into Assyria (2 Kings xviii. 13-16 ■ 
Isai. xxxvi. 1). Hezekiah had offended by 
throwing off his allegiance to the Assyrian 
throne, and also by having conquered the 
Philistine country (2 Kings xviii. 8). In the 
fourth year of his reign Sennacherib in- 
vaded Babylonia a second time, and substi- 
tuted one of his own sons for Bilib, whom 
he had formerly placed in authority there. 
After this it has been imagined that he 
again inarched into Judea, and suffered the | 
terrible calamity which deprived him of his 
army. But this is questionable ; and those 
who admit but one Palestinian campaign 
think that it was Its disastrous result that 
encouraged the partisans of Merodach- ' 
baladan, and also incited Bilib to renounce i 
his dependence on the Assyrian king. It is ! 
difficult to decide. But leading facts are ! 
sufficiently proved. We know that Sen- 
nacherib was in Judea attacking Libnah and 
Lachish, some think unsuccessfully; that, 
desirous of capturing Jerusalem, he sent 
first envoys, and afterwards a letter, to the 
king ; that he was alarmed by the approach 
of Tirhakah.king of Ethiopia ; and that then 
his career was stopped by the superna- 
tural destruction of 185.000 of his forces 
(17-37, xix. 1-35 ; 2 Chron. 'xxxii. 1-23 ; Isai, 
xxxvi. 2-22, xxxvii. 1-36); but the exact dis- 
tribution of these events is uncertaiii. 
Nothing of course is reported of the great 
catastrophe in the Assyrian inscriptioiis 



810 



but Sennaclierib, bo far as we can learii, 
during tlie rest of liis reign after it, wlaicli 
lasted in all twenty-two years, warred m 
Snsiana and other regions of the east with- 
out venturing again Into Jndea. He was 
at length assassinated hy two of his sons, 
and succeeded hy another of them, Esar- 
haddon (2 Kings xix. 37 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 ; 
Isai. xxxvii. 37, 38). ^ n 

The chronological difficulty alDore akudeci 
to is this. Sennacherih reigned from 7u3 to 
680 BC. ; while Hezetiah's reign extendeu 
from 726-697 B.C. Consequently, if these 
dates be accurate. Sennacherib's invasion 
could not have occurred In the fourteenth 




0 & bk^^' 




Senraclierib. rrora ISineTcn marbies. 



vear of Hezetiah, but ratlier in his twenty- 
ffxth or twenty-seventh. Dr. Hincts m an 

elaborate paper in the •^^"'^^/-(.f^f Vlforo 
Tnlv 1854, pp. S93-410, mam tains thiit there 
is a conyist's error in the received Hebrew 
text: and perhaps this is the most reason- 
aMe supposition. Additional research may 
throw more light up on the matter 

It was Sennacherib who erected the mag- 
nificent palace at the ^0^^^^^^,^^/^^^^, '^^ 
Kouvuuiik, opposite Mosul on the Tigris 
The^labs of each chamber here-and 
Beventy-one apartments have ^^en e^^ 
vated-exhibit different historical e^cms.. 



Public archives, too, and seals have been 
discovered. Sennacherib also founded ano- 
ther palace (perhaps completed by Esar- 
h addon) on the mound called KeM Yzrmis at 
the south-west angle of the same ruins of . 
Kouyunjilr, and carried on many other nolile j 
worts, contributing greatly to the splen- i 
dour of Isineveh. He left monuments of 
his deeds in various, distant countries ; one 
of which is said still to exist on the Syrian 
coast, near the mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb, 
close to an inscription of a far earlier date, 
of names es the Great of Egypt. _ 

The history of Sennacherib is highly in- 
structive. The mi ghty conqueror was hum- 
bled bv the blasting of the breath of God 3 
displeasure: ?a-l tlie holy city and temple, 
apparent : : -: ^. were folly protected 
by an all; . - . . ^-r i 

SENU-^" . ABenjamite (Iseh. 

9) pr>V; , . H.-r.-^aah (1 Chron. ix. 7). 
" Se6'E,IM {iarlcir). The chief of one of 
the courses of the priests a Chron. xxiv. S). 

SEPHA'H (a nuvibcring, census). A city- 
mentioned to indicate the extent of the 
territories inhabited by the descendants of 
Joktan (Gen. x. 30). Between the port of 
Mirbat and cape Sadjir, a little inland from 
the Indian ocean, belonging to the province 
of Hadramaut, are a number of viUages 
CHlled Tsafar or Isfar; and near one of 
them, in Belid or Harikam, are the rums 
of an ancient city. This was Sephar, once 
the seat of Himyaritic kings. 

^EPH ^.'R (sepoTation , boundary f). A 
countrv or district where there were He- 
brew exiles (Ohad. 20). Some regard it as 
1 Spain, others a.s Sparta, or as Sardis. Dr. 

Pu=ey adopts this last supposition : see Ms 
! r.f -n.r':,- pro'plie^-'' p- 232. 
' *TiYVIAl {tlTe tico Sipparas, one 

' - ■ -ach v.ar.lc of the river). A city Oi 
^ an empire, whence colonists were 
V into the territory of Samaria 
I (2 Kings xvii. 24, 31). It would seem to 
I haw bpen, probably not very longbeiore, 
I ?n independent power (xvui xix. lo , 
! ^'-o/ ^xxvi 1^, xxxvii. 13). It is probably 
1 ^ Ti ™the most s.utnern city of Meso- 
la 111 of the Euphrates. 
^ : ■ ; -■ - - ■ ^ h ood place it in Syria. 

~ . Kings xTii.31). The 

: - - ^.rvaim. 

- Tii. 38). The low 

I fertile district of Judah, lying between the 
cenVral hill-country and the Mediterranean 
S cuie.and town^ in it are enumerated 
irT To=h XV. 33-47 ; bnt, as some of thebe 
stood in the highlands, the district was 
prol. u:.]y Bot defined with much exactness. 

^*^IePTU?GIFT The name of the ancient 
Greek ve/sion of the Old Testament For an 
account of it, see Versions, pp. 9a^Wa. 

SE PELCHFvE. Sepul chres have been aJ 
ready noticed in the article BnaiAi., whicJi 
see It will be suffi cient here ]ust to mention 
some of those sepulchres named m scrip- 
ture to which particular interest attaches^ 
The first is that purchased for Sarah by 
Abraham from Ephron the Hittite, caJed 
Ahe cave ot the field of Macbpelah' (Gen. 

There Abraham also was buned, 
Sd llaac and Ecbekah. and Jacob and 



811 



[serpent 



Leali (xlix. 29-32). A Mohammedan mosque 
at this day covers the site in Hehron ; and 
generally Christians are not allowed to exa- 
mine it; but see Machpelah. The se- 
pulchre where Joseph was interred was at 
Shechem (Josh, xxiv. 32): that of the old 
prophet of Beth-el, in which the hody of the 
disohedieut prophet from Judah was laid, 
Avas at Beth-el (1 Kings xiii. 30, 31 ; 2 Kings 
xxiii. 17, 18). The kings of Judah had a sepul- 
chre in the city of David (ix, 28) : at that of 
Elisha a miracle was wrought (xiii. 20, 21). 
The sepulchre of Lazarus was a cave at 
Bethany (John xi. 38) : for that of our Lord 
see Jerusalem, pp. 459, 4G0. 

Many excavations and erections yet re- 
main near Jerusalem, which were ancient 
sepulchres: such are the 'tombs of the 
kings' (perhaps really of the Ilerods), 'of 
the judges,' and ' of the prophets:' the last 
are thought to be the oldest, but generally 
f-peaking these sepulchres do not date ear- 
lier than the Roman occupation of Judea. 

SE'ltAH {princess). A dnrughter of xVsher 
(Gen. xlvi. 17 ; 1 Chron. vii. 30) : she is also 
called Sarah (Numb. xxvi. 46). 

SERAI'AH (ivarrior of Jehovah).—!. A 
scribe or secretary to king David (2 Sam. 

viii. 17). He is also called Sheva (xx. 25), 
Shisha (1 Kings iv. 3), and Shavsha (1 Chron. 
xviii. 16).— 2, The high priest In the reign 
of Zedekiah, slain by Nebuchadnezzar at 
lliblah (2 Kings xxv. 18-21 ; 1 Chron. vi. 14 ; 
Ezra vii. 1 ; Jer. lii. 24-27).— 3. One of the 
chiefs who joined Gedaliah after the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv. 23 ; Jer. 
xl. 8): ho is called a Netophathite. — 4. A 
( escendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 13, 14). — 
5. One of the tribe of Simeon (35).— 6. A 
liriest who returned from captivity with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. xii. 1, 12) : he, 
or probably his representative, sealed the 
covenant (x. 2) : he Is also called Azariah 
(vii. 7). — 7. A priest (xi. 11) : possibly the 
high priest is meant, no. 2 : he too is called 
Azariah in the corresponding list (1 Chron. 

ix. 11). — 8. An ofQcer commanded by Je- 
hoiakinito apprehend Jeremiah andBaruch 
(Jer. xxxvi. 26).— 9. A son of Neriah, and 
brother of Baruch, who was. sent to Baby- 
lon in the fourth year of Zedekiah (li. 59, 
61). He is called ' a quiet prince,' in the 
margin 'prince of Menucha,' or 'chief 
chamberlain.' Opinions vary as to the ex- 
act position of this officer. He belonged to 
the Jev/ish court, and perhaps took charge 
of the royal suite in the progress to Baby- 
lon, a charge somewhat similar to that of 
qaarter-master-general with us. 

SER'APHIM {lofty ones, princes). This 
word is used to denote some attendants on 
the Divine Majesty, probably an order of 
angels. They are described as having six 
wings, with twain of which in reverent ado- 
ration they covered their faces, with twain 
their feet, ^ind with twain they flew to per- 
form the Lord's commands (Isai. vi. 2, 3, 6, 
7). See A^fGELS. 

SE'RED (fear)'. One of the sons of Zebu- 
lun (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Numb. xxvi. 26). 

SER'GIUS PAU'LUS. The Roman pro- 
consul of Cyprus, who believed on the 
preaching of Barnabas and Paul, after 
witnessiijg the discomtiture of the sorcerer 



Elymas (Acts xiii. 6-12). Cyprus had been 
an imperial province, and was therefore 
governed by a proprietor, or procurator; 
but Augustus gave it up to the people in ex- 
change for Dalmatia ; and then a pro-consul 
was the supreme officer : this title is found 
on Cyprian coins. See Alfordon Actsxiii.7. 

SERJEANTS (Acts xvi. 35, 38). The Greek 
word is literally 'rod-bearers,' i.e. the lictors 
who bore the rods, not the fasces, but bacilli, 
which were carried before such magistrates 
as had authority at Philippi, See Magis- 
trates. 

SE'RON (1 Mace. iii. 13, 23, 24). A general 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, routed by Judas 
Maccabeus. 

SERPENT. There are several special 
names given in our translation to various 
kinds of serpents, as 'adder,' ' asp,' 'cocka- 
trice,' 'dragon,"viper': seethe articles under 
those heads respectively. But there is also 
a Hebrew word in the Old Testament, and 
a Greek one in the New, of more general 
meaning, corresponding Avith our own term 
' serpent.' And there are matters of high im 
terest to which this general word is applied. 

Thus we are told that it was by the in- 
strumentality of a serpent tuat our first 
parents were tempted to commit the sin 
Avhich forfeited their happy state (Gen. iii.). 
]Many strange speculations have been 
broached in regard to the serpent of Eden. 
Some critics have amused themselves by 
supposing that another animal was intend- 
ed: some say that prior to the fall the 
serpent had feet, and was deprived of them 
as a part of his sentence, ' Upon thy belly 
Shalt thou go; ' and some would attrilmte to 
it naturally the gift of speech; while almost 
all descant upon the peculiar subtlety of a 
serpent, as if in power of instinct it was 
superior to all other brute creatures. 

But such reasoning is beside the mark. 
Let us take a more comprehensive view. 
TVe find repeated instances in scripture of 
God's making use of inferior creatures and 
their natural organs, to teach great lessons 
to men. It was by giving voice to the ass 
that Balaam's rashness w^as reproved 
(Numb. xxii. 22-35). It was by means of a 
fish that Jonah's disobedience was punished 
(Jonah i. 17, ii. 10). Other examples also 
are to be found (Matt. xvii. 27 ; Luke v. 4- 
9 ; John xxi. 3-8). And the devils, who by 
God's permission exercise a marvellous 
power in the world, have not only possessed 
and become identified, as it were, with 
men, but have also instigated animals to 
strange unnatural deeds (Matt. viii. 28-34). 
Quite analogous, therefore, is Satan's using 
the serpent as the means of his machina- 
tions in Eden. And the subtlety attributed 
to it and the judgment pronounced upon it, 
though having some ground-work in the 
creature, pointed far more to the evil agent 
who had used that creature for his own 
purposes. The serpent was 'full of all 
subtlety, and all mischief,' just as St. Paul 
addressed a ' child of the devil ' (Acts xiii. 
10), because there was a higher and more 
venomous influence working in it. 

Then as to the curse : there was no change 
wrought in the constitution of the serpent. 
Geological research has demonstrated the 



beepentI 



Creature at 



812 



existence of serpents in serpent form, and 
(we may conclude) with the same hahits and 
propensities, in the earlier periods of the 
world's history. But it is not by any 
means a strange thing for a natural ohject 
to have a new signiflcance given to it. 
Doubtless from ordinary causes the rain- 
how had been seen long before it was made 
the sign of God's covenant to Noah clicn. 
ix l''-i7) The curse on Cain wrought no 
physical cliangc in him (iv. 11). So there 
was uo change in the physical conforma- 
tion of the literal serpent. But the ser- 
pent's habits, trailing on its belly amid the 
dust, venomous, and loathsome to the eye 
of man, read to every ago a striking lesson, 
and expose the tempter, whose vehicle of 
mischief it was, as cursed and to be hated 
2*Iischief indeed he has done and can htiU 
do • he can bite the heel ; but it wil always 
bo to the bruising and crushing of his own 
head. The facts of the fall, as narrated by 
the sacred historian, must nut be explained 
or regarded as of a mythic character. 
Othrr parts of scripture bear testimony to 
their 1 teral truth (2 Cor. xi..3) ; but yet to | 
comprehend their whole signiticancy we 
milst look beyond the reptile to the dark ; 
nower who for a tune identilied himself , 
l^-\th \t \scc Biblioth. Sacra, Jan. 18G4, pp. 
163-179) Hence it was that the serpent 
was feared, and thought a being to be propi- 
tiated. And hence that strange worsh p 
which in so many ages --^"^ 
was offered to it. It was from th s ^ell- 
Jnown practice, true in the mani but not 
true in the particular instance, that pait of 
the apocryphal story of Bel and the Dragon 
was constructed (Bel and Dr. L'3--8). _ 

We frequently find references m scripture 
to serpent-charming (Bf 1- Ivin. 4 ^ ; l^^cles 
X 11- Jer. viii. 17; James 111. /). This 
Tiractice is still common in the east, i 
rive .eei ' say? Br. Thomson, ' many ser- 
pent-charmers who do really exercise some 
Extraordinary power over these reptU^^^^^ 
Thev carry enormous snakes, generall\ 
black, about them, allow them to crawl 
all over their persons and . ii^to,^the\r 
bo^oms-alwavs, however, with certain 
^?;cTutions, either necessary or preten^^^^^ 
to be so. Thev repeatedly breathe strongly 
into the face of the serpent, and occasion- 
ally blow spittle or some medicated com- 
position upon them. It is needle., to 
describe the mountebank tricks wh ch 
they perform. That which I am least able 
o a'ccount for is the power of detecting the 
presence of serpents in a l^ouse and of en- 
ticinj? or " charming " them out of it. The 
tMnlis far too common to be made a matter 
of scepticism. ... In Psal. Ivni. 4, 5,6 theie 
?s eVidentlT an allusion to certain kinds of 
«erpentrwhich cannot be charmed. . 
Such serpents there still are, which the 
farmer cannot subdue; and Instances are 
rSated L wM they have faUenvictmis to 
SeTr daring attempts' (27^6 Land and the 

^Of^hep'aniJSlarkind of serpents called 
'fiery Serpents,' bv whose bite the Israelites 
were plagued at Punon or Zalmonah (J. umb. 
1 T?i 4-10 xxxiii. 41-43), little satisfactory can 
be gleS some have thought that they 



were called fiery from their colour -.others, 
with more reason, believe that allusion is 
made to the burning pain of the venomous 
bite ForskSl mentions a snake which he 
calls Ba:Uen, of small size and spotted black 
and white : its bite, he says, is almost in- 
stant death {Descript. Anhnal. &c., p. 15): 
this may have been the serpent in question. 
The remedy provided was remarkable. A 
cerpent was to be made of copper or bronze, 
and i)laced upon a pole. It might bo 
thought that this could bo of no service. 
But It was a trial of laith : whoso looked 
thereon lived. , , 

Besides the immediate relief, here was a 
diviiielv-intended historical type. God 
i.urpo>;ed that it should illustrate the doc- 
trine of the gospel to be aftcr^yards fully 
revealed. ' As Moses lifted up the serpent 
in the wilderness, even so must the Son of 
man be lifted up; that Avhosoever believeth 
in him should not perish, but have eternal 
life' (John iii. 14, 15). And never ^va3 
i this more signally illustrated than at the 
verv time when Christ was ' lifted up. 
There was the thief suffering worthily the 
I punishment of his misdeeds: how should 
' he obtain forgiveness and life ? Little like- 
; ly did it seem that one hanging crucified in 
: weakness beside him could be his Saviour, 
i Yet he looked to Him. He discovered m that 
I innocent sufferer the divinely-appointed 
1 means of his salvation. He looked, and 
: with new-born faith exclaimed, 'Lord, re- 
mcml)er me.' The answer was immediate ; 
! the cure perfect, 'To-day shalt thou be 
j with me in paradise' (Luke xxiii. 39-4.3). So 
mighty is the effect of a believing look to 
Jesus! And so still: the sinner is healed 
I of the deadly wound of sin by faith in 
; Christ He looks and lives. Some writers 
! have tried to find fanciful resemblances ; 
I as if the material and all the circumstantial 
details of the brazen serpent had their typi- 
• cal purport. It is enough to say with I air- 
I bairn : ' In the two related transactions 
! there is a fitting correspondence as to the 
I relations maintained; in both alike a 
I wounded and dying condition in the first 
1 instance, then the elevation of an object 
! apparently inadequate, yet really effectual, i 
i to accomplish the cure ; and this through 
' no other medium on the part of the affect- 
ed, than their simply looking to the object 
so prt^sented to their view. But, with this 
pervading correspondence, what marked 
and distinctive characteristics I In the 
one case a dying body; in the other a 
perishing soul. There an uplifted serpent, 
of all instruments of healing from a ser- 
pent's bite the most unpromising ; here the 
exhibition of one condemned and crucified 
a= a malefactor, of all conceivable persons 
apparentlv the most impotent to save. 
There, once more, the fleshly eye of nature 
deriving, from the outward object visibly 
presented to it, the healing virtue it was 
ordained to impart ; and here the spiritual 
eve of the soul looking in stedfast faith to 
the exalted Redeemer, and getting the 
needed supplies of his life-giving and re- 
generating grace. In both the same 
elements of truth, the same modes of 
dealing, but in the one developing thersi 



813 



[SEHVANT 



selves on a lower, in the other on a higher 
rcrritory ; in the former having iinmediate 
respect only to thinprs seen and temporal, 
and in the latter to what is unseen, spiritual, 
una ctcrn^il' (Ti/pol. of Script, book i. chap, 
iif. vol. i. p. 82.) Ic only remains to say that 
the brazen serpent, having become an ob- 
ject of superstitious veneration to the 
Jews, was broken up by Hezekiah (2 Kings 
xviii, 4). Sec Nehusiitax. 

One word nuiy l)e added on 'flying' ser- 
pents (Isai. XXX. 6). Nicbuhr describes a 
species so called by the Arabs, because they 
Fpring l)y means of their tail from one tree 
to another (Description de VArabie, 1774, p. 

S1-:RU'G (shnot, hranch). One of the pa- 
( riarchs In the lino of Shem (Gen. xi. 20, 23 ; 
1 (Jiiron. i. 26) ; in Luke iii. 35 Saruch. 

SERVO\NT. Til is word is frequently 
used in our version of botli Testaments, 
when • slave ' would have been much more 
fitting. There arc terms, indeed, which 
imply attendance or confidential service, 
but these are generally rendered ' minister' 
or 'young man.' So Joshua was Moses' 
attendant (Exod. xxiv. 13, xxxiii. ID- 
clerk or secretary we might in modern 
language say— It being understood that 
the designation in the last-named passage 
does not define Joshua's age. But the 
words 'cbed (implying 'labourer') in Hebrew, 
and doulos in Grcik, are spoken of slaves. 

It does not .it all follow, because the 
IMosaic law and the Christian dispensation 
found slavery existing in the world, and 
made regulations for it, that the divine 
sanction was thereby given to the system 
of one man's holding another as his pro- 
perty. Laws have to deal with persons as 
they are, in order to make them what they 
ought to be; and those enactments are the 
best Avhich are fitted to the existing state 
of society, and inculcate principles which 
tend to its amelioration and exaltation. 
You cannot force Imperfect creatures at 
once into perfection. See Lxw. And it 
may be remarked that the kidnapping or 
unlawful stealing of men for slaverv was 
branded as a capital crime ^Exod. xxi. 16 ; 
Deut. xxiv. 7 ; 1 Tim. i. 10) ; the object being 
to confine slavery within as narrow limits 
as possible. 

In the brief sketch to be here given of 
Hebrew servitude, it may be well to dis- 
tinguish between native and foreign slaves. 

There were various ways in which a He- i 
brew might be reduced to servitude— as bv ' 
impoverishment, by theft for which he ' 
could not make restitution, and, in the case 
of a female, by exercise of parental authori tv. 
Every man had a certain inheritance which 
he could not legally altogether alienate, i 
He might mortgage it, but only for a term ' 
of years : at the jubilee it would return into , 
his possession. But, if he had mortgaa-ed i 
his land, and the jubilee was distant,"he i 
would naturally be in a destitute position : , 
he might contract debts, and have no pre- 
sent ability of discharging them; and in 
either case his only resource might be the 
selling of himself to,a master (Lev. xxv. 39). 
Examples, however, in the sacred history 
occur where the law seems to have been 



overstrained (e.g. 2 Kings iv. 1 ; Neh. v. 4, 5) 
Further, a thief was compelled on detection 
to restore d()ul)Ie the value of that which 
he had fraudulently acquired. But, if he 
was unable to do this, he might be sold, to 
pay in person what he could not in property 
(Exod. xxii.,3, 4). These regulations prol)ably 
applied to women as well as to men (Deut. 
XV. 12), though according to the rabbins a 
woman could not be sold for theft, or be 
obliged by the boring of the ear (to be after- 
wards descril)ed) to i)crpetual servitude. 
Moreover, a father might sell his daughter. 
Still this seems to have been with special 
reference to her being married ; and the 
purchase-money which the father received 
would be equivalent to a dowry ordinarily 
given by one who took a wife (Gen. xxxiv. 
12). A daughter so sold was the property 
of him wlio had bought her : she was not to 
go out at the usual time, as men would. 
But her master was either to marrv her, 
and if he took another wife to i)rescrve to 
! her her rights, or if he did not espouse her 
I himself to give her in marriage to his son, 
' dealing .with her as a daughter. If he 
failed in these respects, he must let her go , 
free without money (Exod. xxi. 7-11). 

The treatment of those in servitude was ' 
to be kind and brotherlj-. It Avas specially 
commanded that they were not to be rigor- ' 
ously dealt with, but regarded as if they ! 
were hired servants and sojourners (Lev. ' 
xxv. 39, 40, 43, 46). This servitude was to ' 
be only for a limited time. In the case of 
one sold for theft, as soon as the amount of : 
his dislKuiesty was worked out, he was free, i 
And, generally, servitude ended in six years, J 
not at the sabbatical year, but six years from j 
the commencement; the wife, if the man ' 
was married, being freed with her husband 
(Exod. xxi. 2,3). If, however, the master had i 
given his slave a wife— that is, as we must ■ 
suppose, not a Hebrew— the man alone was 
freed at the six years' end : his wife and 
children still belonged to the master. Then, I 
if the slave was unwilling to leave his i 
family, and was attached to his master, pub- i 
lie examination being had before the magis- 
trates, he had his ear pierced with an awl, 
and became his master's property for evei 
(4-0 ; Deut. XV. 16, 17). It has been ques- 
tioned whether such a slave continued in 
servitude to the end of his life, or whether 
he was free at the jubilee. Saalschiitz, taking 
into consideration the fact that the expres- 
sion occurs in a similar connection in Lev. 
xxv. 46, where it is evident the jubilee re- 
lease does not apply, is of opinion that it 
was perpetual servitude to which the man 
whose ear is bored subjected himself 
(Treatise on Mosaic Lav:, translated in 
Biblioth. Sacr., Jan. 1862, p. 35). In ordinary 
cases, when the six years' servitude expired, 
the freed slave was not to be sent away- 
empty : he was to be liberally furnished out 
of his master's flock, and floor, and wine- 
press (Deut. XV. 13-15), so that he might not 
return to a condition of poverty. We see 
that this kind of servitude involved no de- 
gradation : no one, though temporarily a 
slave, lost thereby his rights as a man : 
rather he was deemed a brother, towards 
whom kindness must specially he shown. 



servant] 



Cljc ^vrn^urn at 



C 1 I 



But Bometiraes a Hebrew might be en- 1 
slaved to a stranger, that i?, to one not of 
T>raelitish stock but yet dwelling in Israel 
To such freedom after six years servitude 
did not apply : the slave was released onl> j 
at the jubilee, unless he sooner redeeined 
himself or a near relative could redeem hiin. : 
nut care was taken that the yoke on such 
persons was not galling : the slave was to be 
treated by his master as if lie were a hired 
servant. And, though a stranger might not 
be supposed to pay that reverent obedience 
to the law of the Lord which - 
raelite would show, d^'w^^tl'-^^^.J^^/:^ 
power would interfere on coinplaint of any 
one ill-used : ' The other shall not rule with 
rigour over him in thy sight" (Lev. xxv. 

*'of' course laws would sometimes be 
broken. We have a notable example in 
later Jewish history of the il^treatme.it 
by Hebrews of Hebrew slaves After fice- 
dom had been proclaimed, through fear, 
during the siege of Jerusalem hy the 
"haldeans, the servitude having lasted be- 
vond the legal time, when the siege was 
nii^ed. those who had been freed were forced 
back acrain into bondage ; and a heavy judg- 
ment the prophet Jeremiah was instructed 
to denounce for this (Jer. xxxiv. ;;22'. 

The law was different in regard to slaves 
not Hebrews. These were captives taken 
in war, or else bought with money ; and, 
1 as thev were the property of the master 
their children were his also ; so there 
' were slaves born in the house. Thus the , 
househi.ld of Abraham, privileged ike him , 
10 receive circumcision, the symbol of fiod ^ ! 
covenant, are described as 'men of us 
house, born in the house, and bought with 
money of the stramrer ' (C4en. xvu 27). A 
arge number of such slaves (feinales) were 
made in the war on Midian (^ulnb. xxxi. , 
18 35). The Gibeonites were reduced to , 
BerYitude,not to individual masters, but for i 
public labours and work in the sanctuary 
(Josh Ix 23, 27). And Solomon numbered 
the remnant of the old Inhabitants of 
Canaan and made them labourers on his 
works speciaUv (it is noted) exempting Is- 
raelite's from such service (2 Chron. u. 1/, 
IS. viii. 7-9). ^ , 

The'^e whose servitude was perpetual 
(unles"s 'freed bv their masters' pleasure), | 
were to be treated kindly. They were to , 
enjoy the sabbath-rest (Exod. xx. 10; 
Deut V. 14, 15). They were to share m the 
national festivities (xii. 12, 18, xvi. 11, 14); 
circumcision of course being necessary for 
religious privileges; but to this we may 
suppose, as in the case above-mentioned of 
Abraham's household, those born m the 
family were entitled. There were enact- 
ments to secure Them from ill-usage, ihe 
wilful murder of a slave was In the eye of | 
the law a crime as great as that of a freeman : 
the penalty was death (Lev xxiv. 1, , J-). 
Lesser punishments were to be mflicred m 
case'^ of what we should call manslaughter. 
Thu=^ if bv severity of correction a man 
killed his =lave, he was according to the cir- 
cumstances to be amerced : if death did not 
1 immediately ensue, the loss of the slave 
k-RS considered a sufacieat penalty (Exod J 



xxi. 20, 21). In these cases it is clear that | 
the death was by misadventure, not being j 
intentional : the master might be highly j 
blameworthy, but he was not a murderer. , 
If permanent injury was done to a slave— , 
cuch a-5 the loss of an eye, or a tooth— he was ^ 
to have his freedimi in recompence (26, 27). 
These recrnlations, imperfect no doubt as 
• delivered for an imperfect state of society, 
must have tended to secure gentle treatment 
for the slave. And the whole charge was en- 
forced bv the continual remembrance that 
I >rael was once a slave in Egypt. The efEect 
seems to have been produced : we rarely 
read in scripture of slaves running away 
from their masters (1 Sam. xxv 10; 1 Kings 
ii 50) We get the estimated value ol a 
slave from the sum of money to be paid by 
the owner of an ox which hnd gored a 
bondman : it was thirty shekels (Exod.xx . 
a") And it is curious to compare this with 
the price fixed for redemption (certainly for 
native Hebrews) of a vow, which varied ac- , 
cording to ase and sex from three to nftj 
shekels (Lev. xxvii. 1-7). The thirty slie^kels 
for the slave, being as we should say an 
average price, was by no means low. 

There was a remarkable provision in re- 
spect to a female captive, sfmiething ana- 
logous to that already noted of a Hebrew 
girl sold bv her fatli. r. If a man wished f . 
marrv such a captive, she was to be allowed 
I a moiith to bewail her parents, and to shave 
I her head : he mitrht then take lier for his 
' wife. But, if he had no pleasure in her, he 
I must let her go free : lie must not sell her , 
(Deut. xxi. 10^14). , ' 

Slaves might, it would seem, acquire pro- , 
nerty. Ziba was a Jieredltary bondman to 
the house of Saul-probably therefore not 
an Israelite. But he possessed t\vei»ty ■^''^J.'-f, 
himself (2 Sam. ix. 2, 10). Similarly the 
Jews who had been captive in Babylon car- 
ried with them back to their country ser- 
vants of their own, 7,-337 among 42,3G0 free- 
iiien (Ezra ii. 04, 05). 

The occupations in which slaves were em- 
ploved must have been various ; though, if 
Hebrew=,they were not tol^e put to the ^ti- 
vile work of hereditary ^^^'">^V'T/, /:^^i^vl^ 
39,44). Butthemore f^^it '^^^^ J'j,*^^;: 
occasionally elevated t.^ places of trust (Gen. 
xxiv 2), and sometimes they were permuted 
to ally with their master's family (1 Chron 
li 34 35) ; just as Jacob served f or hi= win ca 
(Geix xxix IS, 20, 27). Tlris fact wi I help to 
e^^plahi th^ gixnit increase of Israel m Egypt. 
Jacob went down thither with a large es- 
^^bUshment, with whom we cpnot doub 
bis own descendants intermarried. Femalo 
slaves were employed at the mill (Exoa. x . 
I MoTe on tne subject of Hebrew seryi- 
?u'de cannot be told here; but much m- 
' formation may be obtained, and many diffi- 
culties will be found solved, m the disserta- 
tion of Saalscuutz already referred^to, with 
Prof Barrow's annotations, pp. 32-/. 3. 

with rk-ard to hired servants httle neea 
be «aid Thev were free to engage or not 
at their pleasure. The main provision of 
?L law for them was that their wages 
should be duly paid at the specified time 

i ^""fn th?New TeSament the kind of slayer, 



815 Soihlc BnntDlrtTgc^ 



we read of was far worse than tliat of t.lic 
Hebrews. A Iloniau master had absohite 
authority over lii.s bondman, and regarded 
and often treated him as a chattel. Chris- 
tianity did not interfere with the relations 
it found sul)sisting. But it had its word of 
admonition for every class. Remembering 
what the bondage of those times was, we 
cannot lielp oliserving the wisdom as well 
as humanity of the apostolic injunctions 
(1 Cor. vii. 20-24 ; Kph. vi. 5-9; Col. iii. 22-25, 
Iv. 1; 1 Pet. ii. 18-25). 

It may be added that among the heavy 
judgments threatened against Israel for 
disoi)cdieiioc was the being reduced to 
bondage (Deut. xxviii. 4S, G8). IIow exactly 
thi,s was fulfilled at the destruction of Jeru- 
Bal(M7i every one knows. 

,sr:S'ISa Esdr. ix. 34). Shashai (Ezra x. 40). 

SICS'TIIEL cl lisdr. ix. 31). Bezalecl 
(E/ra X. 30). 

SKTII icompcnmtloix). A son of Adam 
and Eve, l)orn after the death of Abel, and 
regarded as re-placing him. Through Setli 
the line of ante-diluvian patriarclis was 
continued to Noah (.(ien. iv. 25, 20, v. 3, 4, f3, 
i 7,8; Luke iii. 38). Uo is called Sheth in 
j 1 Cliron. i.i. 

I SKTIIU'Il(7iaWn?\ The spy selected from 

j the tril)0 of Asher tNumb. xiii. 13t. 

j SEVEN. This word is used in scripture 
not only in its literal sense, but as express- 
ing completeness : indeed, it seems to ho 
the covenant-number, the sign and sig- 
nature of God's covenant-relation to man- 
kind, more especially to his church. Abp. 
Trench has illustrated this fact very fully 
{Comm. on IJpistks to Seven Churches, pp. 53- 
59) ; and from him the following sentences 
are l)orrowed :— ' The evidences .... reach 

' back to the very beginning. We meet them 
first in the hallowing of the seventh day 
(Gen. ii. 3: comp. Ezek. xx. 12). So too 
circumcision, being the sign of a covenant, 
is accomplished on the eighth, or filter seven 
days (.Gen. xvii. 12 ; Lev. xii. 3). And, as 
seven is the signature of God's covenant 
with man, so of all man's covenants with 
his fellows, resting, as these do and must, 
on the anterior covenant with God ; thus of 
treaties of peace (Gen. xxi. .30), of marriages 
(Judges xiv. 12). Nor should it be left un- 
noticed that the word ' seven' Is bound up 
iu the Hebrew word signifying an oath, or a 
covenant confirmed with an oath. Seven is 
the number of sacrifice ... (2 Chron. xxix. 
21; Job xlii. 8 : comp. Numb, xxiii. 1, 14, 
29) . . .of purification and consecration 
... (Lev. iv. C, 17, viii. 11, 3.3, xiv. 9, 51, xvi. 

14, 19; Numb. xix. 12, 19), of foru-iveness 
(Matt, xviii. 21, 22; Luke xvii. 4) ... of 
every grace or benefit bestowed on Israel 
... (Josh. vi. 4, 15, IG) . . . of reward . . . 
(Deut. xxviii. 7 ; 1 Sam. ii. 5 ; Prov. xxiv.l6), 
of punishment . . . (Lev. xxvi. 21, 24, 28 ; 
Deut. xxviii. 25 ; 2 Sam. xii. 18, xxiv^ 13) 
. . . All the feasts are ordered by seven, or 
else by seven multiplied into seven. . . . 
Thus ... it is with the passover (Exod. xii. 

15, IG', the feast of weeks (Deut. xvi. 9), of 
tabernacles (13, 15), the sabbath-year (Lev. 
XXV. 2-4 ; Deut. xv. 1), and the jubilee (Lev. 
XXV. 8).' Also the number seems to have 
au universal reference, as iu Xaaman's 



washing seven times (2 Kings v. 10), and 
seven ' times 'passing over Nebuchadnezzar 
Dan. iv. 1G,23, 25). Then there are seven beati- 
tudes, seven clauses in the Lord's prayer, 
seven words from the cross, &c. &c. And 
the whole structure of the book of Hevela- 
tion is arranged by this number. As to the 
reason of the fact, three is the signature of 
God, in the ever-blessed Trinity, four of the 
world — four elements, four seasons, four 
winds, <t c. &c. ' There are reasons then, am- 
ply sufHcicnt.wliy seven, being thus, as it is, 
madi' up of three and four, should l)e itself 
the signature of the covenant. No mere acci- 
deur or fai)rice dictated the selection of it,' 
SEVE'NEH (Ezek. xxix. 10, marg.). See 
Strxk. 

SEXTA'RIUS (Mark vii. 4, marg.). Sec 
Mkascuk.s. 

SHAALAR'BIN (city of foxes or jacJcals). 
A city of Dan (Jo.Vn. xix. 42) ; identical with 

SHA'ALUIM (id.). This place was on the 
hills not far from Ajalon : the Amoritcs for 
a while continued to hold it (Judges i. 35) ; I 
but it was at length subdued, and included ; 
in Solomon's reign in one of the commis- 
sariat districts (l Kings iv. 9). 

SHAAL'BONITE. An inhabitant or na- 
tive of Shaalldm (2 Sam. xxiii. 32 ; 1 Chron. 
xi. .33). 

SIIA'APn (division). 1, 2. Two names in ! 
the genealogy of Judah (1 Chron. ii, 47, 49). ] 

Sn A A I { A'lM (t iro gates, ba rleyl).— 1 . A city i 
in the plain country of Judah (I Sam. xvii. ' 
.">2), called Sliaraim in Josh. xv. .30. Perhapa 
it is the modern Sd'trah.—2 (1 Chron. iv. 31). 
See SiiiLHrM. 

SllXA^iR'GXZ (beauty's servantl). A cham- 
berlain or chief eunuch in tlie liarciu of 
Ahasuerus (Esth. ii. 14). 

SHAB'BETITAl (sabbath-born). A Levite 
who assisted in expounding the law and in 
investigating the marriages of Jews with 
strange wives (Ezrax. 15 ; Neb. viii. 7, xi. 10) 

SHACH'IA (accusation). A. Benjamite (1 
CJiron. viii. 10). 

SHAD'DAl (the omnipotent). An appella- 
tion of the-Deity, originally used, it may be, 
in invocation, but afterwards as a name 
generally. It is translated 'Almighty' 
(Gen. xvii. 1 ; Exod. vi, 3, and elsewhere). 

SHADOW. The effect produced by an 
opaque body intercepting the rays of light 
flowing from a luminous object, A beauti- 
ful illustration is hence taken to describe 
the Deity, the Father of the lights, of the 
glorious orbs which sparkle on high, as 
being subject to no change, touched with 
no shadow which arises from the revolution ! 
of created things (James i. 17). On earthly 
beings a shadow falls : there are those who 
' dwell in the land of the shadow of death' 
(Isai. ix. 2 ; Luke i. 79), in the death-shade ' 
of ignorance and sin. Sometimes, however, 
shadow is used in a better sense. In sum- 
mer-heat it is pleasant to be sheltered from 
the sun's scorching rays (Isai. iv. 6, xxv. 4, 
xxxii. 2 : comp. Sol. Song ii. 3 ; Isai. xxx. 2, 
xlix. 2). And then, as there is a resemblance 
between the shadow and the substance 
which casts it, and a connection, though 
the first is unsubstantial, the last a solid 
reality, the Jewish rites related to and 
typical of Christian truth are called * the 



shadrach] 



810 



Pliadow of tilings to come' (Col. ii. 17 ; Heb. 
viii. 5, X, 1). A shadow, once more, Is 
evanescent : it depends upon the light, upon 
* the ohject which casts it : it is now visible, 
now it is gone : how graphically does this 
illustrate the lleeting character of human 
life ! (Jol) xiv. 2.) 

SKADTtACH (rejoicinp in thewaylroyaU). 
The name given to Hananiah, a young 
Hebrew captive at tlie court of Babylon 
(Dau. i. 7, ii. 49). He was one of the three 
cast into the furnace for refusing to wor- 
ship the image Nebucliadiiezzar set up (iii.). 

SHA'GE (errinrj). The father of one of 
David's warriors\l Cliron. xi. 34). 

SHAHARA'm (the two dmvns). A Ben- 
jamite (I Cliron. viii. 8). 

SHAHAZI'MAH (heiohts). A border-place 
in the territory of Issachar (Josh. xlx. 22). 

SHA'LEM (safe, peaceful). A town to 
which, according to our version, Jacol) 
came after his return from Padan-aram 
(Gen. xxxiii. 18). A village has been dis- 
covered near Nablous bearing almost the 
same name. But the best interpreters be- 
lieve that no town is meant ; that, as Jacob 
had prayed that he might be brought back 
in peace (xxviii. 21), so here the sacred 
writer notes that he did return safely. 

SlIA'LIM (jdckala' region). A district, it 
would seem, in the territorj' of Ephraim (1 
Sam. ix. 4). Possibly it may be the same 
with the land of Shual (xiii. 17). 

SHA'LISHA {triad, triavgular). A dis- 
trict bordering on mount Ephraim (1 Sam. 
ix. 4). Baal-shalislia (2 Kings iv. 42) might 
nave been in this (district. 

SHALLE'CHETH {a casii^w-doti'n). A 
gate of the temple (1 Chron. xxvi. 16), sup- 
posed to bethat which led totheking'shousc 
by a way formed by filling up the valley 
b'etween. It has been thought to be on the 
spot where the present Bab Silsilch stands. 

SHAL'LUM (reiribuiion, recompensed one). 
— 1. The murderer and successor of Zacha- 
riah king of Israel. He reierned a month 771 
B.C., and then was slain by Menahem (2 Kings 
XV. 10-15).— 2. The husband of the prophetess 
Huldah (xxii. 14: 2 Cliron. xxxiv. 22).— 3. 
One of the posterity of Judab (1 Chron. ii. 
40, 41).— 4. A son of Josiali, who I'eigned on 
his father's death three months in Jeru- 
salem (iii. 15 ; Jer. xxii. 11). He seems 
to have been popular ; but he was carried 
into Egypt, whence he was not to re- 
turn. He is also called "Jelioahaz (2 Kings 
xxiii. 31-34 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4). See Je- 
HOAHAz, 2.-5. A descendant of Simeon (1 
Chron.lv. 25).— 6. One of the line of the high 
priests (vi. 12, 13; Ezra vii. 2) ; most likely 
the Meshullam of 1 Chron. ix. 11.— 7 (vii. 13). 
See Shillem.— 8. A chief Levite porter (ix. 
17, 19,31): bis descendants returned from cap- 
tivity witii Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 42 ; ISTeh. vii. 
45). Possibly the Shalliim of 1 Chron. ix. 19, 
31 was a difEerent person from him of 17 ; and 
perhaps he may be the Mesbelemiah of xxvi. 
1.— 9. An Ephraimite chief (2 Chron. xxviii. 
12).— 10. A Levite porter who had married a 
foreign wife (Ezra x. 24).— 11. Another per- 
son who had transgressed in like manner 
(42\_i2. One who with his daughters helped 
to repair the wall of Jerusalem (ISTeh. iii. 12). 
13. The uncle of the prophet Jeremiah 



(Jer. xxxii. 7).— 14. A door-keeper of thfl 
temple (xxxs^ 4). 

SHAL'LUN (id.). One who assisted in 
repairing the gates and wall of Jerusalem 
(Nell. iii. 15). 

SHAL'MAI. (my thanks). One whose 
children, Hethinim, returned from Baby- 
lon with Zerub])abel (Ezra ii. 46 ; Neh. vii. 48). 

SHAL'MAN (Hos. x. 14). Probably an ab- 
breviation for 

SHALMANE'SER (worshipper offlrel) A 
king of Assyria. It would seem that he 
succeeded Tiglath pileser, and probably 
reigned 729-721 B.C. He made war against 
Hoshea king of Israel, subdued him, and 
forced him to pay tribute. Hoshea, how- 
ever, negotiated with So, the king of Egypt, 
and in dependence on help from him rebel- 
led against his Assyrian master. Shalman- 
eser,' therefore, marched against Samaria 
and besieged it for three years (2 Kings 
xvii. 3-5, xviii. 9). Hoshea was captured— : 
whether in a battle before the siege, or whe- j 
ther w^hen Samaria was taken, as it ulti- ' 
mately was, is not clear. It is observable j 
that scripture does not aiflrm that Shalman- 
eser took Samaria : the conqueror is sim- 
ply said to have been ' the king of Assyria' 
(xvii. 6, xviii. 10 : comp. Isai. x.5-11). There ! 
is reason to believe that a revolutionary 
change occurred at this time in the Assy- 
rian dynasty, and that Sargon, Shalmane- 
ser's successor, usurped his throne and 
brought to a successful issue those western 
wars in whicli Shalmaneser had been en- 
gaged. The monuments of Shalmaneser 
are mutilated ; and one of the inscriptions 
ascribes tlie conquest of Samaria to Sargon. 
"With regard to the Shalman of Hos. x. 14 we 
can only conjecture. The exploit referred 
to might have occurred in the march to 
Samaria. Shalmaneser is thought to have 
founded the palace at Khorsabad, which, 
however, was built principally by Sargon. 
See NiXEVEir, pp. 6.30, 631, 633, 034. 

SHA'.MA (hearing, obedient). One of David's 
warrior.^ (1 Chron. xi. 44). 

SHA:^IAlM'An (whom JeZiowaZi keeps). A 
son of liehol)nam (2 Chron. xi. 19). 

SHAMBLES. The tiesh-market, the place 
where provisions were sold (1 Cor. x. 25). 
But meats bought in the shambles might 
have been offered to idols. For, when a poor 
man sacrificed a beast, after the priest and 
altar had received their shares, the rest was 
likely to be carried to the market, St. Paul 
lays down the reasonable rule that a Chris- 
tian might readily purchase without asking 
questions. But, if information were given 
him that the meat had been offered to an 
idol, then he must abstain from it. 

SHA'MED (a destroyer). A descendant of 
Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 12). In the Hebrew- 
text, in many copies, the name is Shamer. 

SHA'MER (a keeper, or thing kept).—l. A 
Levite (1 Chron. vi. 46).— 2. A chief of Asher 
(vii. 34), called also Shoraer (32). 

SHAM'GAR (the etymology can be only 
conjectured, possibly warrior). One of the 
judges of Israel. He was the son of Anath ; 
and in his days the people were grievously 
oppressed. But he slew six hundred Philis- 
tines with an ox-goad, and delivered Israel 
(Judges iii. 31, v. 6). We have no further 



817 



[SHEALTTEL 



account of him ; but ho may he supposed 
prior to or contemporary with Barak. See 
Winer, /^(f^/.ii'iri?., art. ' Sanmar.' 

SITAM'HUTU (desolation). One of David's 
captains (1 Chron. xxvii. 8). The name is 
perhaps corrupted from Shammah : see 

SHAMMAir, 4. 

SIlA'Mlll (a sJiorp point, a thorn). A 
Levite (1 Chron. xxiv. 24). 

SIIA'MIR (id.).— I. A town in tlie hill 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 48).— 2. A i)lace 
in mount I":phraim where Tola the judge re 
Bided and was buried (Judges x. 1, 2). 

SHAM'LAI (Ezra ii. 46, marg. ; Neh. vii. 
18. inarff.). See Shalmai. 

SIIAM'MA (desolation). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. .37). 

SIIAM'.ArAH (astonishment).— I. A de- 
scendant of Esau and ' duke' of Edom (Gen. 
xxxvi. 1.1, 17; 1 Chron. i. 37).— 2. The third 
sun of .U'sse (1 Sam. xvi. 9, xvii. 13), called 
al!*o Shimeah (2 Sam. xiii. 3, 32, xxi. 21), 
Shimma (1 (^iron. li. 1.3), and Shimca (xx. 7). 
—3. One of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiif. 11, 
33). Or two different persons may he here in- 
tended.— 4. Another mentioiuxl in the list 
of warriors (25), called also Shammoth (1 
Chron. xi. 27 : comp. Shamhuth (xxvii. 8). 

SnAM':MAI (desolated). 1, 2, 3. Three de- 
sc'jndants of Judah (1 Chrou. ii. 28, 32,44, 
45, iv. 17). 

STIA:\I'3rOTn (desolations) (1 Chron. xi. 
27K See SifAMMAir, 4. 

SIIAMMU'A, SHA:\niU'An (rumour).-!. 
A ]Uni1)cnite selected as one of the spies 
uXumb. xiii. 4).— 2. One of David's sons horn 
at Jerusalem, Shammua in 1 Chron. xiv. 4, 
Shammuah in 2 Sam. v. 14, and Shimea 
in I Chron. iii. 5.-3. A Levite (Xeh. xi. 17), 
called also Shemaiah (1 Chron. ix. IG).— 4. A 
priest in the days of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 18). 

SHAM'SHKRAI (perhaps formed from an 
union of Shlmsliai and Shimri). A Beu- 
jamite (l Chron. viii. 2C\ 

SHA'PIIAAI {bald, sJiavcn). A Gadlte (1 
Chron. v. i2\ 

SHA'PHAN yco7iC!/).—l. An eminent per- 
son, the royal scribe, in the reign of Josiah. 
It is doubtful whether he or another of the 
name was the father of Ahikam, the friend 
and protector of the prophet Jeremiah (2 
Kings xxii. 3-14, xxv. 22; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 
8-20 ; Jer. xxvi. 24, xxxvi. 10-12, xxxlx. 14, 
xl. 5, 9, 11, xli. 2, xliii. 6).— 2, 3. Twice the 
name Shaphan is mentioned again (xxix. 
3 ; Ezek. viii. 11) : it is uncertain whether 
one person is meant, or whether either is 
identical wirh tlie preceding. 

SHA'PHAT (judge).-!. A Simeonite se- 
lected as one of the spies (Numb. xiii. 5). 
—2. The father of the prophet Elisha (l 
Kings xix. 16, 19; 2 Kings iii. 11, vi.31).— 3. 
One of David's posterity (1 Chron. iii. 22),— 
4. A Gadite (v. 12).— 5. One of David's princi- 
pal herdmen (xxvii. 29). 

SHA'PHEPv (plcasajitness). A mountain 
in the Arabian desert, one of the stations 
of the Israelites (Numb, xxxiii. 23, 24). 

SHA'RAI (Jehovah frees him). One who 
had married a foreign wife (Ezra x. 40). 

SHARA'IM {two gaies) (Josh. xv. 36). See 
Shaaraim. 

SHA'RAR (tioisted, a cord, or, according 
to some, muscular). The father of one of 



David's warriors (2 SaiH. liiil. 33). Ho is 
called Sacar in 1 Cliron. xi. 35. 

SHARE'ZER (prince of fire). One of the 
sons of Sennacherib, who Avitli his brother 
Adrammelech murdered tlieir father (2 
Kings xix. 37 ; Tsai. xxxvii. 38). 

SHA'RON (the plain).—!. A district In Pa- 
lestine lying upon the sea-coast. It appears 
to ],c a continuation of the plain country of 
Judah, the Shcfrlah, and to have extended 
from Joppa to Ca^sarea (whence it is fre- 
quently in scripture coupled with Carmel), 
and from the central hills to the .Mediterra- 
nean. It was a region well adapted for pas- 
ture (1 Chron. xxvii. 29 ; Isai. Ixv. 10), very 
fertile (xxxiii. 9, xxxv. 2), and celebrated for 
Its roses (Sol. Song ii. 1). Its locality is fur- 
ther indicated as l)cing in the neighbour- 
hood of Lydda (Acts ix. 35, where it Is 
called Saron). The plain of Sharon, Dr. 
Thomson tells us, is not 'a flat dead level,' 
but is ' agreeably varied by long swells, 
growing into sandy ridges, and even rocky 
fells and hills, which afford sightly posi- 
tions for villages. Of these there are more 
than in other plains, more populous also.and 
surrounded often byolivc and fruit orchards, 
which impart an air of cheerfulness not 
seen elsewhere in Palestine' ('Ilie Land and 
the Book, p. 523). The same writer, regarding 
the rose as a species of mallow, says : ' I 
have seen thousands of Solomon's roses on 
Sharon ' (p. 513). See Rose. 

2. There is another Sharon mentioned, on 
the west of the Jordan. It is coupled with 
Gilead (l Chron. v. 16) ; but its exact situa- 
tion, and whether it was a district or a 
town, can only lie conjectured. 

SHA'RONITE. An inhabitant of Sharor 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 29). 

SIIARU'HEN (}>leasay7t dwellinrj-jylace). A 
city in the territory of Simeon (Josh. xix. 6). 
See SuiLHiM. 

SHA'SHAI (u'hitishD. One who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife (Ezra x.40). 

SHA'SHAK iearjerness). A Benjamito (1 
Chron. viii. 14, 25). 

SHA'UL (a.'flrd for, desired').-!. A son of 
Simeon 1)y a Canaan itish woman (Gen. xlvi. 
10; Exod. vi. i5; Numb, xxvi, 13; 1 Chron. 
iv.24).— 2. Au Edomite king (i,48, 49), called 
Saul in Gen, xxxvi, 37, 38,-3. A Kohathite 
Levite (1 Chron. vi. 24), the Joel of 36 ? 

SHA'ULITES. A family of Simeon, de- 
scendants of Shaul (Numb. xxvi. 13). 

SHA'YEH (a plain). A plain or valley, 
called also * the king's dale,' where the king 
of Sodom met Abram returning from his 
victory (Gen. Xiv. 17 : comp. 2 Sam. xviii. 
18). Some place this to the east of the Jor- 
dan : it is more probably near Jerusalem to 
the north. 

SH A'YEH-KIRIATHA'IM (plain of Kiria- 
thaim). A plain near the city of Kiriathaim 
(Gen. xiv. 5). See Kieiathaim. 

SHAA^'SHA (perhaps a corruption of 
Seraiah). The scribe, au officer in David's 
kingdom (1 Chron. xviii. 16). He is called 
Seraiah in 2 Sam. viii. 17, Sheva in xx. 25, 
and Shisha in 1 Kings iv. 3. 

SHE A'L (an asking). One who had mar- 
ried a foreign wife (Ezra x. 29). 

SHEAL'TIEL (I have asked him of God) (1 
Chron. iii. 17, marg. ; Ezra iii. 2, 8, v.2 ; Neh, 
S G 



shear] 



818 



xii. 1 ; Hagg. i. 1, 12, 14, ii. 2, 23). Sec Sala- 

TIIIKL. 

SHEAR. See Sheep. The •shcaring- 
liouse' (2 Kiugs x. 12, 14) was probably 
some town or village, Beth-eked-liaroim 
{house of the shepherd's hamlet). 

SKEARI'AH (whom Jehovah estimates). A 
descendant of Saul (1 Chrou. viii. 38, ix. 44). 

SHEAll'-JA'SHUB (the remnant shall re- 
turn). A symbolical name given to a son of 
the prophet Isaiah, intended to show that, 
though the people should be carried cap- 
tive, yet a remnant should return to their 
own land Usai. vii. 3 : comp. x. 21, 22). 

SHEBA' (??m?i?).— 1. One of the descen- 
dants of Cush, of the family of Ilam (Gen. 
X 7 ; 1 Clnon. i. 9).— 2. A ton of Joktan of 
the family of Sliem (Gen. x. 28 ; 1 Chrou. i. 
22).— 3. A son cf Jokshan, Abraham's son 
l)y Kcturah (Gen. xxv. 3; 1 Chron. i. 32). 
For tlieir descendants see the next article. 

SIIEBA' (id.). There is a difTlculty not 
so much in determining what country was 
inhabited l)y descendants of Sheba, as in 
distinguishing wliether there wore more 
tribes than one which bore the name, and 
whether, if so, any line of demarcation 
could be found between their respective 
localities. Gesenius, comparing the three 
names, believes that the Sabeans of Arabia 
Felix adjacent to Sanaa are the posterity 
of Joktan. The other two names of Sheba 
he refers to one and the same people, lie 
assumes therefore two tribes— one, Joktan's 
descendants, the more powerful of the two, 
In Arabia Felix ; the other dwelling towards 
the Fersian gulf not far from the mouth of 
the Euphrates. This latter tribe is not men- 
tioned, he thinlis, except in the passages 
of Genesis and Chronicles. Winer sees 
no occasion for Gcsenius's division into 
two tribes i^'jl. RWB., art. ' Scheba'). The 
view, however, taken by Kalisch seems most 
satisfactory. Sheba, he believes, is Saba, the 
chief city ofYemen, the leading province of 
Arabia, The inhabitants of this country 
were a powerful race, receiving fresh ac- 
cessions, and throwing out many colonies. 
Their land was bordered on the west by the 
Red sea, on the south by the Indian ocean : 
to the north ic reached nearly to Idumea ; 
but on the east its boimdaries varied at 
different times. Among the immigrants 
into this country, occupied by Cushites, 
were the descendants of Joktan ; so that it 
was peopled by both Hamites and Shemites, 
the former in the south-west adjoining 
Africa, the latter to the east and the north. 
. And then a portion of the tribes of Jokshan, 
the descendants of Abraham, settled in the 
territories of older nations— occupied, in 
fact, some of the country Sheba iComm. 
on Old Test. Gen., pp. 250, 251). It is no 
strange thing for colonists from different 
lands to settle at various times in the same 
region, and there to amalgamate and bear 
a common name. Sheba, so peopled, was 
; long regarded as the most southern country 
of the habitable earth : it was very wealthy 
and luxurious, its commerce most extend- 
ed, its capital, Sabas or Mariaba, a splendid 
city. From this land came that queen who 
visited Solomon, respecting whom the Jews 
have many legends G Kings x. 1-13; 2 



Chron. ix. 1-12; Job vi. 19; Psal. Ixxii. 10, 
15; Isai. Ix. 6 ; Jer.vi. 20; Ezek. xxvii. 22, ; 
23, xxxviii. 13; ]Matt. xii. 42 ; Luke xi. 31). I 
Awriterin Smith's Diet. o/efteBi5Ze,vol. iil. | 
p. 1232, supposes that the descendants of tho < 
Cushite Sheba settled on the shores of the • 
Persian gulf, where, on the island of Awal, j 
are the ruins of an ancient city called Seba. ' 
He thinks it was this tribe that, in con- | 
junction with the Jokshanite Sheba, carried 
on the Indian traflic with Palestine. 

SHE'BA {seven, or an oath).— I. A Benja- 
mite, who, after the suppression of Absa- 
lom's rebellion, headed a fresh insurrection, 
fostered by the rising jealousy between 
Judahand the otber tribes. He was pur- 
sued l)y David's iroops, but occupied tho 
city of Abel. A wise woman there persuad- 
ed the people to deliver Sheba's head to 
Joab ; and the revolt was immediately 
crushed (2 Sam. xx. 1-22).— 2. A Gadite chief- 
tain (1 Chron. v. 13). 

SIIE'BA (id.). A city in the territory of 
Simeon (Josh. xix. 2). But Gesenius sug- 
gests that the name may here designate tho 
well: ' Beer-sheba v/ith the well Sheba.' 
Otherwise the number of cities would be 
fourteen, whereas they are stated to be 
thirteen : comp. Wilton's Negcb, p. 107. 

SHEB'AH {id. feminine). The name of 
the well at Beer-sheba (Gen. xxvi. 33). 

SHEBA'M (fragrance) (Kumb. xxxii. 3). 
See SiBMATi. 

SHEBAlsI'AH (whom Jehovah has made 
grow ni>).—l- A priest who took part In the 
bringiug-up of the ark by David (1 Chron. 
XV. 24).— 2, A Levite at the time that Ezra 
read the book of the law (Neh. ix. 4, 5) ; 
probably the same Avho sealed the covenant 
(X. 10).— 3. A priest who sealed the covenant 
(4) ; very likely the one mentioned in xii. 
14, identical with Shechaniah (3).— 4. An- 
other Levite who sealed the coA'euant (x. 12). 

SHEBA'RIM {breaches, ruins). A place or 
spot near Ai, to which the Israelites were 
pursued (Josh. vii. 5). 

SHE'BER (a breaking, or corn). A son 
of Caleb the son of Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 48). 

SHEB'N A {youth ?). An officer of state in 
the reign of Hezekiah, described as trea- 
surer over the house. A terrible denunci- 
ation was uttered against him for his pride, 
evinced in preparing himself a gorgeous 
sepulchre. He was told th'^t he should be 
ejected from his office, which should be 
conferred on Eliakim, and that he should 
be carried captive to a foreign country, 
where he should die (Isai. xxii. 15-25). As 
an aggravation of his fault it has been sup- 
posed that Shebna rose from a low station ; 
and some imasrine that he was a foreigner. 
This, however, can only be conjecture. It 
is generally said that the denunciation 
began to be' fulfilled when we read again of 
Shebna as scribe, and Eliakim as over the 
house (2 Kings xviii. 18, 26, 37, xix. 2 ; Isai. 
xxxvi. 3, 11, 22, xxxvii. 2). But it is alto- 
gether inconceivable, if Shebna were then 
in disgrace, that he should be commissioned 
to confer with the Assyrian ambassadors, 
and above all be sent to the prophet who 
had so censured him. We seem reduced, 
therefore, to the alternative of supposing, 
either that the prophecy was uttered at a 



819 



J.-itor period, or that Shebna the treasurer 
was distinct from Sliebua the scribe. 

SUEBU'EL (captive of God).—l. A de- 
scendant of Moses (1 Cliron, xxiii. 16, xxvl. 
21) : he is also called Shubael (xxiv. 20).— 2. 
One of the JiCvite singers fxxv. 4) ; he too 
is called Siiubael (20). 

SUJCCANI'AU (fuiniliarioith Jehovah).— I. 
The chief (jf one of the courses of the 
priests (1 Chron. xxiv.ll; probaljly identical 
with Shebauiah (Neh. x. 4, xii. 14) and She- 
chaniah (xii. 3).— 2. A Levite in the time of 
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 15). 

SIIECU.A^TAU (id.).— I. One of David's 
posterity (1 Cliron. iii. 21, 22j.— 2, 3. Two 
men, whose descendants returned from 
captivity with Ezra (Ezra viii. 3, 5).— 4. One 
who joined with Ezra In the covenant to 
l)utaway foreign wives (x. 2).— 5. A person 
(Shecaniiih in some copies) whose sou re- 
paired tlie wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 29).— 
6. Father-in-law of Tobiah the Ammonite 
(vi. 18).— 7 (xii. 3). Sec Shecaniau, 1. 

SUECU'EM (the i>houlder-bladc).—l. The 
son of JIamor the Hivite, wno, having de- 
nied iJinali, Jacob's daughter, was slain 
by her brothers Simeon and Levi (Gen. 



[SHECmXAl 

of the Jews from captivity It became thf 
centre of Samaritan worship ; a temph 
being erected on Gerizfm, which was ulti 
mately destroyed by John Hyrcanus, vi'j 
B.C. SeeGEUiziM. On or near the ancient 
Bite a town was built,. probably by Vespa- 
sian, called Flavia Neapolis : it was tJie 
birth-place of Justin Martyr, and the see of 
Christian bishopo (Winer, ^iW. iillKZ?., art. 
•Sichem '). 

Shechem was situated in a beautiful val- 
ley, in the range of the mountains of Eph- 
raim, on the borders of Ephraim and 
Manassch, between EI.hI and Gerizim, a'sout 
seven miles south of Samaria. The modern 
to\vn is called Xablous, or Xablfis, from 
Neapolis : it contains about 8,000 inhabi- 
tants, but not more than from fifteen to 
twenty Samaritan families. It has a toler- 
able trade, and is noted for the manufac- 
ture of soap. The following is Dr. Thom- 
son's description of the vale and town of 
Nablus : • Nothing in Palestine surpasses it 
(the vale) in fertility and natural beauty ; 
ami this is mainly due to the fine mill- 
stream which tiows throucrh it. The whole 
country is thickly studded with villages, the 



xxxiii. 19, xxxiv.).— 2. A descendant of i phiins clothed with grass or grain 'and' the 
Gilead of the tribe of Manassch (Numb, rounded hills with orchards of olive, fig 



XXVI. :u ; Josh. xvii. 2).— 3. Anf)ther descen- 
dant of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 19). 

SHEOli'EM (id.). A celebrated city of 
Palestine ; called also Sichem (Gen. xii. 6), 
Sychar (John iv. 5), and Sychem (Acts vii. 
10). It was of great anti<iuity, for it was 
in existence when Abram entered Ca- 
naan. It was occupied by Hivites when 
Jacob pitched his tent before it, and pur- 
chased some ground, where he built an 
altar ; audit was plundered, and the inhabi- 
tants put to the sword by Simeon and Levi, 
because the chiefs son had dctiled their 
sister Dinah i.Gen. xxxiii. 18-20, xxxiv.). 

Shechem was after the conquest territo- 
rially in the tribe of Ephraim,but was assign- 
ed to the Levites of the family of Kohath, 
and appointed a city of refuge (Josh. xvii. 7, 
XX. 7, xxi. 21 ; 1 Chron. vi. 67, vii. 28). There 
the bones of Joseph were buried ; and, as a 
central point, it was the place where Joshua 
gathered Israel to receive his last instruc- 
tions (Josh. xxiv. 1-23, 32). Its history in 
the time of the judges, so far as we find it 
recorded, was disgraceful and disastrous. 
Idolatrous worship appears to have been in- 
troduced ; and the inhabitants were per- 
suaded to make Abimelech, Gideon's sou by 
a woman of their town, king (Judges yiii. 
31). Then followed the massacre of Gi- 
deon's other sons ; and, as power gotten by 
such means was not likely to be perma- 
nent, dissension soon arose between the 
Shechemites and their king ; and the result 
was the destruction of the city and the 
death of Abimelech (is.). It was after- 
wards re-built, and regained its importance. 
For we find that Rehoboam went thither to 
be inaugurated king : it was there that in 
consequence of his folly the revolution 
broke out ; and at Shechem, fortified by 
Jerohoam, was at first the seat of the new 
monarchy (1 Kings xii.1-19, 25; 2 Chron. x.). 
It was standing after the destruction of 
Jerusalem (Jer. xii. 5) ; and after the return 



pomegranate, and other trees. . . . Nablus is 
a queer old place. The streets are narrow, 
and vaulted over; and in the winter-time 
it is difilcult to pass along many of them on 
account of brooks, which rush over the 
pavement with deafening roar. In this 
respect I knoAv no city with which to com- 
pare it except Brusa ; and, like that citv, it 
has mulberry, orange, pomegranate, and 
other trees, mingled in with the houses, 
whose odoriferous fiowers load the airwith 
delicious perfume during the months of 
April and May. Here the bilbul delights to 
sit and sing ; and thousands of other birds 
unite to swell the chorus' (The Land and 
the Book, p. 470). 

Almost two miles to the east lies a small 
village, Baiata, where Joseph's tomb is 
believed to be (Josh. xxiv. 32), and at a little 
distance south-east Jacob's well. See 
Jacob's "Well, Sychae, 

SHECH'EMITES. A family of Gilead, of 
the tribe of Manasseh, descended from 
Shechem (Numb. xxvi. 31). 

SHECHI'NAH (resting-place). A name 
(not occurring in scripture) applied to the 
visible symbol of God's glory which an- 
ciently dwelt in the tahemacle and in Solo- 
mon's temple. 

' No man hath seen God at any time ' (John 
i. 18; 1 Tim. vi. 16): his glorious essence 
cannot be gazed on by the eye of men (Exod. 
xxxiii, 20). But yet there have been manifes- 
tationsof his near presence, some symbolical 
appearance, adapted to impress the behold- 
er with a sense of his majesty, and illus- 
trating some of those attributes in which 
he best loves to be known to his people. 
Examples may be found in the cherubic 
guard in Eden (Gen. iii. 24), in the mysterious 
fire with which the bush on Horeb burned 
and was not consumed (Exod. iii, 2), and in 
that strange brightness above the sapphire 
pavement, ' the body of heaven in his clear- 
ness,' which Moses and Aaron and the elders 



shedeub] 



820 



of Israel beheld when they ascended the 
holy mount (xxiv. 10). 

When the Lord led forth Israel from 
EgjTt, he went before them, we are told, ' in 
a pillar of a cloud ' (xiii. 21, 22). Such at least 
it appeared by day ; but in the dark night 
a fire seemed to burn within it, a cheer- 
ing lamp to his people, a lurid omen to their 
foes (xiv. 20). This cloudy pillar when the 
tabernacle was set up covered it ; and the 
glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. Its 
being taken up was the signal of marching 
for the triljes ; its quiescence a proof that 
they were to tarry in their tents (xl. 34-38). 
It would seem that from time to time there 
was some special manifestation of the 
divine glory in this pillar. Fire burst t)ut 
from it when the sacrifices were offered at 
the consecration of the priests (Lev. ix. 23, 
24). Again, when the infuriated people were 
about to stone Joshua and Caleb, because 
they would not countenance the evil report 
of the unfaithful spies, ' the glory cf the 
Lord appeared in the tabernacle* (Numl). 
xiv. 10). So, also, in the rebellion of Korali 
(xvi. 19, 42). We read no more of this lead- 
ing cloud after the Israelites had entered 
Canaan ; and it is probable that it then 
settled in the most holy place in the taber- 
nacle upon the ark of the covenant. Per- 
]iaps during the religious dcurencracy which 
followed, especially while the ark was re- 
moved from place to place, separated from 
the tabernacle, it ceased to appear. But, 
whether this were so or not, it was present 
in the temple, filling the whole house at 
its consecration with Its glory, so that 
the priests could not stand to minister (1 
Kings viii. 10-13 ; 2 Chron. v. 13, 14, vii. 1-3 : 
com p. 1 Sam.iv. 21 ; Rom. ix. 4). Most pro- 
bably while the first temple stood the she- 
chiuah was there. But we have no reason to 
believe that it dwelt in the second : that 
temple was, however, more honoured by the 



of Abraham and Job, as I believe' (TJie 
Land and the Book, p. 331). The necessity 
of findiug pasturage for their cattle directed 
the journeys of the elder;fathers(Gen. xxxvii. 
12-17) ; and many of the incidents in their 
lives occurred at wells whither they brought 
(the fcnuiles being often so employed) their 
flocks to water (xxix. 1-12 ; Exod. ii. 16-21). 
The animal from which most of the western 
domestic sheep are thought to be descended 
is still (Kitto's Ci/cL of Bibl Lit.) found wild 
in the mountain regions of Persia. There 
are two kinds of sheep now in Syria— the 
Bedouin or common horned white sheep, 
similar to our own, Ovis arics, except that 
the tail is somewhat longer and thicker ; and 
the broad-tailed variety, Ovis laticaudatus, 
which when fattened liave tails of an 
enormous size. ' I have seen many in Le- 
banon so heavy,' says Dr. Thomson, * that 
the o\\Tiers could not carry them without 
difficulty. . . . The cooks use this mass of 
fat instead of Arab butter. ... No doubt 
this is the "rump" so often mentioned in 
the Levitical sacrifices, which was to be 
taken off hard by the back-bone (Exod. xxix. 
2" ; Lev. iii. 9, vii. 3, ix. 19). It is, in fact, 
not properly a tail, but a mass of marrow- 
like fat, which spreads over the whole rump 
of the sheep, and down the caudal extremi- 
tv, till near the eud'(p. 97). The shearing 
of the sheep was celebrated anciently, as 
often now, with much festivity (Gen. xxxi 
19, xxxviii. 12, 13 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 4-8,36 ; 2 Sam. 
xiii. 23-28). 

Sheep furnish many illustrations in scrip- 
ture, symbolizing patient meekness (Isai. 
liii. 7) ; and the beautiful relation between 
the careful shepherd and his flock is used to 
illustrate God's care over his people (Psal. 
xxiii. 1, 2, Ixxiv. 1, Ixxvii. 20, c. 3 ; Isai. xl. 
11, liii. G ; John x. 1-5, 7-lG). It is observable, 
further, that, though a flock may contain 
ndifferently sheep and goats, yet, when a 



personal presence of the incarnate Son of ; division is made, the sheep represent tne 

godly (Matt. xxv. 32, 33). 

SHEEP-FOLD. An inclosure or shelter 
for sheep. Sheep-cotes or sheep-folds are 
often mentioned in scripture (e.g. Numb, 
xxxii. 24, 36 ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 3 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 
28). The word is sometimes used figura- 
tively (e.g. John. X. 1). Modern sheep-folds 
in Syria are described as low fiat buildings, 
in which when the nights are cold the sheep 
are shut. There is a yard attached where 
they are kept in milder weather. This is 
fenced with a stonewall crowned with sharp 
thorns : see illustration on opposite page. 

SHEEP-GATE, SHEEP-MARKET (Neh. 
iii. 1, 32, xii. 39 ; John v. 2) . This gate (mar- 
ket is a mistake) must have stood between 
the tower of Meah and the prison-gate, to 
the north-east. Mr. Grove imagines it at or 
near the present Bab el-Kattdnln, and would 
identify the ' pool ' with the modern Eam- 
mcim esh-Shefa (Smith's Diet of the Bible, ycL 

iii. p. 1244). T v ^ A 

SHEHARI'AH (Jehovah seeks him). A 
Benjamite chief (1 Chron. viii. 26). 

SHEKEL. A Hebrew word which im- 
plies poising or weighing. It is commonly 
used in the untranslated form in our ver- 
sion, and hence comes to be a naturalized 
EngUsh term. A shekel was originally a 



God. And he dwells spiritually in his 
church and people for ever. This the an- 
cient symbol typified. Not in visible mani- 
festation but with effectual power is the 
Lord present. So that the bodies of belie- 
vers are the temples of the Holy Ghost (1 
Cor. vi. 19 ; 2 Cor. vi. 16). . j 

See for much information on this subject 
Buxtorf, Lex. Talmud. &c., cols. 2394-2398. 

SHEDETR (dai-ting of fire). The father 
of the prince of Reuben (Numb. 1. 5, ii. 10, 
vii. 30, 35, X. 18). 

SHEEP. The Hebrew word signifjnng 
* a sheep ' is also applied to a goat ; and that 
which corresponds with our word 'flock' 
includes goats as weU as sheep. The we'alth 
of the patriarchs and early inhabitants of 
Palestine consisted largely in their numer- 
ous flocks (G€n. XXX. 31-43; 1 Sam. xxv. 2; 
Job i. 3, xiii. 12) ; and at the present day 
considerable flocks are sometimes seen in 
an Ai-ab encampment. Dr. Thomson speaks 
of the numbers passing along the sea-board 
of Palestine in 1853 : ' During the months of 
November and December the whole line of 
coast was covered with them : they came 
from northern Syria and from Mesopo- 
tamia ; and their shepherds, in dress, man- 
ners, and language, closely resemble those 



821 



^iUc IutatoIc%c. 



ccrtsun weiglit ; for purchases were made 

)y weighiiit,' out so much precious metal : 
then naturally it grew to be the recognized 
name of a dclinito value as money; and 
stainpcil pieces of the weight were used as 
coins, Tlie first mention of a shekel in scrip- 
ture IS in the time of Abraham (Gen. xxiii 
lo, IG). It soon occurs again as denoting 
weight (xxiv. 22) ; and subsequently the use 
f'l tJie term is frequent. Often, as in " 
Sam. xviil. ii, the word shekel, as perfectly 
understood, is omitted; as we sav five hun- 
dred (1. e. pounds) a year. There were golden 
and Silver shekels. See Moxey, Weiguts 

SIIE'LAH (jpetition). The third son of 
.Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 5,11, 14 26 xlvi 1'' • 
Kuml). xxvi. 20 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3, iv' 21). ' ' 

SIIE'LAII {shoot, sprout) ((^en. x. •>4 
"V!!".^'- \^ t'li''^"- i. 1^^. 24). See SALAn. 

SIIR'LANITES. A family of Judah, de- 
Sh\'i ONi^ of Shelah (Numb. xxvi. 20). Sec 

SHELEMI'AH (whom Jehovah repays, or 



[SHEM 



Yemen called Sulaf or Sulafnjch, sixty miles 
south of Sanaa (Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. 111. p. 1247). ' 

SHE'LESU (tried). A chieftain of Ashcr 
(1 Chron. vii. 35). 

(Pacific). The father of the 
chief of Asher appointed to superintend 
the division of the land (Xumb. xxxiv 27) 

SHELO'MITH (idX-l. A Danite woman, 
mother of a blasphemer who was stoned in 
the wilderness (Lev. xxiv. 11).— 2. A daugh- 
ter of Zcrubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 19).— 3 A 
GershoniteLcvite (xxiii. 9).— 4. A Koliathite 
Lcvite (18): called also Slielomotli (xxiv. 22). 
—5. A Levite, descended from Closes, placed 
with his brethren over David's dedicated 
things (xxvi. 25, 2G).— G. A childof Rehoboam 
(2 Chron. xi. 20).— 7. One whose descen- 
dants ]oincd Ezra's caravan (Ezra viii. lO) 

SIIEEO'MOTII (idX See SiiELOMiTri, 4." 

SIIELU'MIEL U'ricndofGod). The prince 
of Simeon in the wilderness (Numb. i. c, ii 
12, vii. 36,41, X. 19). ' 




Sheep-fold. 



treats as a friend).— 1 (1 Chron. xxvi. 14). See 
Meshelemtah.— 2, 3. Two persons who had 
married foreign wives (Ezra x. 39, 41\— 4. 
Father of one who helped to repair the wall 
of Jerusalem (Xeh. iii. 30\— 5. A priest 
whom Xehemiah made one of the treasurers 
of the offerings and tithes (xiii. 13).— G. The 
grandfather of a messenger sent by the 
princes of Judah to Baruch (Jer. xxxvi. 14). 
—7. One of the olTicers ordered bv Jchoiakim' 
to apprehend Jeremiah and Baruch (26).— 8. 
Father of one of those who accused Jerc- 
miali toZedekiah (xxxvii. 3, xxxviii. l) : he 
is perhaps identical with No. 7.-9. Father of 
a captain of the ward (xxxvii. 13\ 

SHE'LEPH {draicn out, selected). A son 
of Joktan (Gen. x. 26 ; 1 Chron. i. 20). His 
descendants perhaps were the Salapeni, a 
tribe of Arabia Felix, south-east of the pre- 
se7it Medina. Mr. Poole, apparently ac- 
knowledging this identification, finds the 
settlements of Sheleph in a district of the 



SHEM (name). One of the three sons of 
Noah (Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13 ; 1 Chron. i. 4). 
He was preserved in the ark during the 
flood ; and afterwards his dutiful conduct 
to his father, and the blessing pronounced 
upon him are recorded (Gen. ix. 20-27). 
Shem was the eldest of Noah's three sons ; 
for the translation, 'the brother of Japlieth 
the elder '(X. 21), cannot be su-stained : it is 
really « the elder brother of Japheth.' This 
patriarch was the father of one of thet-hreo 
great divisions of mankind : the nations 
called Shcmitic, including the Hebrews, 
Aramaeans, Persians, Assyrians, &c., occupy- 
ing the central parts of the ancient world, 
were descended from hira (21-31 ; 1 Chron. 
i. 17-23). In the direct line from Shem 
we havo the genealcgy of the Israelitish 
nation (Gen. xi. 10-26 ; 1 Chron. i. 24-27). He 
lived 600 years, and, if the ordinary chrono- 
logy is to be depended on, he must have 
been many years contemporary with Abra- 



shema] 



822 



See 



ham. In Luke iii. 36 he is caUed Bern. 
Earth, Language. -r ^ i 

SHE'MA irumoiir).—!. One of Judahs 
descendants (1 Chron. ii.43, 44).— 2. A Reu- 
benite (v. 8), wlio appears to be the same 
with Shemaiah (4).-3. A Benjamite chief 
(viii. 13), possibly the Shimhi of 21.— 4. One 
of those who stood by Ezra when he read 
the law (Neh. viii. 4). 

SlIEMA' (.id.). A city in the extreme 
south of Judah (Josh. xv. 26). J^il^on 
supposes, from a comparison with tnc bcp- 
tuagiiit Ter?ion, that the name is properly 
Salma or Rhalma, and identifies it with a 
mound and ruins styled Itiijeim Semmch, \n 
a favourite camping-place of the Jehaim 
Arabs (Tlie Ner/cb, pp. 106-109). , ^ . 

SHEMA'AH(id.). A Benjamite, father of 
two chiefs who joined David at Ziklag U 
Cliron. xii. 3\ ,^ , . x -. v 

SHEMAl'AH {Jehovalthcarctn him).— 1. A 
prophet and chronicler in the time of lle- 
hoboam (1 Kings xii. 22-24 ; 2 Chron. xi. 2- 
4 xii 5-8, l5\-2.0ne of David's posterity (1 
Chron. iii. 22) : he was probably identical 
with that Shemaiali, who helped to repair 
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. Iii. 29).-3. A 
Simeonite (1 Chron. iv. 37), Possibly the 
Shimci of 26, 27.-4. A descendant of Reuben 
(v 4\ called also Shema (8).-5.6. Two Le- 
vitcs (ix. 14, 16) : the first of these is men- 
tioned in Keh. xi. 15 : the second ^^^^V \l 
identical with Shammua (1 :).-:. One of the 
chief Levites (1 Chron. xv. 8, ^Le- 
vite scribe (xxiv. 6).-9. The fir^t"^^''^.. ?^ 
Obed-edom (xxvi. 4, 6. 7).-10. A Levite m 
the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii. 8). 
—11 A Levite in the time of Hezekiah (xxix. 
14) : most probably identical with the person 
mentioned in xxxi. 15.-12. A chief Leyite 
in Josiah's reign (xxxv. 9).-l3. A pmdent 
man whom Ezra sent to summon soine of the 
Levites to his caravan (Ezraviil.13, 16).— 14. 
A priest who had married a foreign wite 
(X -n)- 15. Another person who had com- 
mitted the same act (31).-16. One hired by 
Tobiah and Sanballat to Induce Isehemiah 
I to conceal himself (Neh. vl. 10-13).-17. A 
1 iiriest who scaled the covenant (x. 8). Me 
I was probably the representative of one who 
i returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
' (xii 6,18). The name occurs four times more 
in the same chapter : it is not easy to sa> 
how many individuals are meant, or to 
identify them with any before named (o4, 
35 42).— 18. The father of Trijah the 
prophet whom Jehoiakim put to death (J er. 
' ^xvi 12).- 19. A false prophet called the 
i Xehelamite (xxix. 24-32).-20. The father of 
Delaiah, who was one of the prmces m Je- 
hoiakim's reign (xxxvi. 12). 

SHEAIIRI'AH (whom Jehovah keeps).—!. 
A Benjamite warrior who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 5).-2, 3. Two who had 
married foreign wives (Ezra x. 32, 41). 

SHE^IE'BER (lofty flight). The kmg of 
Zeboiim, one of the five cities of the plain 

^^^SHE^ERCct guardian, lees, dregsl). The 
person from whom king Omri hought the 
hill of Samaria, on which he built a city 
called after the former owner's name (1 

^SHEirDA,* SHEMI'DAH (fame of wis- 



dom) A descendant of Manasseh through 
Gilead (Numb. xxvi. 32 ; Josh. xvii. 2 ; 1 

^^SHEMIDA'ITES. A family of Manasseh 
descended. from Sliemida (Numb. xxvi. 32). 

SHEMl'NITH (eighth). A technical mu- 
sical term of which the signification is 
doubtful (1 Chron. xv. 21 ; Psal. vi., xn., 
titles). It may have been a harp of eight 
strings; or it may rather refer to the time 
—upon the eighth or octave. 

SHEMI'RA:M0TH omme most high, or 
heaven i7iost high).-l. One of the Levites. 
porters, who played on the psaltery (l 
Chron. XV. 18. 20, xvi. 5).-2. A Levite in 
Jelioshaphat's reign (2 Cliron. xvn. 8). 

SHEM'UEL OieardofOod).-!. One of the 
persons selected from the tribe of Simeon, 
to superintend the division of Canaan 
(Xumb. xxxiv. 20).-2 (l Chron. vi. 33). See 
SAMUEL.-3. A chieftain of Issachar (vu. 

^^"SHEN (tooth). A place not far froin 
Mizpeh, mentioned to denote the site of 
Eben-ezcr (l Sam. vii. 12). It was probably a 
rock or peak, shaped like a tooth. 

SHEN A'ZAR (/ier?/ tooth 1). One of Das'id > 
posterity (1 Chron. iii. 18). 

SHEN I'll (.coat of mail, or cataract). A 
name of mount Ilermon or a part of it 
(Dent. iii. 9 ; Sol. Song iv. 8). See Heemon. 

SlIEI'lIA'M (bareness, spot naked of 
trcc^). A place on the north-eastern border 
of Palestine (Numb, xxxiv. 10, 11). 

SHEPHATHTAH (.id.). A Benjamite (1 
Chron. ix. 8) : In some editions of our ver- 
sion this is Shephatiah. , ^ , ^ n 
SHEPHATI'AH (whom Jehovah defends). 
-1 David's fifth son, by Abital, born in 
Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Chron. iii. 3).— 2. 
(ix. 8). See SHEPnATniA9.-3. A warrior, 
designated the Haruphite, who ]Oined Da- 
vid at Ziklag (Xii. 5).-4. The ruler of the 
Simeonites in David's time (xxvn. 16).— 
One of the sons of king Jehoshaphat (2 
Chron. xxi. 2).— 6, 7. Two persons whose 
descendants, the last called Solomon's ser- 
vants, returned from Babylon with Zerub- 
babel (Ezra ii. 4, 57 ; Neh. vii. 9, 59).-8 One 
of the posterity of Judah (xi. 4).— 9. An 
eminent man who desired that king Zede- 
kiah would agree to put Jeremiah to de;ith 
(Jer. xxxviii. 1-4). . ^ . 

SHEPHERD. The occupation of a shep- 
herd is one of the earliest of which we read. 
Abel was a keeper of sheep (Gen. iv. 2) ; and 
many of the most eminent patriarchs were 
similarly employed (xxx. 31, xxxi 38,_ 39, 
xxxvii..l2, 13, 16, x-lvi. 32, 34 ; Exod. in. 1). 
Their daughters also tended the flocks 
(Gen. xxix. 6, 9, 10 ; Exod. ii. 16-19). And 
the first introduction of David is in the clm- 
racter of a shepherd (1 Sam. xvi. 11). A 
chief herdsman was still later a man oj. 
importance (xxi. 7 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 31). 

The various duties of shepherds are fre- 
auently alluded to in scripture. Tliey 
constantly watched their flocks, for which 
they were responsible (Gen. xxxi. 39, 40 ; 
Ezek xxxiv. 9, 10 ; Luke ii. 8), and which 
they had to defend from wild beasts (1 Sam. 
xvii. 34, 35). The dress of the shepherd is 
alluded to in Jer. xliii. 12 ; probably it was 
a sheepskin cloak. They carried sUngs, and 



8t'i*'P,f^r l>.ifffor their food (i Sam. xvii 
40), with a staff, used for defence, and as a 
crook (I'sal. xxiii.4 ; Zech. xi. 7, 15), and liad 
tents, when itwas necessary to abide lon^ 
in the fields (Sol. Son.i? i. 8; Isai. xxxviiL 
12) ; towers being sonu tinies built to secure 
their ordinary pasture-grounds (Gen. xxxv 
21; Mic. iv. 8). They were attended" by 
dogs (Job XXX. 1); «a mean, sinister ill- 
conditioned generation* (says J;r. Thoiu- , 
son), kept at a distance, knocked about 1 
and lialf-starved, with nothing noble or at- I 
tractive about them. Still, they lag lazily 
behind the llocks, making a furious l)arking I 
at any intruder among their charge, and I 
thus give warning of api)r(»aching danger' I 
U he Land audi he Book, p. 202). 

Metaphorically the name 'shepherds is ' 
given to chiefs and kines (Isai xliv 28 • I 
Mic. v. 5: comp. Psal. Ixxviil. 71, 72)'al';o' 
to teachers and ministers (Kzek xxxlv " • I 
comp. Acts XX. 28 ; l IVt. v. 2). 'l^Iore par- 
ticularly the Lord is called tlie shepherd of 
his people (Psal. xxiii. 1 ; Isai. xl. ID: and 
Clirist's lender care forliis liock and laving 
down Ills life for them is thus beautifullv ' 
Illustrated (John x. 1-18; lleb. xiii. "o • 1 ' 
Pet. V. -1 : comp. Lulie xv. 3-7). The modeVu 
liai)its of oriental sheplierds are quite in 
accordance with these and other allu- 
.'^lons. They have Hocks composed of sheep 
and goats, which they water at the wells • 
they go before the sheep, Avhich follow 
them and know their voice: they give 
names to them, v.hich the sheep recognize 
and will llee from the call of a stranger' 
Tlie shepherds, too, still carrv the lambs in 
iiit'ir bosom, and carefullv lead the mo- 
tliers.-.they invariably carry a staff or rod, 
hooked at one end : they guard acainst wiUi 
beasts; and amid predatory trihcs cases 
occur 111 whicli the shepherd loses his life 
111 defending his charge {ibid. pp. 201-205) 

SlII]PHI'(a vakid hilh. A descendant 
of t>eir a Chron. i. 40). He is also called 
SHEPIIO' (smoothness) (Gen.xxxvi. 23). 
SUEl'liU'PHAX {.<erpcnt, horned snake or 
ceruste^). A descendant of IJenjamin il ! 
Chron. viii. .0) ; but in the marg. Rhupham ! 

SHE'IIAH {Mood-kindred). A dauirhter of 
Ephraim (l Chron. vii. 21). 

SHEKEBI'AH (//.rtf of Jehovah 1). One of 
the chief among the Levites or priests who 
assisted Ezra, and sealed the covenant 
Lzra viii. is, 24; Keh. viii. 7, ix. 4, 5 x l'^ 
^n. 8, 24). Possibly in these places' more 
tlian one individual may be included. 

SHE'ItESH {root). A descendant of Ma- 
liasseh (1 Chron. vii. 16). 

SHERE'ZER {prince of fire). One of the 
: ersons sent in the reign of Darius to the 
I >use of G^d (Zech. vii. 2). See Regem- 
: if: LECH. 

SHE'SHACH. A symbolical name of 
i. ibylou (Jer. xxv. 26, li. 41). It has been a 
Mizzle to account for Babylon's being so 
^' illcd. Some critics believe that it is writ- 
t' U according to the cabalistic plan of put- 
tnig the last l{?tter of the alphabet for the 
uist, the last but one for the second, and 
so forth. Sheshach would then be Babel 
or Babylon. But, according to Sir H. Raw- 
linsou, Shishaki is, in one of the ancient 
Babylonian dialects, the name of the moon- 



[SHEW-BREAB 



??(C;.^!vonr^^i^?'^^^^^^^^ 

A n v"'V One of the sons of 

Ariak (.Numb xiii. 22 ; Josh.xv. 14 ; Judges 
Anakin/ ^^^^^^^ ^^^me of a family of 

SIIESIIBAZ'ZAR (fire-worshipper). The 
iianie apparently borne in Persia by Zcrub- 
babel (Ezra 1. 8, 11, v. 14, 16). 

SUETH (compensation, tmmiWi) —i 
(Xumb. xxiv. 17). Here the word is probablv 
not a proper name : we may translate ' the 
sons of tumult': comp. Jer. xlviii. 45. But 

'"^Sw r 'nV"^Vr- ^C-e SETir. 

h>HLlHAR (a star). One of the seven 
princes of Persia (Esth. 1. 14) 
SHETHAR'-BOZXAl' {.hinivo star). A 
c'^Tt i!^'-'.","'''^'' ^^'''^ (^^'•••'i V. 3, 6, vi. 6, 1.3). 
hiiE V A (perhaps habitation, or it may bo 
corrupted fnmi Seraiah).-! (2 Sam. xx. 25) 
See Shavsiia Seuaiaii, 1.-2. A son of 
Caleb. H)n of Hezron (1 Chron. ii.49). 

SHEW-BREAD. The expression used in 
our version for what is literally * bread of 
faces or 'bread of the presence,' so called 
because it was set before Jehovah in the 
holy i.lace (Exod. xxv. 30). Later it was 
termed 'bread of ordering' or 'arrange- 
ment' (1 Chron. ix. 32, marg. ; Neh. x. 33) 
liic shew-bread consisted of twelve loaves- 




Table of sbew-Lroad. From the Arch of Titus. 



or cakes, according to the number of the 
tribes of Israel, fresh every sabbath-da v, 
placed in two rows or piles, with frankin- 
cense on each row. The frankincense was 
burnt as an offering made by fire ; and the 
bread taken away to make room for the 
fresh loaves was to be eaten by the priests 
in the holy place (Lev. xxiv. 5-9). It was 
with respect to this shevv-bread that the 
incident occurred of its being given to 
David (1 Sam. xxi. 2-6), referred to by our 
Lord (Matt. xii. 3, 4). This bread was 
placed upon a table made of shittim-wood 
overlaid with gold (Exod. xxv. 23-30) sot 
in the sanctuary (xxxix. 36 ; Heb. ix. 
2). On this table were, besides the 'con- 
tinual bread,' as it was sometimes termed, 
bowls and cups in which there was, pro- 
bably, wine for libations (Exod. xxv. 29, 30, 
xxivii. 10-16, xl. 4, 22-24 ; 2^umb. iv. 7). The 





shew-bread was an offering, placed before i 
the Lord, whose ever-watcUful eye looked 
thereon with complacency, a portion of J 
their substance consecrated by the people 
for God's honour ; and as incense was put i 
upon it the lesson was taught that the 
spiritual sacrifice symbolized by the bread 
wa^ to be ever presented with supplication, 
and could only so meet with the divine 
favour. See Fairbairu, Typol of Script., 
book iii. chap. iii. G, vol. ii. pp. 322-32S. 

SniB'BOLETH (stream, ear of grain). A 
word propounded by the Gileadites to the 
fugitive Ephraimites, in order to detect by 
their pronunciation whether or no they 
were really of that tribe ^Judges xu. 4-6). 
It appears from this circumstance that 
there were variations of dialect in the 
spoken language of Palestine. 

SHIB'^IAH (fragrance^. (Numb, xxxii. 
3S). See SiuMAii. 

SniC'BOX (drunkenness). A place on the 
northern border of Judah (Josh. xv. 11). 

SHIELD. See ARMS. Besides its literal 
cignillcation the word is sometimes used 
trbpleallv, as applied to God (Geu. xa'. 1 ; 
P^al iii. 3, Ixxxiv. 9, 11), and to warriors or 
rulers (xlvil. 9 ; Hos. iv. 18, marg.). 

SHIGGAI'ON (Psal. vii.. title). A wan- 
derh'g song, according to some critics, 
because it was composed when David was a 
fugitive. More likely it signifies a dithy- 
rambic ode, erratic, that is, wild ana 

^""sHlGl'OyOTn (Habak. iii. 1). Probably 
in the manner of diihyrambic songs. 

SHl'HOy {a ruin\ A city of Issachar 
(Jo^h xix. 19) ; in some copies Shion. 

skrnOR (black, turbid). (1 Chron. xiu. 

5), Sec SIHOR. . . ^ , ON 
SHI'HOR-LIB'^ATHCflarfcnrer ofgIass1\ 
A stream mentioned as one of the bound- 
ari\^s of the tribe of Asher (Josh xix. 20). 
It i^ said to be the ancient Belus, from the 
sands of which glass was first made by the 
Phoenicians, the modern name being Aa/a- 
Naaman. But Winer thinks that the Belus 
does not exactly answer to the position 
Indicated in Joshua, Bibl. BWB., art. Si- 
chor ' Perhaps therefore the stream may be 
the Zerka. But in truth it is doubtful whe- 
ther Shihor-libnath was a river at^all. 

sniL'HI iarmed, a missile ?). The father 
of k iiiff Jehoshaphat's mother (1 Kings xxii. 
42 ; • Chron. xx. 31). 

SHTL'HIMvar??2ed men: Wilton would con- 
nect the word with the idea of waters sent 
ovfluLcing fortli). A city in the southern part 
of Judah (Josh. XV. 32). _ This would seem 
to be the Sharuhen of xix. 6, and the Sha- 
a?.Vn. of 1 Chron. IT. 81. Mr. Wilton fully 
examines the notices we have of this place 
and romes to the probable conclusion that 
Sm^ ruins now styled KhirUtes-Sei-ani 
close to el-Birein, mark the site cnie ^egeb 
nn '"-''''9) 

SHIL'LEM {requital). One of the sons oi 
■MQ-hrfi^i rGen xlvi. 24: Isnmb. xxvi. 49) 
He is called ShaUum in 1 Chron. yn. 13. 

STia/LEMITES. A family of ^^aphtal 
descended from ShiUem orShallum (^umb 

BH LLO'AH (a sending of water, i.e. a con 
duit) Cisai. Yiii. 6). See SiLOAii. 


SHI'LOH {place of rest, peace). A city in 
he territory of Ephraim, to the north of 
Beth-el, where the tabernacle was set up 
Josh, xviii. 1). It was thus considered aa 
he ecclesiastical metropolis, in which 
iolemn assemblies were held and theocratic 
lets performed (8-10, xix. 51, xxi. 2, xxii. 12), 
not however, to the entire exclusion of 
other places (xxiv. 1, 25, 20). Through the 
period of the judges' administration the 
abernacle seems to have remained at Shi- 
oh (Judges xviii. 31, xxi. 12, 19, 21). It was 
there in the priesthood of Eli; so that It 
was at Shiloh that Samuel was called to be 
a prophet ; and there it continued till, po8- 
sibiv, the early years of Saul's reign (1 S;im. 

i 3,'9, 24, ii. 14, iii. 21, iv. 3. 4, 12 ; 1 Kings 

ii 27). ^Vfter the ark of God had been taken 
l)V the Philistines we do not find that it was 
ever restored to the tabernacle at Shiloh. 
It was sometimes with the army (1 Sam. 
xiv. 18); but its resting-place was with 
Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim (vii. 1, 2). And 
then we hear little more of Shiloh : the 
tabernacle itself was removed (2 Chron. i. 
3) ; and Jerusalem became ultimately the 
city which the Lord chose, to place his 
name there. Ahijah the prophet, indeed, 
resided at Shiloh (1 Kings xiv. 2,4); but 
for the idolatry of Israel this once-favoured 
cit v was forsaken and brought to ruin (Psal. 
Kxviii. 60 ; Jer. vii. 12, 14, xxvi. 6, 9, xli. 5). 
flie name Seildn survives; and a description 
of it is given by Dr. Bonar ( Th£ Land of Pro- 
mise, pp. 361, 362) : * It lies on a small hill, or 
rather eminence, above which rise higher 
hills, llkeanamphitheatre.withundulations 
all around, save to the southward, in which 
direction it looks down upon a fine plain or 
valley, which stretching for miles away, 
seems like a great avenue between hills 

The ruins scattered over the undulations of 
this eminence are very extensive. There 
are no remains of tower or gateway, of 
porch or colonnade : the stones which lie 
on =uch heaps around are not of large size, 
and show no carving : there are, indeed, 
broken walls, lines of streets, traces of 
house-foundations, and the like ; but no- 
thing to intimate grandeur. The situation 
is verv noble, commanding, not only the 
plain immediately below, but the openings 
of several valleys which shoot off in diffe- 
rent directions, and up which the multi- 
tudes of Israel, flocking to the feasts of the 
Lord must have seen the sanctuary afar 
off and been seen as they joined their 
ceveral streams in the valley below, and 
poured upward to the holy place. I wan- 
dered over the ruins, from mound to mound 
and wall to wall ; then, gathering some of 
the wild flowers that grew around, I sat 
down on a broken wall to look round upon 
the scene, and to read the passages of scrip- 
ture referring to the place. Such stony 
c desolation I had not yet seen. . . How that 
passage of Jeremiah rung in our ears, _ Go 
ye now unto my place which was in Shiloh, 
i where I set mv name as the first, and see 
what I did to it for the wickedness of my 
people Israel" (Jer. vii. 12j.' . ^ 
SHI'LOH (pacificator, the abstract bemg 
put for the concrete). This word occurs in 



825 



[SHIMEl 



Jacob's prophetic blessing (Gen, xlix. 10). 
Various and most diverse have been the 
Interpretaiions of the passage. The full 
Investigation of it belongs rather to a com- 
mentary. It must be suflicicnt here to give 
an outline of some of the views main- 
tained. Gcscnius would translate, ' The 
Bccptrc sliall not depart from Judah .... 
until he (Judah) shall come to Shiloh, and 
the nations obey him.' And he supposes 
that the prediction meant that Judah would 
lead the triljcs in the conquest of Canaan 
(Judges i.l, 2), till, the central regions being 
Bubducd and the tabernacle set up there in 
Shiloh, Judah's leadership would cease, the 
dillerent tribes enjoying each independent- 
ly its own inheritance. An obvious and 
fatal objection to this interpretation is 
that it does not reach to that highest point 
of .ludah's supremacy when a family of the 
tribe sat upon the throne of Israel. And, 
besides, as Kalisch lias shown, the words 
we render 'sceptre' and 'lawgiver' must 1 
Indicate regal dignity and not mere leader- I 
ship in the Held. Kalisch himself trans- 
lates, 'The sceptre shall not depart.... 
oven when they come to Shiloh ; and to him 
shall be sultmisslon of nations,' and inter- 
prets that Judah's royalty should not be 
extinguished, even when by proclamation 
at Shiloh where Ahijah lived, who predicted 
the disruption, the ten tribes set up a rival 
sovereignty (.Com?/?, on Old Test. Gen., pp. 
74G, 747). To this also there is afatal objec- 
tion. Shiloh had ceased to l)e the gathering- 
place and sanctuary of the nation years 
before ; and, besides, it was not at Shiloh 
but at Shechem that the revolt occurred 
and was consummated (1 Kingsxii.). Heng- 
stonberg's explanation is far preferable, 
lie maintains that the prediction had a 
Messianic reference. This has been held 
from the earliest times, and even by Jewish 
writers. Hengstenberg therefore trans- 
lates, ' The sceptre shall not depart from 
Judah, nor the lawgiver from between his 
feet (.i.e. from him), until the Peace-maker 
conies; and him shall the nations obey.' 
And he believes the meaning to be, not 
that the tribe of Judah should not cease to 
subsist as a people, and have a government 
of their own till the coming of Messiah, 
when they should lose their dominion, but 
that Judah should not cease to exist as a 
tribe, or lose its superioritj-, until it was 
exalted to higher honour and glory through 
the great Redeemer who was to spring from 
it, and whom not only the Jews, but all the 
nations of the earth should obey. Heng- 
stenberg supports his position with great 
ability, and shows liow Judah, eminently, 
was carried through the temporary exile at 
Babylon, the ten tribes never recovering, 
after their deportation, a national existence 
{Christology of Old Test., Arnold, pp. 27-33). 
Whatever the shades of difference, then, In 
the modes" of application, the Messianic 
view of the prophecy must be maintained. 

SHI'LO^'I (a Shilonite, or, possibly, a de- 
scendant of Shelah). The name occurs in 
Neh.' xi. 5. The descendants of Perez were 
noted just before : it is probable that here 
we have the posterity of Shelah, another 
Bon of Judah. So also in 1 Chron. ix. 5). 



Sni'LONITE.— 1. A native or inhabitant 
of Shiloh (1 Kings xi. 29, xii. 15, xv. 29 ; 2 
Chron. ix. 29, x. 15).— 2. The word is used to 
designate tbe descendants of Shelah (I 
Chron. ix. 5), otherwise called SheJanites. 

SlIIL'SHAH {triad, i.e. the-third son). A 
chieftain of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 37). 

SB.IM'EA (nnnour, fame).— I. One of the 
sons of David (1 Chron. iii. 5) : lie is called 
Shammuah in 2 Sam. v. 14, and Shammuain 
1 Chron. xiv. 4.— 2. A Levite of the family 
of Merari (vi. 30.— 3. Another, of the family 
of Gershon (39).— 4. A brother of David 
(XX. 7) : he is called Shammah in 1 Sam. 
xvi. 9, xvii. 13, Sliimeali in 2 Sam. xiii. 3, 32, 
xxi. 21, and Shimnia in 1 Chron. ii. 13. 

SHIM'EAH (u/.).-l. A brother of David : 
see SiiniEA, 4.-2. A Benjamite, with 
slight difference of spelling in the original 
(I Chron. viii. 32) : he is called 

SIIIM'EAM {id., or, according to some, 
at'tnui.-'Jnncnt) m 1 Chron. ix. 38. 

SHIM'EATH {rumour). An Ammonitcss, 
mother of one of the assassins of Joash 
king of Judah (2 Kings xii. 21 ; 2 Chron. 
XX iv. 2fi). 

SlIIM'EATHITES. A family who dwelt 
at Jabez : they seem to be reckoned among 
the Kenites (1 Chron. ii. 55). 

SHIM'EI (renowned).— I. A son or grand- 
son of Gershon, and descendant of Levi 
(Numb. iii. 18; 1 Chron. vi. 17, 42 ; xxiii. 7, 
10) : he is also called Shinii (Exod. vi. 17). 
It is questionable whether this Shimei is 
intended in 1 Chron. xxiii. 9 : possibly there 
may be some error of transcription.— 2. A 
Benjamite called the son of Gera, of the 
house of Saul, who reviled and cast stones 
at David as he tied from Absalom. Abishai 
desired to itunish him on the spot, l)Ut was 
restrained by the king (2 Sam. xvi. 5-13). 
I "When David returned after Absalom's de- 
! feat, Shimei submitted and craved forgive- 
ness, which he obtained in spite of the 
reclamation of Abishai (xix. 16-23). Never- 
theless David thought fit to caution Solomon 
I against him; and Solomon compelled him 
j to reside in Jerusalem, and told him his 
j life would be forfeited if lie quitted the 
I city. Shimei agreed to the condition ; but 
[ after three years, having chosen to go to 
! Gath, he was on his return charged with 
his disobedience and put to death (1 Kings 
ii. 8, 9, 36-46). David forgave Shimei the 
personal injury; but his crime against the 
state was not so lightly to be passed over. 
And yet after all it was his own disregard 
of Solomon's mandate that sealed his fate. 
He had only himself to blame. See Keil, 
Comm. on Kings, vol. i. pp. 47, 48, 54-56.-3. 
One of David's mighty men d Kings i. 8) ; 
probably the same with tlie superintendent 
of.the commissariat district in Benjamin 
(iv. 18).— 4. A descendant of the royal house 
of David (1 Chron. iii. 19): it has been 
thought that he is identical with the head 
of the family mentioned in Zecli.xii. 13.-5. 
A person of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. 
iv. 20, 27), perhaps the same witliShemaiah, 
3.-6. A Reubeuiie (v. 4).— 7. A Levite of 
the family of Merari (vi. 29),- -8. The head 
of one of the courses of the singers (xxv. 
17) _9. One called a Pv.amathite, superintend 
dent of David's vineyards (xxvii.27).— 10. A 



shimp.on] 



82G 



Lovite in the time of Hezekiali (2 Cliron. 
xxix. 14); perhaps identical with the one 
named in xxxl. 12, 13,-11. A Levite who 
had married a foreign wife (Ezrax. 23).— 12, 
13. Two other persons who had acted simi- 
larly (.33, 38).— 14. A Benjamite, one of the 
ancest(n-s of Mordecal (Esth. ii. 5). 

aH.IM'EON(a hearkeiiing). One who had 
taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 31). 

snni'HI ircnou-ned). A Benjamite (1 
Clsron.viii. 21). He is supposed (marg.note) 
to be the same with Shema (13) ; but this is 
questionable. 

Slini'I 0(1.1. A Levite, son of Gershon 
(Exod. Yi.l7) : he is identical with Shimei, 1. 

SHIM'ITES. A family of Gershonite 
Levltes descended from Shimi or Shimei 
(Numb. iii. 21). 

SHLM'MA (rumour). A brother of David 
(1 Chroii.ii. 13) : he is also called Shammah, 
Sliimca, and Shimeah : see Shammah, 2. 

SHr.MOX (<lci>trt). A descendant of J udah 
(1 Cliron. iv.20). 

SHIM'RATII iioatch, guard). A Benjamite 
(1 Chron. viii. 21). 

SHLAI'RI (watchful).— I. A descendant of 
Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 37).— 2. The father of 
one of David's warriors (xi. 45).— 3. One of 
the Levites in the reign of Hezekiah (2 
Chron. xxix. 1.3). 

SHIM'RITE (1 Chron. xi. 4.5, marg.). An 
apiiellatitiU of Jcdiael, son of Shimri, 2. 

SIIIM'KITH {Watchful). A Moalutess, 
mother of Jehozabad one of the murderers 
( f Joash king of Judah (2 Chron. xxiv. 26). 
The name ia also given (2 Kings xii. 21) as 
Shomer. 

SHIM'ROM. Found in some copies of 
the English version (1 Chron. vii. 1), for 

SHIM'RON {icatch-post). A son of Issa- 
char (Gcr\. xlvi. 13 ; ^'umb. xxvi. 24). 
SHIM'RON {id.). A Canaanitish citj', 
! assigned to the tril)e of Zebulun (Josh. xi. 1, 
I xix. 15). It is identical with Shimron-meron 
(xii. 20), and is now 5t');j2272<>?j, four or five 
miles south-west of Xazareth. 
I SHIM'RONITES. A family of Issachar, 
I descended from Shimron (Numb. xxvi. 24). 
! SHIM'ROX-ME'RON (watch-post ofMeron, 
\ vatch-heightl) (Josh. xii. 20). See SHiii- 
; HON. 

SHmSHA'I (^sunmj). A officer or scribe 
in Samaria who resisted the re-building of 
Jemsalera (Ezra iv. 8, 9, 17, 2.3). 

SHI2s'AB (fathers tooth). The king of 
Admah, one of the five cities of the plain 
v3en. xiv. 2). 

SHIN'AR (casting cutt country of tico 
riverst) The proper name of the country 
around Babylon, the plain in which lay the 
cities of Erech, Accad, and Calneh. It also 
embraced the province of Babylon as distin- 
guished from Assyria and Elam, and may be 
said to have been * the southern district of 
Mesopotamia from the Persian gulf to the 
so-called Median wall, which separated it 
from Mesopotamia proper, and which ran 
from the Tigris a little north of Sittace, 
\ across the plain to the Euphrates : in the 
i west and south-west, however, Shinar ex- 
i tended beyond the Euphrates to the tracts 
of Arabia. These were the original bound- 
' aries of Babylonia, or Shinar, or the land of 
I the Chaldees.' See Kalisch, Comm. on the 



Old Test. Gen., pp. 259, 260. Shinar is often 
mentioned in scripture (Gen. x. 10, xi. 2, xiv 
1 ; Isai. xi. 11 : Dan. i. 2 ; Zech. v. 11). 

SHIP. In the earlier history of the Is- 
raelites there is very little mention of ship- 
ping or maritime affairs. It is true that 
the territory of some of the tribes was as- 
signed them along the sea-coast ; and we 
tind Dan censured for not joining other 
tribes in a patriotic struggle, but abiding 
in ships (Judges v. 17), that is, engaged in 
connnercial wrsuits. But the habits of the 
Hebr*^'*'- were essentially agricultural, and, 
while in their Avars they were anxious to 
extend their territory inland and towards 
the Euphrates (1 Sam. xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 
3 ; 1 Chron. v. 9, 10, 18-24), they cared little 
about securing the ports of their own coast 
which remained in the liandsof the Phoeni- 
cians ; and even Zebulun and Asher, who 
might by their position have advantage- 
ously followed maritime pursuits {Gen xlix. 
13; Dent, xxxiii. 18, 19, 24, 25; Josh. xix. 
10-16, 24-31), seem to liave been content that 
trade .'ihould pass to them through Tyre 
and Sidon. It might have been thought 
that David would make Joppa the port 
of Jerusalem ; but this he neglected ; and 
it was the Tyrians who in Solomon's time 
lirought thither tloats of timber from Le- 
banon (1 Kings V. 9; 2 Chron. ii. 16). Much 
later, too, when Jonah took shipping there, 
the vessel belonged not to Israelites but to 
lieathcns (Jonah i.). Solomon, Indeed, had 
ports on the Red sea (2 Chron. viii. 17, 18) ; 
yet even this might be due to tlie enterprise 
of Phoenicians, glad to use the advantage 
which alliance wiih the Hebrew monarch 
afforded for extending their commerce in 
the east. Jchoshaphac also, in conjunction 
with kingAhaziah of Israel, fitted out ships 
at Ezion-geber ; but they were wrecked; and 
Jelioshaphat refused any further joint-expe- 
dition with the ungodly Ahaziah (1 Kings 
xviii. 48, 49 ; 2 Chron. xx. 35-37). The ships 
that had been built were called ' ships of 
Tarshish,' because large merchant-vessels 
generally bore that name, as 'Indiamen' 
Avith us : in the last-named passage.however, 
it is said that the ships built in a Red sea 
port were ' to go to Tarshish,' The meaning 
is not clear; but the slightest change of 
reading Avould obviate the difficulty; and 
it is not impossible that, built in the dock- 
yards of Ezion-geber, the vessels might be 
(in pieces) carried overland to the Mediter- 
ranean. When Edom revolted from Je- 
horam of Judah (xxL 8-1 Oj, the territory on 
the coast of the Red sea was lost. Eloth 
was recovered by Tzziah and again lost 
under Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. 6 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 
2) ; but during this renewed occupation by 
Judah we read of no maritime expeditions. 
In later times, after the Hebrew kingdoms 
had come to an end, Joppa, Ptolemriis, and 
Crosarea were sea-port towns. 

It will be seen from these notices that 
little can be gathered from the Old Testa- 
ment as to the construction or management 
of ships. It may, however, be said that 
there were vessels, as just explained, used 
for commerce, and vessels used for war 
(Numb, xxiv. 24 ; Dan. xi. 40). From Jonah's 
history we learn something. The vessel in 



[SHIPHRAH 



which he took his passage and paid his fare 
must have hecn a decked vessel ; as in the 
-form the prophet was asleep below; the 
f irgo, too, we lind was cast over to lighten 
I ho ship (Jonah i.). Some interesting parti- 
culars in the fittings of Phoenician vessels 
;m o given by E/.ckiel (xxvii.3-'J); and this j 
1 issage is well illustrated l)y Dr. Thomson, 
who pays that tlic calkers and mariners are 
^IiIl found in their ancient places of resort j 
1 J'he Land and the Book, p. 18.>). The Psalmist 
ui scribes the perils of a sea-faring life (Psal. : 
I vii. 23-30) ; and there are a few other j 
notices of ships and parts of them (civ. 20 ; 
I'lov. xxiii. 34, XXX. 19, xxxi. 14;Isai. 
wxiii, 21, 23): see Saalschiitz, Arch, dcr \ 
Ilcbr., vol. 1. cap. xvi. pp. 167-172. j 
Of ships in tlie New Testament we have 
more precise information. The Bu])jecthas ' 
been carefully investigated l^yMr. Smith of , 
.lordaiihill in liis valu.ible work, The Voi/agc 
and .Shijncrcck of St. I'anl, diss. iii. pp. 17;{- 
L'.'.a, from whicli the following observations , 
;iie almost exclusively derived. 

The Alexandrian corn-ships were evi- 
dently of consideralde magnitude. That in 
v.liich St. Paul sailed had 270 persons on 
Iniard; and the cargo, no doubt, was large 
( Acts xxvi.37). Josephus was wrecked in 
cue of these vessels with 600 men on board. 
Such ships may, therefore, be supposed to 
1 e of 1,100 or 1,200 tons. They were the 
l.irgestof their class; and of course there 
^vere many of inferior size. 

The account of the officers and crew can 
be but vague. The master (or steersman) 
and tlie owner are mentioned in xxvii., 
the latter being evidently not merely a 
supercargo but a nautical man, whose judg- 
ment was worth taking. The ' governor ' in 
James iii. 4 was a steersman. In vessels of 
war which were propelled by oars, of which 
there were two, three, or more tiers (.hence 
gome ships were biremes or triremes, some 
quinqueremes), there must have been a large 
number of persons to work these oars, pro- 
bably sometimes more than one to each ; 
and then there were soldiers in addition. A 
] bireme of the ninth century is described as 
I having 25 oars in each tier : one man to 
! each, and as many soldiers as oarsmen, made 
I the crew 100. 

I The build of an ancient ship did not differ 
! greatly from that of a modern one, save 
j that both ends were alike, and the stem and 
stern posts rose to a considerable height, 
terminated by ornaments, which were often 
the head and neck of a water-fowl bent 
backwards. The ' sign ' (xxviii. 11) was pro- 
bably painted on each side the bow. The 
bulwarks round the deck were open rails ; 
and there were projecting galleries at the 
bow and stern : the latter was often covered 
with an awiiing. They were steered not 
by rudders hinged to the stern-post, but 
by two large oars or paddles, one on each 
side the stern. These, like other oars, 
rested in a rowlock, being secured by a 
thong or iron clamp ; or, if the ship had 
stern galleries, the oars were usually passed 
throngh them. This mode of steering was 
customary till the end of the thirteenth or 
beginning of the fourteenth century. Small 
boats and river craft were steered by a 



single oar. Ancient vessels were rigged with 
great simplicity. There was, generally 
speaking, but a single mast, on which was 
one great square sail fastened to a long 
yard : there was also a small sail at the Ijow. 
It was this fore-sail which was set, and not 
the ' main-sail ' as in our version (xxvii. 40), 
wlicn St, Paul's ship was" to be run ashore. 
Sometimes there were more masts similarly 
rigged as the single one ; and there were 
supernumerary sails. Sails were strength- 
ened by bunds of rope sewed across them. 
The anchors were rioarly the same as those 
of the i)resent day, excepting that they had 
not flukes attached to the extremities of 
the arms. The reason why the vessel an- 
chored by the stern was that the crew were 
afraid of drifting on the rocks to leeward 
(29) ; and, besides, the intention was to cut 
the cables and beach the ship as soon as it 
was daylight. It must also be remembered 
(as alcove observed) that the stem and stern 
were alike, and the rudders were lifted out 
of the water or unshipped, so that the rud- 
der-port or rudder-case answered the pur- 
pose of a hawse-hole. A ship was, further, 
furnislu'd witii a boat. This at llrst was 
towed along ])ehind in St. Paul's vessel, ljut 
was hoisted aboard (with some difficulty) 
when the foul weather came on (16). In 
this boat afterwards the sailors intended to 
quit the ship ; but, on St. Paul's hint to the 
centurion and his men, these last cut the 
ropes and let the l)oat fall away (30-.32). 

Ancient navigation was practised under 
great disadvantages. Without a compass 
it was necessary to keep as near the land as 
possiljle-; and ships were often anchored at 
night (XX. l.'i, 10, xxi. 1), and laid up for the 
winter ( xxvii. 12;. Still they ventured 
across the sea, out of sight of land : the 
mariners were skilful in handling a vessel 
in bad weather: they could sail within 
seven points of the wind : they seem to 
have had some mode of keeping the log : 
they used soundings (28) ; and it has been 
supposed that with a fair breeze they could 
go seven knots an hour. Undergirding a 
ship (17) is occasionally practised in modern 
times ; and Mr. Smith gives instances in 
which it has been done by passing a stream- 
cable under the bottom (pp. 104-106). 

It must further be noticed that in our 
Lord's time fishermen's boats, called ' ships' 
in our version, abounded on the sea of 
Cralilee : now. Dr. Thomson tells us, there is 
I but a single crazy skiff upon the lake {ubi 
supr., p. 403). The * pillow ' on which Christ 
was on one occasion sleeping in the stern 
(Mark iv. 38) was the boatman's cushion. 

Many sea-phrases and nautical words 
occur in scripture, not only in the parts 
where voyages are described, but else- 
where, as when St. Paul,who knew perfectly 
well the horrors of shipwreck (2 Cor. xi.25), 
describes some heretics as having, ' con- 
cerning faith, made shipwreck ' (1 Tim. i. 19). 

SHIPH'I (abundant). A Simeouite chief 
(1 Chron. iv. 37). 

SHIPH'MITE. An inhabitant probably 
of Siphmorh d Chron. xxvii. 27). 

SHIPH'PtAH (beauty). One of the mid- 
wives in Egypt who refused to execute 
Pharaoh's command (Exod, i. 15). 



shiphtan] 



828 



SniPH'TAN (jiidiciaT). The father of the 
Ephraimite chief appointed to assist in the 
division of Canaan (Numb, xxxiv. 24). 

SHI'SHA {habitation, or perhaps a cor- 
ruption of Seraiah) (1 Kings iv. 3). See 
Seraiah, 1. 

SHI'SIIAK (the meaning is very uncer- 
tain). A king of Egypt to whom, a-t the 
close of Solomon's reign, Jeroboam fled (1 
Kings xi. 40). In the Qfth year of Eeho- 
l)oam Shishak invaded Judah with a vast 
army, capturing the fenced cities in his 
way and occupying Jerusalem. He plun- 
dered the temple and the royal treasury, and 
probably made the Judean kingdom for a 
while dependent upon Egypt (xiv. 25, 2G ; 2 
Chron. xii.,2-9). There can hardly be a doubt 
that this Egyptian monarcli was Rliesh<mk 
I., the first ot dynasty XXI. of Tanito-Bu- 
l)astites (or XXII.) His accession has l>een 
assigned to the year 978 B.C. : and he is sup- 
posed to havereigned twenty-oneyears. But 
it is probable that he had reigned sometime 
in LowerEgypt before he became master of 
Thebes (see Palmer's Egypt. Chronicles, pp. 
241-245, 899). The monuments at Karnak 
represent Sheshonk as presenting to the 
Theban trinity the chiefs of a great number 
of conquered nations. Amonp them may be 
observed one with a remarkably Jewish 
physiognomy, and an inscription Judaha- 
inalek. This may mean 'the kingdom of 
Judah ;' ajid Ilehoboam probably is intend- 
ed (see llEHOnoAM, p. 755 ; and com p. "Wil- 
kinson's Anc. L'ui/ptians, vol. i. pp. i:;6, 137). 

SniTRA'K scribe). One of David's chief 
herdmen (1 Chron. xxvii. 29). 

SniT'TAH-TREE. By this terra the 
acacia is generally understood. Shitt'nn is 
the Hebrew plural form : consequently 
shittim-wood is the wood of the shittah- 
tree. Offerings were made of this for the 
construction of the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 
5, XXXV. 7, 24); and it was evidently consi- 
dered of value, as a gospel promise was given 
that it should be planted in the wilderness 
(Isai. xli. 19). But there are several species 
of acacia ; and it is doubtful which of them 
was meant. The Acacia scijal grows abun- 
dantly in the Sinaitic peninsula ; and a 
good deal of aum-arabic is obtained from 
it. But ic would hardly yield boards of the 
size required for the tabernacle. The wild 
acacia, Mimosa Nilotica, or Acacia vera, is 
also found in the mountains of Sinai ; and 
this, now called siimt. is popularly identified 
in the east with the burning-bush. Its bark 
is covered with large black thorns : the wood 
thoueh light is hard, resembling ebony 
when old; and the kernels of its fruit are 
said to be used in dyeing -leather red. 
Another species, Acacza serzssa, grows to a 
considerable size. It is found in Egypt, 
but is not known to occur in the peninsula 
of Sinai. Dr. Livingstone suggests that 
the tree in question might be the Acacia 
giraffa, camel-thorn. But a writer in 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. lii. pp. 1295, 
1''96, believes that the tabernacle boards 
were not necessarily each of a single plank. 
They might then be supplied fi'om the 
Acacia seiiaJ. ^ . 

SHIT'TIM iacacias).—l Csnmh. xxv. i, 
Josh. il. 1, iii. 1 ; Mic. vi. 5). See Abel- 



SHiTTiiT.— 2. A valley of Shittim is men- 
tioned in Joel iii. 18. It was most likely on 
the western side of Jordan : some interpre- 
ters believe it the valley of the Kidron. It 
may be simply meant that a dry valley- 
acacias love a drj' soil— shall become well- 
watered. 

Miss Corbaux, in her interesting disqui- 
sition on the llephalm, speaks of Sheth as 
an Egyptian deity, brother of Osiris, repre- 
sented on the monuments with the head of 
a fabulous long-snouted animal, whose ears 
are square at the top. His peculiar olTlce 
was to help by teaching ; and he appears to 
have been identified with Thoth. Eventu- 
ally Sheth was considered as the foe of 
Osiris : his figure became an object of aver- 
sion, and was erased from the sacred 
edifices (Joum. of Sacr. Lit, Oct. 1852, pp. 
98-103). The reason of this is to be found 
in the fact that Sheth was the tutelar .god 
of the Emim (enemies to the Egyptians) ; 
and from him their land and tribe took tlieir 
name, Shittim, or Shetta'n, the land of Shet, 
not merely a city but a large region. Miss 
Corbaux refers to Egyptian documents 
which record the wars between the Shas'u 
and the Shefta and various Egyptian king; . 
at a period probably anterior to the time of 
Moses ; but her own account must be con^ 
suited for the details (iibi s^tpr., Jan. pp. 367- 
3S-t, Apr. 1852, pp. 55-80). Bonar adopts the 
same view (The Land of Promise, pp. 286, 
287). Certainly Kumb. xxiv. 17 may so be 
best explained. 
SHIT'TIM-WOOD. See SniTTAH-TREE. 
SHI'ZA (beloved). A Ptcubenite, father of 
one of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi. 42). 

SHO'A (opulent). Probably used to signify 
the wealth of the Babylonians (Ezek. xxiil. 
23). See Pekod. Palmer regards it as a 
place on the confines of Babylon, Tsnkha 
(^Egypt. Clircm., vol. ii. app. p. 1001). 

SHO'BAB (apostate).— \. One of David's 
sons, born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 14; 1 
Chron. iii, 5, xiv. 4).— 2. A descendant of 
Judah; son of Caleb, Hezron's son (ii. 18). 

SHO'BACH (pouring). The commander 
of the forces of Hadarezer, king of Zobah. 
He was defeated and slain by David (2 Sam. 
X. 16, 18). He is also called Shophach (1 
Chron. xix. 16, 18). 

SHOBA'I (taking captive). One whose de- 
scendants, porters, returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 42 ; Keh. vii. 45). 

SHO'BAL (flowing, or a shoot 1).—!: One of 
the sons of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvl. 20, 
23, 29 ; 1 Chron. i. 38, 40).— 2. A descendant 
of Judah, said to be ' father ' or founder of 
Kirjath-jearim (ii. 50, 52).— 3. Also a de- 
scendant of Judah, probably identical with 
jS'o. 2 (iv. 1, 2). 

SHO'BEK (forsaking). One who sealed 
the covenant (Xeh. x. 24). 

SHO'BI (taking captive). A distinguished 
Ammonite, son of Xahash (apparently the 
king), who aided David in Absalom's rebel- 
lion with supplies (2 Sam. xvii. 27). 

SHO'CHO, SHO'CHOH, ^^O' CO (branches, 
hedge) (1 Sam. xvii. 1 ; 2 Chron. xi. 7, xxvlii. 
1S\ See SocoH. 

SHOE. In transferring a possession it 
was customary to deliver a shoe (Ptuth iv. 7), 
hence the action of throwing down a shoe 



829 



[SHUSHAN 



tipou a territory Implied its occupation and 
lordsliip; the expression therefore (Psal. Ix. 
8, cviii. 9) may be explained : ' I have taken 
possession of Edom.' See Sandal. 

SIIO'HAM {onyx or sardonyx). AMcrarite 
Levifc (1 Chron. xxiv. 27). 

SU0'3IER (a keeper).—!. The father of 
one of the assassins of king Joash (2 Kings 
xii. 21). In 2 Chron. xxiv. 26 tlie mother Is 
called Shimrith.— 2. A chieftain of Asher (1 
Cliron, vii. 32), given also as Shamer (34). 

SllO'MEIlON (1 Kings xvi. 24, marg.). 
Saniiiria. 

SliO'PnACH (pouring) (1 Chron. xix. 16, 
18). See SiiOBACir. 

BHO'PHAN. This word should be joined 
■^ ith the preceding word (Numb, ixxii. 35) 
Soe ATfiOTii. 

snOSIIAN'NIM (liliea). An expression 
found in the titles of Psalms xlv., Ixix. 
Most probably it implies a direction that 
those psalms should be sung to the tune or 
melody of some wcll-knowu poem, enti- 
tled 'Tlio Lilies.' 

SIIOSIIAN'.NlM-E'DUTn (lilies of the 
coft7j(u;0 (Psal. Ixxx., title). A similar direc- 
tion is implied with that noted al)ove. 

SHOVEL (Isai. xxx. 24). See Fan. 

SHRINES (Acts xix. 24). Small models 
of the celebrated temple of the Ephesi:ui 
Artemis, with her statue, which it was 
the custom to carry on journeys, and place 
I in houses as a charm (Alford). 
I SUU'A (wcallh).—!. The father-in-law of 
i Judah (1 Chron. ii. 3), called also Shuah 
(Gen. xxxviii. 2, 12).— 2. A daughter of the 
house of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 32). 

SHU'AH (a piO.—l. One of the sons of 
Al)raham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2). Possi- 
t'ly his descendants occupied the district 
called Sakka?a, eastward of Batanea.— 2. 
See Shua, 1.— 3. A name in the genealogies 
of Judidi (1 Chron. iv. 11) : it has been sup- 
posed the same with Hushah (4). 

SIIU'AL (a/ea; or jackul). A chieftain of 
Asher (1 Chron. vii. 30). 

SnU'AL {id.). A district a Sam. xiii. 17), 
possibly the same as Shalim (ix. 4). 

SRJJ'BA'EL (captive 0/ God).— 1 (1 Chron. 
xxiv. 20). See Skebuel, 1.— 2 (xxv. 20). See 

SUEBUEL, 2. 

SHU 'HAM dnt'digger ?). A son of Dan 
(Numb. xxvi. 42) ; he is called Hushim in 
Gen. xlvi. 23. 

SHU'HAMITES. A family of Dan, de- 
scended from Shuham (Numb. xxvi. 42). 

SHU'HITE. Probably a descendant of 
Shuah, son of Abraham by Keturah (Job ii. 
11, viii. 1, xvii. 1, xxv. 1, xlii. 9). Eawlinson 
is inclined to identify the Shuhites with 
the Tsukhi, a people on both sides of the 
Euphrates above Hit :.see Shoa. 

SHU'LAMITE (pacific). A symbolical 
name given to a maiden in Solomon's Song 
(Sol. Song xi. 13). It is considered by some 
critics equivalent to Shuuammite, i.e. a 
native of Shunem. See Solomon, Song of. 

SHU'MATHITES. The designation of a 
family or tribe, derived from a word signi- 
fying ' garlic' (1 Chron. ii. 53) : nothing is 
known of it. 

SHU'NAJJIMITE. An inhabitant of Shu- 
nem (1 Kings i. 3. 15, ii. 17, 21, 22: 2 Kings 
\y. 12, 25, 36). 



SHU'NEM (two rcstlng^laces). A city in 
the territory of Issachar (Josh. xix. 18; 1 
Sam. xxviii. 4 ; 2 Kings iv. 8). It was the 
native place of Abishag, David's concubine, 
and of the«wealthy lady who built a room 
for Elisha, and whose son the prophet re- 
stored to life. It is now a village called 
Sulam, on a declivity at the western ex 
tremity of Jebel ed-Duhy (Little Hermon 
over against Zer'iu. 

SHU'NI (quiet). A son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 
16 ; Numb. xxvi. 15). 

SHU'NITES. A family of the Gadites, 
descended from Shuni (Numb. xxvi. 15). 

SUUTHAM (serpent ?). A son or grandson 
of Benjamin (Numb. xxvi. 39). Ho is called 
Muppim (Gen. xlvi. 21) and Shephuphau (1 
Chron. viii. 5). See Snuppm, l. 

SHU'PHAMITES. A family of Benjamin, 
descended from Shupham (Numb. xxvi. 39). 

SHUP'PIM (serpents).—!. A Benjamite (1 
Chron. vii. 12), possibly the same with 
Shupham. It is not quite clear in what 
degree of relationship he stood to Benja- 
min. Lord A. llervey believes that he was 
Benjamin's son, but that his family were 
afterwards reckoned with that of which Ir, 
Benjamin's grandson, was chief.— 2. A Le- 
vite porter (xxvi. IC). 

SHUll (a fort). A desert on the south- 
west of Palestine (Gen. xvi. 7) bordering 
upon Gerar and Kadesh (xx. 1), extending 
to the boundaries of Egypt (xxv. 18 ; 1 Sam. 
XV. 7, xxvii. 8). It was peopled by Arabian 
tribes, and was partially traversed by the 
Israelites in their march from the point 
where they crossed the Red sea to Marah 
and Elim (Exod. xv. 22). This appears to 
be the modern wilderness el Dshifdr, ex- 
tending between the Mediterranean and 
the Red sea, on the west and north-west of 
et-Tih from Pclusium to the south-west 
frontier of Palestine. Wilton thinks that 
• the well or station of Shur may be looked 
for in the direction of the Jebel es-Sur, east 
of Suez, while the wilderness of Shur ap- 
pears tojiave been identical with the present 
pasture-grounds of the Arab tribe Terabin, 
extending from the mountains near Suez 
to the region of Gaza' (TlieNegeh, p. 0). This 
desert consists of white shifting sand, with 
few towns in it, and is seven days' journey 
in length. It does not, however, extend 
so far southward as the ancient Shur. See 
Winer, Bihl. RWB., art. 'Schur.' 

SHU'SHAN- (a lily). A very celebrated 
city, called by the Greeks Susa, in the pro- 
vince of Elam or Elymais, a portion of the 
ancient Susiana. There are various ac- 
coimtsof its origin, sufficiently showing, by 
the very diversity, that it must have existed 
at an early period. It appears to have been 
taken by Ashur-bani-pal, who filled the 
Assyrian throne about 650 B.C. Afterwards^ 
625, N'abopolassar possessed himself of 
Susiana. Abradates, the king of Susa, 
joined Cyrus, who occupied ic after the 
death of Abradates. But it seems to have 
been restored to Babylon— Mr. Loftus sug- 
gests by truce— at the time of Cyrus's mar- 
riage. For Daniel was there in Belshazzai-'s 
reign, apparently in some post of authority, 
possibly governor (Dan. viii. 1, 2, 27). Some, 
however, have thought that there were two 



shushan-edtjth] 



830 



places of the name ; but this is imrrobable. 
L'nder the Per^-ian monarchy Susa was one 
of the royal cities ; the sovereign usually 
residing there three months in the early 
part of^the year. Shushan or Susa is fre- 
quently mentioned in scripture. Ischcmiah 
was in waiting on Artaxerxes there when 
he learned the sad story of the desolation 
of Jerusalem (Neh. i.). It was at Shush au 
that most of the events recorded in the 
book of Esther occurred. See AiiASUEiirs, 
2. Alexander the Great found vast wealth 
iu Susa after the battle of Arbcla. It sub- 
sequentlv often changed hands : it was one 
of the ch'ief cities of the Parthian Arsacida% 
and of the Sassanian kings of Persia : it 
was taken by the Mohammedan?, GIO A.T). 
It afterwards decayed ; and its .^^ite is now 
but a mass of ruinous mounds, called 
Shush. 

Mr. Loftus has examined these mounds, 
and described the results of his investiga- 
tion. Two considerable rivers, the Kcrkhah 
(Choaspes, the left branch of which was 
called the Eulanis, the Ulai of Dan. viii. 2 : 
see Tlai), and that of Dizful (Coprate>) ap- 
proach at rich t-angles, nearly meet,andthcn 
recede. At ithe spot of their closest approxi- 
mation stand the mounds of Shush, three 
quarters of a mile from the river Kerkhah, 
and a mile and half from that of Dizful : 
they occupy an area of three and a-half miles 
in circumference, on the eastern side of a 
small stream, the Shaour (Shapur), which 
falls into the river of Dizful. On the verge 
of the Shaour, at the western base of the 
ruins, is the tomb as it is called of the pro- 
phet Daniel, who, according to Josejdius 
{Antiq., lib. x. 12, § 7), did build a castle at 
Ecbatana, which has been supposed an error 
for Susa. Be this as it may, the structure 
here is of a much later date. 

The principal remains consist of four 
large platforms or masses distinctly sepa- 
rated from each other. That most to the 
west is the smallest in extent. It is in the 
shape of an irregular triangle, composed of 
gravel, earth, and sun-dried bricks. There 
is a depression in the centre, and traces of 
brickwork may be perceived. The measure- 
ment round the summit is 2,850 feet : the 
northern point, the highest in the ruins, 
is 119 feet above the Shaour, On the south- 
west slope is a limestone fragment, part it 
would seem of au obelisk on v/hich are in- 
scriptions. This mound, called MVa, or 

castle, has been supposed to be the citadel. 
East of this is the central great platform, 
about 60 acres in extent: its eastern face 
extends 3000 feet. More to the east are 
ruins, probably of the general mass of the 

city, sinking gradually to the level of the 

plain. 

Besides these three masses there is a 
considerable square mound to the north, 
indicatina: a large and important quarter. 
Excayations made here have disclosed an 
extraordinary structure— a noble palace, 
erected, there is reason to believe, by Darius 
Hystaspis and his successors. To this, possi- 
blv, the phrase ' Sliushan the palace' may 
sp'ecially apply. In this palace was a great 
haU, consisting of several magnificent 



feet 9 inches, and a depth of 244 feet. The 
groups are arranged into a central phalanx 
of six rows of six columns, thirty-six iu 
all, flanked (at a distance of 04 feet 2 
inches) west, north, and east by three 
double rows of six columns iu each row. 
Those in the central group have square 
bases, the others have them bell-shaped. 
Many, if not all, of the colunms had double 
bull capitals ; and on some of the pedestals 
were inscriptions with trilingual cuneiform 
records of Artaxerxes •Mneinon. It is not 
unreasonable to l>elieve that these colon- 
nades were ' the court of the garden of the 
king's palace' with its 'pillars of marble' 
(Esth. i. 5, 6), where Ahasuerus held his 
feast (Chahiea, chap, xxviii. pp. 304-380). 

There are no traces discoverable of the 
walls of Shushan. Wild beasts and game 
(lions, wolves, foxes, red-legged partridges, 
(fee, &c,) abound ; and in the heats of sum- 
mer CA'erything is dry and parched ; but at 
the beginning of the year there is rich ve- 
getation. • It is ditncult to conceive,' says 
Mr. Loftus, • anything more imposing than 
Susa as it stood In the days of its Kayanian 
splendour— its great citadel and columnar 
ediliccs raising their stately heads above 
groves of date, konar, and lemon-trees, sur- 
rounded by rich pastures and golden seas 
of corn, and backed by the distant snow- 
clad mountains. Neither Babylon nor Per- 
scpolis could compare with Susa in position, 
watered by lier noble rivers, producing 
croi»s without irrigation, clothed with grass 
in spring, and within a moderate journey of 
a delit-'htiul summer clime. Susa vied with 
Babylon in the riches which the Euphrates 
conveyed to her stores ; while Persepolis 
must have been inferior both in point of 
commercial position and picturesque ap- 
pearance' (Wid.,i\ 347: see chap. xxvi. pp. 
335-.'i4fe(. 

SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH(h7i/ o/f/ie testimony). 
The name of some ode or poem, according 
to the tune of which the psalm (Ix., title), to 
which these words are prefixed, was to be 
sung. 

SHU'THALHITES. A family of Ephraim, 
descendants of Shuthelah rNumb. xxvi. 35). 

SHU'THELAH inoise of breakijig). One 
of the sons of Ephraim (Numb. xxvi. 35, 36 ; 

1 Chron. vii. 20, 21). See Ephraim, p. 269. 
SHUTTLE f Job vii. 6). See Weaving. 
SI'A, SI'AHA (congrerjation). One whose 

descendants, Nethinim, returned with 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 44 : Neh. vii. 47). 

SIB'BECAI, SIB'BECHAI (thicket of Je- 
hovah). One of David's warriors who killed 
Saph a Philistine giant (2 Sam. xxi. 18 ; 1 
Chron. xi. 29, xx. 4, xxvii. 11). In the list of 

2 Sam. xxiii. 27 he is called Mebunnai. 
SIB'BOLETH (ear of grain) (Judges xii. 

6). See Shibboleth. 

SIB'MAH (coolness or fragrance). A city 
on the east of the Jordan assigned to the 
Pteubenites, by whom it was built or fortified 
(Josh. xiii. 19). At a later period it seems 
to have been possessed by the Moabites 
(Isai. xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 32). Sibmah was 
close to Heshbou, and was noted for the ex- 
cellence of its grapes. The vine ?s still 
cultivated in those parts. It is also called 



groups of'' columns, with a frontag'e of" 343 \ Shebam (Numb. xxxu. 3) and Bhibmah (38) 



831 



[SIDON 



^^}^^^^^^^(f]<'-^;(^^<i^iope). A city between [ 28). Tliat tribe, however, never Dosses«ed 
.^^ri fn^",' L*'"^^ ^^T^^^' ^1^'^'- IG): it (Judges 1. 31): indeed, til 

S c"(^[ITir'r';^ 'm ''a . >. , v.. , ^■•'^^''^^ ^'^^ ^^^^ Hebrews In Bubject on 
SlCCUnr (a tmt). A tabernacle jvhlch I 3, x. IL'). They were luxurious in their 

li'i1>its cxviii. 7), celebrated for their manu- 
factures and works of art and also for their 
commerce (1 Kings v. C ; 1 Chron. xxii. 4, 
Ezra iil. 7). It seems clear from the pas- 



the Idolatrous Israelites are thought to 
have constructed in the desert for the wor- 
s=hlp of an idol, like the tabernacle of the 
covenant according to the command of Je- 
hovah (Amos V. 2(1, marg.). Sec KEMPnAX. 

SI'CHEM {the slwuldcr-bhule) (Geu. xii. G). 
See SiiEciiK.Af. 

SK'KLK (Dent. xvi. 9, xxiil. 25 ; Jcr. l.ic: 
Joel 111. 13 ; ]Mark iv. 29 ; Rev. xiv. 14, 15, 16, 
17, 18, 19). Sec AonrcuLTuitE. 

SIC'YON (1 Mace, x v. 23). A city of Pelo- 
ponnesus on the south coast of the gulf of 
Corinth, near the eastern extremity. The 
old town was on tlie coast, and became the 
port to the now city built a short distance 
Inland. 

SID'DDI (rt dcimnsion/nll nf stones'!). A 
valley in which i)rol)ably stood the cities of 
Sodom and Gomorrah: it was certainly the 
scene of the defeat of the nvc kings by 
their eastern foes : It Is said to have been 
, full of asphalt-pits, and has generally been 
I believed to be partially if not wholly occu- 
pied by the Dead sea (tien. xiv. 3, 8, 10). This 
belief, liowevcr, is most probably errone- 
ous ; and the vale of Siddim may yet exist 
near the sea, perhaps to the north of it ; 
but the district once so fertile is now bar- 
ren and desolate. See Sodom, Zoar. It 
may be added that :Miss Corbaux would 
Identify Siddim with Sliittim, the land of the 
Emim (Jonni. of Sacr. Lit., Jan. 1852, p. 379). 

5/'Z)ii' (1 Mace. XV. 23). A city on the coast 
of Pamphylia. It was a place of import- 
ance; and there are now considerable re- 
mains. 

SI'DON (flsliing, fishery). Sidon, Tsidon, 
or Zidon, is said to have been the flrst-born 
of Canaan (Gen. x. 15 ; 1 Chron. 1. 13). But it 
Is questionable whether the name was 
borne by any individual. 

SI'DON {id.). An ancient and most noted 
rhoenician town, with a good haven 
(Acts xivil. 3), situated on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, on the northern slope 
of a small promontory which juts out into 
the sea from a low plain, not two miles 
broad, between the Lebanon and the sea. On 
the hill behind, on the south, stood the cita- 
del. It is not quite twenty miles north of 
Tyre, and about twice that distance south 
Dt Berytus or Beirut. Sidon is very gene- 
rally associated in the sacred writings Avith 
Tyre; and it has been beneved to be the more 
ancient of the two, and also thouixht that the 
younger city was a colony front the older. 
In corroboration of this are the facts that 
Sidon is said to have been the flrst-born of 
Canaan (Gen. x. 15), and is referred to as 
great,' implying then its superiority to 
Tyre (Josh. xi. 8, xix. 28). We find the 
Phoenicians called Sidoniaus rxiii, 6 ; Judges 
x>-iii. 7), and the distant town of Laish 
reckoned as de^peudent not on Tyre but upon 
Sidon (28). Possibly also the expression of 
Isaiah may be interpreted as confirming 
this view (Isai, xxiii. 2). 

On the division of Canaan among the Is- 
raelites, the inheritance of Asher is de- 
scribed as reaching up to Sidon (Josh. xix. 



the pas- 
sages last referred to, and others, that in 
David's time Sidon was subordinate to 
Tyre ; and frequently when theSidoniansare 
mentioned we must suppose that the word 
(as above noted) is used generally, in conse- 
quence of Sidon's earlier supremacy, for 
Phoenicians (1 Kings xi. l, 5, 33, xvi. 31 : 
2 Kings xxiii. 13), including, at all events, 
the residents not merely of the town but 
in the district ; and it seems to have fur- 
nished mariners to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 
8). When the Assyrian king Shalmaneser 
nivaded Phcenieia, Sidon, it is likely, 
freed itself from the yoke of Tyre ; and 
thenceforward we read of kings of sidon 
(Jer. XXV. 22, xxvii. 3). They could hardly, 
however, have been independent; and pt-r- 
haps by sul^mitting to Nebuchadne/zar the 
Sidouians were enriched at the expense of 
Tyre. Indisputably Sidon nourished under 
the Chaldean and Persian dominion ; and 
secular writers speak highly of its prosper- 
ity. It revolted against Artaxerxes Ochus, 
and was well-nigh destroyed. It arose, 
however, from its ruins, subsequently took 
part with Alexander the Great against 
Persia, had its vassal princes, and after 
Alexander's death was subject sometimes 
to the Syrian, sometimes to the Egyptian 
kings, but flourished as a place of trade till 
both Sidon and Tyre (the old rivalry not 
(|uite extinct) fell under the Roman power. 
In Xew Testament times we find it men- 
tioned. Our Lord approached it (Matt. xv. 
21 ; Mark vii. 21) ; though we liave no rea- 
son to believe that he ever actually entered 
the city. He also held up Tyre and Sidon 
as likely to have rejKMited, had the mighty 
W(jrks done in Choraziu and Bethsaida been , 
done in them (Luke x. 13, 14). Doubtless I 
ultimately the gospel was preached there. 
For we find Paul, when the vessel in which ! 
he was sailing touched at Sidon, visiting ' 
friends, that is. Christians in the city (Acta ' 
xxvii. 3). Sidon still exists under the name 
of Saida, and looks beautiful among her 
fruitftd orchards. Dr. Thomson estiraatea 
the population at about 10,000, and savs that 
they export tobacco, oil, fruit, and silk {Tlie 
Land and the Book, pp. 108, 109). 

The language of the Sidonians is men- 
tioned in Deut. iii. 9 : it must have been 
Phoenician : their worship was idolatry, Ash? 
toreth being called, in some of the passages 
referred to above, their 'goddess.' Both 
these points have lately received remark- 
able confirmation. On Jan. 20, 1855, a sarco- 
phagus was discovered near Sidon. It had 
an inscription in Phoenician, which has been 
translated : from this it appears that the 
body deposited there was that of Ashmuna- 
zer king of the Sidonians, whose mother was 
a priestess of Ashtoreth. This king, it 
seems, possessed Dor and Joppa, and some 
of the corn-lands of Dan, having extended 
his authority along the coast of the Medi' 



SIDOKIA^'S] 



832 



terraneali. This prince lived perhaps in 
the eleventh century B.C. Dr. Thomson, 
who was in Sidon when the sarcophagus 
was discovered, has described it (pp. 137- 
140). It is now in the Louvre. 

SIDO'NIAIS'S (Deut. iii. 9 ; Josh. xiii. 4, 6 ; 
Judges iii. 3 ; 1 Kings v. 6 ; 2 ELings xxiii. 
13). The iuhabitants of Sidon. Zidonians 
(Judges X. 12, xviii. 7 ; l Kings xi. 1, 5, 33, 
xvi. 31 ; 1 Chron. xxii. 4 ; Ezek. xxxii. 30). 

SIEGE. See AVar. 

SIGN. A ' sign ' or a ' wonder ' was often 
given to authenticate the commission of a 
prophet (Exod. vii. 3). Of the two Uebrew 
words used, 0th and viOi'hcth, the last, if a 
distinction is made, has a more restricted 
meaning, referring only to something fu- 
ture, while the former applies also to the 
past or present. A 'sign' sometimes be- 
tokens the fulfilment of a prediction (1 
Kintrs xiii. 3, 5\ or is just the prediction 
itself (Exod. iii. 12) ; sometimes it signifies 
an extraordinarj' appearance, the fore- 
runner of a great event (Luke xxi. 11, 25). 

SIGNET cGen. xxxviii. 18, 25; Exod. 
xxviii. 11, 21, 3G, xxxix. 6, 14, 30 ; Jer. xxii. 
24 ; Dan. vi. 17 ; Ilagg. ii. 23). See Seal. 

SI'HON {sicceplng owaij). An Amoritish 
king who reigned at Heshbon, over a terri- 
tory (conquered from Moab) to the east of 
the Jordan, extending from the Arnon to 
the Jabbok. lie had established himself 
also in the country formerly occupied by 
llephaim tribes, subdued and broken by 
wars with Egypt. The Isnu-lites proposed 
in vain to pass peaceably through his do- 
minions. Sihon was consequently defeated 
and slain, and his land taken po.ssession of 
(Numb. xxi. 21-30 ; Deut. i. 4, ii. 24-32), and 
assigned to the tribes of Reuben and Gad 
(Josh. xiii. 15-29). Comp. Jer. xlviil. 45. 

SI'HOR (Uackt turbid\ This word, spelt 
also Shihor, occurs in but a few places of 
scripture ; in some it is without any ad- 
junct (Isai. xxiii. 3 ; Jer. ii. 18\ in others 
with the addition, • which is before Egypt,' 
or ' of Egypt ' (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 5). 
In all these plnces a river is meant ; and it 
has been supposed that this river must 
alwavsbe the Nile. But It can hardly be 
believed that Jushua meant to tell the 
Israelites that they were to occupy the 
country so far westward as to the eastern 
branch of the Nile. Nor is there a shadow 
of proof that David's dominions were of 
such extent that his subjects had to be 
summoned to a national solemnity from the 
banks of the Nile. His conquests— most of 
them made at a later date— were chiefly 
in other directions. It is a more rational 
belief that by the ' SLhor which Is before 
Egrpt' and the ' Shihor of Egypt' we are 
to understand a more easterly stream, the 
modern Wady el-Arish, as the south-western 
boundary of Canaan. But, where Sihor is 
used absolutely, it is the Nile. 

There are other words and expressions 
employed in scripture for the same great 
streain. Thus yeOr, which appears to be an 
Egyptian word, probably that in early com- 
mon use, almost always when in the singu- 
lar denotes the Nile (e. g. Gen. xli. l ; Exod. 
L 22, ii. 3, Tii. 1, 15, 18 ; Isai. xxiii. 3 ; Amos 
Ylii. 8 ] where in our translation it is usually 



* river,' sometimes * flood'). In Dan. xii. 5, 
6 7, however, this word designates some 
other river, possibly the Tigris. In the 
plural (Isai. vii. 18, xix. 6, where * brooks of 
defence') the canals of Egypt or branches 
of the Nile are meant. But the common in- 
terpretation of ytor is questioned by a 
writer in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. in. 
PP 1010, 1011 : he would understand rather 
the lied sea. The 'river (nnhar) of Egypt* 
in Gen. xv. 18 is very probably the Nile : see 
Kalisch, Comm. on Old Tcsf. (?€)!., p. 371 ; and 
Abraham's posterity including other tribes 
than those of Israel reached to it; but 
the . same expression elsewhere in our 
version (Numb, xxxiv. 5 ; Josh. xv. 4, 47 ; 
1 Kings viii. 65 ; 2 Kings xxiv. 7 ; Isai. xxvil. 
12, 'stream'), where a different word, 
nahhal, occurs In the original, is perhaps 
always identical with the 'Sihor of Egypt, 
the Wad)j d-Arisli. ' The rivers of Ethiopia 
(Isai. xviii. 1) mustbe the tributaries of the 
Nile in the upper part of its course. 

There are references to the Nile in various 
parts of scripture. They are frequent in the 
Pentateuch. The Nile-water is generaUy 
drunk by the Egyptians, and is considered 
peculiarly delicious : the plague of turning 
the water of the river into blood must, 
therefore, have been grievously felt (Exoci. 
vii "0 21). And, as the Nile abounded Witt 
n«^h tiie destruction of them was a severe 
visitation (Psal. cv. 29). These flsh were re- 
gretted by the Israelites in the wilderness 
(Numb. xi. 5). The crocodile, now found 
only in the upper part of the Nile, was 
formerlv common in Lower Egypt. Hence 
Ezekiel denounced judgments against riia- 
raoh 'the great dragon that lieth in the 
midst of his rivers' (Ezek. xxix. 3). The 
inundations of the Nile are also referred to 
f Jer xlvi. 7, 8 ; Amos viii. 8, ix. 5). Perhaps 
it might have been better to retain theterm 
' Nile ' in these and other passages : Wlio is 
this thatcomethupastheNile?'&c. These 
are but specimens of the numerous allu- 
sions to this celebrated stream. In the New 
Testament it is not mentioned ; though, as 
Je^us was carried down into Egypt (Matt, 
ii 13-15), he probably dwelt on its bank. 

Any account here given of it must be 
brief. It flows out of the lakes Albert and 
Victoria Nyanza. This, the main stream, 
is the Bahr-el-Alnad or White ^lle. At 
Khartoom it is joined by the Bahr-el-AzraJc 
or Blue Nile, which rises in the mountains 
of Abyssinia and brings down much alluvial 
coiL It receives other streams, flows over 
cataracts or rapids, and entering Egypt 
is divided a short distance below Cairo in- 
to two great branches, which water what 
is caUed the Delta and empty themselves 
into the Mediterranean. It is named by the 
Egyptians Bahr or 'the river,' whUe the 
inundation is en-Xil: by the Arabs it is 
termed BaJir-en-Nil. 

A statement respecting the source of the 
Nile was made, Feb. 2, 1866, at the Hoyal 
Institution, by Mr. (now Sir) S. W. Baker. 
The substance of it is that Speke and Grant 
discovered an outlet from Victoria lake— 
the Somerset river, which flows into lake 
Albert, a great reservoir for the rivers 
generaUy of equatorial Africa. From tniB 



mblc ©notolclfttr. rsixoAM 


nic iNiio Ptarts, receiving only two Inipor 
tant tril.iir,arics before it readies Kh.irtoom 
A rainfall of ten niontlis in the intcrio 
cnal.Ic.s lake Albert to send clown to Etrvn 
a continuous volume of water : cl?e. with 
out the White Nile, no water would read 
Etjypt from the BhieNilein the dry season 
lint the Abyssinian rainy season in June 
ioods the Blue Nile and the Atbara : liencc 
the rush of water in these streams in June 
July, and August, added suddenly to the 
increased volume of the White Nile at that 
season, causes the inundation in Lower 

■;m,T\-?")^'v''! ^'■'^ ®- ^^''^^'^ statement 
1 >" ' Is iN lie Tributaries of Abyssinia, 1867 
Tiie annual inundation of the Nile isne- 
(••\^sary for the fertility of the soil. If the 
inundation fails, scarcity or famine is the 
consequence: if it is excessive, great In- 
jury is done to the cr.)ps, and disease nro- 
' need. The amount of rise is different at 
'litferent points ; at Cairo from 21 to 27 feet 
1 - good. Anciently, there were seven prin- 
npal branches of the river, two of these 
l elugsnld to be artificial : now these two 
'lie Damietta and liosettu branches, arc' 
the only ones navigable. Anciently the 
^ilo was bordered by flags and papyrus 
reeds, and abounded in water-plants : now 
tiiesc are almost extinct; and the fisheries 
are decayed Ifere, surely, is the accom- 
i , '^^^l",V£"'^ prophecy (Isai. xix. 5-S). 

SrilOU-LIB'xXATU. See Siimou-LiB- 

SI'LAS (contracted from Silvanus). An 
eminent person of the church at Jerusalem 

Vets XV. 22), who had the right of Roman 
' itizcnship, SilasintheActs,heisSilvanu3 

1 bc. Paul's epistles. He was a prophet (3''> 

;id acccimpanied Paul on his second mis- 
- mary ]ouniey through Asia Minor to Ma- 
cedonia (XV. 40-xvii. 4). He remained at 

rejoined hira at Corinth (xviii. 5 ; 1 Thes« 
1.1 ; - Tljcss. i. 1), where he probably con- 
tinued a while preaching the gospel ^2 Cor. 
1. 19) W hether the Silvanus by whom Peter 
sent his first epistle to the churches of Asia 
(1 i:9t- V- 12) was Silas has been 
ubted (Winer, BiblB. W.B., art. 'Silas') 
uc with no great reason. Some vainly 
wish to Identify Silas with Luke 
.3^^' substance procured from the 
cocoons of the Bombyx viori, a moth to 
vvhich the silkworm turns. Silk was first 
used in China. But it was not known in 
Europe, for many hundred years after the 
raw material was imported, whence it came 
In the sixth century after Christ, however' 
two Nestonau monks, having visited China 
onravelled the mystery. Silkworms then 
were long bred only in the Greek empire 
subsequently in Sicily, italv, and other 
countries In England the eggs are hatched 
early in May. The caterpillar, at first dark 
Is subsequently light. It arrives at matu- 
rity in about eight weeks, changing its skin 
several times. Its proper food is the mul- 
perry-leaf ; though it will eat lettuce and a . 
f^^^^H-'".?^''''- Silk occurs in our version 
^Stn f ^' j^a^f • Pro^- ^^^i. 22) ; but the ' 
wl? so rendered is elsewhere rightly trans- ^ 
'^"^ t"^"-'. 'T^ere is another word < 
tsed m Ezek. xvi. lo, 13 ; and the Hebrew c 


- interpreters understand by it a silken 
. garment; but according to Gesenius ir! 
' .i"^'''", ""^ thvcaa, stuff composed of 
. fine threads in New Testament times. 

- however, silk was certainly known, and is 
the substance intended in llev. xviii. 12 

hlLLA (fwig basket). Some place near 
the castle of Millo (2 Kings xii. 20). 
§ r nM?r ^:7'''^^'«^l>-iii-ir,). See SiLOAM. 
SILO AM {Id.), A pool close by Jerusalem 
I'-./i"- ^^V, Perhaps the neighbouring 
aibtr ct bore the same name ; and the tower 
which fell might be in that district (Luke 
xiu. 4) : at present there is a village of 
&iloam,or Silican, east of the Kidron. This 
pool IS called Shiloah (Isai. viii. G) ; and its 
waters are taken to represent the house of 
David, then humbled and of little power 
,nX\v.'^L*^'''^' despised, preferring the 
michtier kings of Israel or Syria ; therefore 
a mitrhty stream (it was predicted) should 
oy-rwhclm them, ' the king of Assvri.-v and 
all us glory (7). The site of Siloam is de- 
scribed (Neh. 111. 15) as ♦ by the king's gar- 
den which no doubt owed its fertilitv 
n'iii k'"" ^''^^'^^'^ Irrigating the 
neighbourhood. Siloam was connected with 
the sacred oOices ; water was drawn from it 
at the feast of tabernacles : see Isai. \'ii 3 • 
Johnvii.37. Of this Lightfoot says: 'When 
the parts of the sacrifice were laid on the 
altar, then was there this pouring-out of 
water upon the altar, but mingled with 
wine; and the manner thus: one of the 
priests with a golden tankard went to the 
fountain or pool of Siloam, and filled it 
there with water. He returned back again 
into the court, through that which is called 
the water-gate; and when he came there 
the trumpets sounded. He goeth up to the 
side of the altar, where stood two basins 
one with wine in it, and into the other he* 
puts the water; and he pours either the 
wino into the water, or the water into the 
wine, and then he pours them out hy way 

of libation At the time of this libation 

did the music and the song heerin ; and that 1 
song which they sung all the days of the 1 
feast was hallel; that being renewed daily 
as their hdabh or branches were renewed 
daily. When they came to the beginning of 
Psai cxviii., ' 0 give thanks unto the Lord ' 
all the company shook their branches . . 
Towards night they began ' the rejoicing 
for the drawing of the water,' which mirth 
they continued far in the night ; and this 
their rejoicing was of so high a jollity, 
that they say that he that never saw the 
rejoicing for the drawing of water never 
saw rejoicing aU his life. . . . Remarkable 
is that passage in the Jerusalem Talmud 
upon this question: Rabbi Levi saith • 
' Why is the name of it called the drawing 
of water ? Because of the pouring-out of the 
Holy Ghost, according to what is said. With 
oy shall ye draw water out of the. wells of 
salvation " ' (Temple Service, pp. 182-186). 

Siloam was not a fountain or a well: it wa^ 
i ic^ci \ uix fcuppiieu i.'j an aqueuuct 11 om a 
aigher source. It is likely that this source 
vas to the north of the city, perhaps that 
vhich Hezekiah stopped (2 Chron. xxxii. 3,4) 
conducting its stream to the reservoirs un- 
ier the temple area, whence channels have 



3.1LYANUS] 

^ -ee^dis^^overed leading to tlie f oiintain of 
t he Vimin, aud thence to tbe pool of bi- 
loam. Wiltou draws attention from this 
f ict to the expression of Isai. vm. 6. i nt 
vaters of Shiloah that go so/«y," or more 
7orrccx]y that go secretly, or by a cm W 
way, i.e. by subterraneous conduits' (.The 

'if 'present this pool, of the identity of 
^vhich there can be no doubt, is at the foot 
of Zion to the south-east of Jerusalem It 
is a small deep parallelogram, into which 
the water flows from under the rock = out 
of a smaller basin hewn out of the ku k a 
fewfoet higher up. There is ^ kind of e .b 
and flow sometimes observable , and tht 
taste of the water is sweetish and s ght ly 
brackish. Dr. Bonar thus describes it : It 
hS been a well-built oblong tank, some 
flfty feet long, nearly twenty deep, and 
Bo /iewhat less than this wide Its crumb- 
ling walls, broken pillars, falling arches 
wafted steps, and ruinous-looking aspec 
give no idea of what it may have beeu i 
dava when it was better cared for. On 
?he one side I observed the fragments of 
six pillars, from winch may luue sprung 
Ave arches to form a porch 
nnliko what Bethesda must bavc been 
Tohu v. 2). It was empty when we saw it. 
I s <=up^ly is ohielly from an upper foun- 
^lin wh ch finds its way into this lower one 
b a woil cut conduit, more than a quar er 
of a mile long. The tunne ling ^^"^J J^^^riug 
of this passage must have been a \^ oik of 
great cist and toil- iThe Land of Prom.c. 
pn ifi.-. 16-1). Dr. Robinson explored thi= 
coiiduic or passage to the fountain of the 
Vir-in which is about 1100 feet from Si- 
roam. anTl is on the west side of tbe valley 
of Jehoshaphat. The passage is about two 
feet wide, with many sinuosities so that 
the distance along .it is l-oO /ff • The 
waters of Siloam drain ofE into the neign 
bouring gardens. Dr. Thomson describes 
the am^e^ance of tlie locality as by no 
means prepossessing (T/ic Land and th. 
Book, pp. 359, 360). ^ , • ,q . t rrhp?« 

SILVA'JsrS iwoody) (2 Cor. 1.19 , 
\ I'o Thes^. i. 1 ; 1 Pet. v. 12). See Silas. 

SILVER^ A well-known precious metal, 
accounted next to gold in value We do 
not find it mentioned m scripture till the 
time of Abraham, who is said to have re- 
turned from Egypt 'rich, m cattle, m 
silver aud in gold' (Gen. xiii. 2). Later m 
his life it is noted as a medium of exchange 
not as coined into money but as weighed 
nut by the buyer to the seller cxxiu. lo, 16, 
Sxxv^i 28). It was manufactured mto 
vSous kinds of utensils cxliv. 2, 8), orna- 
Sts (Exod. xii. 35), vessels andinstru- 
ZZl fS" acred use (f v f • /.^^^f ' 
2-1 Chron. xxviii. 14-1/), 9^^- 

Serce silver, we are told, was little ac- 

perhaps also from Arabia (Job xxvui. 1) : it 



So-i 



\^•as purifled from dross by a repeated pro- 
cess (Psal. xii. 6. ixvi. 10; rrov. v u. 19, 
xvii. 3. xxvii. 21 ; Ezek. xxii. 22 ; Zech. xm. 
9 • Mai. iii. 3). lu later times it was the 
common material of ordinary money ; and 
Hebrew, Greek, aud Roman silver coins 
were in general use. . 

SILVERLING (Isai. vii. 23). A piece of 
silver, probably a shekel. 

Snl iLCU'E. An Arabian who brought 
up A^uiochus VI. (1 Mace. xi. 39). 

SIM'EON (a r^carkening\-'^. The second 
^ou of Jacob by Leah, so called because, as 
the mother said, the Lord had hearkened to 
her in he r trouble (Gen. xxix.. 33). In person.il 
character Simeon seems to have been one 
of the most unamiable of the patriarchs. It 
was he who in conjunction with Levi tooK 
so bloody a revenge upon the peop u ot 
Slipchem for the dishonour done to thoir 
sister Dinah (xxxiv.). Perhaps also he had 
been prominent in the outrage commuted 
upon Joseph; as we find that he was the one 
c^elected :'5 a hostage, to be detained in 
bonds in E^jvpt, to secure the return of the 
rest of thV bi^thren (xlii. 19. 24) When 
Jacob pronounced on his deatli-bed 1 = 
prophetical blessing, he did not forget the 
evil deeds of Simeon aud Levi. Juiiiod a:, 
they had been in an act of atrocity, jnined 
they were in the reprobation with which 
1 heir father stigmatized it ; and lieu- s^^^^ 
' sequent history is summed up in the w ord., 
•I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter 
them in Israel' (xllx. 5-7). OJthe fulfil- 
ment of this augury /egard to Lev no- 
thing need be here said : see Levi , but in 
respfct to Simeon we shall soon see how 
events confirmed it. By Moses in his bless- 
ing Simeon was omitted. 

At the descent into Egpt Simeon is s^^^^^ 
to have had six sons, probably by two wivea 
(xlvr?0) ; r^ut five only of these sons atv 
fear to have been progenitors of famil es 
7viimh xxvi 12, 13). The tribe had in- 
^c^e'^e'd ven' niuch during the bondage, 
being at the first census ^9,300 (i. 22, -o . 
theii°place in the encampment was on the 
south side of the tabernacle, and thwr 
m-del-of march in the second division,under 
the banner of Reuben (ii. 12, 13). ifiej 
probablv were involved deeply in some 
Sf the crimes committed in the wilder- 
nei : that one of their princes perpetrated 
f shameless act of sin in t^ie m^^^g^g* 
Baal-peor is distinctly recorded (xx. 6 8 
14). And thi s may account f or the extraor 
flinarv decrease of the tribe— for at the 
.e?oS census tiiey were but 22,200 (xxvi. 
U)-land a^so for the omission of it (noticed 

nn'fhSffion of the promised land tl.e 
lot of Simeon was assigned ' yithm tiie in- 
heritance of the children of Judah,' seven- 
teen cities in the south-east of Palestine 
fo?h x^lri-9). It is duestionable whether 
Smeon had ever a distinctly-marked 
tory: no fi'ontier-lme is traced : we may 
rather believe that t^^ir cities and v 1^^^^ 
^vere scattered through districts of Judah, 
Tnd sun ounded generaUy by the territories 
of the superior tribe. A kind of alliance 
sibsisted between the two : Simeon ^^^^^ 

^ith Judah to subdue his lot (Judges i. 3, 



S35 



milt mxomcrsQt. 



1 7 ) ; and Jndali no doubt subdued, according | 
to jiruiHisc, tonic lowns for Simeon. But 
we licar liule of Mic Simeonites for a long 
time. Til ey dwelt, it is true, in the same 
•iuarters till the reign of David (l Chnui. iv. 
24-33); but they were not able to hold all 
their towns. Hormah and Becr-slieba, 
noted as belonging to them, were after- 
wards possessed l)y Judali (i Sam. xxx. 30 ; 
1 Kings xix. 3) : Ziklag became first a 
1 hilistine then a Judean city (ISam.xxvii. 
C) ; and subsequently the Simeonites seem 
to have been well-nigh absorijed inJudah 
(2 Chron. xv. 9). Only one independent i-x- 
pedition is recorded of them. It was in 
the days of Hezekiah, when a l)ody uf the 
tribe, cramped and requiring more room 
for the p.asture of their llocks, attacked 
some neighbouring clans and estal)li.-;hed 
themselves in their seats, occupying a por- 
tion of mount Seir (l Chron. iv. 34-13) : see 
Seir, 1. 

No eminent person Is recorded as of tliis 
tribe; though the Jews have a tradition 
that it furnished schoolma.stcrs to the rest 
of the nation. A corps of 71(jo Simeonites 
joined David at Hebron ^xii, 2.)). And 
Simeon retains its place in the enumera- 
tion of the tribes by E/.ekiel and St. John 
(Ezek. xlviii. 24, 25 ; Ilev. vii. 7). 

2, The aged saint who received the Lord 
Into his arms at the time of the presenta- 
tion In the temple. He uttered an inspired 
song.-which has almost ever since been used 
as one of the most precious canticles in the 
services of the Christian church (Lukeii. 25- 
35). It has betn conjectured, but on no 
sure grounds, that this Simeon was son 
of the famous doctor Hillel, and father of 
the no less fanuius Ganudiei.— 3. One in the 
line of our Lord's ancestry (iii. 30).-4. A 
Christian teacher at Antioch called Niger, 
• the black ' (Acts xiii. i). N.)thing more is 
known of him.— 5 (xv. 14). Peter. 

SIM'L'OX. Ancestor of Mattathias, foun- 
der of The Maccabcan family a Mace, ii i) 

SIM'EOXITES. The descendants 'of 
Simeon (Numb. xxv. 14, xivi. 14 ; l Chron 
xxvii.lG). 

SI'MOX (contracted from Simeon).— i 
(Matt. iv. 18, and elsewhere). See Peter. 
—2. An apostle, sometimes called 'Simon 
the Canaanife,' and sometimes 'Simon 
Zelotes' (X. 4; Mark iii. IS; Luke vi. 15; 
Acts 1. 13). We are not lo suppose that the 
designation 'Cauaanite' is derived from 
Canaan: it is most likely the Hebrew 
equivalent to Zelotes, indicating that 
Simon had been one of the party called 
Zealots : see Zealots. ' Canaauite ' should 
be spelt Kananite. Of the histnrv and 
acts of this apostle the New Testament 
gives no information. He has been thought 
—but this is very nn certain— the sa^me 
with Simon, one of the 'brethren' of the 
Lord, believed to be the sons of Alpheus 
and Mary the Virgin's sister CSIatt. xiii. 55 : 
Mark VI. 3). That Simon, however, is ^aid 
to be the person (caUed also Svmeon) who 
succeeded James as bishop of Jeru-alem 
(Luseb., Hist. Ecci., lib. iii. cap. li), and if 
6o cannot have been an apostle The 
various countries in which Simon Zelotes 
ifl said to have prejjched are briefly noted i 



[siMON 



by V^mor p,bl nWIi., art. 'Simon 6.'-3. 
One called the leper,' in whoso house our 
Lord was entertained at Hethanv, shortly 
before his passion (Matt. xxvi. G-13 ; Mark 
XIV. 3-9; John xii. i-8). Some perj)lexity 
has been felt at the statement that Martha 
was one of those that ' served' on the occa- 
sion. And It has l)eon supposed, bv wav of 
explanation, that Simon was the f-ither 
of Lazarus, or the hu^^b.ind of :Hartlia 
If he were still living, he had doubtless 
been cleansed of his leprosy by the 
Lords power.-4. A Cyrenian wlio was 
coming out of the country or out of the 
lields on the day of the crucifixion, and 
was compelled to carry Christ's cross. Pr.uii 
the way in which his sons, Alexander and 
liUfiKs are spoken of, we may deem them 
disciples (Matt, xxvii. 32; JMark xv. 21; 
Luke xxiii. 26: comp. llom. xvi. 1.3).— 5. A 
I harisec at whose house the woman that 
was a sinner anointed the feet of Jesus 
(Luke vii. .30-50).— C. The father of Judas 
Iscariot (John vi. 71, xii. 4, xiii. 2, 2G)— 7 
A sorcerer at Samaria who believed at 
I hilij.'s i.rcaching, and was baptized. He 
afterwards ofl-ercd Peter and John money 
ti» purchase the power of bestowing tho 
Holy (.ihost. His presumption was severely 
rebuked by I'eter (Acts viii. 9-24). He is 
said afterwards to have awiin met and oiv 
poscd Peter at Home (Euseb., uhi'svvr., 
111). 11. capp. 1.3, 14). This story is very 
dubious; and Justin Martyr has made, as 
most critics think, a mistake In reporting 
that divine honours were paid to Simon at 
Lome (Just. .Mart., Apolog., i. 2G, p. 59, edit. 
Bencd.) -8. A tanner at Joppa, at whoso 
house St. Peter lodged (Acts ix. 43, x. 6, 17, 
.'!2). This house, it is pretended, is still to 
be seen at Jaffa. 

Sl'MOX.—l. Simon Chosameas Q Esdr. 
IX 32), perhaps a corrupted form of 
Shimeon (Ezra x. 31).— 2. A Jewish high 
priest, the son of Onias, highly commended 
for his care of the temple and faithful dis- 
charge of the duties of Jiis ofiice (Ecclus. 1.). 
There is some difliculty in determiniii£? 
which Simon was meant in this place. For 
a Simon, called the Just, succeeded his 
father Onias in the high-priesthood in the 
time of Ptolemy the son of Lagus ; and 
another Simon succeeded another Onias in 
the time of Ptolemy Philopator. It is most 
probable that the former is meant. His 
pontificate is variously reckoned, 310 orSOO- 
292 B.C. See Prideaux, Connection, vol. i. pp. 
478, 491, 492 ; Winer, Bibl. 11 WD., art. ' Simon 
1.'— 3. One of the brothers of Judas Macca- 
beus, surnamed Thassi (l Mace. ii. 3, 65 >. 
He conducted a successful campaign in 
Cahlce in the life-time of his-brother Judas 
(V. 17-23), and with Jonathan avenged the 
death of Judas (ix. 33-42). He was advanced 
to the government and Ligh-priesthood 
when Jonathan was slain, was confirmed 
in his authority by Demetrius, allowed to 
coin money by Antiochus the son of Deme- 
trius, acknowledged prince and high priest 
of the Jews by the Ptomans, but was ulti- 
mately murdered with two of his sons by 
Ptolemy son of Abubus, 135 or 136 B.C. His 
sou John Hyrcauus succeeded hlin (xiii - 
xvi.). See Maccabees, The Family of 



Maccabeus.—^. A Benjanilte, made go- 
vernor of the temple under Seleucus Philo 
pator king of Syria. His evil conduct and 
blander of the high priest Onias is related , 
ill 2 Mace. iii. 1-"12, iv. 1-6. Some have de- 
nied that Simon was a Benjamite. I 

Sni'Ul {Watchful). A Levite, one of tne 
chief porters U Chron. xxvi. 10). The name 
is identical with Sliimri. 

SIN. Sin is deflncd in ecriptnre to ne 
* the transgression of the law* (r John iii. 
4). Of course an intellic?ent understanding 
of the law is pre-suppcsed ; for, ' where no 
law is, there is no transirressiou ' ( Uom. Iv. 
15) Tlie scripture teaches us that, since 
and in consequence of tlie fall, men are 
born with a sinful nature, 'the children of 
wrath • (Eph. ii. 3). This is called ' oricrinal 
sin,' and is described in Art. Ix. of the 
Anglican church as * the fault and corrup- 
tion of the nature of every man that natu- 
rally is engendered of the offspring of 
Adam ; whereby man is very far gone from 
original righteousness, and is of his own 
nature Inclined to evil.' As a result of this 
original iinpcrfection,mcn commit actual sin 
not indeed that they are compelled to tnuis- 
Aress, but of their own fault, and according 
to their own perverted will. There is no man 
without sin (1 John i. 8, 10) ; and therefore, 
as • the waues of sin is death ' (Rom. vi. 23\ 
men stand'cxposed to the just judgment of 
eternal death. But God has graciously pro- 
vided a means whereby sin may be forgiven: 
he ' made liiin, who knew no sin, to be sin 
forus,that wemightbe made the righteous- 
ness of God in him' (2 Cor. v. 21). Christ 
by his precious blood-sheddinc: hath atoned 
for sin; and the beneflts of his atonement 
are freely offered to mankind. So that the 
blood of Christ 'cleanseth from all sin'd 
John i. 7). The guilt of it is remitted to 
those that believe in Jesus (John in. 16, 18); 
and the power of it is broken by the mighty 
working of the Spirit (Bora. vi. 14, viii. 1-4 ; 
i 1 Cor. vi. 11). 

All sins are not equal in intensity. There 
' are some committed with that daring de- 
fiance of God which seems to shut up the 
soul in impenitence, and disable it from ap- 
plication to that fountain wherein guilt may 
be washed away (Mark iii. 28-30). And there 
1 are sins which, though they must have their 
i desert of death if disregarded and unrepent- 
ed of, yet are brought to the Saviour's cross 
and are forgiven (l John. v. 16, 17). 
The word ' sin ' appears to be sometimes 
i put for sin-oflEering' (2 Cor. v. 21). 

SIN {mire, clay). A fortified city on the 
north-eastern frontier of Egypt, on the 
ea=;tern bank of the eastern stream of the 
Nile, two or tbree miles from the sea, amid 
marshes (Ezek. xxs. 15, 16). In consequence 
of its position and its strong fortifications 
i it was regarded as the key of Egypt ; and 
( every Invader first attempted to capture 
: this place. Sin was the Peluslum of the 
I Greeks : it no longer exists ; its site being 
: covered by the sea. But not far ofE is et- 
1 Tiiieh where are some ruins, called now 
; Farameh, or el-Farma. Tineh, an Arabic 
I word, signifies, like Sin, * a miry place ; and 
\ Pelusium, of Greek derivation, is also 
•luuddy 



SIN-OFFERING. See OFFERINGS. 
SIN WILDERNESS OP. A wilderness 
between Elim and Sinai, or more accurately 
between Elim and Rephidim or Dophkah 
(Exod. xvi. 1, xvii. 1 ; Numb, xxxiii. 11, 12). 
It was here that the manna was first given. 
It is thought to be the desert-plain cl-KAa, 
which, beginning at cl-Murkhah, extends 
with varying breadth almost to the soutn- 
ern extremity of the Sinaitlc peninsula. 

SI'NA (Acts vii. .30, 38 ; Gal. Iv. 24, 25). 
The Greek form of Sinai. As illustrating St 
Paul's symbolical language, li may be said 
that, according to .«.ome authorities, JTagar, 
signifying ' a rock,' is the name given by the 
Ara!)s'to Sinai. 

Sl'NAI {bush of the Lordt). The moun- 
tain or mountain-district where the law 
was delivered to Israel. The Sinaitlc moun- 
tains are situated in the peninsula between 
the two arms of the Red sea. They consist 
of a mass of granite, porphyry, and green- 
stone rocks, somewhat triangular in shape, 
faced towards the two gulfs by strips of 
rodsandstonorunningsouth-eastand south- 
west till they meet. The wholo forms a 
hu£re platcau.which Is Intersected by wadys, 
and from which rise various cllfEsandpeaks, 
some of them to a height of 8000 or 9000 
feet above the level of the sea. Dr. Stan ley 
distributes these mountains Into three 
principal clusters— one to the north-west 
near Wady FeirCin: here Is SerbAl, 6.312 feet 
In altitude; then the eastern and central 
mass. Including Jcbel Katherin about 8000 
feet, and Jchel Mdsa about 7000 feet high ; 
and thirdly the south-eastern, of which the 
highest peak Is Urn Shaumer {Sinai and 
ralrstine,v.U). ^ . 

The opinions of travellers differ widely 
as to the identification of that particular 
'mount' whereupon 'the Lord descended 
in fire,' while the people 'stood at the 
nether part of the mount' (Exod. xix. 10- 
20) Some— and early traditions favour 
their view— imagine that Scrbal was the 
very Sinai. It is described as a magnificent 
mountain, crowned with five peaks, well- 
fitted, we may therefore suppose, for the 
di?play of the divine glory upon it. But 
then there is no plain in the immediate 
neighbourhood in which the tribes could 
have been gathered to hear the voice of 
God. And, though Rephidim was not far 
di'^tant from Sinai, yet, so far as it can be 
identified, it must have been too close upon 
Serbal to allow for two separate encamp- 
ment-, with a march between them, at 
Rephidim and the wilderness of Sinai (xvii. 
1 xix. 2 ; Numb, xxxiii. 15). Other writers 
identify the mount with Rd.s SasOtfeh, a high 
peak to the north-east of the central clus- 
ter overlooking the plain er-Eahah, which 
afforded opportunity for the people to re- 
move and stand afar off (Exod. xx. 18), lateral 
valleys running into it. Dr. Durbm, who 
ascended this peak, observes : 'No one who 
has not seen them can conceive the rugged- 
ne=s of these vast piles of granite rocks, 
rent into chasms, rounded into smooth 
summits, or splintered into countless peaks, 
all in the wildest confusion, as they appear 
to the eye of an observer from any of the 
heights. But, when we did arrive at the 



mhit mnomersQc. 



I summit .... and cast our eyes over the 
wide plain, we were more tliau r(\raid for 
all our toil. One glance was enough. We 
were satisflcd that liere, and here only, 
could the wondrous displays of Sinai have 
been visible to the assembled host of Israel, 
that here the Lord spoke with Moses, that 
here was the mount that trembled and 
smoked in the presence of its manifestod 
Creator! We gazed for some time in silence ; 
and.when we spoke, it was with a reverence 
that even the most thoughtless of our com- 
pany could not shake off. I read on the 
very spot, with what feelings I need not 
say, tlie passage in Exodus which relates 
the wonders of which this mountain was 
the theatre. We felt its truth, and" could 
almost see the liKhtuings, and hear the 
thunders, and the " trumpet waxing loud'" 
(^Olittcrvations in the East, vol. i. pp. 1.13, 14-1 ^ 
Still there are some olgections to this 
identillcation. To persons in the plain 
er-llahah the Riis Sasafch is not the niosc 
conspicuous summit. Besides the special 
name, Jcbel Musa, mount of :Moses, lias 
always been given to the tall southern peak 
of the same mountain-mass. Thcdiniculty, 
however, was to llnd any plain at its Itase 
where the people might have been stationed. 
Late researches have discovered such a 
plain, larger and more commodious than 
that of er-ltahah. This, Wady Sebayeh, was 
explored about twenty years ago ; though 
since that time its existence, or at lease hs 
adequate extent, has been doubted. The 
I following account of it is from the journal 
! of ^Ir. Drew, who visited the east in 
■ 1850-57: 'The Wady Sebayeh, for a consider- 
able distance— indeed almost as far as it is 
laid down In some of the maps, which con- 
found it too early Avith Wady Ilahabeh— 
looks very unpromising, as the scene of 
Israel's encampment .... and I do not 
wonder, if Stanley did not pursue his 
••afternoon's walk" very far, that he felt it 
had no claim to be regarded as that scene. 
.... We went on, however, and we were 
then quite astonished at the scene which 
opened out before us. The plain widens 
and enlarges towards the south into a most 
I magnificent area for a much larger encami> 
I ment than could be placed in er-llahah . . . 
; at no point was the view of Jebel Musa in- 
! tcrrupted. It rose every where before us, 
I through the three miles over which Sebayeh 
extends, as The Mount. In the broadest 
part, near the south end, and along a line 
bearing north-west and south-east, we found 
the plain was a mile and t hree quarters broad. 
... The wady meets all the requirements 
of the scene of the encampment. It is well 
supplied with water, and is even now, with 
Its gently-sloping sides, filled with vegeta- 
tion. Jebel Musa is the object visible at 
every part : the spurs from the mountain 
come down along it on the east side, so as 
to form a clearly-defined boundary : water 
is abundant. . . . There is abundant room 
in it and in the adjacent wadys for the Is- 
raelites to have been placed as the narrative 
describes during the giving of the law; 
and, after going over the conditions that 
must have been fulfilled by the actual scene 
Qf that event, we came, deliberately and 



[SINIM 

strongly, to the conclusion ihat it had far 
greater claims to be received in that cha- 
racter than er-llahah.' Mr. Drew and hia 
party, in order to form a right judgment, 
went from Sebayeh to er-Rahah to make a 
fresh examination there ; and he says, 'our 
conclusion .... was in the strongest man- 
ner sustained' (,Scripture Lands in Connect, 
with their History, app. B. pp. 393-395). We 
may, therefore, fairly conclude that the 
Sniai on which the Lord descended in firo 
is most probably the present Jebel Musa. 

We llnd the name Horeb In use as well as 
that of Sinai ; and, indeed, it has been urged 
as an argument against the l)clicf that the 
book of Deuteronomy proceeded from the 
same pen as the rest of the Pentateuch, 
that the writer of Deuteronoiny uses the 
word Horeb exclusively, while in the pre- 
ceding books the place where the law was 
given is witli ])ut two or three exceptions 
called Sinai. Sinai does occur in Deutero- 
nomy (Deut. xxxiii. 2) ; but there is sullicient 
reason why generally Horeb is used. • Is'ever,' 
says Dr. Uengstenberg, • does Horeb appear 
as a single mountain, in contrast to Sinai 
Sinai, on the other hand, is always a single 
mountain. Before the children of Israel 
reached the district, and after they left it, 
the general name of the mountain Horeb 
always stands in contrast to Egypt, the 
plains of Moab, &c. During their stay 
there, the particular is made a distinct ol> 
ject from the general : the mountain of 
Sinai and its wilderness arc distinguished aa 
the theatre of events that took place in the 
district of Horeb. But in Exod. xviii. 5 the 
general term is used : the whole of Horeb 
is still the mountain of God ; which de- 
signation, nevertheless, is only applicable 
to the whole on account of what occurred 
on part of it, Sinai' {Dissertations on the 
Gcnainencss of the Pentateuch, diss. vii. vol. 
ii. pp. 325-327). Tlie name Horeb, it may be 
added, signifying 'dry,' 'desert,' is very 
naturally given to places presenting tho 
same physical features if not identically the 
same spot; and, in reference to the giving 
of the law, it seems rather to describe the 
position of the people than the spot on 
which the Lord descended. In later times 
the designation, as was natural, had a more 
extended meaning. Thus it was to Horeb 
that Elijah fied, clearly the region (1 Kings 
xix. 8). Legendary tradition has fixed on a 
particular cave as that where he lodged (9); 
and on Jebel Miisa is the so-called chapel of 
St. Elias. 

SINCERITY. This term is opposed to 
hypocrisy or dissimulation. The Greek 
word which we render ' sincerity' denotes 
the being judged of in sunshine, so as to 
bear minute investigation ; hence pureness, 
clearness (1 Cor. v. 8 ; 2 Cor. i. 12, ii. 17). 

SIIsG, SI>'GIiyG. See Hymx, Music. 

SI'jSTM. The name of a land or people 
mentioned only once in scripture (Isai. 
xlix. 12). It is not easy to say what country 
is intended. Some critics are disposed to 
look to Egypt. But the prophet would 
seem rather to point to some distant eastern 
nation. Accordingly it may be believed 
that the Chinese, Sinenses, were meant. It 
ii true that the Chinese, though acquainted 



sikite] 



838 



with tliis term, do not apply it to tliem- 
selres. But it is the appellation given to 
them hy the other Asiatics ; and there is 
nothing improhahle in supposing it to he 
known to the Hebrews at an early date. 
There was a dynasty called Tsliin which 
reigned in China 249-206 B.C. ; and Gesenius 
is inclined to believe that, as the name of 
this dvnasty might have become widely 
known among foreign nations before it ac- 
quired the sovereign power over all China, 
the word Sinim is derived from it. And, 
indeed, it was the name of a great tributary 
kingdom to the west, the first chief of which 
began his reign 897 B.C. See Henderson, 
Isaiah, p. 377. , _ 

SFIs^ITE. A tribe descended from Canaan 
(Gen. X. 17 ; 1 Chron. 1. 15). In the imme- 
diate neighbourhood of Area (see Aekite) 
' was a mountain-fortress called Sinnas, in- 
habited by marauders of Lebanon : it was 
destroyed, but the site was still named 
Sini ; and so late as the fifteenth century a 
village of Si/n still existed near the river 
Area. Here was the seat of the Sinites. 

SI'ON iJofti/).—! (Dent. iv. 4S\ See Hee- 
MO A.— 2 (Matt. xxi. 5 ; John xii. 15 ; Hour 
Ix. 33, xi. 26 : Heb. xii. 22 ; l Pet. ii. 6 ; Rev 
xiv. 1). The Greek form of Zion. 

SIPH'MOTH (Jjare places). A town, pro- 
bably in the south of Judah, to which David 
sent presents (1 Sam. xxx. 2S). 

SIPPA'I {threslioJclD. A Philistine giant 
(1 Chron. xx. 4) : he is also called Saph. 

SI'BACH (Prol. Ecclus., Ecclus. 1. 27). The 
father of Jesus, author of the apocryphal 
book called Ecciesiasticus, 

SI'RAH {retreat). The name of a well (2 
Sam. iii. 26), at the place from which Abner 
was recalled by Joab. Possibly it may have 
been 'Ain Sara, a spring and reservoir a short 
distance from Hebron. 

SIR'ION (brcast-ijlate^.. A name given by 
the Sidonians to mount Hermon (Deut. iii. 
9 ; Psal. xxix. 6), perhaps from a fancied re- 
semblance to a breast-plate. See Heemon. 

SISA?.IA'I {leapersl but the meaniug is 
very uncertain). One of Judah's posterity 
(1 Chron. ii. 40). 

Sl'SBRA (battle-arraii).—!. The command- 
er-in-chief of the army of Jabin kiug of 
Canaan. When Barak adventured to en- 
camp with his 10.000 on Tabor, 
marched out to attack him, expectiui 
verv likely an easy victory. But Bara 
rapidly descending fell upon the Canaanit- 
ish host, probably when not expected, and 
threw them into disorder and flight. And, 
when thev endeavoured to regain Haro- 
Bheth, as they hurried along the narrowing 
valley with Kishon in flood by their side, no 
wonder that horses, chariots, footmen were 
mixed together in disastrous medley. See 
Barak. Sisera imagined he could more 
easily force his way on foot : he quitted his 
chariot, therefore, and made for the tents of 
Heber, his master's ally. He was received 
with apparent respect and cordiality by J ael, 
Heber's wife, his thirst assuaged, and hnn- 
self secreted in the women's tent. But, when 
wearied he had fallen asleep, Jael stole up to 
him with a hammer and a tent-nail, which 
Bbs drove through his forehead and pinned 
him, a corpse, to the ground (Judges iv., 



V ; 1 Sam. xii. 9 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 9).— 2. One 
whose descendants, Xethinim, returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 53 ; 
Neh. vii. 55). 

SlSU'r^'^^l^S a Esdr. vi. 3, 7, vn. 1). The 
name of a governor of Syria and Phoenicia 
under the Persian rule. It answers to Tat- 
nai in the bible (Ezra v. 3). 

SISTER. This word, like 'father,' 'mo- 
ther,' ' son,' ' daughter,' is fi-eguently used 
to express relationship more distant than 
that which it literally implies. Thus it 
"ii^nifies a step or half-sister (2 Sam. xiii. 
2)7 a cousin (Matt. xiii. 56), also a sister in 
the faith (Rom. xvi. 1). Comp. Matt. xii. 
50, where the names of natural kindred al- 
lude to the spiritual union of Christ's faith- 
ful servants with himself. 

SIT'iSr AH (accusation, Mtred). One of the 
wells Avhich Isaac's servants dug, and for 
which the herdmen of Gerar strove ; on 
account of which Isaac removed (Gen. xxvi. 
"^1^ Its exact site has not been ascertained. 

SrVAN (prightl) (Esth. viii. 9). See 
MO>'TH. . ^ ■, * 

SKIX. See Leather. Skin of theteetn. 
See Tooth. 

SL WE, SLAVERY. See SERVANT. 
SLEEP. The word literally taken means 
the repose of the body (Psal. iv. 8 ; Jonah i. 
5, 6 ; Matt. viii. 24 ; Acts xx. 9). Tsed typi- 
callv it signifies death (Jer. li. 39 ; Dan. xii. 
2 ; John xi. 11, 13 ; Acts vii. 60 ; 1 Cor. xv. 
51 : 1 Thess. iv. 13, 14), or sometimes the 
lethargy of sin and ignorance (Rom. xiii. 11; i 
Eph. V. 14). ^ ^ .. o^ 

SLIME (Gen. xi. 3, xiv. 10 ; Exod. ii. 3). 
Asphalt or bitumen, which boils up like 
pitch from subterranean fountains at Hit, 
near Babylon, described by various travel- 
lers ; also, according to the Arabs, fi-omthe 
bottom of the Dead sea. Shafts are sunk ; 
and in a semi-fluid state the bitumen exudes 
from crevices in the strata. It haraens in 
the sun, and as by itself it is brittle it m-ust 
be mixed with tar in melting. It was 
employed for mortar by builders m the 
plain of Shinar ; but this use of it seems to 
have been confined to Babylonia. 

SLING, SLIXGER. The sling was ancient- 
ly a very common and effective weapon of 
onence. See ARiiotJR, pp. 55, 56. Slingers 
Sisera are mentioned as light-armed troopa 
ecting (Judges xx. 16 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 40-50 ; 2 Kings 
Barak iii. 25 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 14 ; Zech. ix. 15). 
SMITH. See Handicraft, Iron. 
SMTR'is'A (mvrrh). An ancient commer- 
cial city of Ionia, about 40 miles north of 
Ephesus, at the mouth of the little river 
Meles. It was destroyed by the Lydians, 
and lay in ruins 400 years, till Alexander, or 
Antigonus after the great conquerors 
death, re-built it not far from its original 
site ; and then it again flourished. One of 
the apocalyptic epistles was addressed to 
the church of Smyrna (Rev. i. 11, ii. 8-11), 
forewarnins: them of persecution ; and some 
of the expressions are thought to refer to 
rites practised by pagan inhabitants of the 
city. Thus a crown was presented to the 
priest who had superintended the sacred 
ceremonies when his year of oftice expired 
(comp. 10). It was here that Polycarp, mar- 
tyred 166 A.D., was bishop. Smyrna, now 



839 



[sODOM 



called Ismir, is a large city, containing 
120,000 inhalbitants, and is the centre of tlie 
trade of the Levant. 

SNAIL. The ' snail,' so termed in our ver- 
sion of Lev. xi. 30, was prohahly a species, 
not exactly identified, of lizard. See Lizahd. 
The original word in Psal. Iviii. 8 signifies 
a snail, especially without the shell. It is 
derived from a verb meaning ' to moisten ' ; 
and the name is given because of the snail's 
slime and moisture. The wicked shall pass 
away as a snail, which leaves a slimy trail, 
that is, seems to melt as it goes. 

SNOW. Snow occasionally falls to some 
depth in Palestine, though it does not lie 
long (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chron. xi. 22). On 
I the higher points of Lebanon, however, it 
! continues throughout the year(Jer.xviii. 14). 
! Snow is frequently mentioned for illustra- 
tion, as to describe the whiteness of a leper 
(Exod. iv. 6; Numb. xii. 10; 2 Kings v. 27), or 
the purity of the raiuient of a divine Per- 
son or of an angel (Dan. vii. 9 ; Matt, xxviii. 
3 ; Mark ix. 3), or the perfect cleansing 
M'hich a sinner has by the forgiving mercy 
of God (Psal. li. 7 ; Isai. i. 18). See for other 
uses of the word Job vi. 16, ix. 30, xxiv. 19; 
Prov. XXV. 13, xxxi. 21. 

SNUFFERS, SNUFF-DISHES (Exod.xxv. 
38, xxxvii. 23). See Caxdlestick. 

SO (The Hebrew form of an Egyptian 
word^Sevec/i or Savak, the crocodile-headed 
god). An Egyptian king, contemporary 
with Hoshea king of Israel (2 Kings xvii. 
4). It is doubted whether he was identical 
with Sabaco, the first king of the Ethiopian 
dynasty in Upper Egypt, or with Sevechus, 
his son and successor, who immediately 
preceded Tirhakah: the more probable 
opinion is that he was Sevechus, who 
reigned twelve or fourteen years. See 
l^inev, BiU. RWB., art. 'So.' A WTiter in 
Smith's Met. of the Bible, vol. iii. pp. 1336, 
1337, is inclined rather to identify So with 
Sabaco (Shebek). 

SOAP. The Hebrew bar, or bdrttli, imply- 
ing that which cleanses, would seem to in- 
clude any cleansing substance, as salt of 
Jye, vegetable salt, alkali, obtained from the 
ashes of various plants of salt or alkaline 
natui*e. This was used in conjunction wi tli 
oil for washing and scouring garments (Jer. 
ii. 22) ; also in refining metals (Mai. iii. 2). 
The word bdr occurs in Job ix. 30, the last 
clause of which Carey translates 'and had 
cleansed my hands with soap;' observing 
upon it that ' there is no evidence that the 
ancient Egyptians were acguainted with 
soap (properly so caUeS) ; they were pro- 
bably acquainted, however, with some ab- 
sorbent substitutes, such as steatite or the 
argillaceous earths ; or — from the circum- 
stance of a preparation of pounded lupins, 
used by the modern Egyptians for washing 
the hands and called doqdq, having been 
long adopted in the country— we may infer 
that It may be an old invention, handed 
down to, and imitated by, the present 
inhabitants' (T?ie Book of Job, p. 442). 
There is another word, netlier, translated 
'nitre,' the modern natron or Egyptian 
nitre, a mineral alkali gathered from the 
well-known natron-lakes. This mixed with 
oil is stiU used as soap (Jer.ii. 22). It effer- 



vesces with an acid and loses its strength 
(Prov. XXV. 20). 

SO'CHO, SO'OHOH (branches, hedge), (i 
Kings iv. 10; 1 Chron. i v. 18). See next 
article. 

SO'COH (id.).—l. A city in the plain coun- 
try of Judah (Josh. xv. 35). This (Shochoh) 
was the place where the Philistines were 
gathered for the campaign in which Goliath 
was slain (1 Sam. xvii. l) : it (Sochoh) is 
mentioned as included in one of Solomon's 
commissariat districts (1 Kings iv. 10) : it 
(Shoco) was fortified by Ptchoboam (2 Chrou. 
xi. 7), but (Shocho)was seized by the Philis- 
tines in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii, 
18). Its site appears to be at esh-Shuweikeh , 
in ruins, on the road from Eleutheropolis to 
Jerusalem, on the southern slope of the 
Wady es-Sumt (Elah). The Socho of 1 Chron. 
iv. 18 may be supposed the name of a place, 
and is most probably this Socoh. The 
orthography, it will be observed, varies iu 
our translation : there are also slight varia- 
tions in the Hebrew.— 2. A town in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 48). This 
also has been identified under the same 
name, esh-Shuweikeh, about a mile to the 
north of Jattir, noAV Attir. 

SO'DI {,confidant of Jehovah). The father 
of the spy selected fi'om Zebulun (Numb 
xiii. 10). 

SOD'OM (burning, conflagration 2 vine- 
yard ?). The principal city of the district 
destroyed on account of the wickedness of 
the inhabitants, generally thought to be 
covered by the waters of the Dead sea, that 
lake being enlarged at the time of the 
catastrophe. But this notion is not borne 
out by facts. 

Sodom is first mentioned in describing 
the Canaanitish border (Gen. x. 19) : it was 
afterwards selected by Lot as a place of 
residence; the country aroundbeing highly 
fertile, well watered everywhere, ' even as 
the garden of the Lord ' (xiii. 10-13). Ho 
first pitched his tent close by, and at a 
later period dwelt in the city. It was plun- 
dered by Chedor-laomer and his associate 
kings ; but the captives and booty v/ere 
recovered by Abram (xiv,). The history 
of its great sinfulness and fearful ruiu, 
with Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim, ia 
next related (xviii. 16-38, xix. 1-29) ; and 
ever after Sodom is mentioned but as a 
name of horror, a warning of the terrible 
vengeance of God upon sinners (Deut.xxix, 
23, xxxii. 32 ; Isai. i. 9, 10, iii. 9, xiii. 19?; Jer. 
xxiii. 14, xlix. 18, 1. 40 ; Lam. iv. 6 ; Ezek. 
xvi. 49, 50; Hos. xi. 8 ; Amos iv.ll ; Zeph. 
ii. 9 ; Matt. x. 15, xi. 23, 24 ; 2 Pet. ii. 6-8 ; 
Jude 7; Rev.xi. 8). See Dead sea, pp. 802-804. 

Sodom is usually supposed to have 
stood at the south-west of the Dead sea; 
and M. de Saulcy imagined that he had dis- 
covered its remains on the western shore 
to the north of Jebel Usdum, * mountain of 
Sodom.' The more accurate researches of 
other travellers, however, have not con- 
firmed M. de Saulcy's supposition : he was 
probably imposed on by his Arab guides, 
a.nd led to believe that the stones he saw 
scattered about were the ruins of an ancient 
city. Besides, the * plain of Jordan ' must 
have been to the Borl,h of the lake, th<j 



60D0M, YINE Of] 



Creature at 



840 



Boutliern part of wliicli is not visible from 
the point by Beth-el where Abram and Lot 
Burveyed the then-fertile vale. See Zoar. 
SOD'OM, VINE OF. See ViifB. 
SOD'OMA (Rom. ix. 29) Sodom. 
SOB'OMITES (2 Esdr. vii. 36). Inhabit- 
ants of Sodom. The word in the bible has 
a different meaning. 

SOD'OMITISH SUA (2 Esdr. v. 7). The 
Dead sea. 
SOLDIER. See Aemy. 
SOL'OMON (pacific). The second son of 
' David and Bath-sheba; the first baring been 
stricken in infancy for the sin of its parents 
(2 Kings xii. 14-25). Solomon was the child 
of promise and of happy augury. Designated 
as the heir of David's wide empire, placed 
: probably under the tuition of the prophet 
; Isathan, selected as the peaceful prince, 
' under whose rule the splendid temple of 
Jehovah should be built, it was a yet 
I higher preference that he was called the 
I Lord's dear one (2 Sam. vii. 12-16, xii. 2-i, 25). 
I And yet his childhood was not a calm. Dark 
I • clouds were gathering from time to time ; 
I and specially, when'af ter Tamar's dishonour 
j and Amnon's murder Absalom seized the 
! throne, Solomon, whose life as David's 
i known heir the usurper would above all 
' desire to take, must have been a fugitive 
with his father. He was restored to his 
i place; but again, when David's end was 
i evidently near, a bold attempt was made by 
! his elder brother Adonijah to secure the 
1 succession to himself. Of course, had the 
! plan prospered, Solomon, as Nathan and 
Both-sheba saw, would have been a victim 
I (1 Kings i. 12, 21). But David was aroused 
by the intelligence, and resolved at once to 
commit the government to him. He was 
accordingly anointed king by Nathan the 
prophet and Zadok the priest, and placed 
on David's throne ; and the news of the 
event vras sufficient to stifle the conspiracy 
(32-53). Solomon must have been young at 
this time, perhaps not more than eighteen. 
His father did not long survive; but in 
one more assembly the aged king appeared, 
explained his purpose of building a temple, 
and how the work was devolved on Solo- 
mon, made large offerings for the cost of 
It, and solemnly blessed his people and his 
successor. And then again was there a 
roval ceremonial of inauguration (1 Chron. 
xxViii., xxix.). David afterwards, just before 
his death, gave his son another special 
charge, how to act towards Joab and Shimei, 
menVho had deserved punishment yet had 
hitherto been treated with lenity. 

Thus Solomon began his reign. But 
Adonijah was evidently restless, and, en- 
couraged perhaps by some of those who 
had previously declared for him, he endea- 
voured to possess himself of one of the 
women of his father's harem. Had he suc- 
ceeded, he would have obtained in the eyes 
of the nation an acknowledgment of his 
claim to the crown. Solomon saw this at a 
glance, and immediately issued orders for 
the execution of Adonijah and of Joab, re- 
moved Abiathar from the high priesthood, 
and conflnod Shimei to a residence in the 
metropolis, for violating which injunction 
he was afterwards put to death (1 Kings ii.). 



Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter (iii. 
1). But, if this alliance was contracted, as 
is most likely, after his accession, he must 
have previously married the Ammonitess, 
Behoboam's mother (xiv. 21). There is then 
related the Lord's appearance to the king. 
He offered a great sacrifice at Gibeon ; and 
in a vision by night God said to him, ' Ask 
what I shall give thee,' A wonderful per- 
mission ! Surely his youthful mind will be 
fired with ambition ; and he will ask vast 
riches, and imperial power, and warlike 
renown. Nay; he asks a gift much greater. 
Sensible of his own weakness, calling him- 
self a little child, oppressed with the re- 
sponsibility of governing the Lord's people, 
he asks for wisdom. Happy choice 1 The 
Lord, who doubtless prompted the desire, 
will largely gratify it. Solomon was to 
have wisdom and understanding, and, 
besides, riches and honour in abundance. 

In the fourth year of his reign began the 
building of the temple, which was completed 
in seven years and solemnly dedicated, the 
ark of God being deposited in it. And then 
there was great joy : the promise that the 
Lord would choose him a place to dwell in 
among his people was fulfilled, and the 
typical priesthood of the law had its largest 
development and honour (vi.-viii.). Now 
did God appear to Solomon again, confirm- 
ing his promises and kindly warning the 
king againft declension. Riches and honour 
indeed^ flowed in upon him. He fortified 
Jerusalem and adorned it with sumptuous 
palaces : he built many cities and stored 
them with his chariots and his horsemen : 
he thoroughly subjugated the remnant of 
the Oanaanites that were in the land : he 
had a navv on the Red sea, and in conjunc- 
tion with Hiram king of Tyre carried on a 
lucrative trade. Gold and the precious 
thine:s of distant countries were brought 
to his marts ; and sages and sovereigns 
came out of all nations to hear his wisdom 
and admire his magnificence (iv. 34, ix., x.). 
Whether the policy of Solomon was in all 
respects that which would commend itself 
to modern statesmen may be a Question ; 
suffice it that in his position it was emi- 
neutlv successful ; and had he trod on in 
the right ways of the Lord his prosperity 
would doubtless have been solid and stable. 

But Solomon's prosperity was a snare to 
him. He lived in' luxury, and, after the 
fashion of eastern princes, he multiplied 
wives and concubines. His harem was filled 
with women of various countries who 
knew not the Lord ; and they turned away 
his heart. And Solomon— the wise and 
understanding king, to whom God had 
twice appeared, who reared the magnificent 
temple of Jehovah— Solomon, enslaved by 
the love of strange women, sunk so low as 
to build a high place for Chemosh on the 
hill before Jerusalem, atidaciously confront- 
ing the holy house, and for Moloch, that 
the foul sacrifices to idols might be offered 
there (xi. 1-8 ; Neh. xiii. 26). Sentence was 
then pronounced that ten tribes should be 
wrested from his house ; and the man was 
designated who should rule them. In vaiu 
did Solomon strive to defeat the prediction, 
Jeroboam whom he sought to slay escaped. 





and found a refuge in Egypt; and other 
adversaries there were who troubled Israel 
and the vast works the king had undertaken 
seem to have been felt as burdens by his 
subjects, so that discontent was beginning 
to prevail ; and Solomon, whose youth had 
been so auspicious, and whose meridian so 
splendid, sunk, after reigning forty years, 
with a heavy cloud upon him to the grave 
(1 Kings xi. 9-43). Iv^o mention is made in 
scripture of his repentance : no word drops 
from the inspired penman to show that he 
humbled himself and sought forgiveness. 
The name of this most renowned Israelitish 
king IS a warning to succeeding ages to 
beware of listening to the blandishments 
of evil. 

Thac Solomon did repent is traditionally 
believed, and that the book of Ecclesiastes 
was composed by him after he had trod the 
paths of vanity and sensual indulgence 
and found earthly pleasures unsatisfying. 
But it is an inference, a hope, rather than 
a certainty. Some imagine that Ecclesiastes 
is not from his pen. This, however, scarcely 
affects the inference. Had Solomon been 
known to die impenitent, no future writer 
would have assumed to speak in his name 
Though we can but hope, therefore, still 
we may hope that he found mercy. 

Solomon was a voluminous author. * He 
spake three thousand proverbs,' many of 
which are preserved in the book of Pro- 
verbs; ' and his songs were a thousand and 
1 nve' (iv. 32J. Two psalms bear his name, 
I Psal. Ixxii., which most probably is not 
his, and cxxvii., which may have been 
, written on occasion of building the temple 
1 For notice of oriental legends respecting 
i Solomon see D'Herbelot, Bihliotli. Orient 
I art. ' Soliman Ben Daoud.' ' 
1 ..SOLOMON'S PORCH (John x. 23; Acts 
, 111-. 11, V. 12). One of the colonnades or 
cloisters of the temple, affording shelter 
from the weather in winter-time. It was 
in the eastern side, or, as some understand 
at the eastern end of the south side of the 
building. According to Josephus it was an 
original work of Solomon, which had re- 
mained from the former temple (Antig., lib 
sx. 8, §7). See Temple. ' 
&;OLOMOIs'S SERVAlsTS (Ezra ii. 55, 58 : 
f : :Neh. vii. 57, 60). A certain class of the re- 
1 : turned exiles, enumerated after the Levites 
: and the Is'ethinim. They had probably 
: some very subordinate connection with 
' the temple-services, and may be supposed 
i the descendants of those Canaanites whom 
1 Solomon, carrying out his father's policy 
1 employed as slave-labourers in his works (1 
Kings ix. 20, 21 ; l Chron, xxi-i. 2 ; 2 Chron 
; yui. 7, 8). If performing any sacred office, 
j they must have become proselytes to the 
true religion. 

1 .o??J^?^^?^' ™^ ^ONG OF. This book, 
1 caUed also Canticles, and according to its 
Hebrew appellation 'the Song of Songs 'al- 
ways had a place in the Jewish canon, and 
has consequently been received into that 
of the Christian, church. It was reckon- 
ed among the khethubim or hagiograpJia • 
Hn^^nf ''t?''^-^?,'^ Septuagint transla- 
tion of the Old Testament : it was enu- 
merated by Josephus as one of the Hebrew 


fh^ AT-^r^^- -J^^ canonicityis affirmed in 
the Mishna : it appears in the Christian 
catalogue of Melito (about 170 a.d.) : and 
io ^^1^ \' '-l^^ ^^^^^ ^^"^ ^^^at has just been 
said, that it was m the canon of scripture 
m our Lord's time, any doubts which have 
since been entertained nave been only 
partial, confined to individuals 
a,.?^^°''® proceeding to enquire into the 
author and the date of this book, it may be 
well to consider its form and object. Some 
have called it a mere collection of fragments : 
others have deemed it a regular drama. The 
fragmentary theory certainly cannot be 
sustained For it is clear that the subject is 
the same from the beginning to the end : the 
same persons are introduced; and, though, 
alter the eastern manner, the transitions 
Sm.Sf^^^^'^^®^ ^ connecting thread of 
thought and purpose runs through the 
whole, m the highest degree improbable if 
independent pieces had just been strung 
together Still it is not constructed wfth 
safflcient nicety of adaptation to claim the 
appellation of a drama. There are interlo- 
cutors, doubtless, and so far portions of it 
may be termed dramatic, but not more so 
than many other ancient poems, in which 
characters occasionally speak, but which 
no man on this account regards as dramas. 
The impassioned mind of the poet is by no 
means inclined always formally to describe 
and introduce his persons : he assumes at 
once their character, and speaks in their 
name, knowing that no sensible reader will 
misunderstand him. "We must hold, then 
this composition to be a single poem, with a 
definite plan, conversations being intermin- 
gled with description. "Whether it be called 
]?/}}:^, ^'^th some, or pastoral with others, is 
of little moment. ' 

Most probably it had an historic basis. The 
scripture poems and prophecies were sug- 
gested generally by some passing event, 
0^ J?^ich the mind of the seer-like that 
of Elisha, composed and fixed by the strain 
of music he asked for (2 Kings iii 15)— 
brooded for a while. And then the mental 
picture was constructed; the events which 
gave occasion to it being the foreground 
while fancy added in other lineaments, and 
under the guidance of the informing Spirit ! 
from the present the future was traced 1 
recemng its shape, and conveying its les- 
sons m agreement therewith. Thus see ! 
how Hannah, in her joyful offering of her ! 
first-born at the sanctuary, with kindling 
ardour describes the wondrous dealings of 
the Lord, and travels on till she sees in ! 
J'^J:''^}'^ ^f'^^^Sth aismjea in the exalt- 1 
ing of the horn of the great anointed King 
(1 Sam. 11. 1-10). Examples of the kind are i 
innumerable. So it must have been here, 
ihere was some story of pure earthly affec- 
tion, m which obstacles for a while dis- 
united two loving hearts. This the writer 
seizes on : he takes up the steps of it : and 
he converts it to a higher purpose. 

Many indeed deny that there was a 
higher purpose. They see in the Sonte 
iteral love, and no more. Their reasons 
ire not without weight, and deserve calm 
consideration. But it is submitted that 
.here are other reasons more weighty j 



SOLO:,ION, SONG OF] El^t ^XtHm^ 



S-V2 



whicli go to prove that in the literal words 
there is an allegorical meaning, so that 
through allegory a mystical or spiritual 
sense is conA-eyed embodying and inculcat- 
ing sublime truth. How else should the 
book haye had a place in the sacred canon ? 

Dr Stowe has argued the question very 
sensibly {Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1852, pp. 
3-^0-339, re-printed from Araer. Bibl. Repos., 
Apr 1847) ; and his views have been adopted 
bvDr Kitto (Daily Bible Illustrations). He 
' uro-es ' (1). The names of the tAvo principal 
' cliaracters, namely Shelomoh and Shula- 
' mith, are in the original quite as significant 
I as John Bunyan's Christian and Christiana, 
i Obstinate and Pliable, Faithful and Hope- 
ful o-c (2). The sudden changes from 
the singular to the plural number m the 
p^vt of the dialogue sustained by Shula- 
mith indicate that her name is to be taken 
iu a collective sense. "Draw me: ice will 
; run after thee. The king hath brought 
1 vie into his chambers : ice will be glad, 
&c. (Sol. Song i. 4, and many other 
' Places). (3). Shulamith is put into situa- 
tions and made to utter expressions ^ylllc i, 
I if literally understood, are so entirely ai> 
' horrent to oriental manners, that no sane 
writer, certainly no writer so skilful as the 
author of this poem shows himself to be, 
would ever put into a literal love-song; 
though they are all very beautiful and ap- 
propriate when understood allegorically. 
Such are iii. 1-4, v. 7, viii. 1, 2. Such scenes 
and expressions are not uncommon m the 
allegorical poetry of the east, but m their 
literal amatory songs they can never occur. 
Literally understood they would dooni 
their heroines to everlasting iufaray ; and 
certainly no poet ever thus treats his 
favourites. (4). The entire absence of 
every thing like jealousy, in situations 
where that passion must appear in a literal 
love-sonsr, is proof of the allegorical cha- 
acter of the piece. See i. 4, v. l, vi. 8, 9. (o). 
The dreamy and fanciful and even impossi- 
ble character of many of the scenes shows 
that they cannot be understood hiera iy 
(ii. 14-17). Shulamith is in the cle±t of the 
rocks, in the concealments of the preci- 
pices ; and Shelomoh wishes to see her and 
hear her speak. He is in the garden at 
nisht ; and she tells him to catch the jackals 
I that are destroying the vines. She sees 
' him feeding his flocks in a distant field ot 
anemones. She sees him beyond the 
mountains which separate them, and calls 
upon him to leap over them like the gazelle 
and the fleeting fawn, to rejoin her at 
evening. All these things occur at the 
same time and place (iv. 8). Shelomoh calls 
upon Shulamith to go with him to the 
snowy peaks of Lebanon and Hermon, 
among the lions' dens and the leopards 
lairs, and enjoy the fine prospect over the 
Plains of Damascus. Numerous impossibi- 
lities of this kind Avill occur to every in- 
telligent reader of the poem.' . 

In addition to these reasons there is the 
fact that poems of the kind are common m 
the east, having an allegorical character ; 
insomuch that men well acquainted with 
oriental literature, and familiar xrom their 
residence in those parts of the world with 



oriental habits and feelings, such as Dr. 
Kitto, Mr. Lane, Major Scott Waring, not 
only produce examples, but unhesitatingly 
tell us that no oriental doubts of tne aiie- 
f-orical intention of Solomon's Song. 
Would not then the ancient Hebrews have 
the same feeling? On such a point surely 
the impressions made on those to whom 
the book is addressed or among whom it 
is first published ought to be specially 

^^This^book, according to its spiritual . 
meaning, is understood to delineate the , 
mutual love of God and his people, m which | 
there are vicissitudes and tnals, andbac.v- j 
slidings and repentance and finaUj a pe - , 
feet union betwixt the Kedeemer and his , 
ransomed church. The same similitude, 
not indeed wrought out with such l^rticu- 
larity, is to be found in other parts of scrip- 1 
ture. God frequently condescends to take , 
the marriage-tie as illustrative of the close , 
fellowship^of himself ^'l^h ^is chosen 
Departure from him is spiritual adulterj. , 
His kindness is pre-eminent in receiving , 
back the polluted one. And the last glorious , 
triumph is called the marriage-supper of the j 
Lamb; where the bride is presented ptire 
and undeflled, every stain obliterated, re- 
splendent in glistering robes the meet con- 
sort of a royal spouse. The idea is repeated 
in both the Old and New Testaments See. 
for example, Psal.xlv^; Isai. liv. 4-6 Ixii 4, 
5 : Jer. ii. 2, iii. 1, 20 ; Ezek. xvi. ; Hos. ii. lb, 
19, 20 ; Matt. ix. 15 ; John iii. 29 ; 2 Cor. xi. 
2 : Eph. V. 23, 29, 30, 32 ; Rev. xix. 7-9, xxf. 
9 Such passages as these show how fami- 
liarlv the idea was used even in Prose com- 
position : we need not be surprised to find 
it expanded in impassioned poetry. 

But this interpretation depends on the 
Song being supposed to exhibit nuptial 
love! If such a supposition be erroneous 
of course there will be a much greater 
difficulty in establishing the allegorical 
meaning. Now Mr. Ginsburg, a late and 
"ble expositor, maintains {Song of Solomon, 
with Commentary, Lend. 1857) that vx have 
in it an example of virtue m a young woman 
who overcame great temptations to become 
a royal favourite, and remained f ait^u 
a humble suitor. A shepherdess, he things, 
is described, whom Solomon admires and 
carries to his palace, till, wrought npon by 
her constancy,he dismisses her to liappmess 
with the shepherd to whom she had been 
betrothed. It would be hard certainly to 
put a spiritual meaning on such a stoiy. 
But after the fullest consideration of Mr 
Giusburg's theory it appears untenable. Ihe 
parts do not hang well together And, 
seeing that he admits only a literal exposi- 
tion, the extreme improbabilities of the 
story as he interprets it are difficulties 
which one really cannot see how to sur- 
mount. See Home's Inirod 70I;, ejit. 
Avre PP 751, 752. On the whole, then, the 
allegm-ical interpretation described above 
appears most reasonable. Nor are the ob- 
jections urged against it insuperable It is 
said that no hint is given m the book itself 
that it is allegorical. But no sncli limt 
would be needed, especially to readers, pre- 
pared by habit and fcelmg, as it has been 



1 












i 

1 

i 

i 

1 

i 

J 
j 

1 

! 

i 

-1 


noted the orientals were, to recognize its 
inner meaning. It is also urged that, if it 
was a sacred allegory, it is marvellous that 
our Lord or his apostles did not cite it. 
They would have been more likely to put 
the church on her guard against it, if not 
being allegorical it was so understood, as 
we can hardly doubt it was in their time. 

The date and authorship must now be 
briefly noticed. In the title, which even 
if not original is of extreme antiquity, the 
Song is expressly declared to be Solomon's. 
And to him generally, both in the Jewish 
church and the Christian, it has been as- 
cribed. There is no reason to doubt that 
it was produced about his time. The diction 
is evidence of it. And, whereas some trace 
of Aramaic or Chaldee expression has been 
; imagined, such may readily be explained 
without resorting to the conjecture of a 
i later date. It has been suggested that it 
was composed in Northern Palestine, There 
is little ground for the conjecture ; a reason 
of Hitzig, that Tirzah is named before Jeru- 
salem (Sol. Song vi. 4), being one of the 
silliest that ever entered a critic's brain. 
But, if written in Solomon's age, may we 
regard that prince as the author? If Mr. 
Ginsburg's exposition be established, un- 
questionably he was not : he never would 
have recorded his own disappointment. 
But that exposition, it has been said above, 
1 cannot be adopted. Some particular ex- 
i pressions are alleged as not likely to have 
fallen from ,Solomon's pen : it is need- 
less to dwell upon them : they prove little 
one way or the other. The gravest objec- 
tion, certainly, to the Solomonic authorship 
arises from the character and habits of 
that prince. Wise, indeed, he was, gifted 
; in many respects above the sons of men ; 
t but the licence of his harem, independentlv 
; of the miserable fact that his wives turned 
: away his heart from God, so that he was 
i led to build high places for the deities of 
those idolatrous women (1 Kings xi. 4-8) 
shows how far he was from realizing that 
purity of mind and conduct which one 
would think must mark the man to whom 
were revealed, on the supposition of the 
Song having a spiritual meaning, the deep- 
est things of God. Truly they are earthen 
imperfect vessels to whom any of the in- 
spired treasure is committed; nevertheless 
we look for some reasonable correspon- 
dence; and it would seem more likely 
that one of high seraphic virtue would 
1 have been the man to depict the tender 
affection of the Lord and his church, 
instead of the sensuous monarch of Israel. 
Yet the objection is by no means pressed as 
unanswerable ; and the weight of external 
evidence will be thought perhaps by most 
^ decisive for Solomon. If he was the author, 
, it is impossible to tell at what period of his 

■ life he wrote this book ; some say in youth, 

■ some in his elder days. This, however, we 
may confidently conclude : the fair one was 
not Pharaoh's daughter, but rather a native 

j of Palestine, or the child of some neigh- 
i bouring prince. Some identifying Shunem 
and Shulem would have her a Shunam- 
mite, and— whither will not fancy lead !— 
have guessed that she was Abishag. 


It is well to note that a proper examina- 
tion of the Song proves the baselessness of 
some of the objections to it. Thus Dr. Stowe 
shows that Sol. Song v. lO-lO, often taken 
to describe the unclothed person, has really 
reference to the dress. 'Those parts .... 
which custom exposes to view are indeed 
described ; but, as to those parts which 
custom conceals, it is the dress and not the 
skin which is intended. For example, " His 
head is as the most fine gold ; and his hair 
is curled, and black as the raven 1" What is 
this but the turban, gold-coloured or orna- 
mented with gold, and the raven-black 
ringlets appearing below it? How else 
could his head be yellow and his hair black ? 
.... Again, " His belly is as bright ivory 
girded with sapphires." How admirably 
this corresponds with the enow-white robe, 
and girdle set full of jewels, as we see it in 
Sir R. K. Porter's portrait of the late king 
of Persia! But what is there, I pray you, 
in the unclothed body that looks like a 
girdle of sapphires?' The same principle 
will apply to vii. 1-5 ; with regard to which 
Dr. Kitto says, 'There can be no impro- 
priety in describing those parts of the per- 
son which are always exposed to view, as 
the face, hands, &c. Isow all the monu- 
ments and pictures of ancient Egypt show 
us that the ancient oriental ladies dressed 
so as to leave the busts fully open to view; 
and of course there could then be no im- 
propriety in alluding to or describing that 
part of the person. It may be added that 
this is the custom of modern oriental as 
well as of ancient oriental dress ; and Ave 
have ourselves seen women who would 
sooner die than allow their faces to be 
viewed by strangers, and sooner be flayed 
alive than be seen with the top of the head 
uncovered, who would at the same time be 
perfectly indifferent to a display of a part 
of their persons which is in Europe more 
carefully veiled' (Daili/ Bihl. Illust., Sec. 
Ser. Thirteenth Week, Sixth Day). 

Almost every expositor divides this book 
in his own way. The following is one of 
the many modes of distributing it. There 
are two parts, each with three subdivisions ; 
I. (i.— vi.), comprising, besides the title 
(i. 1), I. The aspiration of reciprocal love 
(i. 2— ii. 7).— 2. The mutual search and find- 
ing of the beloved object (ii. 8— iii, 5).— 3. 
The espousals (iii. 6— v. 1), II. (v. 2— viii. l4), 
including, 1. The separation and re-union 
(V. 2— vi. 9). 2. The commendation of the 
beloved object (vi. 10— viii. 4).— 3. The ce- 
menting of the alliance for inviolable 
fidelity (viii. 5-14). 

Among the useful commentaries on this 
book are Mason Good's Translation with 
Notes, 1-803, and Withington's Solomon's Song 
translated and explained, Boston, U.S., 1861. 

SOL'OMON, THE YilSDOM OF. See 
Wisdom of Solomon, the Book of. 

SON. This word is used with an extended 
meaning for grandson (Gen. xxix. 5 ; 2 
Kings ix. 14) and for more remote descend- 
ants (Ezra viii. 15 ; Matt. xxii. 42 ; Luke 
xix, 9). In a tropical sense we have it de- 
noting vassalage or subjection, as of a child 
to his p-arent (2 Kings xvi. 7). Hence 'son 
of death ' (1 Sam. xx. 31, marg.) for devoted 




i 







BOK OF god] 



844 



to death ; so ' child' or son • of hell' (Matt, 
xxiii. 15), ' son of. perdition ' (John xvii. 12). 
It also signifies a 'foster-son,' or one 
adopted (Exod. ii. 10), and a disciple, a 
teacher being regarded as a father ; thus 
'sons of the prophets,' those who were 
trained in tlie prophetical schools (1 Kings 
XX. 35 ; 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 7 ; Amos vii. 14). In 
relation to a place, ' son ' denotes a native of 
it ; thus ' children' or sons 'of Zion' (Psal. 
cxlix. 2), so ' children of the east ' (Judges 
vi. 3), ' children of the people ' (Jer. xvil. 19),' 
meaning the common people or the puhlic. 
Similarly we find ' sons of his quiver ' (Lam. 
iii. 13, marg.) for his arrows. Used with 
reference to time we have ' son of old age ' 
(Gen. xxxvii. 3) for one horn in old age, 
' children' or sons ' of youth' (Psal. cxxvii. 
4) for those horn in their fathers' youth, 
' son of a year ' (Exod. xii. 5, marg.) for 
one a year old, ' the son of the night ' (Jonah 



Wilson has largely proved in his Tlhistr. of 

Method of Expl. the N. T. hy early Opinions of 
Jeics and Cliristians, chap. iii. pp. 56-76. 
However clear to us may he the proofs dedu- 
cihle from the Old Testament of the plural- 
ity of Persons in the unity of the Godhead, 
tho Jews generally did not appreciate their 
force. And at a time especially when they 
were purged from their former tendencies 
to idolatry they maintained in the strongest 
way the unity of the Most High God. Now 
it was no ofEence against the law for any 
one to proclaim himself the Messiah. The 
evidences of his claim were to he looked at : 
and according as they were trustworthy or 
not the claim would he admitted or dis- 
allowed ; hut simply to have made it roused 
no indignation among his countrymen, 
although in case of an individual obnoxious 
on other grounds they might make it a 
ground of accusation before their Gen- 



lU., LLic bull yJ-L uiic j-Ligi.xu wi-iuj-i. ^ t.. ^ js 

iv. 10, marg.) for that which came up in a tile rulers, that the claim was an act of 
night The word is also expressive of treason against the Roman Ctesar (Luke 
quality or condition. Thus ' sons of Belial' xxiii. 2 ; John xix. 12). But this was not 
or wickedness (1 Sam. ii. 12) for wicked the charge on which our Lord was arraign^ 
men, 'sons of affliction' (Prov. xxxi. 5, ed before the high priest, a^d which the 
mari.) the afflicted, 'sons of thunder' Jewish law made capital. 'We have a law 
(Ma^k iii. 17j impetuous, ' children' or sons they said ; ' and by our law he ought to die 
' of disobedience' (Eph. ii. 2) disobedient because he made himself the Son of God 
persons. Poetically the word is used for (7). It was impossible to deny the reahty 
anv kind of relationship or similarity: thus of the miracles wrought. They were ac- 
we have ' son of the morning ' (Isai. xiv. 12) knowledged by the people, who still doubted 
the morning-star, 'sons of the burning whether they were sufficient to establish 
coal' (Job V. 7) sparks (though some would the truth of his Messiahship (vii. 31) : they 
interpret here of birds), swift aslightning, could not be gainsaid by the very rulers (xi. 
'"^on of oil' (Isai. v. 1, marg.) fat, fertile, 47). But then the case was provided for in 
'sons of oil' (Zech. iv. 14) anointed, ' chil- thelaw.that, if a sign or a wonder was exhi- 
dren'or sons 'of the resurrection ' (Luke bited by any one who transgressed the fun- 
XX. 36) those who shall rise again. Many damental principles of that law, he was to be 
similar phrases occur, easy to be understood, dealt with as a false prophet (Deut. xiii. 1-..). 
SOX OB^ GOD, This title is contiiiuaUy Hence the keenness of the Jews to convicD 



given to the Lord Jesus Christ, and as ap- 
propriated by him it is a full proof of his 
divinitv (Luke i. 32, xxii. 70, 71 ; Rom. i. 4). 

The title was applied to Adam, who had 
no human father (Luke iii. 38). And there 
is a sense in which ocher men, as the crea- 
tures of God's hand, and still more as receiv- 
ed into his reconciled family Iry adoption, 
may be called God's sons (Hos. i. 10 ; John i. 
12 ; Acts ^:i. 28, 29 ; Rom. viii. 14 ; Gal. iii. 
26 iv. 5-7 ; 1 John iii. 1, 2). But it was evi- 
dently with a much higher meaning that 
our Lord is termed ' The Son of God.' For 



Jesus of what they supposed a denial of the 
first great truth of their religion. And 
with all their admixture of lower motives 
we may fairly admit that they believed he 
was committing a grave crime and deserved . 
the punishment of death. This the words of i 
St. Peter (Acts iii. 17) and of St. Paul (1 Cor. j 
ii 8) imply. Hence their dissatisfaction on 
his trial with the false witness urged against 
him. It did not, if admitted, involve a 1 
capital offence. So that the high priest 
had to put him to the proof (Luke xxii. 70, 
71). And in his judges' mind he was con- 



the Jews rightly udged that by the as- victed l^^s own words m ope^ dSed 
sumption of this title he laid claim to equal- the grossest ^ asphemy, when he ded^^^ 
ity with God, and, regarding it as bias- i in answer to the adjuratwn made to^ him 



phemv, and a breach of°the first command-! that he was the Son of God. The whole of this 
meXtliey determined to put him to death proceeding ^vonld be unintehigibl^^^^^^ we 
(John V. 17, 18) : in fact it was on this did not allow that to Jewish ears this de- 
charge that ultimately they condemned claration distinctly claimed eanaiity with 
h m. And that it was Aot in the lower and God. And, if we were for argument s sake 
common sense that Christ claimed God as to imagine that m the heat of d scussion 
SrSei is evident from the fac* that he more was advanced than would m cooler 
d d not correct the Jews' opinion ; which moments be maintained, we cannot for an 
nS=t unquestionably he would have done, : instant suppose that on this solemn occa- 
had th^Xen uiidei4 mistake in supposing :s^ on trial before the highest court of 
naatut:> ueen uuuci +.1,^ ,.nt;^T, at a crisis on which so much 



him to have broken the great commandment 
of the law. , . ^ ^ , 

Whitby well observes m his note on Luke 
xxii. 70, 71 that the Jews did not expect 
Messiah to be more than man. The title, 
therefore, ' Son of God ' was not recognized 
by them as appropriate to the Messiah ; as 



the nation, 

depended, Jesus would let himself be miS' 
conceived and condemned to death for an 
assumption he did not really intend to make. 
The inference, then, cannot be evaded. Our 
Lord claimed to be one with the Father in a 
way in which no mere man could be ; and tit.9 



845 



apostles in propagating his religion meant 
to claim for Mm this divine pre-eminence 
(Mark i. 1 ; John i. 18 ; Acts iii. 13, 26 ; Heb. 
i. 2 ; 1 John i. 3). And here was the great 
mystery of godliness. He that was the 
Highest stooped to he the lowest for the 
salvation of men. 

We may hence see the force of the ac- 
knowledgments made hy the devils whom 
J esus cast out : they knew him, we are told, 
not merely that he was the Messiah, hut 
that he was the Son of God (Matt, viii. 29 : 
Mark ii. 24 ; Luke iv. 34, 41). Hence, too, 
the declaration to Peter that such a recogni- 
tion could not have heen made except hy 
the gracious instruction of the Father 
(Matt. xvi. 16, 17), and the special com- 
mendation of ISTathanael (John i. 49, 50). It 
is no sufficient objection that the disciples 
wavered in their faith: they were the rather 
likely to waver when they saw One, whom 
they had hegun to believe more than human, 
apparently unable to deliver himself from 
a shameful death. It may be added that 
the peculiar difficulty of the Jews is thus 
quite evident when Jesus questioned them, 
Whose Son is Christ? they said at once, 
David's. But, when he further enquired, 
how David then called him Lord, they from 
their ignorance of Messiah's divine nature 
could not answer (Matt. xxii. 41-46). The 
reader may advantageously consult Wil- 
son's work already referred to, chap. ii. 
pp. 10-55. 

SOI^ OF MAN. A phrase used to signify 
man generally (.Numb, xxiii. 19; Job xxv. 
6, XXXV. 8 ; Psal. viii. 4, cxliv. 3 ; Heb. ii. 6). 
It was the ordinary designation of the pro- 
phet Ezekiel, when God addressed him (e.g. 
Ezek. ii. i, 3, 6, 8). It was also once given 
to Daniel (Dan. viii. 17). It seems to have 
been an Aramaic idiom, equivalent to ' man,' 
in common use in the region where Ezekiel 
and Daniel resided. Thus we find it perpetu- 
ally occurring in the Syriac version : as for 
example, ' The first son of man, Adam, was 
a living soul ;' ' The first son of man earthy 
of the earth, the second son of man the 
Lord from heaven' (1 Cor. xv. 45, 47). It is, 
further, the phrase used in that remarkable 
vision in which Daniel saw One, ' the Son 
of Man,' brought to the Ancient of Days, 
and invested with a sovereignty that should 
include all nations and that should never 
be destroyed (Dan. vii. 13, 14). That this 
had a Messianic reference cannot be doubt- 
ed. And therefore, when our Lord so desig- 
nated himself (Matt. viii. 20, ix. 6, and 
elsewhere) he announced himself as the 
Messiah, the Son of God manifested in hu- 
man form, revealing the mystery of the two 
natures in one Person. The Jews seem 
fuUy to have understood what he meant • 
they saw that he claimed an identity as 
*Son of man' with the Deity, the 'Son of 
God' (Luke xxii. 69, 70 : comp. John xii. 34; 
Stephen uses this title of Christ (Acts vii 
56),: with this exception, in the Gospels and 
apostolic history it is applied to him only 
lay himself. 

, SONS OF GOD. A designation given in 
the Old Testament to angels (Job i. 6, ii l 
xxxviii. 7). There cannot be a doubt of 
the bemgs intended in these places ; but 



[SOSIPATEB 



there is considerable doubt in regard to 
another place where the same phrase is 
employed (Gen. vi. 2, 4). It is very fre- 
quently interpreted of the descendants of 
Seth, supposed to be a godly race, inter- 
marrying with the posterity of Cain re- 
garded as degenerate. And this notion is 
corroborated by the fact that the Israelites, 
Gods chosen family, are called his children 
(Deut. xiv. 1). It is supposed again that 
the sons of eminent persons, to whom the 
name ' gods ' is sometimes given (Exod. 
xxii. 28), allied themselves with females of 
inferior rank. Little, however, can be said 
in favour of such an interpretation. Many 
respectable writers are dissatisfied with 
both these notions. Dr. Kitto, in an in- 
genious paper (Dctily Bible Illustr., Fifth 
Week, Fourth Day), argues that elsewhere 
the phrase signifies beings non-human, that 
we know too little of the nature of such 
beings to decide that the intermixture was 
impossible, and that, if thus we suppose an 
intrusive race more powerful than men 
generated upon earth, the absolute neces- 
sity of such a judgment as the flood is 
better seen, wherein all were swept away, 
one family of pure descent being preserved. 
And Noah, it is said, was 'perfect in his 
generations' (Gen. vi. 9). Dr. Kalisch is 
more decided still against the application 
of the phrase to human beings : he refers 
to the many wild legends which may have 
had their origin from this passage,but which 
he supposes to have obtained currency 
before the narrative was written, and which 
he seems to believe were here referred to 
' The Hebrew historian,' says he, ' admits 
for one moment the existence of a super- 
stition, in order for ever to subvert and to 
eradicate it ' {Comm. on Old Test. Qen., pp. 
170-176). No general consent, probably, 
will ever be arrived at in the exposition of 
the sacred writer's statement. 

SONG (1 Kings iv. 32). See Hymn, Music, 
Poetry. 

SONG OF SOLOMON. See SOLOMON, Thh 
Song op. 

SONG OF THE THREE CHILEHETf 
Apocryphal Additions to 
^^SOOTHSAYERdsai. ii. 6). See DiviNA- 

SOP (J ohn xiii. 26, 27, 30) . A piece of the 
unleavened bread dipped in the oroth of 
bi^er herbs. See Meals, Passover. 

SO'PATER {father saved). A Christian of 
Jierea who accompanied St. Paul into Asia 
i^^^^ f^A ™^ ^ay possibly be a 
contracted form of Sosipater. 

SO'PHERETH (sm&e). One whose de- 
scenoants, Solomon's servants, returned 

^^^In^^n'i^rf^f ^^^^^ ^5 ^eh. vii. 57). 

SOPHONI'AS (2 Esdr. i. 40). The prophet 
Zephaniah. 

SORCERER, SORCERY (Acts viii. 9, and 
elsewhere). See Divination. 

SO'REK {clioice vine). The valley in which 
Delilah lived (Judges xvi. 4). It was pro- 
bably to the north of Eleutheropolis. not 
far from Zorah, • 

SOSIP'ATER (preservation of a father). A 
Christian from whom St. Paul sends a salu- 
tation to the church at Rome, calling him 
his kinsman, i.e., fellow-tribesman (Rom 



I 



eosipatee] 



846 



xvi. 21). Some liave loelieved liini the same 
Witii Sopater. . -.r 

SOSIP'ATER. A captam m tlie Macca- 
bean wars (2 Mace. xii. 19, 24). 

SOS'THE]S^ES {safe in strength). A ruler 
of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth (Acts 
xviii 17) Whether he became a Christian, 
and was the person whom St. Paul joins m 
liis address to the Corinthians (I Cor. 1. 1), 
is uncertain, , . 

SOS'TBATUS (2 Mace. lY. 27, 29). 
officer in Jerusalem under Antiochus Epi- 

^^SO?Vl (a deviator). One whosd descen- 
dants, called Solomon's servants, returned 
with Zeruhhahel (Ezra ii. 55 ; IS eh. vn. p7). 

SOUL. That sentient, rational, conscious, 
accountahle part or principle in man which 
distinguishes his life from mere animal 
eiistenJe. Thus God formed the body of our 
first parent from the dust of the ground 
and then ' breathed into his nostri h, the 
breath of life ; and man hecame a livmg 
Boul' (Gen. ii. 7). ^. 

There are many curious questions on tne 
nature, origin, powers, and mode of exis- 
tence of thi soul, which have been debated 
with much earnestnesR by ingenious men. 
Discussion on these would be out of place 
in the present work. Neither need the 
pantheistic notion be dwelt on tl'.at the 
soul is 'a mere attribute of the universal 
substance and a correlate of extension, 
or ' a vanishing point in the eternal pro- 
cess of the evolution of the absolute, it 
is enough to say that the pantheistic theory 
is opposed to our consciousness, because it 
denies our individual personality, anddoe= 
not admit the freedom of the will, and, 
still worse, it is opposed to our moral and 
religious consciousness, for it denies moral 
distinctions, or, if it at all recognizes a 
difference between good ana evil, ic really 
ascribes to God all the error and crime 
under which men suffer. It must be sufh- 
cient to say here that such a theoiT contra- 
dicts not only scripture, but the plain 
principles of reason. 

There are other questions more nearly 
connected with scripture, which may very 
briefly be touched. It is doubted ho%\ fai 
the earlier fathers of mankind understood 
the immortality or separate existence of the 
soul. Unquestionably the later revela- 
tion disclosed much which had previously 
been veiled, so that Christ may most pro- 
perly be said to have 'brought life and 
immortality to light through the gospel (2 
Tim i 10). But surely the ancients weie 
not in perfect darkness on such a matter 
The translation of Enoch, even if there had 
been no other kind of teachmg must h a^ e 
read thoughtful men a striking lesson (Gen 
V. 24). And certainly, if 'the sacrifices of 
tile dead' were eaten, some notion mubt 
' have been entertained of the conscious 
state of tlie dead (Psal. cvi. 28). Another 
Question relates to the pre-exist_eiice of 
S ; and it is inferred that tl^e discip es 
lllieved this, by their enquiry, ' Wlio did 
sin?this man or his parents, that he was 
horn blind?' (John ix. 2: comp. Alfords 
D^te on the place.) The subject of the pre- 
eiiBtmce of the soul has been learnedly 



i di=^cu5sed by Eruch in a late work (Die 
i Lehrevonder Prdexistenz der Mensch. Seelen, 
'• 1859 ; a valuable condensation of it being 
' given in the American Biblioth. Saa\, Oct. 
18G3, pp. 1682-1733), in which he utterly dis- 
proves the notion. 

Leaving these matters, it may be observed 
that when the b.)Oy dies the soul still lives : 
it has not iinmediatcly its liual and com- 
plete position ; for body and soul must be 
a^ain united, in order that the whole man 
inay have his suitable life. What the scrip- 
ture reveals of the separate state of tlie 
faithful is very interesting. This is de- 
'jcribed as ' a state of rest, a state of con- 
=ciou^lv living to God, a state of being with 
Christ, a state of paradisaical bhss, a state 
of mutual recognition and of holy fellow- 
ship, a state of victory and of assurance of 
reward, a state of earnest expectation (L. 
H. Bickersteth's The Blessed Bead). The con- 
dition ofthosewho have lived in ungodliness 
may be gathered from the awful Parable of 
the rich man and Lazarus (Luke xvi. 19-31). 

At the Lord's coming all men shall rise 
again with their bodies, ' some to ever- 
lasting life, and some to shame and ever- 
lasting contempt' (Dan. xii. 2; Matt. xxy. 
A.G) The practical conclusion, and one oi 
the weightiest importance, therefore, is 
that all care must be exercised, all means 
used, for ' the salvation of the soul (Matt. 

^^The^''term 'soul' is sometimes used for 
person (e.g. Acts xxvii. 37 ; l Pet. iii. 20). 

SOUTH The Hebrews had several words 
of expressive derivation, as one implying 
diTuess, another brightness (opposed to 
which was region ' covered,' i.e., with dark- 
ness, for the north), to indicate the south. 
Also, as in respect to the points of the com- 
pass, a man was supposed to have his face 
he e?-t and consequently tne south 
was on his right, it was often designated 
by ' the ri^^ht hand' (1 Sara, xxiii. 19, marg. ; 
Job xxiii. 9). The south is put for countries 
br districts lying to the south of Palestine, 
such as Idumea, parts of Arabia, the desert 
of Paran, &c., and more particularly that 
which was afterwards distinguished as the 
south country.' Hence, though Abrara 
leaving Egypt journeyed m a r.orth-east ] 
direction, he is said to have gone 'into the , 
south' (Gen. xiii. 1). Egypt is sometimes in- 
tended (probably in Isai. xxx. 6 ; Dan. xi. o, 
15), and Arabia (Matt. xii. 42j. But, in ^zei^. 
XX 46 47, Judea seems to be meant, per- 
haps in reference to the position of the 
prophet in Babylonia. See North. 

The region called the ' south country 
has been admirably illustrated by Mr. 
Wilton in his Kegeb, often cited in these 
page' He shows that it was a recognized 
district of Palestine, and was divided into 
the Kegeb (i.) of the Cherethites or Philis- 
tines, (ii.) of the Kenites adjoining Arad, 
(iii.) of Judah, subdivided into the Negeb 
(1) of Caleb, (2) of the Jerahmeelites. He 
describes its physical characteristics, its i 
ravines and defiles, its exposure to the si- 
rocco, its deficiencyin springs, so that it is 
chiefly dependent for water on the rainy sea- 
son, and its consequent unsuitableness for 
horses and horned cattle. He speaks of it 



847 



[spies, SFlCmiY 



as the resort of lions, deer, and gazelles, 
I wild goats, doves, and noxious reptiles ; 
the domestic animals in it heing the camel, 
the ass, sheep, and goats. He draws atten- 
tion to the fulfilment of prophecy respect- 
ing it : its cities stand unoccupied (Jer. xiii. 
19); there being not even a single inhabited 
Tillage, as tne population is entirely no- 
madic. See Seir, 1, p. 807. 

SOUTH-RA'MOTH (1 Sam. xxx. 27). See 
Baalath-beer. 

sow (2 Pet. ii. 22). See Swine. 

SOW, SOWER, SOWING (Lev. xix. 19). 
Several of our Lord's parables are grounded 
upon sowing (Matt. xiii. 3-8, 18-32, 36-43 ; 
Mark iv. 26-32 ; Luke viii. 5-15). See Agri- 
culture, Season. 

SPAIN. A well-known country in the 
south-west of Europe. The whole peninsula, 
including modern Spain and Portugal, was, 
in the apostolic age, a province, named His- 
pania, of the lloman empire. St. Paul pro- 
posed to visit Spain (Rom. xv. 24, 28) ; but 
it is uncertain whether he ever fulfilled his 
intention : see Paul, p. 670 ; yet doubtless 
the gospel was carried thither at an early 
date, perhaps by Hellenistic Jews, who 
would naturally be found in the country for 
purposes of commerce. Before the Roman 
dominion, Spain had been colonized or 
occupied by various tribes. The Greeks 
founded cities therein. The Phcenicians 
had much commercial intercourse with the 
peninsula. Tarsliish, so frequently men- 
tioned in scripture, appears to have been a 
place in Spain. See Tarshish. The Car- 
thaginians formed Spanish settlements. 
After the breaking up of the Roman empire 
there was a Gothic monarchy in this coun- 
try, which was overturned by the Ai'ab inva- 
sion in the beginning of the eighth century; 
nor were the Arabs finally expelled for 
nearly 800 years. Many oriental customs 
still exist in Spain. Thus oxen may be seen 
treading out the corn, which is winnowed 
by being cast up against the wind. 

SPAN (Exod. xxviii. 16, and elsewhere). 
See Measures. 

SPARROW. The Hebrew word so ren- 
dered(jneaning twittering, chirping) applies 
to small birds, generally of the sparrow 
genus, or similar to the sparrow, thus in- 
cluding. Dr. Kitto thinks, thrushes, star- 
lings, finches, larks, &c. The common 
sparrow. Passer domesticus, is the attendant 
of civilized man, everywhere before our 
eyes, even in the modern populous cities. 
There are many accidental varieties, and 
kindred species. Upwards of one hundred 
are said to occur in the Holy Land. The 
sparrow mentioned in Psal. cii. 7 is de- 
scribed as a solitary bird, and is thought 
hy Waterton to be a species of thrush. But 
Dr. Thomson, who notices the abundance 
of house-sparrows and field-sparrows in 
Palestine (though according toTristram the 
common sparrow does not occur in the coun- 
try), says, 'They are a tame, troublesome, 
and impertinent generation, and nestle 
just where you don't want them. They 
stop up your stove and water-pipes with 
their rubbish, build in the windows and 
under the beams of the roof, and would 
st^lff your hat full of stubble in half a day. 



if they found it hanging in a place to suit 
them. They are extremely pertinacious in 
asserting their right of possession, and 
have not the least reverence for any place 
or thing. David alludes to these character- 
istics of the sparrow in Psal. Ixxxiv., where 
he complains tliat they had appropriated 
even the altars of God for their nests. Con- 
cerning himself he says " I watch, and am 
as a sparrow upon the house-top" (cii. 7). 
Yfhen one of them has lost his mate — a 
matter of every-day occurrence— he will sit 
on the house-top alone, and lament by the 
hour his sad bereavement. These birds are 
snared and caught in great numbers ; but, 
as they are small and not much relished for 
food, five sparrows may still be sold for I 
two farthings ; and, w^hen we see their 
countless numbers, and the eagerness with 
which they are destroyed as a worthless 
nuisance, we can better appreciate the 
assurance that our heavenly Father, v/ho 
takes care of them, so that not one can fall 
to the ground without his notice, will 
surely take care of us, who are of more 
value than m.any sparrows (Matt. x. 29; 
Luke xii. 6, 7) ' (T/ze Land and the Book, p. 
43: comp. Mr. Tristram's article in Smith's 
Lict. of tJie Bible, vol. iii. pp. 1364-1367). 

SPAB'TA (1 Mace. xiv. 16). A celebrated 
city of Greece, in the Peloponnesus. The 
history of it must be sought from other 
sources. But it may be said here that, in 
Maccabean times, a relationship was be- 
lieved to subsist hetw^een the Jews and 
Spartans, or Lacedsemonians (as they were 
also called); and a correspondence ensued 
between the two nations (xii. 1-23). The 
first letters passed probably in the time of 
the high-priest Onias III., but this is some- 
what doubtful. 

SPEAR. See Arms, pp. 53, 54. 

SPEARMEN (Acts xxiii. 23), These were 
probably light-armed troops. 

SPELT (Isai. xxviii. 25, marg. ; Ezek. iv. 
9, marg.) . In our version the Hebrew word 
is variously rendered 'rye' (Exod. ix. 32; 
Isai. xxviii. 25), ' fitches ' (Ezek. iv. 9) ; the 
word ' spelt ' being in two places added in 
the margin. The grain meant is probably 
spelt, Triticum spelta, a variety of w^heat 
with a smooth or bald ear. 

SPICE, SPICERY. The word is generally 
used among us in a comprehensive sense, 
including a variety of aromaticproductions. 
Some of the Hebrew terms rendered ' spices ' 
in our version appear to have similarly a 
wade meaning. The word necdth (Gen. 
xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11) perhaps Implies con- 
tusion, a breaking in pieces. It may there- 
fore indicate some aromatic powder. But 
probably the general name was transferred 
to a certain kind of spice. And from the 
resemblance of the Arabic term it has been 
supposed to be the gum tragacanth, which 
exudes from the Astragalus tragacantha, a 
thorny shrub with lanceolate leaves found 
in Persia, Syria, and adjacent regions. This 
gum is generally white, sometimes brown 
or yellow, inodorous and tasteless, highly 
valued for its medicinal properties. A 
similar word occurs, rendered ' spicejy ' in 2 
Kings xx. 13, marg.; Isai. xxxix. 2, marg. ; 
but the meaning there is rather treasures. 



spider] 



848 



Besem (with some variations of form), plur. 
bescLmtm, is another word frequently trans- 
lated ' spices ' (e.g. Exod. xxv. 6, xxx. 23 ; 
1 Kings X. 2, 10, 25) : it would seem to imply 
aromatics, suhstances diffusing fragrance. 
The same word is joined with cinnamon 
(Exod. XXX. 23), indicating ' sweet cin- 
mamon.' Among the aromatics thus de- 
signated was probably Arabic balsam, or 
bahn of Gilead, Amyiis (or Balsamodendron} 
Gileadensis ; and tliis may be the meaning 
in Sol. Song r. 13, vi. 2. There is another 
Hebrew term sammzm. This, like besem, de- 
notes fragrance, and is coupled with incense 
(Exod. XXX. 7, marg.\ It is probably a 
generic name for aromatic productions (34), 
The Greek word aro??iaia(MarkxYi,l ; Luke 
xxiii. 56, xxiv. 1 ; John xix. 40) seems to 
have been used in the same comprehensive 
way. The Hebrews were accustomed to 
season or flavour food and wine with spice 
(Sol. Song viii. 2 ; Ezek. xxiv. 10) ; the pri- 
mary idea of the word rekahh, here used, 
being that of heating or boiling ; and spices 
were employed for funeral burnings (2 
Chron. xvi. 14). Apartments were also per- 
fumed with aromatics (Prov. vii. 17). 

SPIDER. The word rendered ' spider ' in 
Prov. XXX. 28 was a species of poisonous 
lizard, perhaps one of the geckos. See 
LizAUD. But in Job viii. 14 ; Isai. lix. 5 
the spider is really meant. The original 
term is compounded of two signifying re- 
spectively 'agile' and 'to weave:' it de- 
notes, therefore, a swift weaver. The 
spider's web is most delicate and frail : 
hence the propriety of the illustration. 

SPIKENARD. A substance highly valued 
from ancient times for its fragrance. The 
Hebrew word is nerd, probably akin to the 
Sanscrit narda, expressive of its fragrant 
qualities. It is mentioned in Sol. Song i. 12, 
iv.13,14, and appears to have been procured 
from an Indian plant of the family of the 
ValerianecB, known as the Nardostachys 
jatamansi. It must have been imported 
from India by way of Arabia. Spikenard 
is also noted as the precious perfume with 
which Mary of Bethany anointed our Lord 
(Mark xiv. 3 ; John xii. 3). It is there coupled 
with an epithet, pistike, occurring nowhere 
else, in regard to which critics have not 
been able to make up their minds. It has 
been supposed to designate the place from 
which the ointment came, to express its 
purity or genuineness, to signify that it 
was liquid or potable. One can only con- 
jecture in such a diversity of opinions ; but 
perhaps ' liquid' is the most probable inter- 
pretation. See Alford's note on Mark xiv. 
3 ; Winer, Bibl. BIVB., art. ' Narde.' 

SPIN, SPINNING. The Israelitish women 
are mentioned (Exod. xxxv. 25, 26) as spin- 
ning materials for the tabernacle. Spinning 
also is alluded to by our Lord (Matt. vi. 28 ; 
Luke xii. 27). The implements used are 
noted in Prov. xxxi. 19 ; whence we learn 
that distaff-spinning was the mode practi- 
sed by the Hebrews. And this mode is re- 
presented in ancient Egyptian monuments, 
there being no trace of the use of a spinning- 
wheel. Distaff-spinning is still coiximon in 
the east. Dr. Thomson observed it on Zion 
{Tiie Land and the Book, p. 68i:> ; though he 



strangely confounds the distaff with the 
spindle. The wool or yarn is fastened upon 
the distaff, or sometimes without a distaff 
fixed to the girdle : the spindle is furnished 
with a Avhirl, most conveniently placed in 
the middle, by which it is twirled, and 
which steadies it as it descends drawing 
out and twisting the thread. Distaff-spin- 
ning was practised in England in the 
memory of many now living. 

SPIRIT. The original words rtlahh, He- 
brew, and pneuma, Greek, rendered ' spirit' 
in our version, imply a breathing or blow- 
ing: the primary sense, therefore, is wind. 
Hence it is used for breath (2 Thess. ii. 8) ; 
the vital principle (Eccles. viii. 8) ; the ra- 
tional immortal soul, by the possession of 
which man is distinguished from brute 
animals (Acts vii. 59 ; 1 Cor. v. 5, vi. 20, vii. 
34) : so it occurs in 1 Thess. v. 23, where it 
denotes the highest part of man, 'soul' in 
the same place being the ' animal soul, con- 
taining the passions and desires, which we 
have in common with the brutes, but which 
in us is ennobled and drawn up by the pneu- 
ma' (Alford). Further, the word ' spirit 'im- 
plies the soul in its separate state (Heb. xii 
23) ; and hence a spectre or apparition (Jot 
iv. 15 ; Luke xxiv. 37, 39). It is, moreover, 
used for super-human created beings, for 
angels (Heb. i. 14), and demons (Luke iv. 36, 
X. 20) ; and in fine for the Deity, the high ' 
uncreated Spirit (John iv. 24) ; but here speci- 
fically for the Holy Ghost (2 Cor. iii. 8). By 
a figure of speech the word 'spirit' often 
implies the disposition, mode of feeling, un- 
derstanding, &c. (Isai. xix. 14, xxix. 24) ; 
and occasionally it is put in opposition to 
flesh (xxxi. 3). There can be little difficulty 
in comprehending such a use of the word. 
SPIRIT, HOLY. See Holy Ghost. 
SPIRITUAL BODY a Cor. xv. 44). See 

RESURR'ECTIOIf. 

SPIRITUAL GIFT (Rom. 1. 11). See 
Gift. 

SPIT (Numb. xii. 14 ; Dent. xxv. 9 ; Job 
XXX. 10 ; Isai. 1. 6 ; Matt. xxvi. 67, xxvii. 30 ; 
Mark x. 34, xiv. 65, xv. 19 ; Luke xviii. 32). 
To spit on any one was a mark of rude 
contempt. 
SPOIL. See BOOTY. 

SPONGE, or SPUNGE. This is mentioned 
onlv in connection with our Lord's cruci- 
fixion (Matt, xxviii.48 ; Mark xv. 36 ; John 
xix. 29). This substance is just upon the 
boundary of the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms, but is usually classed among 
zoophytes. The use of sponge is well known. 
SPOUSE. See Marriage. 
SPRING. See SBASo:sr, 
SPRING, SPRINGS. See FOUNTAlif. 
SPRINKLE, SPRINKLING. The words 
are often used symbolicallj', reference being 
made to the sprinklings prescribed by the 
Mosaic law (Heb. ix. 13, 19, 21, x. 22 ; 1 Pet. 
i. 2). See Atonement, Day of. Heifer, 
Purification. 

STA'OHYS ian ear of corn), A Christian 
at Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. xvi. 9). 

STACTE. An aromatic gum or resin used 
for making the sacred perfume (Exod. xxx. 
34). Its Hebrew name, ndtdph, signifies a 
' drop ; ' and it is so called because it flows 
out in drops. Stacte is a Greek word with 



849 



a similar derivation. It is probably the 
resm of the Styrax offlcmale, or the Povu- 
lus alha,^ white poplar. Duns says that ♦ the 
tree which produces stacte is the amyris, 
or Balsamoclenclro7i Jcataf of botanists. It 
was found by Prof. Ehrenberg on the bor- 
ders of Arabia Felix ' (BibLNat. Science, vol. 
11. p. 64). 

STANDARD. It seems probable that the 
Hebrews had military standards or banners, 
under which their respective tribes or 
divisions were marshalled. These, if we 
may judge by the description of the en- 
camping and marches in the wilderness, 
were of two kinds. Three tribes had a 



[stab 



"^ol^^'/^^' each particular trlbe.OS'umb. 
11 . 2) Of a standard-bearer the scripture says 
nothing : the passage (Isai. x. 18) where 
the word occurs in our version is rendered 




Standards, Assyrian. From the Ninovcli 
marbles. 

Standard, degel, around which the tribes- 
men were to pitch, and under which they 
were to march ;" the four respectively being 
called the standards of the camps of Judah, 
of Reuben, of Ephraim, and of Dan, as those 
were the leading tribes of each division 
(Numb. i.52,ii.2, 3, 10,18, 25, 34, X.14, IS, 22, 
25). TVhether these standards were distin- 
guished by any insignia or devices can only 
be matter of conjecture : according to the 
rabbins, the device of Judah was a lion; that 
for Reuben a man ; for Ephraim an ox ; and 
for Dan an eagle. The ' banner' of Sol. Song 
1. 4 would seem to be a covering ; but ban- 
nered hosts are also referred to (vi. 4, 10). Be- 
sides the divisional standards there was an 




Standards, Egyptian. From Champollion. 
by Gesenius ' as the sick man pineth away.' 
Egyptian standards consisted of some 
sacred emblem : Roman standards bore an 
eagle on a spear. This may illustrate Deut. 




Standards, Roman. 

xxviii. 49 ; Matt. xxiv. 28 ; Luke xvii. 37 
yet such application is doubtful. 

STAR. The scientific knowledge of the 
stars, expressed by the term astronomy- 
was little cultivated by the Hebrews, Th« 

3 I 



BTAE IK THE EAST] €xmi\lXU Of 



850 



notices tliat we fiud of them^ m the Old 
Testament respect merely their numhei^' 
the view they give of the glorious power of 
SrCreltor,\Sd the perversion to which 
the magnificent spectacle of the staiiy 
heavens led untutored men, of asciihin^ 
some influence over the world to tho^=e 
ISln?ng bodies, to which in consequence 
idolatrous reverence was paid. Some otner 
ancient nations, as the Chaldeans obsei^ ed 
celestial ph'jenomena ; hut their knowledge 
does not seem to have extended into Judea 
fn the New Testament _ there. is reference 
to the use of the stars in navigation (Acts 

^The s?ars are mentioned in the history 
of creation hut without a special note of 
time (Gen. i. 16). By ' stars' we are douht- 
Ss to understand here the heavenly bodies 
whether planets or fixed stars ; .iinst a^ v e 
frequently class them together m oi dinaiy 
sneech or writing. It is observable that 
Sore than once the stars are said m scnp- 
Sire to be innumerable ^^l^'^^'l^^J^^'^^^^ 
tion (XV. 5; Jer. xxxin. 22). ISow betore 
the invention of the telescope the stars, 
so many of them as the naked eye could 
perceivl were to be numbered; and cata- 
fogues of them were formed. It would seem 
that a higher wisdom-that indeed of him 
vSio aloni ' telleth tbe' whole ' nnmber of 
the stars, and calleth them all by their 
names ^ (Psal. cxlvii. 4), must have dictated 
uaiu^o V pnnstpl atlons, the 



such expressions. Of constellations the 
names Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades oi 
' seven stars,' occur m our version (J ob ix. 
9 Ixxviii. 31 32 ; Amos v. 8) : see the articles 
under those names, also Mazzaroth It 
was necessary to caution the Israehte. 
a-ainst any worship of the starry host 
meut!iv.l9), a caution which their subse- 
Quent history showed they grievously d s- 
re-arded (2 Kings xvii. 16, xxi. 3, xxiii. 5). 

Stars are sometimes symbolically put for 
rulers and princes (Dan. viii. .10) ; soine- 
thnes- also for pastors and ministers (Rev. 

S> 90). The angels, too, appear to be in- 
tended occasionally by the term (Job 
xxvviii. 7) ; and sometimes it points pro- 
phetically to the Lord of angels (Numb. 

^^ST*Ar^m THE EAST. One very remai-k- 
able incident of our Lord's early life is the 
visit of the eastern sages to him at. Beth- 
lehem. They had seen,, they said, his star 
and were come to worship him. And, ^^ hen 
they had found him with his mother, they 
offered him gifts, gold, frankincense, and 
myrrh (Matt. ii. 1-12). This visit would 
seem to have been not befoi-e the Pnnhca 
tion of Mary ; else she would not, as a very 
poo^r person, have offered only a pair, of 
^^^rAe doves (Luke ii. 24). Some laymg 
S^efs on the expression of Herod's com- 
mand for the slaughter of the ch Idren 
^Som two years old and under place it 
consTderably after the presentation Bu 
Herod would be sure to ^a-e a la ge ma^^^^^^ 
and perhaps the star was first obsm\ c.a at 
the time of the miraculous conception. 
There can, however, be no certainty on 
Doints such as these. 

It is a question why the sages came to 
connect the appearance of a star witn tne 



birth of a Jewish king. Possibly the wordb 
of Balaam's prophecy (Numb. xxiv. 17) 
might have lingered m the eastern mind 
-We are told, too, that there was at the 
time a special belief that some new dynasty 
would proceed from Judea. And it is most 
in accordance with the narrative that t e 
taees received themselves some divine 
communication which led them ^^^en they 
nerceived the signal to understand its 
^'eanill (see UiiVs Mytn f ;73j/*'fo4?'" 
pels, part ii. chap. m. sect. 1, pp. 303, 304) 
^ Opinions differ as to the nature of the ap- 
pearance : was it supernatural or of an 
ordinary character? It is asserted that 
tieve was at or near the tmie a remark- 
able conjunction of planets On May 20 m 
the year of Home 747, Jupiter and Satum 
were^fn conjunction in the twentieth degree 
of the constellation Pisces. Thi=, it has 
bee 1 thought, first arrested the attention 
of the sages, and incited them to commence 
their iourney. The planets separated; but 
n a fe'w nmnUis' time they closed again m a 
second and third conjunction, Oct. 27, m tbe 
sixteenth degree of Pisces, and Nov. 12, m 
the fifteenth degree. On these two last occa- 
sions to an ordinary eye they seemed to have 
become a single glorious star And one of 
theselastconiunctions,ithasbeentlio^^^^^^^^ 
was that re-appearance so ^e^comed by the 
sages at Jerusalem, Avhich directed them on 
to Beth-lehem. See Winer, BiM. ^J^-' fJ;- 
« Stern der Weisen.' This view has been 
adopted by Dr. Alford, note on Matt. ii. 2 
wlm thinks that a force is on the m 
spired narrative if it is regarded a* unpi> - 
ing a miracle. And the fact is insisted on 
that. May 20, the planets would appear to- 
gether 'in the east' before sunrise, and 
that Nov. 12, they w.ould at eight in he 
evening on the meridian, that is, looking 
?i'om Jei?isalem,in the direction of Beth- 
lehem Stress has also been laid on the 
supposed association of the constellation 
Pisces with the land of Judea. . 

Still later calculations have modified .he 
dates assigned, and have shown that tbe 
conjunctions were not so close as had been 
imagined. And, other considerations laid 
Sme, there is one fatal objection to this 
theoiw. The star is said to have gone be- 
fore the sages, ' till it came and stood over 
'vieie the°young child ^vas' (Matt ii 9)^ 
Such language cannot he satisfied Dy a 
Staiy conjunction, or the ordinary mo- 
tion of a heavenly body. It certainly there- 
Sre seems more reasonable to beheve that 
the 'star 'was some luminous appearance, 
probably meteoric, extraordinarily appoint- 
ed by the Deity for a special purpose. See 
Mill, u&i svpr., pp. 304-308 ; ElUcott, Eist, 
T ect lect ii pp. 72, 73. 

STAR, MORNING. The Lord promises 
that he will bestow ' the morning star 
llev. ii. 28). He is also himseli ' the bright 
and morning star' (xxii. 16: comp. 2 Pet i 
19) So he claims, says abp. Trench, aU 
that is fairest and lovehest in creation as 
the faint shadow and image of his perfec- 
tions. A comparison with that other pas- 
sage . . (xxii. 16) conclusively proves 
that, When Christ promises that.he will give 
to his faithful ones the morning-star, he 



851 



promises that he will give to them himself, 
that he will impart to them his own glory 
and a share in his own royal dominion 
fril' "i'/^ ; for the star . /. is evSmore 
t he symbol of royalty (Matt. ii. 2), heing 
H'n '^^^^ sceptre Numb^ 
^^^""y world shall 

end m oemg the glory of the church, if only 
this abide faithful to its Lord' iComm. on 
^PJsUes to Seveji Churches, 1861, pp. 142, 143) 
STAR-GAZERS (Isai. xlVii. 13) The Chai: 
dean astrologers ' divined by the rising and 
setting the motions, aspects, colour, degree 
of light, &c of the stars. They maintained 
that the stars had an influence over the 
Sfn'^^lV^^ '^S"-' They 'published a 
monthly tal:e of the leading events that 
might be expected to happen ' (Henderson 
Isaiah, p. 368). See Divination 

STA'TER(Matt.xvii.27,marg.). A silver 
tetradrachm, a coin then common in the 
currency of Palestine. See Money 
STATUTE. See Law. 
STEEL (2 Sam. xxii. 35 : Job xx. 24 • P^al 
' ^2^- cannot be doubted 

zii'c.z the Egyptians were acquainted with 
steel; as existing monuments show. But it 
IS questioned whether the Hebrews used it 
Ihe words so rendered in our version iraplv 
rather copper. But perhaps the ' northern 
iron ni the passage last cited may intend 
iron hardened by some process which would 
make it nearly analogous to our steel. And 
there is a word occurring in Nah. ii. 3, trans- 
lated torches,' which is thought to signify 
steel. SeelaoN. 

STEPH'ANAS (croi07i). A Corinthian 
Christian whose house or family St. Paul 
baptized (1 Cor. i. 16). His household is 
afterwards mentioned with commendation, 
and his coining to the apostle with For- 
tunatus and Achaicus, perhaps members of 
the household, is noted (xvi. 15-17) 

.STE'PHEN (id.). An eminent early dis- 
C![)le. His personal history is soon told. 
He was of the seven chosen to superintend 
the ministrations to the necessitous of the 
church. He was 'full of faith and power ' 
and did great wonders and miracles amono- 
the people.' He disputed successfully with 
many opposers, who, being utcerly unable 
to resist the wisdom and the spirit by which 
he spake,' seized him and placed him before 
the council on an accusation of blasphemy 
Stephen nobly defended himself, and 
charged home upon the Jews their sin in 
murdering the Messiah. Maddened they 
rushed upon him, cast him out of the city 
and stoned him— the first martyr for his' 
Master's cause, whose eye he caught whose 
spirit he evinced in praying for his mur- 
aerers, and to whose blissful presence he 
was speedily welcomed. The witnesses had 
laid their clothes at the feet of Saul then 
one of the most eager of the persecutors but 
afterwards the great apostle Paul. And' as 
on the persecution thus raised against 'the 
infant church, the disciples were scattered 
the gospel was more vndely preached 
through J Qdea and Samaria, and many be- 
lieved (Acts vi., vii., viii. 1-4, xi. 19, xxii 
10) It has been said that Stephen was one 
of the seventy, but there is no proof of 
this ; and nothing more is certainly known 



^' [STEPHEIf 

fJ^a Sv^l'^Ki^''^^^' ^^^s® <leath, variously 
dated probably occurred about 36 a d 

But his speech before the council requires 
some consideration. It has been assertel 
EVP. demonstrable errors inU. 

wml^i V^^""® were, the Christian believer 
TrPd ? t? '''' uneasiness : the 

credit of the sacred record, faithfully de- ' 
thTr ^ ^hat Stephen said, would not be in i 
the slightest measure impeached. But it is 
niif«nt against such a dis- | 

putant. And, if Stephen did make glaring I 
mistakes, it is a marvel that his opponents i 
most learned Jews, did not detect and ex- • 
pose them. To prove the champion of the • 
gospel but meanly acquainted with the Old ' 
testament scriptures would have been a 
mighty argument against him. The almost- 
inevitable conclusion is that the Jews could 
perceive no flaw in Stephen's reasoning, 
that they could not gainsay his facts. It 
would seem safer, then, to doubt whether 
we nave not misapprehended Stephen's ex- 
pressions than hastily to believe him in 
error (see Davidson, Sacr. Hermeneutics 
chap. xii. pp. 586, 587). ' 

It is first objected that Stephen places 
Abraham's call while he was yet in Meso- 
potamia, the laud of the Chaldeans (Acts 
yii. 2-4) ; whereas in the original history it 
is represented as given when he dwelt in 
Haran (Gen. xii. 1-4). It might be replied 
that very likely there were two calls, two 
divme monitions-one to leave the original 
, seat of his family, the other to proceed on 
I from Haran, where he had settled for awhile 
j into Canaan the land of promise. But it 
I seems most probable that the call mentioned 
i m Gen. xu. l was prior to the arrival at 
Haran, For it required Abraham to quit 
his country ;' and his country was certainly 
IJr of the Chaldees. Our version therefore 
rightly reads, 'I^ow the Lord had said.' 
The heavenly voice had sounded to the 
patriarch in his original seat ; and he had 
ooeyed it. Part of the xvay his family had ' 
I accompanied him ; and they had taken up I 
their abode in Haran. But Abraham knew ' 
that that was not his ultimate destination i 
i He Avould not quit his aged father; but he i 
I lelt that he was to journey onwards. And 
\ so when Terah was dead, though few of his ' 
knidrcd would travel on with him, carrying i 
fully out the divine command he entered 
Canaan. | 
Another objection is that Stephen reckons 
family at 75 (Acts vii. 14) ; while the 
Old Icstament narrative speaks of but 70 
(Gen._ xlvi. 27). Perhaps the simplest solu- 
tion IS the best. The Septuagint version of 
the original passage has 75 : Stephen, there- 
fore, was satisfied to cite a translation which 
was in every one's hands, and generally es- 
teemed of authority. Other explanations 
have been given. That of Dr. Hales is ap- 
proved by many. Slightly modifying the 
theory of bishop Kidder, he thinks that 66 of 
Jacob's seed went down into Egypt (26), and 
adds nine wives ; for Judah's was dead, and 
Simeon's lie supposes dead also. Thus 
the sum of 75 is obtained {A New Analysis 
of Chronol., vol. ii. p. 144, edit. 1830). But 
this is manifestly faulty. There would be 
more than nine wives. Tamar cannot Ibe 



bte-wabd] 



^t)^ Creature nf 



852 



excluded. Simeon most prot)alDly had two 
wives ; for one of his sons is said to oe oy a 
Oanaanitisli woman, which hy no means im- 
plies that the mother of his other children 
was dead, ^nd, as Asher had grandsons, his 
son Beriah was married. Dr. Wordsworth s 
explanation Is in some respects preferable : 
• The numher 75 which St. Stephen specmes 
consists of the 70 mentioned Genesis xlvi. 
27, together with the issue of the sous of 
Joseph's own sons, Ephraim and Manasseh 
— Machir (son of Manasseh), Galaad (son of 
Machir) Sutalaim, Taam (sons of Ephraim), 
Edom (son of Sutalaim) ' (iV. Test, 1861, Acts 
of the Apostles, p. 32). There is, however, an 
ohiectionto this hypothesis. If great-grand- 
sons of Joseph are to he reckoned, as it is 
manifest that they were horn long after 
Jacob's descent into Egypt, it is not clear 
why other descendants of the other patri- 
archs should not he reckoned also. Tlie 
' kindred' of Joseph are spoken of (Acts vii. 
14) ; and, if an exact computation is to he 
made of those whom Joseph called to him, 
we have hardly sufficient information from 
Genesis to decide who must and who must 
not be included. So it is more likely as 
observed above, that Stephen was content 
to cite the Septuagint. The Jewish rulers 
could not fairly charge him with mistake 
for this. , . ^ 

There is yet another objection made. 
Stephen, it is urged, wrongly asserts that 
Jacob was buried at Sj'chem, and that 
Abraham bought a sepulchre of the sons of 
Emmor (Hamor) (15,16: comp. Gen. xxiii. 
16-18, xxxiii. 18, 19, 1. 13 ; Josh. xxiv. 32). But 
this difficulty may be satisfactorily explain- 
ed if we attend to the peculiar mode m 
which reference is made to the Old Testa- 
ment. Stephen was speaking to those who 
knew the law, who were guick to catch an 
aUusion, to whom therefore a word was 
sufficient to indicate the speaker's meaning 
and the facts intended. To men unacguamt- 
ed with the sacred history a longer expli- 
cation would have been needful. 'Two 
facts '—the purchase of the sepulchre near 
Mamre by Abraham, where Jacob was 
huried, and the purchase of afield at Sychem, 
where Joseph was buried— ' these two 
facts,' says Dr. Lee, ' St. Stephen combines 
in a single plirase ; and this same system of 
combination is constantly repeated through- 
out his address : e.g. cf. ver. 7 with Gen. 
XV. 13, 14 and Exod. iii. 12 : add, too, the 
statement of ver. 9. Compare, especially, 
the reference of ver. 43, " I will carry you 
away ley and Babylon;' with the denunciation 
of Amos (V. 27) against the ten trides : 
"Therefore will I cause you to go into 
captivity beyond Damascus ;" In which words 
the deportation to Assyria (2 Kings xvn. 6) 
is alone spoken of. Babylon, however, as 
the prophets declared, was to be the exile 
of disobedient Jiidali ; and both denuncia- 
tions are here combined by St. Stephen . So 
also, in the passage before us, it is with 
similar brevity implied that Jacob was laid 
in the grave which Abraham had purchased 
in Hebron, Gen. xxiii. 19, 1. 13, and Joseph 
in the possession which Jacob had purchas- 
ed at Sychem, xxxiii. 19; Josh. xxiv. 32 
[The Inspiration of Holy SonptxLre> App. 



H pp. 533, 534: see also Dr. Fairbairn, 
Berm. Man., pp. 100-103 ; and some sensible 
observations in Birks, TheBibleand Modem 
Thought, 1S62,W- ^05-305). ^ . 

STEWARD. An officer of trust, having 
charge of his master's establishment and 
property ^Gen, xv. 2 ; Luke xii. 42). Hence 
ministers, as bearing a weighty charge, are 
called' stewards of the mysteries of God. (1 
Cor iv. 1, 2 ; Tit. i. 7) ; and the appellation 
is extended to Christians generally (1 Pet. 

^'''sTO'oKS. A wooden frame in which the 
feet, hands, and neck of a person were so 
fastened, that his body was held bent (Jer. 
XX. 2, 3, xxix. 26). The 'prison-house of 
2 Chron. xvi. 10 would seem to have been a 
place where this instrument of punishment 
stood. A different word occurs in Job xiii. 
27 xxxiii. 11 : it signifies stocks like ours, in 
which the feet alone. were confined. And 
suchwerethe'stocks'of Actsxvi. 24. But , 
the sufferer might he tortured in these by i 
having his legs drawn far apart. 1 
STOICS. A sect of Grecian philosophers > 
who derived their name from stoa, 'a porch, } 
because Zeno their founder in the fourth 
century before Christ, and succeeding ] 
leaders, as Cleanthes and Ohrysippus, used i 
to teach in the painted porch or colonnade 
at Athens. In their physical doctrines they ; 
maintained two first principles, the active 
and the passive: the passive was matter: | 
the active was God, who was one, though 
called by many names. Of him they pan- 
theistically believed that all souls were 
emanations. They held the entire indepen- 
dence of man, the truly-wise being suffi- 
cient in himself, but subject equally with 
the Deity to inexorable fate. Each person 
was to live according to the nature of 
things in general ; while as to a future life 
their notions varied. Some held that all 
souls were re-absorbed into the Deity ; 
others held the separate existence of all, or 
of only the good, till the general conflagra- 
tion The humbling doctrines of the cross, 
the preaching of Jesus and the resurrec- 
tion would, it is clear, be distasteful to such 
philosophers (Acts xvii. 18). Epictetus and 
the emperor Marcus Aurelius were Stoics. 
See Winer, Bibl.BWB., art. ' Stoiker ' ; Al- 
f ord, note on Acts xvii. IS. 

STOMACHER (Isai. iii. 24). Probably a 
kind of wide mantle, or holiday dress. 

STOiiE. A material largely used In 
building. Rude heaps were sometimes 
raised to preserve the memory of any no- 
ticeable event, as upon the place where 
Achan was executed (Josh. vii. 26), and in 
the pit where Absalom's corpse was cast (2 
Sam.xviii. 17). These were like the cairns 
on tiie tops of mountains or in celebrated 
places in our own country. Sometim-ea 
these monuments appear to have been 
more carefully constructed, asthe two erec- 
tions of twelve stones each, which were set 
up in the bed of the Jordan, and at the 
first encampment in Canaan, to commemo- 
rate the passage of the river (Josh. iv. 2-9). 
Single stones were occasionally placed as 
memorials; and these were sometimes 
anointed or consecrated. Examples are 
that of Jacob at Beth-el (Gen. xxviil. 18), 



858 



that set by Joshua under the oak at She- 
chem (Josh. xxiv. 26, 27), and that which 
Samuel called Ehen-ezer (l Sam. vii. 12). 
Heaps of stones were also made at the rati- 
fication of a covenant, as at that between 
J acob and Laban (Gen. xxxi. 46-52). And a 
remarkable stone was sometimes a boun- 
dary-mark (Josh. TV. 6). Large hewn 
stones were employed m tne erection of 
the temple and other splendid structures 
(1 Kings V. 17 ; Ezra vi. 4 ; Amos v. 11 ; 
Mark xiii. i, 2). The stones of an altar 
w^ere not to be hewn (Exod. xx. 25) : those 
of the temple were cut and squared (l 
Kings vi. 18), all prepared before they 
were actually built into the walls (vii 7) 
very probably in the quarries which may 
yet be seen under part of Jerusalem (Bu- 
chanan's Notes of a Cler. Furlough, chap. v. 
pp. 196, 197). These stones were of huge 
size, many of them yet remaining— not so 
much bevelled, as travellers often describe 
them, as panelled, a border round the edges 
being slightly depressed or cut out. 

Stones had to be gathered from cultivated 
ground (Isai. v. 2) : hence enemies tried to 
destroy fertile plots by casting stones I 
thereon (2 Kings iii. 19, 25). For the ' bur- 
densome stone' of Zech. xii. 3, see Games, p. ' 
312 ; and for the striking flre by means of 
stones, see 2 Mace. x. 3. 

The term is often used figuratively or in 
symbol, as of Messiah (Psal. cxviii. 22 ; Isai. 
xxviii. 16 ; Matt. xxi. 42 ; Acts iv. 11 ; Rom 
ix. 38;Eph.ii. 20; 1 Pet. ii. 6-8), of his church 
or kingdom (Dan. ii. 34, 35, 44, 45), of be- 
lievers built up into a holy temple (1 Pet. 
ii. 4, 5), also to denote hardness or insensi- 
bility (1 Sam. XXV. 37). There is a remark- 
able promise given to the church in Perga- 
mos, that to him that overcame the Lord 
would give 'a white stone, and in the 
stone a new name written, which no man 
knoweth saving he that receiveth it ' (Rev. 
ii. 17). Various interpretations may be seen 
in Dr. Alford's note on the place. Perhaps 
the most satisfactory is that proposed by 
abp. Trench. He regards this stone as the 
diamond, not dead-white but lustrous, with 
an allusion to TJrim and Thummim, which 
the high priest alone saw, and which might 
have the incommunicable name graven 
thereupon. The faithful victor who re- 
ceived the stone (not the name) was pri- 
vileged to look upon that name, an emblem 
this of a full fruition of the Godhead by 
those who enter his glorious paradise 
(Comm. on Einstles to Sev. Churches, pp. 119- 
127). See TJRiii. For mill-stone see Mill. 
STONE, STONING. See PuifiSHMENTS. 
STONES, PRECIOUS. Many gems or 
precious stones are mentioned in scripture, 
used as ornaments of dress or for sacred 
purposes, as in the high priest's breast- 
plate. The art of engraving upon them 
was known to the Hebrews. An endeavour 
is made, so far as possible, to identify these 
precious stones in the articles under their 
respective headings. The following are the 
names as they occur in our version :— 
Agate (Exod. xxxix. 12) 
Amethyst (Exod. xxxix. 12 ; Rev. xxl. 20) 
Beryl (Exod. xxxix. 13; Ezek. xxviii. 13: 
Rev. xxi. 20) 



[straw 



Carbuncle (Exod. xxxix. 10; Ezek. xxviii. 

IS) 

Chalcedony (Rev. xxi. 19) 
Chrysolite (Ezek. xxviii. 13, marg. ; Rev. 
xxi. 20) 

Chrysoprase, or Chrysoprasus ' (Ezek. 

xxviii. 13, marg. ; Rev. xxi. 20) 
Diamond (Exod. xxxix. 11 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13) 
Emerald (Exod. xxxix. 11 ; Ezek. xxviii. 

13 ; Rev. iv. 3, xxi. 19) 
Jacinth (Rev. xxi. 20) 
Jasper (Exod. xxxix. 13 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13 : 

Rev. iv. 3, xxi. 18, 19) 
Ligure (Exod. xxxix. 12) 
Onyx (Gen. ii. 12 ; Exod. xxxix. 6, 13: Ezek. 

xxviii. 13) 
Ruby (Job xxviii. 18 ; Prov. iii. 15) 
Sapphire (Exod. xxxix. 11 ; Ezek. xxviii. 

13 ; Rev. xxi. 19) 
Sardine, or Sardius (Exod. xxxix. 10 : 

Ezek. xxviii. 13 ; Rev. iv. 3, xxi. 20) 
Sardonyx (Rev. xxi. 20) 
Topaz (Exod. xxxix. 10 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13 : 

Rev. xxi. 20) 
Precious stones are figuratively intro- 
I duced to express value, beauty, continu- 
ance, &c. (e.g. Isai. liv. 11, 12 ; Lam. iv 7) 

STOBAX (Eccliis. xxiv. 15). Perhaps the 
Sty rax officinale. 

STORK. A well-known bird, of which 
one of the most common species is the 
white stork, Ciconia alba : the eating of it 
was forbidden to the Hebrews (Lev. xi 19 • 
Deut. xiv. 18). Its habits are alluded to in 
Psal. civ. 17 ; Jer. viii. 7 ; Zech. v. 9. The 
Hebrew name signifies 'affectionate,' ex- 
pressive of the tenderness subsisting be- 
tween the parent-birds and the offspring 
The stork is migratory, arriving in Pales- 
tine m the latter part of March : it feeds on 
frogs, snakes, eels, &c., and has in many 
countries been regarded as sacred, and not 
to be molested. It builds its nest in cedars 
pines, and firs, and in towers and old ruins! 
The black stork, Ciconia nigra, is as com- 
mon in Palestine as the white species. It 
builds in trees, and in the marshy places in 
forests. In Job xxxix. 13 the word occurs 
m the margin of our version ; but Gesenius 
would translate, ' the wing of the ostrich 
exults ; but are her pinions and feathers 
pious?' i.e. she is not affectionate towards 
her young: comp. Carey's version, under 
Ostrich, p. 652. 

STRAIN AT (Matt, xxiii. 24). See Gnat 
V ^T^&^^^ ^' 18). A word used for 

both the tire and the nave of a wheel 
STRANGER. See Alien, Hospitality 
STRAW. The Egyptians anciently reaped 
their corn close to the ear, and then cut off 
the straw close upon the ground. This 
was the straw that was chopped up and 
mixed with clay to make bricks more com- 
pact and tenacious. When it was refused 
by Pharaoh to the Israelites, they had to 
gather stubble, probably the short straw 
still left (Exod. v. 6-18). This useless stub- 
ble was often burnt (Isai. v. 24), Straw, 
perhaps sometimes mingled with beans* 
&c,, was generally used in Palestine as fod- 
der or provender (Gen. xxiv. 25 ; 1 Kings iv 
28 ; Isai. xi. 7). * 
STRAW (Sol. Song ii. 5, marg. ; Matt.xxv 
24, 26) An old form of strew. 



street] 



€5c ^xtK^xityi fit 



STREET. See Cities. _ 
STJ'AH {sweepings), A clnef tarn of Aslier 
(1 Chron. vii. 36). 

SU'BA (1 Esdr. T. 34). 
SUBA'T (1 Esdr. v. 30). Slialmai or Sliam- 
lai (Ezra ii. 46). 
SUBURBS. See Cities. . 
SUC'COTH Qjooths)—!. A place m the 
nei°libourliood of tlie Jordan, where Jacob, 
after his interview with Esau, constructed 
a habitation for himself, and made booths 
for his cattle (Gen. xxxiii. 17). It T\-as evi- 
dently to the south of the Jabbok, and as it 
was assigned to the tribe of Gad (Josh. xm. 
27) it must have been to the east of the 
Jordan. The inhabitants of this city churl- 
ishly refused assistance to Gideon when 
pursuing the Midianites : they were there- 
fore on his triumphant return severely 
punished (Judges viii. 5-8, 14-16). Succoth 
is afterwards mentioned m 1 Kings vii. 46 , 
2 Chron. iy. 17; Psal. Ix 0, cviii. 7. Some 
^ critics identify it with Sukkot or Saritlt, 
\ not far from Beth-shan ; but this must be 
an error as it would then have been on the 
I west of' the Jordan. See Keil, Comm. on 
' Kinas vol. i. p. 135. Dr. Thomson appears 
to adopt the same view {Tlie Land and ilie 
J?oofc, p. 456).-2. The first encampment of 
the Israelites as they were departing from 
: Egypt (Exod. xii. 37, xlii. 20 ; ^umb. xxxiii 
5 6) Nothing is known of this place : most 
probably it was merely a station where 
caravans were accustomed to halt, and 
where the Hebrews sheltered themselves 
as well as they could, for the short time 
; they remained there, in booths or tem- 
porary sheds. _ , ^ , . 

SUC'COTH-BENO'TH (tabernacles of 
daughters). The Babylonians who were 
brought to colonize Samaria are said to have 
made Succoth-benoth, that is, it is usually 
explained, booths, in which the women pivds- 
I tituted themselves in honour of the Baby- 
i Ionian Mylitta, or Mulita (2 Kings xvii. 
30). But possibly these were only little 
tent-temples, which were regarded as holy 
: and worshipped with the gods they con- 
1 tained See Keil, Comm. on Books of Kings, 
vol ii *pp 72, 73. Sir H. Rawlinson believes 
' that Succoth-benoth represents the Chal- 
dean goddess Zir-banit, worshipped (with 
: her husband Bel-merodach) at Babylon, and 
called queen of the place (Rawlinson s 
fferod, vol. i. p. 630). . ^ ^.^ ^ 

SUCHA'THITES. The inhabitants of 
some place not ascertained (1 Chron. ii. 55). 

sun (1 Esdr. V. 29). Siaha, or Sia (Ezra 
ii. 44; Neh. vii. 47). . 

sub (Bar. 1. 4). A river, of which no- 
thing is known. ^ _ ^ 

SU'JDIAS (1 Esdr. v. 26). Perhaps Hoda- 
viah, or Hodevah (Ezra ii. 40 ; Neh. vu. 43). 
SUET (Lev. iii. 3). See Fat 
SUK'KIIMS (dwellers m tents). An Atii- 
can people mentioned with the Lubim 
(LTbians) and Ethiopians as forming a 
portion of Shishak's host when he marched 
■ against Jerusalem (2 Chron. xii. 3). They 
i were perhaps the Troglodytes of «ie moun- 
! tains along the western coast of the Red 
1 Bea. See Winer, Bihl. liWB., art ' Sachim.' 
SUMMER (Gen. viii. 22). See Season. 
SUN. The sun and the moon are first men- 



864 



tioned in Gen. 1. 14-16, as being the great ! 
visible light-bearers of the heaven. By 
their motions and their influence upon the 
earth the days and nights would be marked 
and divided, the seasons distinguished, 
and the years measured. Some have ima- 
gined that, when it is said also that these 
luminaries are to be for ' signs, meteor- 
ological phenomena like eclipses are in- 
tended, as in Jer. x. 2 ; Luke xxi. 25 (see 
Bush, Kotes on Gen., p. 32) ; but the notion 
is far-fetched and groundless. 

The worship of the sun was probably one 
of the earliest forms of idolatry. In the 
clear eastern sky the heavenly bodies make 
their influence more sensibly felt. Among 
these the sun shines pre-eminent, the great 
quickener of nature, the source of light and 
heat, the central power of the visible uni- 
verse. And it was hardly to be wondered 
at when men, who had strayed from original 
teaching, followed the debased notions of 
their own hearts, and adored the created 
glory instead of the great Creator (see Job 
xxxi 26, 27). Perhaps at first sun-worship 
was practised with less grossness than m 
subsequent times. It was the luminary 
itself, or rather the principle of liie ana 
generation signified by it, that attracted 
reverence. Thus among the Persians it 
was the eye of Ormuzd, darting forth its 
rays of light and heat, and purifying crea- 
tures and matter ; and three times a day 
was prayer addressed to it. No temple was 
erected, no images formed of that Avhicn, 
as its manifestation was ever visible, re- 
fiuired no symbolic representation, bo, 
though in Greece statues were sometimes 
erected, yet frequently, as at Corinth m the 
Acropolis, and elsewhere, there were only 
altars to the sun. And so in Rome : altars 
were built to it in the open air. This kind of 
ven eration prevailed for a long time, i ne 
Essenes had a peculiar reverence for the 
sun : they would not say a word on profane 
matters before sunrise ; and they studiously 
kept out of his sight whatever they supposed 
unclean or offensive (see Ddlbnger, The 
Gentile and the Jew, transl, book x. L vol. ii. 
p 314). But the worship of the sun-god 
assumed grosser forms. In J^.ydia it was 
Sandon, probably corresponding to the 
Greek Heracles: at Emesa m Syria a* 
Elagabal it was imaged by a round black 
stone running to a point and honoured with 
abominable rites: in Egypt it Yl.^f.,-?/ 
Re the king and father of gods, whose prin- 
cipal seat was at Heliopolis or On; the 
daily rising of the sun representing the 
eternal and divine generation of Ra (ibid., 
book Vi. 1, 4, 5, vol. i. pp. 379, 431, 433 439). 

Many of the various forms of idolatry 
with which the Hebrews were brought into 
contact had their origin in sun-worship, 
as that of Baal and others. But, though 
these false deities were honoured ainong 
them, it is not clear that they practised 
literal sun-worship till the later periods of 
their history. They had been warned 
against it (Dent. iv. 19, xvii. 3) ; but we find 
that such kings as Manasseli and Anion de- 
dicated horses (a custom received through 
Assyria) and chariots, and burnt incense on 
the house-tops to the sun (2 Kings xxiii. 



MMt Ettafcoletfs^* [syoat^iine-teeb 



11 ; Jer xix. 13). Possibly the expression 
•putting the hrancli to the nose' (Ezek. 
viii. 17) may refer to a Persian rite in sun- 
worship ; this, however, is doubtful. See 
Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Sonne.' 

Various symbolical notices of the sun 
are found in scripture. The glory of God 
is displayed in the sun's daily course (Psal. 
xix. 4-6); whence the psalmist takes occa- 
sion to illustrate the purity and power of 
the divine law. Sometimes Godhimself is de- 
scribed as a sun (Ixxxiv. 11) ; and sometimes 
Messiah is so designated (Mal. iv. 2) ; the 
reference of the words ' with healing in his 
wings ' being to the healthful breeze whicli 
at sunrise is felt on the Mediterranean coast 
(see Heal, Healing). Occasionally the 
sun-light illustrates the glory of heavenly 
beings or mansions (Isai. Ix. 20; Matt.xvii. 
2 ; Rev. i. 16, x. l) ; and sometimes its dark- 
ening betokens the fall of the civil state of 
kingdoms (vi. 12). 

SUPERSTITION, SUPERSTITIOUS (Acts 
xvii. 22, XXV. 19). The words are not used 
in a bad sense— properly ' demon-fearing ' 
in the first place, i.e. carrying your religious 
reverence too far. 

SU'PHAH (Numb. xxi. 14, marg.). See 
Yaheb. 

SUPPER. See Meals, Lord's Supper. 

SUR (removed, driven out). A gate at 
which Jehoiada stationed guards, when 
•Joash was to be placed on the throne (2 
Kings xi. 6). The same gate is called ' of 
the foundation' (1 Chron. xxiii. 5). It is 
questioned whether it was a gate of the 
temple or of the palace. But the connec- 
tion decides that it must have been a 
temple-gate. The rabbins say it was the 
eastern gate of the court, and explain its 
name, because the unclean were there com- 
manded to depart. See Lam. iv. 15. 

sun (Judith ii. 28). It is not known 
what place is here meant. 

SURETY. One who becomes responsible 
for another. Solomon gives many emphatic 
warnings against unadvised suretiship 
(Prov. vi. 1-5, xi. 15, xvii. 18, xx. 16, xxii. 26, 
27). In Heb. vii. 22 our Lord is said to be 
the ' surety of a better testament : ' ' in his 
person' says dean Alford, 'security and 
certainty is given to men that a better 
covenant' than that of the Mosaic dispen- 
sation ' is made and sanctioned by God.' 

SU'SA (Rest of Esth. xi. 3, xvi. 18). Shu- 
sh an. 

SUSAN'CHITES. The inhabitants of 
Shushan or Susa, who had been placed as 
colonists in Samaria (Ezra iv. 9), 

SUSAN 'NA {lily) . One of the women who 
ministered to our Lord (Luke viii. 3). 

SUSAN'NA (Hist. Sus.). The heroine of 
an apocryphal story. 

SUSAN'NA , JIISTOR T OF. See Da:^iel, 
Apocryphal Additions to. 

SU'SI {horseman). Father of the spy chosen 
from the tribe of Manasseh (Numb. xiii. li). 

SWALLOW. A bird belonging to the 
Birundinidce, an insectivorous family, in 
which the powers of flight are highly de- 
veloped, while the feet are little adapted 
for progression on the ground. The ITirun- 
dinidce are widely diffused, and are migra- 
tory, especially in latitudes where the supply 



of insect-food, taken on the wing, fails in 
the autumn. Tarious species freauent 
Syria and Palestine identical with those 
we have, as the swift, Cvpselus apus, the 
Egyptian duriiri; the chimney-swallow, 
Eirundo nistica; the martin, Eirtcndo or 
Chelidon urUca ; and the sand-martin, 
Eirundo or Cotyle riparia. The Hebrew 
word derOr (Psal. ixxxiv. 3 ; Prov. xxvi. 2) 
implies 'gyration'; another, 'agUr (Isai. 
xxxviii. 14 ; Jer. viii. 7), ' twittering ' ; both 
words sufficiently appropriate. Some, how- 
ever, render the last 'a crane.' And this 
is probably the true meaning, 

SWAN. An unclean aquatic bird (Lev 
xi. 18 ; Dent. xiv. 16), The Hebrew term 
so translated is derived from a verb sig- 
nifying ' to respire :" it probably means the 
pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus, receiving 
the name from its pouch, which -it can 
extend by inflation. Mr. Tristram, how- 
ever, thinks that the original points to 
some water-fowl, and is inclined to identify 
the bird in question with the purple water- 
hen, Porpliyrio antiquorum, which frequents 
marshes and the sedge by the banks of 
rivers in the regions bordering on the 
Mediterranean, and abomids in Lower 
Egypt (Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 
1392). 

SWEAR, SWEARING. See OATH. 
SWEAT, BLOODY (Luke xxii. 44). See 
Agony. 

SWINE. The flesh of this animal was 
strictly forbidden to the Hebrews (Lev. xi. 
7 ; Deut. xiv. 8). Perhaps the prohibition 
was medically advisable. But, though to a 
conscientious Jew swine's flesh was abomin- 
able, yet it seems to have been offered in 
idol-worship, and the worshipper no doubt 
feasted on the sacrifice (Isai. Iv. 4, Ixvi. 3, 
17). Wild hogs (Sus scrofa) are now common 
on the Syrian hills ; perhaps thev were 
equally common in ancient times* (Psal. 
Ixxx. 13). And certainly in our Lord's days 
the breeding of swine was usual (Matt. vii. 
6, viii. 30-32 : Luke xv. 15, 16 ; 2 Pet. ii. 22). 
The permission given by him to the devils 
he had cast out from a man to enter a herd 
of swine, which speedily precipitated them- 
selves into the water, has been much can- 
vassed : commentaries must be consulted 
by those who desire a full explanation ; but 
see Demoniac, p. 212. Also it may be ob- 
served here that it is not clear that Christ 
intended a punishment on those who kept 
the swine as transgressors of the law. The 
inhabitants of that region were mainlv 
Gentile. 

SWORD. See Arms, pp. 52, 53. The word is 
often used typically, as the ensign of power 
(Rom. xiii. 4), and the symbol of the divine 
judgments (Deut. xxxii. 41; Ezek. xiv. 14, 17, 
xxi. 3, 9, 11). The word of God is called ' the 
sword of the Spirit ' (Eph. vi. 17). 

SYCAMINE-TREE. This must be care- 
fully distinguished from the sycamore. It 
is mentioned but once (Luke xvii. 6) ; and 
there can be little doubt that the mulberry- 
tree, Morus nigra, is intended. It is a 
native of Persia ; and its indigenous range 
is extensive. It is abundant at present in 
Palestine. Dr. Thomson thus describes the 
tut shamy, or Damascus mulberry, near 



rCAMOEE-TEEE] 



856 



Ramleh : ' It is grown for its frmt, not for 
the silkworm. Pass this way in the midale 
of May, and you will find these trees hendmg 
under a load of berries so exactly resem- 
hling our largest blackberries in America 
that you cannot distinguish them from 
each other. There are more of these Damas- 
cus mulberry-trees here than all I have seen 
elsewhere in mvlife; and they yield their 
glo<s=:y black fruit more abundantly than m 
other places. It has a sharper acid than 
that of the ripe blackberry, and when eaten 
in large quantities is unhealthy (27ie Land 
and the Bool', p. 528). 

SYCAMORE-TREE. Tlie tree so called 
in scripture is not the sycamore of this 
country, which is a species of maple : it 
rather belongs to the genus Ficus, and may 
be identifledVith the Ficus siicomorus or 
svcaraore-fle. It is common both in Egypt 
and Svria. It is a tender tree, flourishing 
in sandv plains and warm valleys,_ but is 
not hardv enough for the mountain, and 
would be killed by a sharp frost (Psal. 
Ixxviii 47\ It is lofty and wide-spreading, 
oYten planted by the wayside over which 
its arms extend, just adapted to the pur- 
pose for which Zaccheus selected it (Lute 
xix 4) The sycamore yields several crops 
of'fi^s in the vear; which grow on short 
Qtemt alonff the trunk and large branches. 
The^e fi^s are generally small and msipid, 
and^are eaten by only the humbler classes 
(Amos vii. 14). It is easily propagated by 
planting a branch in the ground and water- 
ing it till it has struck out roots into the 
soil The roots are thick and numerous, 
SDreadine deeply in the earth ; and the tree 
S is lar^e and solid. Hence, Dr. Thom- 
son imasir.es that our Lord's words (Luke 
xvii 6) "refer to the sycamore. But see . 
STC -i^iiNE-TREE. Though of great size and 
apparent solidity, the wood is soft and of 
little value a Kings x. 27 ; Isai. ix. 10) : m 
Egvpt, however, where other trees were 
not common, it has been used for makmg 
mummv-cases, and it is said to be durable. 
See Pie Land and the BooK PP- 22-24. 

SY'CHAR {drunUn). A name given, pro- 
bably in opprobrium, by tlie Jews She- 
chem (John iv. 5) : see SHECHp. But Di. 
Thomson, observing that Shechem pos- { 
sesses abundance of water, considers it 
unlikely that the Samaritan woman would | 
have gone to a distance to draw ottt of an j 
immensely-deep well. • He therefore believes 
that Svchar was a place a little way off, and | 
«ars there is now a village called Aschar, ' 
which he identifies with it {Tlie Land and 
the Book, pp. 472, 473). 
ST'CHEM (Acts vii. 16). Shechem. 
SY'CHEmTE (Judith v.l6). An inhabit- 
ant of Svchem or Shechem. 
SYF'LUS (1 Esdr. i. 8). Jehiel (2 Chron. 

^^S^^TE iovemng or Jiey, sc. of Egypt). A 
citv in the southern extremity of Egypt, 
on the eastern bank of the Jvile, just undei 
??e tropic of Cancer. This place is men- 
tioned when the whole extent of E?ypt 
described, 'from Migdol to Syene' ^Ezek 
Sx 10, mar J. xxx. 6, marg. ; the marginal 
1 rSSon being preferable). The modern 
Asvjan or Assouan lies to the north-east of 



Syene. It was a placp of considerable note 
in the middle ages, and is still of some con- 
sequence. There are various remains, some 
of the ancient Egyptian town. The Arab 
ruins are grouped on a rock to the east ; 
while below Roman monuments may be 
distinguished. ^ » - ji 

SY^M'EOX (2 Pet. i. 1, marg.). A form of 
Simon : comp. Acts xv. 14. 
STlNIPHOIsT (Dan. iii. 5, marg.). See 

DULOIilEK. 

STXAGO(?HJE. A name applied generally 
in the Xew Testament to the Jewish places 
of ordinarvworship. It is a Greek word signi- 
fying 'an assemblage' or gathered meeting. 
" TVe can discover Jittle proof of the exis- 
tance of such assemblies in Old Testament 
times. The sanctuary or the temple was 
the recognized place of the solemn services 
of the law : there alone according to the 
strict letter of the command were sacrifices 
to be offered. It is true that the history 
furnishes us with many exceptions, appa- 
rentlv not disapproved by God ; and there 
was a'lwavs a disposition among the people 
to have local centres of worship ; whence 
the sacrifices and incense-burning in the 
hieh places. But such worship often dege- 
nerated into idolatry. We cannot suppose 
that there were in those times no gather- 
inss for religious instruction and prayer, , 
though they may not have assumed the 
regular form in which we find them in later | 
days. The Jews indeed hold this form to be i 
of "extreme antiquity. Without accepting 
their belief we may observe that the in- 
struction given in the schools of the pro- 
phets was to a certain extent public (1 
Sam. xix. 20-24), that the new-moons and 
sabbaths were distinguished at least by 
social gatherings (xx. 5, 24-27), or by resort 
to some prophetic man (2 Kings iv. 23), 
that households were sometimes collected 
for solemn blessing (2 Sam. vi. 20)— a king's 
household must have formed a congrega- 
tion—that occasionally special mission- 
aries were appointed to traverse the coun- 
try, reading the law and teaching the people 
(9 Chron. xvii. 7-9), and that this teaching 
appears to have been the recognized office 
of the Levites (xxx. 22, xxxv. 3), even 
though in times of degeneracy the duty was 
neglected by them. All these notices cer- 
tainly imply that there were occasional 
gatherings ; and consequently there must 
have been places where such gatherings 
could be held. But yet it must be fairly 
conceded that of synagogue-worship in its 
ordinaiw meaning as an established regular 
institution we do not hear till after the 
exile The mention of synagogues in Psal. 
Ixxiv. 8 tells little. The psalm could not have 
been written before the captivity— perhaps 
it might be even posterior to the return. 
During the abode at Babylon, certainly, reli- 
gious assemblies were held. The elders 
were in the habit of resorting to the pro- 
phet Ezekiel (Ezek. viii. 1, xiv. 1, xx. l, 
xxxiii. 31). Such assemblies were then the 
more necessarv, because, with the temple in 
ruins and the people in captivity, the sacri- 
fices of the law could not be offered. And 
we mav believe that the custom was 
earned back by the exiles when they re- 



857 '^Mt UnotoleXf^t, [synagogue 



turned into Judea. Some have imagined 
that they ohserve traces of synagogue-wor- 
ship in the hooks of Ezra and Nehemiah : 
the passages, howeyer, relied on are not 
very appropriate. Possibly in 1 Mace. iii. 
46 there may he a reference to a synagogue; 
and indisputably long before our Lord's 
time the system must have been matured ; 
for we not only see it in full operation 
then, but we find it noticed by St. James as 
of old-established authority, not alone in 
Palestine, but wherever else the Jews 
were dispersed (Acts xv. 21). And thus a 
most effective means was provided for im- 
buing the Jewish mind with scripture- 
knowledge, and disseminating some at 
least of that knowledge among the Gentiles. 
The way of the Lord Messiah was being 
prepared. 

The services of the synagogue consisted 
of three parts— prayer, reading the scrip- 
tures, and exposition of them, or preaching. 
1. There is every reason to believe that 
forms of prayers were used in very early 
times ; and nineteen collects still exist and 
are found in Jewish liturgies, which are 
considered of great antiquity. There were 
originally eighteen ; to which another was 
subsequently added. Probably some of 
them were in use in the time of Christ. 
These nineteen prayers are translated and 
printed in Prideaux' Connection, vol. i. pp. 
327-329 ; and in Home's Introcl., vol. iii. pp. 
285-288. 2. The law and the prophets were 
read in distinct portions ; the law being 
divided into fifty-three or fifty-four pera- 
shioth or sections, and certain lessons or 
haphtaroth being appointed from the pro- 
phets : these also may be seen in Home, 
ubi supr., pp. 281, 282. Prior to these les- 
sons the following passages were read : 
Deut. vi, 4-9, xi. 13-21 ; JiTumb. xv. 37-41 (see 
W estcott, Introd. to the Gospels, chap. i. p. 
53, note 2). 3. The third part of the service 
was exposition, or preaching to the people. 
It would seem that sometimes this exposi- 
tion accompanied the reading of the scrip- 
ture ; for our Lord while officiating in the 
synagogue at Nazareth began to speak 
immediately after he had read the lesson 
(Luke iv. 16-27). Sometimes the address 
was not till after the reading of the law and 
the prophets was finished, and the ruler 
had invited persons, strangers it might be, 
if they had any word of exhortation for the 
people, to give it (Acts xiii. 14, 15). A cer- 
tain precedence, moreover, seems to have 
been allowed to the priests, whose peculiar 
functions were at an end on the destruction 
of the temple. They alone pronounced the 
benediction of Kumb. vi. 24-26. 

The ofQcers of the synagogue were the 
following : the ' ruler,' of whom in consi- 
derable places there seem to have been 
several, a kind of college of elders : they 
were to be men of age and station ; and one 
of their number presided over the rest 
(Mark v. 22; Luke xiii. 14; Acts xiii. 15): 
these rulers of course exercised the princi- 
pal authority. The next in place was the 
angel or messenger of the congregation: 
he is not mentioned in scripture, unless 
there be an allusion to his name in Rev. i. 
20, ii. 1, 8, 12, 18, iii. I, 7, 14: he was so 



termed because he was the delegate who 
offered the prayers in the name of the people. 
The reader was sometimes a stated officer, 
more usually called on for the time. This 
office our Lord exercised on the occasion 
already referred to at Nazareth. And there 
was a minister or servant (Luke iv. 20), who 
had duties of a lower kind : he prepared the 
synagogue for service, took charge of the 
books, &c. There were collectors of alms, 
and probably also several assistants, ten 
they are said to have been ; but their func- 
tions have been much questioned. The chief 
seats were coveted (Matt, xxiii. 6) by the 
scribes and Pharisees (see Winer, BiN. 
BWB. art. ' Synagogen' ; and Alf ord, note on 
Matt. iv. 23-25). It has been thought that 
the organization of the Christian church, 
with its presiding bishop, a body of elders 
or presbyters, and deacons was influenced 
by the forms of the synagogue-establish- 
ment. 

The days on which worship was per- 
formed in the synagogue were the second, 
fifth, and seventh or sabbath : the hours 
of prayer were the third, sixth, and ninth, 
in conformity with the temple-worship. 
Synagogues of course varied in size. In the 
larger towns they were numerous. In 
Jerusalem there are said to have been 460 
or 480 ; some being appropriated to particu- 
lar classes of persons (Acts vii. 9). In 
Damascus it is evident that there were 
many (ix. 2, 20). It is noted in the Talmud, 
from a perverted exposition of Numb. xiii. 
27, as if the ten unfaithful spies formed a 
congregation, that wherever there were ten 
free adult Jews a synagogue ought to be 
erected. It was to stand in the most public 
part of a town ; or its locality was to be 
indicated by a lofty pole. It was to be so 
constructed that the worshippers while 
entering and in their devotions might look 
towards Jerusalem. The interior arrange- 
ments were probably similar to those yet 
observed, which will shortly be described. 
It was a good work to build a synagogue ; 
and we find it noted of a Gentile (probably 
a proselyte) that he loved the Jews and had 
built them a synagogue (Luke vii. 5). The 
places ' where prayer was wont to be made' 
(Acts xvi. 13) do not appear to have been 
synagogues, }:)i\t proseuchcs, in the open air 
near water, for the convenience of ablution. 

A certain judicial power was exercised 
by the authorities in a synagogue ; and the 
punishment of scourging was sometimes 
inflicted there (Matt. x. 17; Mark xiii. 9; 
Luke xii. 11, xxi. 12) ; but critics are not 
agreed upon the powers of such tribunals. 
It is thought by some that the ordinary 
councils had their sittings in the syna- 
gogues. For a notice of casting out of tlie 
synagogue (John ix. 22, 34, xii. 42, xvi. 2) 

see EXCO^MMUXICATIOX. 

Mr. Mills, in his British Jews, part ii. chap, 
ii. pp. 78-130, has given a full account of 
the modern synagogues, and services there- 
in. Prom his work the following particulars 
are taken, 

A synagogue is divided into two parts. 
The floor is appropriated to the males, who 
sit in open seats, each having ahox beneath 
for the prayer-book and talitli or scarf of 



synttche] 



858 



the occupier. The gaUeiy, in the front of 
which is lattice-work, is appropriated to 
females, who are not considered part of the 
conere^ation. At the east end is the lieicliel, 
or arlc." It is a laree wooden chest, placed 
in a recess, heautified according to the 
means of the congregation, and screened 
from the general gaze hy a rich and costly 
veil ; several of which often belong to a 
single srnaeoeue. In this ark or holy 
repository the roll of the law is placed. 
The most honourable part of the floor of 
the building is that near the ark and in 
the gallery the front seats from which the 
ark may be seen are considered the places 
of honour : the rabbi has his seat close by 
the ark. At the west end a lamp continu- 
al! v bums, a kind of representation of the 
Shechinah. In the centre is the tevah or 
reading-desk, a raised circular platform, 
but this is of modern introduction, when 
a rew svnaeogue is built, or an old one re- 
paired, there is a dedication-service ; but no 
special form is prescribed. , . , , 
The officers are governing, clerical, and 
lav Of the first class are ihe jyarnassim or 
wardens, generally three, but sometimes 
two in number : one of these is chief or 
president, and exercises considerable power 
over the affairs of the congregation. Then 
comes the gohah or treasurer, and the golmi 
t-cdalcah or overseer, who dispenses charity 
to the poor. Sometimes these two offices 
are united. There are, further, the tore ha- 
nrieer or elders. Of these different officers 
various committees are formed, as the 
ve=trv auditors, and building-committee. 
The clerical officers are the chazanim or 
reader'; of whom there are generally two, 
and sometimes a third inferior one._ Xext is 
the slwmas or clerk, who, in conjunction 
with the secretary, has charge of the rolls 
of the law. The duties of the readers are 
sometimes discharged by the clerks, and 
vice versa One of these officers on mis- 
behaviour may be suspended by the par- 
nassim. The lay officers are a secretary, 
collector, and beadle. • , ^ 

In the synagogue tfews wear their hat^, 
and put on the talith or scarf with fringes. 
There are three daily services ;but those for 
the afternoon and evening are united in 
«uch a way as that one may conclude and 
the other commence at sunset. Practically 
therefore the services are two. The 
eitrhteen or nineteen prayers before men- 
tioned are part of the daily worship. On 
Mondavs and Thursdays certain penitential 
pravers are added; because, such is the 
tradition, Moses ascended the mount after 
the idolatry of the golden calf on a Thurs- 
day and returned on a Monday._ On these 
days pious Jews fast, and portions of the 
law are read. On the sabbath there are four 
services, in the eve (i.e. Friday evening), 
in the morning, afternoon, and evening, 
the two last on this day being kept separate. 
Besides the ordinary daily prayers, the law 
and the prophets-the specifled portions 
before mentioned-are read ; and there is 
what is called the 9nwsap7i, or additional 
pravers. The most important of these va- 
rious parts of the service is that connected 
with the reading of the law. The roll 



is brought with much ceremony from the 
ark ; and different persons are appointed for 
the time to take a share in the rites. The 
afternoon and evening services are similar 
to those in daily use, with some additions. 
There is, moreover, much cantillation or 
chautine, and regular melodies are intro- 
duced on various occasions. Comp. notice 
of synagosue-services in Ayerst's Hie Jews 
of the Nineteenth Centurij, pp. 15, 16. 

It may be added that specified persons, 
such as 'those who have just attained the 
age of thirteen, the husbands of women re- 
turning thanks after child-birth, &c. &c., are 
called to the reading of the law on partt 
cular sabbaths, when they make money- 
offerings ; but some change has of late been 
introduced in this system. 

By the 'great synagogue' is meant thai j 
council, said to be formed after the return i 
from captivity, which settled the Old Testa- i 
ment canon of scripture. According to 
Jewish story there were 120 members under 
the presidency of Ezra, and they are said to 
have organized the ritual, and made various 
regulations, ever after held in the highest 
honour. The accounts given of this body 
are uncerta^'.n ; but there is very likely some 
substance of fact ; and the existence of a 
recognized council which was succeeded iu 
some of its functions by the sanhedrim 
may fairly be admitted. Neh. viii. 13 gives 
some countenance to it. See Prideaux, 
Connection, vol. i. pp. 281, 282. 

SYN'TYCHE {affcible or fortunate). A 
Christian female at Philippi, who had pro- 
bably had some disagreement with another, 
Euodias ; since St. Paul exhorts them to be 
of the same mind (Phil. iv. 2). 

SY'RACUSE. A very celebrated city of 
Sicily, consisting of five different quarters 
or towns united into one. It was the native 
place of Archimedes, who was killed when 
the city was taken by the Romans, 212 B.C. 
St. Paul was three days at Syracuse (Acts 
xxviii, 12) ; which was a convenient port for 
the Alexandrian corn-ships to touch at. 
There are considerable ruins of the ancient 
town by the modern Siragosa. 

SYR'IA. The name of a country known 
to the Hebrews as Araji, which see. 

The term Syria has been very loosely 
emploved, so as at different times to com- 
prehend different ranges of territory. The 
Aram of earlier times stretched from Pales- 
tine and the Mediterranean to the Taurus 
on the north, and the Euphrates or even 
beyond the Euphrates on the east. The 
Greeks gave a much wider signification to 
Syria. They extended it to Egypt on the 
one side and to the Euxine on the other. 
Their ideas seem, however, to have been 
confused and not always consistent. In 
K"ew Testament times Syria pretty nearly 
corresponded with the more ancient Aram. 

Syria is for the most part mountainous. 
The lofty chains of Lebanon and Anti- 
libanus traverse it in the south-west, run- 
ning nearly parallel to the coast. Between 
them is the great valley of Ccele-sysia, 
which see, now called el-BuJca'a, down which 
flows the Litany, falling into the Mediterra- 
nean near to Tyre. But the valley is conti- 
nued as far north as Antioch. For the ridge 



859 



[TABEIXrtJS 



of mount Bargylus, separated from Lebanon 
by a narrow space of lower ground, runs on 
northward for 100 miles ; and Anti-llbanus 
is similarly continued. The Oroutes(el-Asy) 
flows down this part of the valley, and pours 
itself into the Mediterranean a little be- 
low Antioch. To the north of the longi- 
tudinal ranges is the chain of Amanus with 
rugged peaks, which joins the Taurus and 
separates Syria from Cilicia. The Syrian 
coast is hot and is said to be unwholesome : 
the most pleasant and fertile tract is the 
great valley, particularly the southern por- 
tion of it, or Ccele-syria : the eastern flank 
of the Anti-libanus is sterile, save in the 
district about Damascus. In the Syrian 
desert stretching to the east, generally dry 
and scarcely habitable except by a few 
nomad tribes, are some verdant oases ; in 
the most noted of these is Palmyra. 

Syria, when we first hear of it in scrip- 
ture, seems to be broken up into petty states 
I or sovereignties : these are enumerated in 
j the article under Aram, They were subdued 
by David, and continued subject to Solomon 
I (1 Kings iv. 21). Afterwards, however, pro- 
! bably in the later days of Solomon, an inde- 
i pendent kingdom was formed at Damascus 
' (xi. 23-25). This monarchy, we may suppose, 
absorbed the other Syrian districts ; and a 
i succession of its kings were formidable 
I enemies to Israel, sometimes being in alli- 
: ance with the southern state of Judah (xv. 
\ 18-20, XX., xxii. 1-38 ; 2 Kings vi. 8-33, vii., ix. 
14, 15, X. 32, 33, xiii. 3, 14-25). There were 
indeed occasional gleams of success to Is- 
rael in these contests, particularly In the 
reign of Jeroboam II. (xiv. 27, 28); and 
ultimately the king of Syria leagued with 
the king of Israel to overthrow Judah. But 
this was a fatal step. Ahaz invoked the as- 
sistance of the Assyrian monarch ; and 
Syria sank before the might of the great 
king (XV. 37, xvi. 5-10 ; Isai. vii. 1-16). Syria 



passed under the dominion successively of 
Babylon and Persia, and was afterwards 
subdued by Alexander the Great. After his 
death it fell with other territories to one of 
his generals, Seieucus Mcator, who founded 
Antioch 300 B.C., and made it the capital of 
his wide dominions. A long line of kings 
succeeded, more or less successful in 
maintaining or extending their power. Of 
these Antiochus Epiphanes was the most 
cruel oppressor of the Jews ; by the valour, 
however, of the Asmonean princes they es- 
tablished their independence. Syria be- 
came ultimately a Roman province 64 B.C. 
But under the Roman dominion were many 
free cities, and petty sovereignties assigned 
from time to time to subject princes, such 
as Chalcis, Abilene, Damascus, and others. 
Palmyra maintained its independence till a 
late period. Sometimes Judea was attached 
to Syria ; its procurator being subordinate 
to the president or governor of Syria. It 
is at present subject to the sultan of Turkey. 

An interesting account of its modern 
state and capabilities is given in Risk Allah 
Effendi's The Thistle and the Cedar of Le- 
banon, 2nd edit., 1854, chapp. xiv. — xxii. pp. 
233, &c. 

SYR'IA-MA'AOHAH (1 Chron. xix. 6). See 
Aram, Maacah. 

SYR'IANS (Gen. xxv. 20, xxviii. 5, xxxl. 
20, 24 ; Deut. xxvi. 5 ; 2 Kings v. 20, viii. 28, 
29, ix. 15; Luke iv. 27). Inhabitants of 
Syria. 

SY'RO-PHCENIC'IAN (IVIark vii. 26). 
There were Phcenicians of Lybia or Cartha- 
ginians : in order therefore to distinguish 
those of Phoenicia itself, included in the 
Roman province of Syria, they are said to 
have been called Syro-phoenicians. The 
woman so designated is called 'of Canaan' 
(Matt. XV. 22) ; because the descendants of 
the ancient Canaanites peopled the coasts 
of Tyre and Sidon. 



T 



TA'ANACH (sandy soil). A city of Canaan, 
whose king Joshua destroyed (Josh. xii. 21). 
It was assigned to Manasseh, though not 
locally within the borders of that tribe, and 
then allotted to the Levites; but the Ca- 
naanites were not expelled (xvii. 11, xxi. 25 ; 
Judges i. 27). It was near Taanach that 
Barak's victory was gained (v. 19) ; and in 
later times it formed a part, with Megiddo 
and other places, of one of Solomon's com- 
missariat districts (1 Kings iv. 12). Aner 
(1 Chron. vi. 70) is probably the same town 
with Taanach : tbe difference in Hebrew is 
far less than it appears in our version. It 
still exists as Te'ennHkh, a small village on 
tbe south-west border of Esdraelon. 

TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH {approach to Shiloh). 
A place marking the boundary of the terri- 
tory of Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 6), Tdnat 

TAB'AOTH (1 Esdr. v. 29). Identical 
with 



TAB'BAOTH (rings). One whose descend- 
ants, Nethinim, returned with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 43 ; Neh. vii. 46). 

T AB'B A.TK (celebrated). A place probably 
in the northern part of the Jordan valley, 
near Abel-meholah, to which the Midianites 
fled from Gideon (Judges vii. 22\ Mr. Grove 
suggests its identity with the modern Ta- 
bukhat-Fahil, a striking natural bank, 600 
feet high, with a long and flat top descend- 
ing with a steep front to the river. 

TAB'EAL (God is good). A person men- 
tioned only in Isai. vii. 6. The Syrians 
and Israelites desired to deprive the dynasty 
of David of the sovereignty of Judah ; and 
their futile purpose was to place a son of this 
Tabeal upon the thi'one. 

TAB'EEL (id.). One of those officers who 
wrote to the Persian king against the Jews 
after the return from captivity (Ezra iv. 7). 

TABEL'LWS (1 Esdr. li. 16). Tabeel. 



taberah] 



860 



TAB'ERAH (a burning). A place in the 
wilderness, where a judgment hy fire was 
inflicted on the -Israelites for their murmur- 
ing (Numb. xl. 1-3 ; Deut. ix. 22^. 

TABERING (Is ah. ii . 7). Beatmg as on an 
Instrument. 

TABERNACLE. The sanctuary where 
in the earlier times of the Hebrew theocracy 
the most sacred rites of their religion were 
performed. The command to erect a taber- 
nacle is recorded in Exod. xxy. 8 ; and in that 
place, and in xxix. 42, 43, 45, the special 
purpose is declared for which it was to be 
made : God would there meet with Israel, 
for, according to his covenant, he would 
dwell among them and be their God. And so 
we find the various names of it, the ' tent 
(xxvi 11, 12), the ' tabernacle,' dwelling 
or habitation a3), the 'tent of meeting' 
(xxix. 43), for so the words should be ren- 
dered, the 'tent of the testimony,' or ' taber- 
nacle of witness ' (Numb, ix, 15, xyii. 7, 
xviii. 2), the ' house of the Lord (Deut 
xxiii. 18 ; Josh. ix. 23 ; Judges xviii. 31) -all 
these appellations pointing to the covenant- 
purpose of God. It is not improbable that 
from the earliest times there had been a 
sanctuarv or sacred tent, before the erec^tion 
of that for Israel was specially commanded ; 
just as there were priests, and sacriflces, 
and altars, and sabbath-observance, and 
other rites before the law, which the law 
more exactly prescribed and amplified. Thus 
we find such a tabernacle in the camp of 
Israel no long time after their departure 
from Egvpt (Exod. xxxiii. 7-11). But a more 
special tabernacle was to be constructed, of 
more costly materials and more finished 
proportions, which should travel with the 
tribes through their pilgrim-life, and be 
afterwards re-nlaced, when they had been 
awhile settled in the good land of their pos- 
session, by a more gorgeous structure, a 
glorious temple in the city which the Lord 
should choose. . 

The command began by inviting the 
people to contribute suitable materials. 
They were to be offered with a willing heart: 
the Lord would accept only what came 
fi-om a cheerful giver. These materials are 
described in xxv. 3-7. And the taber- 
nacle was to be built according to the 
pattern prescribed by God. It was as to its 
general plan like an ordinary tent, which is 
usually divided into two compartments, the 
inner lighted by a lamp and closed against 
strangers. Such tents are longer than 
they are broad. And so the tabernacle was 
an oblong square or rectangle, thirty 
cubits (fifty-two feet six inches or per- 
haps fortv-five feet) long, ten cubits 
in breadth and in height. The frame-work 
on these sides was perpendicular boards 
of shittim-wood, that is acacia, over- 
laid with gold, kept together by means of 
transverse bars passing through golden 
rin''« and each with two tenons, fitting 
into ''silver sockets on which they stood. 
The sockets have by some been supposed 
to taper towards a point, so that they could 
be driven into the ground. There we^'^ 
twenty boards a cubit and a half broad on 
each side, north and south, at the west end 
eight; but the two boards at the corners 



were probably of a different size or shape ; 
else they would have projected beyond the 
sides. There were four coverings, the first 
of byss, or fine linen, blue, purple, and 
scarlet, with cherubim embroidered on it. 
It was made in ten curtains each twenty- 
eight cubits long and four wide, coupled 
together by loops and gold hooks. The 
second covering was of goats' hair in eleven : 
curtains, each thirty cubits long and four 
wide, coupled by loops and brass or copper 
hooks. It has been doubted whether these 
coverings came down over the boards out- 
side : it is probable that the first after 
forming the interior roof was then made to 
fall inside, and that the second entirely 
covered the tabernacle outside ; the tent- 
like appearance would thus be preserved. 
The third covering was of rams' skins dyed 
red, like our morocco-leather; and the 
fourth of ' badgers' skins,' more probably a 
kind of seal-skin. These were to protect 
the tabernacle from the weather. The 
inner apartment or most holy place was a 
cube of ten cubits, the outer apartment 
twentv cubits in length and ten in breadth. 
They were separated by a veil of the same 
kind as the innermost covering, suspended 
on four gilded acacia pillars reared upon 
silver sockets. The east end or entrance of 
the tabernacle had also a large curtain sus- 
pended from five gilded acacia pillars set in 
sockets of brass or copper. In the most 
holv place, which the high priest alone en- 
tered, was the ark of the covenant; in the 
holy place, where the priests ministered— to 
the north the table of shew-bread, to the 
south the golden candlestick, in the centre 
the altar of incense. Round about the 
tabernacle was an open court into which the 
people were admitted, one hundred cubit3 
in length and fifty broad. It was formed 
by columns twenty on each side, ten at each 
end, raised on brazen or copper sockets. 
Hangings fastened to the pillars formed 
three sides and part of the fourth: on the east 
the breadth of four pillars was reserved for a 
central entrance, where was an embroidered 
curtain suspended from the four pillars. , 
Immediately opposite the entrance was tne i 



great altar of burnt-offering ; and between | 
that and the door of the tabernacle was the i 
laver (xxvi., xxvii., xxxviii., xL). Tnere are 
some parts of the description of the pillars 
and hangings of the court, which it is not 
ea^vto understand : for a notice of these, 
see' Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. ' Stiftshtitte. 

But Mr. Fergusson's most ingenious 
theory must not be left unnoticed (Smith's 
Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. pp. 1453-1455). He 
supposes that, instead of being fiat at the 
top as usually represented, the taber- 
nacle had a ridge like tents in general, the 
angle formed at the ridge by the sloping 
sides being a right-angle. He believes that 
these sides were fourteen cubits each— the 
curtains of twenty-eight cubits just cover- 
ing them, that the roof extended five cubits 
bevond the walls, thus forming a kind of 
verandah aU round, and that the height of 
the ridge was fifteen cubits from the ground. 
The middle bar (Exod. xxvi. 28) would be 
the ridge-Dole ; and the five pillars at the 
entrance (37) are thus accounted for, one 



Miblt Itnalwl^lyg^^ [tabeekacles, feast op 



I 861 

j being in the centre to support the ridge. 
I But for details Mr. Fergusson's own ac- 
i count must he referred to. Several difa- 
I culties certainly are thus solved. 

The tabernacle was completed in about 
nine months ; and, as the people offered 
1} most liberally (xxxvi. 5) it was a costly 
structure ; the value of the materials being 
estimated at ^250,000. It was erected on the 
first day of the first month of the second 
year after leaving Egypt. It was carried by 
j the Israelites into Canaan, and there set up, 
ij possibly first at Gilgal, then, when the land 
was subdued, at Shiloh (Josh, xviii. 1), and 
1; also at Beth-el (see Betb-el), perhaps 
afterwards at Nob, and then at Gibeon (1 
Ohron. xvi. 39, xxi. 29). And it may be, 
I! in this migratory character of the taber- 
I nacle, left sometimes without the ark, 
! thereby showing that a definite place v/as 
i not yet selected for God's abiding presence, 
! that we have the solution of the offering of 
i sacrifice even by prophetical men after an 
1 anomalous fashion. It was removed when 
the temple was built to Jerusalem, and 
possibly deposited in the temple (1 Kings 
viii.4; 2 Oh r on. v. 5). For the regulations 
about its removal, see Numb. iv. It may 
be added here that David seems to have 
I constructed another tabernacle to receive 
1 the ark when it was brought to Jerusalem 
I (2 Sam. vi. 17 ; 1 Chron. xv. 1) : perhaps it 
I was this which was taken to the temple. 
: Objections have been found to the Mosaic 
j narrative of the making and erection of 
i the tabernacle in the wilderness : it is urged 
that the Israelites could not have possessed 
1 the necessary skill, that the costly materials 
could not have been procured, that the 
I setting-up and transport from place to place 
of such a structure would have required 
means which they did not possess, and that 
I the time allowed for the work is too short. 

It may briefly be replied that the Israelites, 
j engaged so long as labourers for the Egyp- 
! tians, by whom the arts were cultivated, 
j may readily be supposed to have had the ne- 
! cessary skill, that when they left Egj^pt they 
! were supplied by their former taskmasters 
j with gold and jewels, that they could not be 
j far out of the track of caravans, from which 
;' they could dou])tless obtain any merchan- 
dize they needed, that the boards, pillars, 
j and curtains of the tabernacle would pack 
;l into small compass— and not long after 
'I waggons were specially provided for the 
conveyance (Numb. vii. 4-9)— and that the 
rapidity of the execution of the work is not 
surprising, when we recollect that there 
was a whole nation with little other em- 
ployment from whom to select labourers. 
These objections will be found more fully 
answered by Havernick, Einleitung, § 129, 
vol. i. 2, pp. 397, &c. 

The typical design of the tabernacle 
has been variously interpreted : thus Philo 
regarded it as symbolical of the universe ; 
and different expositors have seen a spiritual 
meaning in the intrinsic qualities of the 
materials, and the very colours of the 
fabrics. But this is not to interpret soberly ; 
though the arrangements were, doubtless, 
not without their signification to the wor- 
j shippers in the tabernacle. Fairbairn would 



regard it as a type of Christ, as God mani- 
fest in the flesh, and reconciling flesh to 
God. He appeals in corroboration to our 
Lord's calling his body a temple (John ii. 
19, 21). See Typol. of Script, book iii. chap. i. 
ii. sect. ii. vol. ii. pp. 231, &c. ; Winer, ubi 
supr. But the ordinary reader will find a 
flood of light shed upon the purpose of the 
tabernacle and its utensils by a perusal of 
Heb. ix., X. 

TABERNACLES, THE FEAST OP. One 
of the three greater festivals to be observed 
by Israel. It was instituted to commemorate 
the dwelling of the people in tents while in 
the desert (Lev. xxiii. 34-43). And, as these 
feasts additionally marked the epochs of 
the agricultural year— at the passover or 
feast of unleavened bread the first ripe 
ears of corn being offered, the feast of 
weeks or pentecost being also the feast of 
harvest— so the feast of tabernacles was 
called also the feast of in-gathering at the 
year's end, when aU the labours of the field 
were consummated (Exod. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 
22 ; Deut. xvi. 13-15). It was to be a time of 
holy joy, of grateful remembrance of the 
past, of hopeful trust for future blessings. 

The feast commenced on the fifteenth of 
the seventh month and was to last seven 
days. It was commanded in one of the pas- 
sages already cited that the people should 
dwell in booths or tents,which were ancient- 
ly pitched on the terrace-like roofs of the 
houses, in the courts of the temple, and in 
the streets or wide places of the city. They 
were to cut down boughs of various trees, . 
and to carry (it is said) the fruit and 
branches in their hands, so long as the 
festival lasted. The particular sacrifices to 
be offered are detailed in Numb. xxix. 1-38 ; 
and, though the feast is described as of 
seven days, there was an eighth day added, 
which was to be a sabbath of rest, and a 
holy convocation. Also every sabbatical 
year the law was to be read at the feast of 
tabernacles to the assembled people (Deut. 
xxxi. 10-13). Whether this command had 
relation to the whole Pentateuch, or to the 
book of Deuteronomy, or selections has 
been keenly debated. The principal objec- 
tion against the belief that it was the entire 
Pentateuch is really childish, though 
gravely urged by various learned men, viz., 
that there was not tlmel And yet the 
reading was continued through all the days 
of the festival. Notices of the observance 
of this holy season are to be found in Neh. 
viii. 13-18 ; Hos. xii. 9 ; Zech. xiv. 16-19 ; 
John vii. 2, 37-39. It seems that in later 
days it was customary to draw water from 
the pool of Siloam and carry it in a golden 
vessel to the altar. It was there poured 
into a silver basin, from which it was con- 
ducted by pipes to the Kidron. To this usage 
our Lord may perhaps allude in the place last 
referred to. He has been supposed further 
to allude (viii. 12) to the practice of lighting 
two large chandeliers in the court of the 
women, by the light of which they held a 
festal dance. But it is doubtful whether 
either of these customs were observed on 
the last, i.e. eighth day of the feast, when it 
was that Christ referred to the water (vii. 
37) : see Alf ord'a notes on vii. 37, 38, viii. 12. 



tabernacles] 



862 



Several minute specifications are given 
by Jewish writers of tlie size and materials 
of the huts, of the time of living in them, 
&c. &c., which need not be here dwelt on. 
But the account of the way in which this 
feast is still observed by the Jews among us 
may be interesting. 

' Immediately after the day of atonement 
.... on the morrow of that day they rise 
early, and drive a peg into the ground as a 
mark where the booths are to be erected, 

should it be on an open ground This day 

and the four following are employed in 
preparing the booths. The rule is that it 
should be erected in the open air, and not 
within doors or under the shelter of a tree : 
three sides must be of substantial wood ; 
the top not to be covered with any kind of 
material but with loose boughs, so that the 
stars may be seen, and the rain descend 
through them. This is their proper dwell- 
ing, in which they are to eat, drink, and 
sleep during the seven days of the festival. 
But in this country, where the climate at 
that time of the : ear is so unfavourable, 
these rules are never strictly observed. . . . 
On the evening of the fourteenth day .... 
the feast commences. They go to syna- 
gogue, and after the service, which is 
similar to that of other evenings, with the 
addition of some prayers peculiar to the 
occasion, they return to their homes to 
celebrate the feast. This is done in the 
same general manner as on the sabbath, 
and other feasts, when the master of tlie 
family takes a glass of Avine in his right 
hand, and repeats the Icidush or sanctifica- 
tion, as follows : " Blessed art thou, 0 Lord 
our God, King of the universe, the Creator 
of the fruit of the vine, &c. &c." Agreeably 
to the command in Lev.xxiii.40, they pre- 
pare themselves with etkrog or citron, lulahli 
or branches of palm-trees, hadassim or 
branches of the three-leaved myrtle, and 
iigaravoth or willows of the brook. These 
are made use of in the synagogue during 
the seven days of the festival, when the 
hallel is said. ... On the first mornmg of 
the feast they go to synagogue as on 
the sabbata ;and, when the time for saying 
the hallel comes, the ceremony of the 
branch and citron is performed in the 
following manner. A branch of the palm- 
tree, of about a yard long, is taken, to 
which branches of the myrtle and willow 
are fastened. The reader being provided 
with one holds it in his right hand, a 
citron in the left, when the following bless- 
ing is pronounced : " Blessed art thou, O 
Lord our God, King of the universe, who 
sanctified us with thy commandments, and 
commanded us to take the palm-branch. 
Blessed art thou, 0 Lord our God, King of 
the universe, who hast maintained us and 
preserved us to enjoy this season." While 
singing the hallel the reader continually 
waves the branch in all directions— now to 
the east, again to the west, and anon up- 
wards towards the heavens, not unlike a 
soldier brandishing his sword. Several 
members are also furnished with similar 
branches, who, at certain points of the ser- 
vice, respond to the reader by shaking 
theirs also.' After reading a portion of the 



law, and of the prophets, and prayer, 'a 
procession is formed. A scroll of the law 
is taken out of the ark and brought to the . 
reading-desk. The ofiicersof the synagogue, i 
together with a fev/ others .... being ' 
proA'ided with branches .... form them- ! 
selves into a procession : one in front 
carrying the scroll in his arms, and all ' 
holding the branches in their right hand, ; 
walk around the reading-desk repeating ; 
hosanua. The law is then re-placed; and, ■^ 
after a few more prayers, the morning bcr- i 
vice is over,' The ceremonies on the next day 1 
are nearly the same, these two days being 
held sacred. The succeeding five days are 
called common, as work is then lawful : the I 
synagogue-services are almost exact repe- ; 
titions of those of the first. But the last of 
these, or seventh of the feast, is termed the 
' Great Ilosanna.' ' Every one has a branch 
of the willow— a Avillow that grows near a 
running stream. These are procured under 
the superintendence of the officers of 
the synagogue ; and the head of evci*y 
family must purchase sufficient that each 
member has a bunch. Each bunch must 
contain five sprigs, and seven leaves on 
each sprig. In this manner all— male and 
female, great and small— repair to syna- . 
gogue with their branches in their hands.' , 
I After a procession and prayers, ' Every one 
beats the leaves from off his willow- branch; I 
and, if they fall off easily, it is held as a 
good omen— if not, as a bad one. . . . The | 
use made of the booths, branches, &c. Is ; 
}iow over; and the afternoon closes the \, 
feast of tabernacles, properly so called, 'i 
According to the Talmudists, the following 
evening is the time when the destinies, 
: that were recorded on the new year and . 
: sealed on the day of atonement, are distri- i 
buted. Therefore the most strict assemble 
in the synagogue, and remain there all 
night reading a certain work which con- 
tains the book of Deuteronomy, portions of 
the Zohar, and the book of Psalms. After 
this they go to the bath adjoining the syna- 
I gogue, and dip their bodies three times in 
a kind of underground pond, called mikvah, 
generally provided in every bath. They 
must descend and ascend without any 
light ; for, as the legend asserts, in so 
doing if they are doomed to die they will 
see their own shadow having no head.' Two 
more days are observed as feast-days, 
though properly no part of the feast of 
tabernacles (Mills, Tlie British Jeios, part ii. 
chap.vi. pp. 174-184). "Wanderers, however, 
as the Jews now are, the celebration of this 
feast is eminently unsuited to them. 

On the symbolical meaning of the festival 
critics are not agreed. But surely, viewing 
the circumstances under which it was 
instituted, and regarding its historical and 
agricultural character, we can hardly be at 
a loss in regard to the divine purpose. It 
commemorated not like the passover a 
single event, but the habits of a period, the 
tent-residence of the nation's wilderness- 
life. And it was celebrated at the comple- 
tion of the year's labour, the joyous 
acknowledgment of abundant provision, 
: when the fruits of the field had all been 
' gathered into the garner, when, too, at this 



863 



[tadmou 



feast the temple was consecrated (2 Chron. 
y. 3),wliere Jeliovah would dwell among Ms 
people. Can we fail to see depicted liere 
tlie cliurcli's repose, tlie long wearisome 
work accomplished, the rest of her ever- 
lasting joy in a land where, a sojourner no 
more, she dwells in a settled habitation, 
and looks hack to her pilgrimage-state only 
as contrasting with it the happy possession 
to which she has heen brought, where the 
fruits of prior toil are now completely ga- 
thered ? It is in the view of whattnis feast 
pre-signifies that the prophet Zechariah, in a 
passage already referred to (Zech. xiv. 16), 
when describing the result of Jerusalem's 
last victory, represents all nations resorting 
thither to keep tbe feast of tabernacles— a 
festival in prophetic language not abro- 
gated by the ceasing of the legal dispensa- 
tion. The matter is well treated by a writer 
in the Christian Observer, Feb. 1863, pp. 79- 
89, who concludes: ' If it is interesting to 
dwell upon those (ordinances) w^hich time 
has already interpreted, there is in some 
sense a superior interest in one which has 
yet to be fulfilled. We are still sojourning 
in tabernacles, and travelling in the wil- 
derness; and our souls from time to time 
are discouraged because of the way. But it is 
pleasant to read, in the last ordinance given 
to "the fathers," the pledge and promise of 
that coming day '*Avhen in sure dwellings 
andciuiet resting-places " we shall "remem- 
ber all the way by which tbe Lord our God 
led us these many years in the wilderness." 
Then, when the journey is over and the rest 
attained.when the labours are ended and the 
harvest secured, the kingdom of God shall 
keep its feast of tabernacles. In the pro- 
spect of that day both writer and reader 
may lift up their hearts and cry: "Ore- 
member me with the favour that thou 
bearest unto thy chosen, and visit me with 
thy salvation, that I may see the felicity of 
thy chosen, and rejoice in the gladness of 
thy people, and give thanks with thine 
inheritance." ' 

TAB'ITHA {gazelle). The Aramaic name 
of a Christian female dwelling at Joppa. 
She was also called by the Greek name 
Dorcas, having the same signification ; and 
hence, possibly, was a Hellenist. She was 
remarkable for her charity and good works ; 
and, having died, was miraculously restored 
to life by St. Peter (Acts ix. 36-42). 

TABLE. See Meals. 

TABLET. An ornament mentioned in 
Exod. XXXV. 22 ; Numb. xxxi. 50. It was 
probably a string of gold drops or beads, 
worn round the neck or arm. But the 
• tablets ' of Isai. ill. 20 are literally ' recep- 
tacles of odour,' i.e. perfume-boxes or smell- 
ing-bottles. They were suspended to a 
lace or sash tied round the waist. 

TA'BOR {mound, rnountain-lieighf). — 1. A 
noted mountain of Palestine on the borders 
of Issachar and Zebulun, apparently within 
the district of the first-named tribe (Josh, 
xix. 22). It is an insulated hill of cretaceous 
limestone, rising 1900 feet above the sea. 
Its figure is an elongated oval, the principal 
diameter running nearly east and west. 
Seen from different points it presents a 
different .appearance. From the south or 



north its outline is nearly the arc of a great 
circle : from the east it is a broad truncated 
cone, rounded off at the top, while from 
the west it is wedge-shaped. Its southern 
face is almost naked limestone rock ; but 
the northern slope is covered with forests 
of oak, terebinth, and syringa to the very 
summit. Tabor has been the scene of many 
a notable event. It was to Tabor that 
Barak collected his troops, and from it they | 
poured down like a rushing torrent upon 
Sisera (Judges iv. 6, 12, 14). It is again 
mentioned in the wars of Gideon {viii. 18) ; 
and in other parts of the sacred volume 
(Psal. Ixxxix. 12 ; Jer. xlvi. 13 ; Hos. v. 1). 
The name does not occur in the Is'ew Testa- 
ment ; but it has been from the fourth 
century traditionally believed to be the 
scene of our Lord's transfiguration. This, 
however, is very improbable. For Christ 
was a little before far away from Tabor, 
near Cssarea Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13) ; and 
the summit of Tabor was at the time oc- 
cupied by a fortified to-wn. The place was 
more likely to be one of the spurs or re- 
cesses of Hermon. Down to our own times 
Tabor, now called Jebel et-TUr, has been 
the scene of note-Avorthy events. In 1799 
ISTapoleon I. gained a great victory there 
over a Turkish army. This mountain can 
be ascended on horseback. The views from 
it are very glorious. Esdraelon is like a 
vast carpet : the Mediterranean and the 
lake of Tiberias can both be seen. On the 
top is 'a confused mass of broken walls, 
towers, vaults, cisterns, and houses, some 
of which indicate the sites of the convents 
and churches erected by the crusaders' 
{The Land and the Book, p. 433). Two or 
three of these vaults have been fitted up as 
a Greek chapel with a residence for the 
priest : the Latins have also an altar here.— 
2. An oak or grove of oaks in the territory 
of Benjamin (1 Sam. x. 3). — 3. A Levitical 
city in the tribe of Zebulun (1 Chron. vt 
77). Perhaps an abbreviation for Chisloth- 
tabor. 

TABRET (Gen. xxxi. 27 ; 1 Sam. x. 5, xviii 
6 ; Job xvii. 6 ; Isai. v. 12, xxiv. 8, xxx. 32;, 
J er. xxxi. 4 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13). See TiiiBiiEL. 

TAB'RIMOiSr {good is Eimvion'). The fa 
ther of Ben-hadad, king of Syria (1 Kings 

XV. 18). 

TACHES. Hooks, to which loops were 
fitted (Exod. xxvi. 6, 11, 33, xxxv. 11, xxxvi. 
13, 18, xxxix. 33). 

TACH'MONITE (2 Sam. xxili. 8). See 
Hachmoxite, Jashoueam. 

TAD'MOPv, {city of palms). A city which 
Solomon built in the wilderness (1 Kings 
ix. 18 ; 2 Chron. viii. 4). According to Arabic 
tradition it existed at an earlier age ; and 
Solomon re-built and fortified it as a barrier- 
fortress. The wise monarch's eye also, no 
doubt, perceived the favourable position 
of this city for commerce. It was at a con- 
venient distance from both the Mediterra- 
nean sea and the Persian gulf, and was sure 
to secure the advantages of caravan-traffic. 
Tadmor is almost-universally identified with 
the Palmyra of the Greeks and Romans, the 
history of which fills a brilliant page in 
the world's annals. In its earlier fortunes 
Palmyra was dependent on one or other oi 



tahan] 



864 



tlie great empires which rose aud fell | 
around ; hut under Odenathus and his 
martial gueen Zenohia it expanded into a 
mighty sovereignty, rivalling and defying 
for a time the Ptoman power. In 273 a.d. 
the emperor Aurelian succeeded, after 
ohstinately-contested tattles, in taking|the 
city and securing the person of Zenohia 
(seeGihhon, I>ecL and Fall, chap. xi.). 

Palmyra is seated in an oasis of the Syrian 
desert midway hetween the Orontes and the 
Euphrates, about one hundred and forty 
miles ENB. from Damascus. It is sheltered 
hy hills to the west and north-west, and 
is well supplied with water. It has dwindled 
down to a mean place, now inhabited hy a 
few Arabs. But magnificent ruins give 
proof of its ancient splendour. The most 
remarkable of these is the great temple of 
the sun ; which was inclosed in a court one 
hundred and seventy-nine feet square! sur- 
rounded by a double row of columns. Sixty 
of the original three hundred and ninety are 
still standing ; and of the sanctuary itself 
there are massive remains : of the columns 
which adorned it about twenty mutilated 
ones now exist. But no description can be 
here attempted of the grandeur, the vast- 
ness, of the ruins of this metropolis : the 
account of them must be sought elsewhere, 
as in Porter's Handbook for Syria. 

TA'HAN (station, camp).—l. A son of 
Ephraim (Numb. xxvi. 35).— 2. A descen- 
dant of Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 25). Perhaps 
the two are identical : see Ephraim, p. 269. 

TA'HAiSriTES. A family of Ephraim de- 
scended from Tahan, 1 (Numb. xxvi. 35). 

TAHA'PANES (Jer. ii. 16). See Tahpan- 

HES. 

TA'HATH (place, station).—!. A Levite, 
of the line of Kohath (1 Chron. vi. 24, 37).— 
2, 3. Two descendants of Ephraim (vii. 20). 

TA'HATH (id.). One of the stations of 
the Israelites in the wilderness (Numb, 
xxxiii. 26, 27). 

TAH'PAJSTHES (head, or beginning, of the 
icorld ?). An Egyptian city, receiving, it has 
been thought, this name because it was the 
beginning of the Egyptian world— that is, 
placed on the frontier at the north-eastern 
extremity of the country. It appears to be 
identical with the Daphne of the Greeks, a 
strong place on the Tanitic branch of the 
Nile, near Pelusium.", There was a royal 
palace here, and brick-kilns ; and, as a 
colony of Jews came hither, it was naturally 
a prominent place in the Jewish mind, and 
is put with Noph or Memphis for the coun- 
try generally (Jer. ii. 16, where it is called 
Tahapanes, xlvi. 14). It was to this city 
that, after the murder of Gedaliah, Johanan 
and the Jewish leaders repaired taking with 
them the prophet Jeremiah, who was direct- 
ed to give a symbol here of the con- 
quest of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar (xliii. 7- 
13, xliv. 1). It is called Tehaphnehes in 
Ezek. XXX. 18, and appears in the con- 
tracted form of Hanes in Isai. xxx. 4. A 
mound called Tel Defenneh in a direct line 
between the modern Zan (or San) and Pelu- 
sium, may mark the site of Tahpanhes. 

TAH'PJENES (id.). The queen of Pharaoh, 
a king of Egypt contemporary with David 
or Solomon. Her sister was given in mar- 



riage to Hadad the Edomite (1 Kings xi. 
19, 20). 

TAHRE'A (^cunning). A descendant of 
Saul (1 Chron. ix. 41) ; called Tarea in viii. 35. 

TAH'TIM-HOD'SHI (nether land newly in- \ 
habited 1). A place or district near upon 
Gilead (2 Sam. xxiv. 6). ! 
TALENT. See Money, Weights. ■ 
TALI'THA CU'MI (damsel arise). The 
Aramaic words uttered by our Lord when 
raising the ruler's daughter (Mark v. 41). 

TAL'MAI (furroiced).—!. One of the sons 
of Anak (Numb. xiii. 22 ; Josh. xv. 14 ; 
Judges i. 10).— 2. A king of Geshur, whose ' ' 
daughter Maacah was David's wife and 
Absalom's mother (2 Sam. iii. 3, xiii. 37 j 1 
Chron. iii. 2). 

TAL'MON (oppressed).—!. A Levite porter 
(1 Chron. ix. 17 ; Neh. xi. 19, xii. 25).— 2. A 
Levite porter whose descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra ii. 42 ; 
Neh. vii. 45). Possibly there was only one 
of the name ; so that in the latter case Tal- i 
mon denotes the representative of No. 1." 

TAL 'MUD, THE. This is a body of Jewish ' 
laws, comprising doctrines and precepts, 
relative to religion and morals. The Tal- 
mud (the name literally signifying doctrine) 
consists of two parts, viz., the Mishna, or 
text, and the Gemara, or commentary. 

The Mishna, the meaning of which is 
repefttio?z, includes 6 books or orders, 63 trea- 
tises, and 524 chapters. Four tracts ware 
afterwards appended. It is a collection of i 
various Jewish traditions, with expositions j 
of scripture-texts : these, the Jews pretend, ! 
were delivered to Moses on the mount, and ' j 
were transmitted from him, through Aaron, ( 
Eleazar, and Joshua, to the prophets, and 
by them to the men of the great synagogue, 
from whom they passed in succession to 
Simeon, Gamaliel, and ultimately to rabbi ; 
Jehudah, surnamed Hakkodesh, ' the holy.' 
By him this digest of oral law and tradi- , 
tions is said to have been completed to- \ 
wards the close of the second century, after i 
forty years' labour. It has been since handed ) 
down among the Jews, from generation to • 
generation, regarded with the highest re- 
verence, and even sometimes esteemed I 
above the written law itself. j 
The Gemara is two-fold : viz. the Gemara i 
of Jerusalem, compiled between 'She third 
and fifth centuries, and not much esteemed t 
by the Jews, and the Gemara of Babylon, 
compiled in the fifth century. This is filled 
vnth absurd fables ; but the Jews highly 
value it. The name Gemara implies perfec- ^ 
Hon, and is assumed because these com- 
mentaries are regarded as an explanation 
of the whole law, to which no further addi- i 
tions can be made, and after which nothing ; 
more can be desired. The Mishna, together i 
with the commentary compiled at Jeru- 
salem, is called the Jerusalem Talmud, 
with that made at Babylon it is the Baby- 
lonian Talmud. ; 

The Mishna is useful, as being a digest j 
of the traditions held by the Pharisees in 
our Lord's time; and biblical critics and 
commentators have often drawn from it ex- 
planations of various passages in the Old ! 
Testament, and have illustrated thereby the ' 
narratives and allusions of the New. A 



865 



eompendious account of the Talmud by tlie 
late rev. Dr. McOaul is prefixed to Prideaux' 
Connection, edit. 1858; also see Westcott 
Introd. to Gosp., claap. i. pp. &2, 63. ' 
22^^'^'^^^ (1 Esdr. ix. 22). Elasai (Ezra x. 

TA'MAH (laughter). One whose descen- 
dants, Nethinim, returned with Zerubbabel 
CNeh. vii. 65). In Ezra ii. 53 the name is 
Thamah. 

TA/MAR (^p aim-tree). —1. The wife of Er 
and Onan, a daughter-in-law of Judah, with 
whom he committed incest (Gen. xxxviil 
6-30 ; Ruth iv. 12 ; 1 Chron. ii. 4). She is called 
Tbamar in Matt. i. 3.-2. A daughter of 
David and sister of Absalom, remarkable 
for her beauty, whom Amnon her half- 
brother defiled (2 Sam. xiii. ; i Chron. iii. 9) 
We may gather from this miserable story 
some incidents In relation to the homeli- 
ness of the duties performed in those times 
by the ladies of highest rank, and to the 
dress of unmarried princesses.— 3. A daugh- 
ter of Absalom (2 Sam. xiv. 27). 

TA'MAR {id.). A town on the south- 
eastern border of Palestine (Ezek. xlvii 19 
xlviii. 28). Dr. Robinson supposes that the 
site is marked by the ruins now called 
Kurnub, about a day's journey south of 
8l-Milh (Malatha or Moladah) on the ancient 
road between Hebron and Elath. But Wilton 
identifies it with Hazar-gaddah (The Negeb. 
pp. 94-97, 117, 118). ' 
TAM'MUZ {terror ?). See Month. 
TAM'MUZ (^^Z.). The name of a Phcenician 
deity, probably the Adonis of the Greeks : 
who is said to have lived in the Lebanon 
near the source of the river which bears his 
name. He was killed, the legend goes on, 
by a wild boar ; but through the influence 
of Venus, who was enamoured of him he 
was permitted to spend six months of the 
year on earth, the other six being passed in 
the lower world. His death was annually 
celebrated : Byblos, where the river Adonis 
red It was imagined with his blood, flowed 
into the sea, being the chief seat of the 
solemnity. The fact is that the river 
now Nalir Ibrahim, brings down after 
storms some of the red soil of Lebanon. 
The Syrian women first mourned the 
death, and then gave way to frantic joy for 
the return, of Adonis. A similar festival was 
held in Egypt in honour of Osiris, of 
whom a story of almost the same kind is 
told. This worship may have been symbol- 
ical of the course of the sun, and his in- 
fluence upon vegetation. One of the 
abominations which Ezekiel beheld was 
the weeping of the Jewish women for 
Tammuz on the north side of the temple 
(Ezek. viii. 14). The feast began with the 
new moon of July; whence the month in 
Which It fell received the name of Tammuz 
TA'NACH (^sandy soil) (Josh. xxi. 25). See 
Taanach, 

TAJ<rHU'METH (comfort). The father of 
one of the captains who joined Gedaliah (2 
Kings XXV. 23 ; Jer. xl. 8). 

TA'NIS (Ezek. xxx. 14, marg.). See Zoan. 
This name is also found in the Apocrypha 
(Judith i. 10). 

TANNER (Acts ix. 43, x. 6, 32). See 
Handicraft, p. 353. 



[tarshish 

. TAPESTRY (Prov. vii. 16, xxxi. 22). The 
^coverings of tapestry 'may simply mean 
coverlets' as spread upon beds. Perhaps 
embroidered. See Embroidery. 
TA'PHATH (dro2J). One of Solomon's 
daughters (1 Kings iv. 11). 

^i^^^n^/n^-^^^'^^ Tahpanhes. 

TA[PirON a Ms.cc. ix. 50). A city forti- 
fied m Maccabean times, perhaps Beth- 
tappuah. 

TAP'PTJAH (apple-region). The name of 
a person among the descendants of Judah 
(1 Chron. ii. 43). 

TAP'PTJAH (id.).—l. A town in the plain 
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 34) .-2. A citv on 
the border of Ephraim and Manasseh .-'the 
city belonged to Ephraim, the land or dis- 
trict named from it to Manasseh (xvi. 8, 
xvii. 8). This was no doubt identical with 
En-tappuah (7). It is not certain which of 
these two places is intended inxii. 17 

T -^''^-^ (station). One of the stations of 
^he^Israelites in the desert (Numb, xxxiii. 

TAR'ALAH (a reeling). A city in Benja- 
min (Josh, xviii. 27). 

T^ea'^ (cwwwm^/) (1 Chron. viii. 35). See 

TARES. Darnel, the Lolium temulentum 
(Matt. xiii. 24-30, 36-40). The common Ara- 
bic name of this plant is zowan : it is of a 
noxious character, producing dizziness and 
sickness. Grain-growers in Palestine be- 



lieve that m wet seasons and in marshy 
ground the wheat itself turns to tares. See 
Dr. Thomson, The Land and the Book, pp. 
420-422. ' 

TARGET (1 Sam. xvii. 6 ; 1 Kings x. 16 : 2 
Chron. ix. 15, xiv. 8). See Amis, pp. 53, 57, 58 
TAR'GUM. See Versions. ' 
TAR'PELITES. A people from whom 
the Assyrian kings sent colonists to Sama- 
ria (Ezra IV. 9): possibly they maybe the 
Tapyri on the east of Elymais. See Winer 
Bibl. BWB., art. ' Tarpelaje.' 

TAR'SHISH (perhaps a breaking, subjec- 
tion. I.e. subdued country).— 1. A son of 
Javan of the posterity of Japheth (Gen. x.4: 
1 Chron. i. 7). See Tarshish, below.-2 One 
of the seven princes of Persia (Esth, i. 14). 

_ TAR'SHISH (hard, i.e. rocky ground ?). A 
city or country respecting the position of 
which much variety of opinion, especially 
among _ earlier writers, has prevailed. But 
the scripture notices of it, if carefully com- 
pared, lead with tolerable certainty to its 
Identification. Dr. Kalisch thus sums them 
up : ' Tarshish is represented as a rich 
country, governed by its own independent 
kmgs and able to send valuable presents 
(Psal. Ixxii. 10 ; Isai. Ixvi. 19, 20), abounding 
especially in silver, iron, tin, and lead (Jer. 
X. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, 25) : a precious stone, 
probably the chrysolite, chiefiy found in 
those districts, bore the name of tarshish 
(Exod. xxviii. 20 ; ' in our version ' beryl ' • 
see Beryl) : 'it was situated near other 
renowned islands, and was itself washed 
by the waves of the sea (Isai. Ix. 9) ; it 
was, therefore, accessible by navigation, 
which was extensively carried on by the 
Phoenicians and other nations, in large 
famous ships, which were the models for 
the vessels of commerce in general, and 
3 K 



1 

I 



tarsus] 



866 



were therefore known under the name of 
"vessels of Tarshish" (l Kings ^.22„xxii. 
4R • Isai ii 16) • the port from which they 
SarJS was Joppa, on the coa^t of Palestine 
rlonah i 3 iv. 2), not from Ezion-geber, a 
%Tot gulf of Aiahah ' (Comm. on Old 
Tp<it Geti , P. 243). It IS true that once 
cS4n.S Ih ' ships to go to. Tarshish' are 
said to have heen made at Ez-ion-geher And 
it has heen supposed hence that there mu^t 
have heeS a Tarshish (there.heing two of 
fhe name) in India. Keil imagines that 
built on the Red sea the ships were to he 
conveyed overland to a Mediterranean port, 
andT ef ers to examples of such laBd-carn.ge 
of ships {Comm. on Kings, transL, }oi. i. p. 
S29 : comp. Home's Introduct, xo\.ii.l\G^o 
edit Avrc). All these indications Sxiww 
that Taihish was neitlier in India, nor 
Ethiopia, nor on the African co^ast as some 
have imagined. iS'either could it have heen 
Ttrsns : fhither certainly Jonah won d^ not 
have tied to avoid the journey to Nineveh. 
Besides, Tarsus was never celebrated as 
?a?shish was. There can he little doubt 
therefore, that Tartessus m the south ot 
Soain or the surrounding district, was 
intended bv Tarshish. And it is well known 
that the Phoenicians had much commercial 
intercourse with Spain. The mention of 
Tarshish as derived from Javan (G en x. 4) 
rnrrnborates this opinion. It is true tna.t 
TartesSfhasbeen sometimes represented 
as a Phoenician colony ; and Kali^ch mter- 
?)rets liai xxiii. 1, 6, 10 as countenancing _a 
Ph(^nrSn origin for Tarshish; but this 
f>rt?ri4etation cannot be supported: 
' daulSe? TTarshish' is simf^ Tarsbish 
or the inhabitants thereof as ^aughto of 
Zion,' ' daughter of J erusalem (i. 8. 
22) And of the close intercourse (and pi o- 
bably colonization) of the Greeks with 
Stessus and its neighbourhood there is 
=tron<' evidence : see Herodotus, hb. i. 16o. 
Ti e exact site of this celebrated city is un- 
ino^f: it has been believed to be between 
the S;^ outlets of the modern Guadaiq^^^^^^^^ 
Other places on the Spanish coa=t ha-s e had 
I their advocates. See Wmer, BiU. BWB., 

art.'Tharschisch,' „ 
1 TAR'SUS (possibly connected with iar- 
Bhish, or with a root signifying /mrct). A 
larje akd populous city of Cilicia, the capital 
of !he Roman province of that name s tu- 
ated in a fruitful plain on the riyei Ci dnu= 
which flowed through the niidst of it. it 
was a place of cmsiderable fade , and the 
inhabitants, of Greek descent, applief them- 
selves with much success to the study ot 
philosophv, so that their city acgnn-ed 
' Sveat celebrity as a school of learnmg. 
1 flany Jews appear to have settled here ; 
1 and Uie most distinguished citizen of Tar- 
sus was Saul, afterwards the apostle Paul 
TActS ix 11, 30, XI. 25, XXI. 39, XXil. 6). _ J-^i 
Ins w5 one of those called free cv.ies, 
' Sd ?hoiigh under Raman dominion, 
Sieved the right of choosing its own 
magS?ates!and was governed its own 
Taws This freedom was granted it by 
iSk Anthony; but it did not convey aii^^^ 
right as a Roman colony of Ro^ia^ citizen 
ship to the natives-so that Paul was a 
citSen of Rome by virtue of some othei 



fi-anchise. In later times, indeed, Tarsus 
was made a Roman colony. 

It still exists, as Tersous, with a popula- 
tion of about 20,000, bnt_ is described as 
filthy and ruinous : see Wmer, Bibl BWB., 

^^TAR'TAK Oiero of darkness). The name 
of an idol of the Avites (2 f i^gs xvii. 31). 
/Recording to the rabbins it had the figure 
of an ass Perhaps one of those planets 
whose influence is thought unfavourable, 
Saturn or Mars, might be intenaed. 

TAH'TA:N (military chief). A general of 
Sargon and Sennacherib (2 Kings xviii. 17 , 
Tsai XX 1) The word is an oflacial title. ^ 

TAT'XAI (giff)- A Persian governor m 
Palestine (Ezra, v. 3, 6, vi. 6, 13). . . ^ . 

TAYERivS, THE THREE A P^ace of 
entertainment for persons of a better class 
than those who frequented the Appn Forum. 
It was on the Appian road, about 33 Roman 
miles from the city, near the modem Cis- 
Zna. TWO parties of ^.^ethren went to 
meet St. Paul (Acts xxvni. lo), when he 
wis brought a prisoner to Rome : some 
proceeded as far as Appu Forum, others to 

'"IaxItS^TAXATION. Noticehas 

been elsewhere taken of difEerent imposts 
to which, from time to time the Hebrews 
were subjected. It may be proper here briefly 
to sum up these particular taxes, and to in- 
dicate the changes made at yarious times 

One great department, all indeed that the 
Israelites were expected to pay m their 
' earlier historv, comprised those sacred 
oflerings which were connected with their 
?eligious services. From them the priests 
and Levites, and in a measure the poor, 
were to be maintained. See Priest, p. 
719 To these must be added the capitation- 
taxto be paid when a census of the people 
was taken (Exod. xxx. U-16X Tin., how 
ever, was but occasional (yet see per- 
haps some traces of it in 2 Kings xii. 4; 
9 rhron xxiv 6-9) ; but It formed the basis 
of Se kSSl impost agreed tn after the 
cantivity (Keh. x. 32, 33), then the third of 
f .heSl^but afterwards a half-shekel (Matt 
xvii;24, 27), levied on aU Jews wheresoever 

'^On^'the'^'establishment of kingly govern- 
nient additional burdens were neces.ar ly 
liid upon the nation: see Ki^G, p. oil, 
REVExrE. Sometimes in addition money 
u-"sto be raised, as for Solomon's great 
wm-ks a Kings iii. 4), and when foreign 
Siem?e?reauired large Bums as fines or 
annual tribute (2 Kmgs xv. 19, 20, xvu. 4, 

^Undfr tSe Persian government after the 
return from Babylon there was a regular 
svstem of taxation, to which doubtless the 
provSces'of the empire generally wero 
Objected. Three branches are enumerated, 
iSXch, however, the priests and sa^^^^^^ 
classes were specially exempted, toU, tu- 
bute and custom' (Ezra iv. 13, vn. 24), 
probably implying direct i^oney-payments, 
excise, and tolls by travellers at hridge:,, 
f orfc &c The Jews had also to def ray the 
Se? of the governor by suppl3.n^^^^^ 
tiblp and by a money-payment, ihis jxeue 
mJ^h when in office did not exact (ifeh. v. 



367 



[TEMA2I 



14, 35). The Egyptian and Syrian kings 
iinposed yet more oppressive taxes. It 
must t)e sufficient to refer to 1 Mace. x. 29- 
31, xi. 34, 35, xiii. 39, whence it appears that, 
though relief Avas sometimes granted, direct 
tribute, duties on salt, crown-taxes, and a 
certain proportion of the produce of fruit- 
trees, and corn-land, with a tax on cattle, 
were ordinarily required. And the burden 
was the more heavy because the system of 
farming the revenue would seem to have 
been then practised. 

Much was exacted by the Romans : Pom- 
pey, Cassius, and others levied large sums. 
For the magnificence of Herod his subjects 
had to pay. And, when Judea was made 
formally a E,oman province, the taxes v/ere 
systematically farmed ; and publicans were 
stationed through the country: see Pub- 
LiCAnr. There were the duties {tele) to be 
paid at harbours, and the gates of cities, a 
poll-tax (kensos), and perhaps (phoros) a 
kind of property-tax (Markxii. 14, 15 ; Rom. 
xiii. 6, 7). These imposts were regarded 
with great jealousy, as paid to a foreign 
power. There was also a house-tax in 
Jerusalem, remitted by Agrippa I. (Joseph., 
Antiq,, lib. xix. 6, § 3). 

Por the ' taxing ' or registration in order 
to taxation, said to be conducted by Cyre- 
nius (Luke ii. 1, 2), see Oyrenitjs. There 
was another at a later period (Acts v. 37). 

TEACH, TEACHER, TEACHmG. These 
words may be uyed with reference to the 
communication of religious knowledge : 
see Minister, Preach, Preacher; and 
as implying ordinary instruction : see Edu- 
CATiojj", School. 

TEATS (Isai. xxxii. 12). A better trans- 
lation is : ' they (the women) smite upon the 
breasts'— a sign of grief : comp. Nah. ii. 7. 

TE'BAH {slaughter, executioner). One of 
the sons of In ahor, Abraham's brother (Gen. 
xxii. 24). 

TEBALI'AH(whom Jehovah has immersed, 
purified). A Levite (1 Chron. xxvi. 11). 

TEB'ETH (the etymology is unknown) 
(Esth. ii. 16). See Month. 

TEHAPH'KEHES (Ezek. xxx. 18). See 
Tahpajsthes. 

TEHIlST'lsrAH {cry for mercy). A descend- 
ant of Judah (1 Chron, iv. 12). 

TEIL-TREE (Isai. vi. 13). Possibly the 
terebinth, Pistachia tereMnthus. The ori- 
ginal word is frequently elsewhere rendered 
' oak :' see Oak. 

TE'KEL {weighed) (Dan. v. 25, 27). See 
Menb, 

TEKO'A or TEKO'AH (apitching of tents, 
or trumpet-clang ?). A city of Judah, about 
twelve miles to the south of Jerusalem. It 
stood on an eminence, and was visible from 
Beth-lehem, from which it was about six 
miles distant ; in the neighbourhood of 
Beth-haccerem {the Frank mountain). It 
was colonized by Ashur of the tribe of 
Judah (1 Chron. 11. 24, iv. 5). Rehoboam for- 
tified it (2 Chron. xi. 6) ; and it was here that 
the prophet Amos resided as a herdman 
when he was visited by the prophetic word 
(Amos i. 1). Other notices of it may be 
found in 2 Sam. xiv. 2, 4, 9 ; 2 Chron. xx. 
20 ; Jer. vi. 1 ; and it would seem that the 
neighbouringr wilderness bore its name. 



It still retains its ancient appellation, 
TekU'a, but it is no more than a ruined site 
on the north-eastern slope of a high ridge, 
where the Arabs pasture their flocks. 

TEKO'ITES (2 Sam.xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chron. xi. 
28, xxvii. 9 ; Neh. iii. 5, 27). The inhabit- 
ants of Tekoah. 

TEL-A'BIB {corn-MIT). A place in Babylo- 
nia where some of the Jewish captives were 
stationed. It was by the river of Chebar; 
but Its precise site is doubtful (Ezek. iii. 15). 

TE'LAH {breach). A descendant of Eph- 
raim (1 Chron. vii. 25). 

TELA'IM {young lambs). A place, pro- 
bably not far from the Amalekitish frontieT 
(1 Sam. XV. 4). Wilton identifies it with 
Telem, and supposes it at el-Kuseir, where 
there are some ruins, in the region of the 
DhuUani Arabs {The Negeb, pp. 86-89). 

TEL AS'SAR {hill of Asshur 1). The name 
of a district in which the children of Eden 
conquered by the Assyrians are said to have 
dwelt (Isai. xxxvii. 12). It is also called 
Thelasar (2 Kings xix. 12). Some critics 
have believed it identical with Ellasar (Gen. 
xiv. 1, 9) ; but there is no sulficient ground 
for this. Dr. Layard is inclined to identify 
Telassar with Tel Afer, in the Mesopotamian 
plain, thirty miles distant from the Sinjar. 
This is still an important place, the inhabit- 
ants being of Turcoman origin. A consider- 
able eminence, partly artificial, is crowned 
by an imposing castle ; and at the foot of 
this mound lies the town, containing some 
well-built houses, and partly surrounded by 
gardens stocked with fruit-trees, beyond 
which expands the desert. 

TE'LEM {ojjpression) . One of the Levite 
singers who had married a foreign wife 
(Ezra X. 24). 

TE'LEM (id.). A city of Judah, far to the 
south on the Edomitish frontier (Josh. xv. 
24). See Telaim. 

TEL-HAR'ESHA or TEL-HAR'SA (forest 
hill). A place in Babylonia, from which 
several persons who could not pi-ove their 
pedigree as Israelites went with Zerubbabel 
to Jerusalem (Ezra ii. 59 ; Keh. vii. 61). 

TEL-ME'L AH (salt-hill). A place in Baby- 
lonia, from which also persons of doubtful 
pedigree returned (Ezra ii. 59 ; Neh. vii. 61). 

TE'MA (soitth, desert). One of the soris of 
Ishmael (Gen. xxv.l5 ; 1 Chron. i. 30); whose 
descendants are called coileccively by this 
name, and peopled a district of Arabia. 
Tema is coupled with Sheba (Job vi. 16) 
and with Dedan (Isai. xxi. 14 ; Jer. xxv. 23), 
and appears to have furnished caravans for 
commerce through the desert. A fortress, 
Thaima or Themma, is mentioned bv Ptole- 
my and said to be a few miles east of tlie road 
from Damascus to Mecca. This may be the 
game with Teymd, a small town on the con- 
fines of Syria, which there is reason to l)e- 
lieve corresponds with the ancient Tenia. 

TE'MAN (id.). The eldest son of Eliphaz 
and grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 
15, 42; 1 Chron. 1. 36). His descendants 
were called Temani, or Temanitcs : they 
were noted for their wisdom and their 
valour, and formed the strong-hold of Idu- 
mean power : they arc therefore specially 
mentioned in the predictions against Edom 
(Jer. xlix, 7 ; Ezek. xxv. 13 ; Amos i. 12 



868 



Obad. 9). Little information is supplied in 
scripture as to the locality of Teman's de- 
scendants ; except tliat once indeed it is 
entioned in parallel! sm\ritli Paran (Hal^alr. 
iii. 3). There was a little town, Teman, fire 
miles from Petra in Jerome's time : it liad 
then a Roman garrison : perhaps it may 
indicate the district occupied hy the Te- 
manites. Wilton would place Teman at the 
northern extremity of Edom, among the 
mountains of the 'Azazimeh {The Kegeb, pp. 
123, 124). 

TE'MAXI (Gen. xxxvi. 34). See TsiiAX. 
TE'MAI^ITE. An inhabitant of Teman 
(1 Chron. i. 45). The designation is given to 
Eliphaz, one of Joh's friends (Joh ii. 11, iv. 
1, XV. 1, xxii. 1, xlii. 7, 9). 

TE'MEXI {Temenite 1 one from the south ?) 
A descendant of Judah (1 Chron, iv. 6). 

TEMPLE. A building dedicated to divine 
worship, where the presence of the Deity 
was expected peculiarly to manifest itself. 

We read of no such buildings in the times 
of the early patriarchs. They erected altars ; 
■which were apparently under trees, or on 
hills ; and the service at them was perform- 
ed in the open air. But one of the first 
commands to the Israelites after they had 
quitted Esvpt was to raise a tabernacle or 
tent, to be the seat of the Lord's presence 
among them. This was made, and was car- 
ried into Canaan, and was set up in various 
places successively (see Tabernacle), 
being occasionally called ' the house of the 
Lord ' and * the temple of the Lord ' (1 Sam. 
i. 9, iii. 3, 15). Perhaps, as years ran on, and 
the riches of the nation increased, the no- 
tion of a fixed more magnificent temple in- 
stead of the movable plainer tent, might be 
cherished in many a pious Israelite's heart, 
who longed to offer to his King that with 
which Ms bounty had blessed him. But 
there were wars and rumours of wars : there 
were national sins and national disasters. 
And it could be only in a settled time of se- 
curity that the idea would ever be realized. 
Such'a time, it would seem, was come, when 
the Lord had given David a noble empire 
and ' rest round about from all his enemies.' 
Accordingly the grateful monarch, con- 
trasting his own palace with the abode of 
the sacred art, resolved upon building a 
temple. The prophet isathan commended 
the design, but was soon instructed to teU 
David that, though it was a righteous pur- 
pose, such a house must not be built by 
hands that had been engaged in bloody war. 
He might prepare the materials, and he 
should have the plan. But his son, a man 
of peace, with whom God would make a 
gracious covenant, should build a habita- 
tion where the Presence would abide. Large 
preparations, therefore, did David make, 
and he charged his son Solomon to do 
worthily the work so graciously entrusted to 
him (2 Sam. vii. ; 1 Chron. xxviii.). 

Solomon received the riches and materials 
coUected by his father, with the offerings 
of the princes and the people (xxix. 1-9), and 
soon after he began to reign he had timber 
cut in Lebanon, and engaged Tyrian artizans 
to work with his own subjects. The pro- 
gress of the building, the plan after which 
it was fashioned, the utensils with which 



it was furnished, and the time consumed 
upon it, from Solomon's fourth year to hi3 
eleventh, seven years and a half, are detailed 
in 1 Kings t. — vii. ; 2 Chron, ii.— iv. 

Much labour has been spent upon the de- 
scription of this magnificent building ; but 
great differences of opinion exist. One of 
the latest Avorks upon it is Comte M. de 
Yogiie's Le Temple de Jerusalem, 1865. 

It was constructed generally after the 
similitude of the tabernacle (Saalschutz, 
Arch, der Sebr., cap. 29, vol. i. pp. 303, 304). 
The temple itself consisted of two apart- 
ments, the holy place, and the most holy 
place, with a porch in front ; while around 
were chambers and an external court or en- 
clostire. The dimensions were double those 
of the tabernacle. The length was sixty cu- 
bits and the breadth twenty cubits, perhaps 
ninety feet by thirty. The most holy place 
was twenty cubits in breadth and length, 
and the same in height ; consequently for 
the outer sanctuary there remained a length 
of forty cubits with the same breadth of 
twenty. The porch extended the whole i 
breadth of the building : its ground-plan I 
being twenty cubits by ten : it was one j 
hundred and twenty cubits high, the height ! 
being specially noted as attracting peculiar 
attention (1 Kings ix. 8). Along the sides 
and probably the end were chambers, abut- 
ting upon the walls. These— -and there were \ 
three storeys of them, five, six, and seven | 
cubits in width respectively, reached by 
winding stairs— were doubtless lodging- j 
places for the priests whose duty of minis- 
tration required their attendance on the ' 
spot. Similar apartments there must have ' 
been attached to the tabernacle (1 Sam, iii. j 
1-15). The sanctuary is said to have been ; 
twenty cubits high; but the entire height , 
of the" structure is stated at thirty cubits, i 
Either then there was some superstructure, 
or possibly there was a ridged roof, the 
thirty ctibits being the height of the ridge 
from'the ground. 

This house was built of stone cut and 
made ready before it was brought thither. 
Much of it would seem to have been quarried 
under Jerusalem ; and excavations have 
been discovered where stone was obtained 
and wrought, the traces of the workmen's 
tools being still visible (see Buchanan's 
Notes of a Cler. Furlough, chap, v, pp, 196, 
197). But in the interior the stone-work 
was lined with cedar-boards, richly carved . 
the walls and the ceilings are said to have 
been of cedar and the fiooring of fir. The 
inner sanctuary was of peculiar richness : 
it was overlaid with gold : the cherubim of 
olive-wood with their wings stretching- 
each five cubits long— from one extremity of 
the holy apartment to the other, bending 
perhaps over the ark, were plated with gold : 
so also were the floor and the doors of 
olive-wood carved with cherubim and palm- 
trees and budding flowers, and the parti- 
tion, moreover, dividing it from the outer 
sanctuarv, ornamented with gold chain- 
work, and the carved fir folding-doors of the 
outer sanctuary. 

In the porch were two noticeable pillars, 
called Jachin and Boaz. These were probably 
of bronze, eighteen cubits in height with a 



869 



[temple 



chapiter or capital of five cubits, and twelve 
cubits in circumference. Tlio different ac- 
counts we have of these pillars do not agree 
in measurement : possibly one reckoned in 
the capital and pediment which others omit: 
see BoAz. The pillars were curiously orna- 
mented with lily-work, net-work or chequer- 
work, chain- work, and pomegranates. It 
IS impossible exactly to describe this beau- 
tiful work. Keil's explanation will give 
probably as good an idea of it as can be 
obtained: There were seven laces, so to call 
tjiem, plaited like a chain placed on the 
urn-shaped capitals in such a manner that 
winding across one another in festoons 
they appeared to the eye as a net-formed 
lattice, bordered above and beneath by a row 
of pomegranates encircling the capitals. 
Above this for an entablature the capitals 
were bellied and then bent out and adorned 
with lily stalks, leaves, and blossoms, so 
that the whole upper part resembled a 
bunch of lilies. Work of this kind appears 
to have been not uncommon ; and Keil 
notices pillars, specially those of Persepolis, 
which may be taken as nearly resembling 
it. These pillars were set up in front of the 
porch ; Jachin on the right or south ; Boaz 
on the left or north. Some have considered 
them as merely ornamental, and have re- 
garded exclusively the symbolical meaning, 
indicating 'the stability and strength, 
which were possessed not so much by the 
temple as an external building, as the king- 
dom of God in Israel incorporated in the 
temple by the Lord, v/ho had chosen the 
temple for his dwelling-place among his 
people, and their emblems point to the 
beauty and glory of the dwelhng of God.' 
But it would be quite contrary to general 
practice, as we trace it in scripture, to teach 
an emblematical lesson by that which had 
no present use. And, besides, the names, 
implying ' stability' and 'strength,' would be 
meaningless unless the pillars contributed 
to the stability and strength of the struc- 
ture. Ifc is most probable, therefore, that 
they were placed to support the lofty porch. 
Whether any other piUars were used in the 
body of the temple, we are not told : had 
there been such, they would most likely 
have been mentioned. 

The overlaying of many parts with gold 
has been already noted. But there was still 
more of the precious metal used. The 
'upper chambers' are said to have been so 
overlaid, and indeed the 'whole house'— 
not that we are to suppose a continuous 
gold casing, but that everywhere, where for 
beauty and glory gold was needed, it was 
unsparingly employed. The hinges and the 
nails were gold; and there were garnish- 
ments of costly gems ; and the vessels and 
the furniture were gold. Such were the 
ten candlesticks, each probably like that 
made by Moses in the wilderness, five placed 
before the oracle on the right and five on 
the left : there were ten tables, too, similarly 
placed, and a himdred golden bowls and 
golden spoons and censers and basins. And 
the incense altar, put close before the oracle, 
made of cedar was overlaid with gold. 
There were also brazen or bronze articles, 
as the molten sea, ten lavers, and the great 



altar, and various utensils. And then there 
was the costly veil of blue, and purple, and 
crimson, and fine linen, with embroidery of 
cherubim, to hang at the entrance of the 
most holy place. So multitudinous and 
rich were all the things that pertained to 
the temple and the temple-services that we 
cease to wonder at the vast sums which are 
said to have been expended. How much 
was expended it is impossible to tell. Cal- 
culations of the treasure accumulated by 
David vary from seven millions of our 
money to a thousand millions. It is useless 
therefore to conjecture. The reader may 
find a curious discussion, and tables in 
Kitto's Pict. Bible, note on 1 Chron. xxix, 16. 

The temple properly so called was of but 
small dimensions; but there was a court 
surrounding it in several divisions. For an 
inner court is mentioned, built with three 
courses of large stones and a row of cedar- 
beams. This was most probably the court 
of the priests; and there was the great 
court, with doors or gates overlaid with 
brass. The dimensions of these courts are 
not given , but doubtless the whole enclo- 
sure was large. And there must have been 
conveniences in it, such as excavations, and 
channels, and pipes, for the conveyance of 
water, and the removal of the blood of the 
sacrifices ; some of which modern research 
has discovered. And there was an ascent 
by which Solomon went up to the house of 
the Lord, a bridge perhaps, for the re- 
mains of an arch belonging at least to 
the latest temple may still be seen. Por- 
tions of a causeway have also been lately 
found. See Altar, Cai^dle stick. Layer, 
Sea, The Molten. 

These great works were completed by 
Hebrew and Tyrian artificers, under the 
superintendance of Hiram, Israelitish by 
the mother's, Tyrian by the father's side, 
who like Bezaleel and Aholiab of old pro- 
duced all that the Lord had commanded 
with rare and perfect skill— a house with its 
furniture more rich, it is likely, in noble 
magnificence than the world has elsewhere 
possessed ; (see Keil's Comm. on Kings, vol. 
i. pp. 92-137). 

It was a glorious purpose to which it was 
consecrated. Therein the Lord was spe- 
cially to dwell, the Sovereign and Defence 
of Israel. The solemn dedication was at the 
feast of tabernacles. There was a vast 
assemblage. The holy ark was brought 
from Zion, the city of David, and placed by 
the priests in the inner sanctuary ; and the 
mysterious cloud of Jehovah's presence 
filled the house. Solomon uttered an im- 
pressive prayer, and blessed the people; 
and so many were the sacrifices, which fire 
from heaven consumed, that the court was 
hallowed that they might be offered there, 
the great altar being far too small. The 
ancient tabernacle, too, with its vessels was 
conveyed to the temple. Glad were those 
sacred days ; and joyful were the people as 
they returned to their own abodes: who 
would have thought that they would ever 
again have forsaken their own God, the 
living and true God, for false and foul idols? 

After the solemnity God appeared a second 
time to the king, renewing his gracious pro* 



temple] 



870 



raises, and uttering ^varIlings agamst diso- 
tedieAce (l Kings viii., ix. ; 2 Cliron. ti., 
Tii ) The warning was but too mucli need- 
ed ; and tl^e history of the temple is one of 
humiliation and sadness. Orer-against it 
Solomon himself huilt idol-shrmes. It was 
plundered during the reign of Solomon 
foolish sonRehohoam (1 Kings xiv. 2o, 26). 
A^-ain and again it was neglected, spoiled 
shut up, idol-altars were iDUilt m its two 
courts, and perhaps upon its chambers ; so 
that generally the first step of a godly king 
was to cleanse and repair it (.2 Kings xii. -i- 
18 xiv. 14, xvi. 8, 10-18, xYiii. 15, 16, xxi. 4, d, 
7 xxiii. 11, 12 ; 2 Chron.xxiv. 4-14,xxix.o-o6, 
xxxiii. 4, 5, xxxiv.). Certain additions were 
occasionally made. Thus we find m tae 
reign of Jehoshaphat a new court spoken of 
(XX. 5) ; hut gener:iily, as just said, the 
hi'^tory is of deterioration and decay. And 
nfen cLie the final catastrophe. The 'holy 
and Deautif Lil house ' was hurnt by tlie Chal- 
deans and its treasures conveyed to Baby- 
lon (2 Kings x^ v. 8,9,13-17 ; 2Chron.xxxYi. 
18 19 • Jer. lii. 12, 13, 17-23). 

But' God had still mercy upon Zion. He 
disposed the heart of Cyrus to issue a de- 
cree that the captives might return and re- 
build their temple. And, though there was 
much opposition by the Jews' enemies 
vet in twentv-one years, in the sixth of 
'Daiius Hvstaspis, a second house was 
completed, and dedicated (Ezra i , m.-vi.) 
nt the feast of the passover.^ Little reed 
■ 1)0 said of this. It was to be sixty cubith m 
bei^ht, and sixty in breadth (larger than 
: Solomon's), with three rows Cprobabl> 
! =;toreys) of stone and a supersti-ucture of 
I tim^lv But such were the deficiencies, 
' the holv ark especially being wanting (for 
I which a kind of substitute was devised, see 
^ ARK P 51-, so inferior this temple was 
' likely tobe that which had preceded it, that, 
! while the vounger part of the assemblage 
! reioiced that they were again to have a 
sacred house, the elders who remenibei-ed 
1 that which had been destroyed wept with 
i almost-unmitigated sorrow. Jet tliis--f or 
' though, as described below, it was re-buiit 
magnificently by Herod, there was but m 
effect one second temple-was to mo e 
highly honoured than the first, il^e in- 
carnate Son of Godwould walk and teach 
therein (Hagg. ii. 9). Of Ezekiel^ desciip- 
tionno particular notice can be taken (Ezek. 
xl.-xlii.). It is doubtless symbolical : see 
EZEKIEL, THE BOOK OF : at all eyents that 
erected bv Zerubbabel was not modelled on 
its plan : though it has been supposea that 
sonie biits were borrowedfrom it by Herod 

"^He^Mafastefor magnificence He 
adorned various cities with sumptuous 
buildings ; and, as the greatest of his works 
be resolved to repair or rather to re-build the 
tliSle at Jerusalem. It had suffered much: 
ftTadbtenrepeatedlydesecratedesp^^^^^^^^^ 
bv Epiphanes, and, never a vers splendid 
structure it was probably dilapidated and 
! Srn. Herod designed to conciliate the 
I ji^s %xxt his want of religious concern is 
patent ; for at the same tune l^ei'e-bu it the 
temple at Samaria, ana P^^^^ded foi l^e^^ 
then rites in Cassarea. It has indeed betu 



suggested that one of the reasons for his re- 
building- the Jewish temple was to take the 
opportunity of destroying the genealogical 
records kept there. Be this as it may, the 
work was commenced 20 e.g.: the temple 
itself was finished in about a year and a- 
half ; and the adjoining buildings in eight 
vears. But additions were being continually 
m?de : so that the final completion was not 
till vears after Herod's death, in 64 a.d. 
(Joseph.. Antiq., lib. xv. 11, §§ 5, 6, lib. xx. 8, § 
7) Wlien, therefore, the Jews spoke to oui 
Lord of f orty-and-six years, they meant 
that the works had been so long m pro- 
gress, not intending to imply that all was 
then completed (John 11. 20) : se^ Alford s 
note on this place. 

A larger space eeems to have been en- 
closed for this building than had previously 
been occupied. It was extended on the 
east to the city-wall ; and additions w^ere 
probably made on the north and south. The 
whole was a square of about foui' hundred 
cubits This was surrounded on every side 
by a range of porticoes or cloisters, c£.in- 
posed on the north, east, and west of double 
rows of Corinthian columns, that to tue 
ea-t being called 'Solomon's porch' (x. 23; 
Actsiii 11 V. 12), which, according to J 0- 
sephus,'had been originally buUt by that 
monarch. The cloister on the south of the 
enclosure was far larger and more magnifi- 
cent than the rest. This, the stoa MsiUca, 
or ro^■al porch, was formed by three rows or 
columns (one hundred and sixty-two in all) 
into three divisions,the centreforty-fivefeet 
broad and one hundred high, each of the 
others thirty feet broad and fifty in height, 
the length gf all being six bunded feet : at , 
the western extremity was tne bridge leaa- , 
ing from the temple to the palace. Into these 
cloisters, and the margin of the court wun- : 
in all, even Gentiles, might pass. There was 
then a marble wall or partition three cubits 
high with inscriptions in Greek and Latin, 
forbidding any alien to overstep the boun- 
darv To this partition the allusion is maae 
iuEph ii. 13, 14. Itwas inthecoui't of the 
Gentiles that the buyers aad sellers congre- 
gated (Matt. xxi. 12, 13; John ii. 13-h). 
Within the partition-wall was a flight 
of fourteen steps leading to an elevated 
platform, from which five more steps led 
through gate-ways into the coui't of the 
men. On the east, however, five steps led 
to the women's court, and fifteen more 
through the most magnificent of all the 
gates, probably the ' beautiful gate (Acts 
iii " f up to the inner court. Chambers 
anpearto have lined the north and south 
«ides of this court ; and within it stood the 
actual temple, with the great altar at its 
eastern front just within the gate-way 
Both were fenced off by a low wall a cubit 
hi^^h which sepai-ated the people from tne 
priests. In one of the cloistered courts, 
probably that of the women, it may be 
added, before the pillars stood thirteen 
che-t=i to receive the various offerings : it 
^^■asVhen sitting here (no cue might sit m 
the court of Israel) that Jesus saw tpe 
offerers casting in their gifts (Mark xii. ..l- 
44^ The temple was composed as beioix oi 
a portico, the sanctuary, and the most ho.y 



Mihl^ WMO^lttS^t. [tempt, tejiptatioh 



place, the latter twenty cubits square, the 
sanctuary twenty l3y forty, and the portico 
extending on each side beyond the house it- 
self one hundred cubits in breath. The form 
of the whole, therefore, was like a f, an;! It 
was, as Josephus says, one hundred cubits in 
lengthjbreadth, andheight respectively, and 
yet not a cube. It stood most likely on the 
site of the original sanctuary, and it may 
haye been the actual sanctuary of Zerubba- 
bel, or merely that repaired. 

More particulars cannot be here given : 
they must all in fact be to a certain extent 
conjectural. This, however, we know, that 
all kinds of ornamentation were lavished 
on the structure and its massive gates (see 
Gate). And glorious it must have been, its 
external walls and pinnacles overhanging 
the deep valley down which the eye of the 
spectator feared to look, its magnificent 
terraces and cloisters, its inner courts on 
their elevated platform, and the central 
sanctuary rising white and glistening- 
well might the disciples call their Master's 
attention to the pile and bid him mark the 
huge stones of which it was compacted. 
Mournfully must his response have fallen 
upon their ears : ' There shall not be left 
here one stone upon another that shall not 
be thrown down' (Matt. xxiv. 1, 2; Mark 
xiii. 1, 2 ; Luke xxi. 5, 6). It was the pride 
of tlie Jewish heart ; and a word against 
their temple, or the supposed intrusion of 
strangers into it, constituted a deadly crime 
(Matt. xxvi. Gl; Acts vi. 13, 14, xxi. 28). And 
yet it was often a place of conflict and blood- 
shed ; and the fortress of Antonia was 
raised at the north-western corner, from 
which by a stair-case and subterranean 
communication the Ptoman garrison might 
enter to quell a tumult. 

At length the end came, 70 a.d. The cup 
of Judah's iniquity was full. Various portents 
are said to have betokened the approaching 
ruin ; and the spontaneous movement of 
the great gates which required tv,^entymen 
to close them, and the awful voice which 
resounded through the fane, 'Let its depart,' 
be they real or only gathered from the 
exaggerated reports of frightened men, yet 
bear their testimony to the profound con- 
viction everywhere felt that ruin, irrepar- 
al)!c ruin, ruin the whisper of which should 
cause every ear to tingle, was at hand. It 
was, indeed. The Roman legions invested 
the rebellious city ; and, though Titus used 
every means to save the temple, it was 
destroyed by consuming fire, and the Sa- 
viour's words were literally ftilfllled. O 
grievous catastrophe I Alas I for the guilty 
rejected nation 1 

' Our temple hath not left a stone ; 
And mockery sits on Salem's throne.' 

A vain attempt was made by the emperor 
Julian to re-build it. It was strangely de- 
feated in a way which impressed even 
Gibbon ; and, though Guizot and Milman 
would account for tliis by natural causes, 
yet the employment of natural causes at a 
critical time has often testified to the 
interference of the great First Cause {Decl. 
and Fall of the Rom. Emp.y chap xxiii. vol. 
iv.pp. 95-102, edit. 183S). 



On the site of the temple is now a Mo- 
hammedan mosque. But in the walls of the 
enclosure are some of the huge stones 
bevelled or panelled which were part of 
the ancient sanctuary : there is'afragment 
of the bridge, mentioned above : there are 
subterranean passages and channels, which 
may have belonged to the first structure but 
certainly did to the last. And this is all. The 
temple, the glory of Jerusalem, is no more. 
But a yet more magnificent city is to rise, 
adorned with rarer beauty. And, if there 
shall be 'no temple therein,' it is because 
• the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are 
the temple of it ' (Rev. xxi. 22). 

TEMPT, TEMPTATION. Temptation is a 
trial, proof, or allurement, often for an evil 
pitrpose, as when the natural lusts of men 
prompt them to sin (James i. 14), or when 
the devil places incentives before them, 
whence he is called ' the tempter ' (Matt. iv. 
3). But sometimes the word is used in a 
good sense, as when God would prove his 
people's faith and obedience, in order to 
their purification and to crown their sted- 
fastness with his blessing (Gen. xxii. 1, 12 ; 
Deut. viii. 2, 3, 15, 16). We are taught to 
pray against the evil temptations of Satan 
(Matt. vi. 13), by which through our natural 
weakness we are liable to fall. But the 
afiiictions and trials to which God subjects 
his people are for their good. They may 
be painful at first, but afterwards, if meekly 
endured and sanctified, they yield ' the 
peaceable fruit of righteousness unto them 
which are exercised thereby ' (Heb. xii. 11). 
Such temptations, then, may prove the 
richest mercies (James i. 2, 3 ; 1 Pet. i. 6, 7). 
In illustration of this it may be observed 
that the veiy purpose of God in revelation 
is for moral trial (see Garbett's Divine Plan 
of Rev,, lect. ii. pp. 84, 85) ; and the happy 
result of it was never more remarkably 
exhibited than in the temptation of Abra- 
ham. In proportion to the severity of it — 
and how severe it was has been elsewhere 
shown : see ABRAHAii— was after its vic- 
torious endurance the blessing bestowed, 
the promise being made more definite than 
ever before of a Ptedeemer to the world. It 
was vei-y fitting that such a promise should 
not be so explicitly given till the faith of 
him in whose line the Promised One was to 
appear had been fully tried. Of God's right 
to demand of Abraham the sacrifice of 
Isaac no thoughtful mind can have a ques- 
tion. The Creator, from whom life proceeds, 
may at his will take it away by any instru- 
mentality he chooses. And Abraham would 
have been fully justified on such a command 
in slaying his son, had his hand not been 
arrested. True, he did not expect the man- 
date ; but his faith bore him on. He still be- 
lieved the Lord a God of mercy as well as of 
power, and did not doubt that in someway, 
inscrutable to him as yet, the seed should 
spring from Isaac even though he were 
slain. He * believed God ; and it was counted 
unto him for righteousness' (Rom. iv. 3). 

Our first parents were overcome by the 
temptation which beset them in paradise 
(Gen. ill.). The history of their fall is re- 
lated with the utmost plainness and sim- 
plicity: we cannot, therefore, hesiLato in 



TBN commandments] ^r^aS'tltg tit 



872 



receiving it as a record of facts. The exact 
mode In wWcli tlie tempter gained access to 
tliera, the kind of communication he held, 
the special weight which the inducements 
he urged possessed may he ohscure: human 
language may he inadequate to represent 
fully the acting of a being of one kind upon 
one of another ; so that we must not won- 
der if various minds of earnest men have 
differed in their conception of the facts 
recorded. Nor need we be solicitous to 
force them into precise agreement. Men 
may receive the same truth, and yet agree 
not in their aspect of it. But yet, while 
admitting a certain discordance of opinion 
in regard to circumstantials, we are not to 
doubt the historical reality of the event. 
The sacred writers of the Kew Testament, 
who are the most fitting and authorized 
expounders of the Old, expressly assert it. 
' The serpent,' says St. Paul, 'beguiled Eve 
through his subtlety ' (2 Cor. xi. 3) ; and 
again, ' Adam was not deceived ; hut the 
woman being deceived v/as in the trans- 
gression ' (1 Tim. ii. 14), 

Another mysterious event was our Lord's 
temptation (Matt. iv. 1-11 ; Mark i. 12, 13 ; 
Luke iv. 1-13). Some have been inclined to 
regard this as a mere vision, and some have 
supposed that, though the suggestions are 
represented in; the narrative as external, 
they were really internal. Both these sup- 
positions must be unhesitatingly rejected. 
The expressions of the evangelists seem 
specially chosen to mark the objective 
character of the whole transaction ; and it 
is Indeed a lowering of the purity of him in 
whom the Godhead was united to the man- 
hood to believe that he was vexed with 
internal strugglings of evil against good. 
As to the nature of the temptations the 
admirable words of bishop EUicott may 
properly be cited :— ' I cannot think it an 
Idle speculation that connects the three 
forms of temptation with those that 
broughc Bin into the world, the lust of the 
flesh, and the lust of the eye, and the pride 
of life ; nor can I deem it unnatural to see 
in them three spiritual assaults directed 
against the three portions of our composite 
nature. To the body is presented the temp- 
tation of satisfying its wants by a display 
of power which would have tacitly ab- 
jured its dependence on the Father, and 
its perfect submission to his heavenly will. 

To the soul, the longing appetitive soul 

was addressed the temptation of Messianic 
dominion (mere material dominion would 
seem by no means so probable) over all the 
kingdoms of the world, and of accomplish- 
ing in a moment of time all for which the 
incense of the one sacrifice on Calvary is 
still rising up on the altar of God. To the 
svirit of our Redeemer, with even more 
frightful presumption, was addressed the 
temptation of using that power which 
belonged to him as God to vindicate his 
own eternal nature, and to display by 
one dazzling miracle the true relation In 
which Jesus of Nazareth stood to men, and 
to angels, and to God' (ffisi. Led., lect. in. 
pp. 112, 113). See Pinnacle. 

TEN COMMANDMENTS, THE. The pre- 
cepts of the decalogue (Deut. iv. 13), more 



properly expressed as the *ten words' 
(Exod. xxiv. 38, marg. ; Deut. x. 4, marg.), 

the solemn authoritative utterance of the 
Deity, originating as no other words have 
originated from him alone. They were 
proclaimed from the top of Sinai, amid 
mighty thunderings and lightnings (Exod. 
XX. 1-22), and were graven on tablets of 
stone by the finger of God (xxxi. 18, xxxii. 
15, 16, xxxiv. 1, 28). Ten was a significant 
number, the symbol of completeness ; and 
in these ' ten words ' was comprised that 
moral law to which obedience for ever was 
to be paid. On these, summed up as our 
Lord summed them up, hung ail the law 
and the prophets (Matt. xxii. 36-40). There 
were two tal)les, the commandments of the 
one more especially respecting God, those 
of the other man. These are usually divided 
into four and six. Perhaps they might 
better be distributed into five and five. The 
honour to parents enjoined by the fifth 
commandment is based on the service due 
to God, the Father of his people. And it is 
observable that St. Paul, enumerating those 
which make up love to a man's neighbour, 
includes but the last five (Rom. xiii. 9). See 
Law. 

TENT. Some of the earliest habitations 
were tents (Gen. iv. 20). These were spe- 
cially fitted for warm climates and pastoral 
life, where the dweller in them might 
locate himself according to his convenience 
by some springing well or under some 
shady tree (xviii. 4, xxv. 11; Judges iv. 
5). Skins may have been used for the 
covering of tents (Exod. xxvi. 14) ; but 
more generally that cloth made of goats' 
hair of which we read (xxxv. 26, xxxvi. 
14; Acts xviii. 3), and which is still in 
general use. Hence they are described 
as black (Sol. Song i. 5). The modern 
Arabian tents are of an oblong shape, vary- 
ing in size according to the means and 
wants of the owner. Some are from twenty 
to twenty-five feet in length, ten feet 
broad, and probably eight or ten feet high 
in the middle, the sides sloping to throw off 
the rain. They are supported on poles, and 
kept steady by cords fastened to pms 
driven into the ground. An encampment 
is usually of a circular form, within which 
the cattle are secured at night, the centre 
being occupied by the tent— or often more 
than one— of the sheikh. He will probably 
have at least one tent himself, and another 
for his wives, besides those for servants or 
strangers. But, if a single tent is to ac- 
commodate a family, it is divided by 
curtains into two or more apartments. 
Carpets are spread upon the ground ; and 
the various articles of property are distri- 
buted, much being heaped about the cen- 
tral pole. The tents of great personages 
are large and magnificent (Jer. xliii. 10). 
Nadir Shah, for instance, had a superb 
pavilion, covered on the outside with 
scarlet cloth, and lined within with violet- 
coloured satin, ornamented with various 
Sgures of animals, flowers, &c., formed of 
pearls and precious stones : see Pict. Bible, 
note on Sol. Song i. 5. 

TENT-MAKER (Acts xviii. 3). It was 
the precept of the Jewish rabbis that a 



873 



[tetbaech 



father was bound to teach his son a trade. 
Hence, though St. Paul had received a 
liberal education, we find him acquainted 
with a ' craft,' by means of which he could 
earn his living. References are frequently 
made to this (xx. 34; i Cor. ix.l2, 15 : 2 Cor. 
vii. 2, xi. 9 ; 1 Thess. ii. 9 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8). 
The apostle's particular occupation was that 
of a tent-maker. Tents were most com- 
monly constructed of.hair-cloth of Cilician 
goats, which we may readily imagine was 
an article of commerce, and easily procu- 
rable even in distant markets. 

TENTATI0I7 (Exod. xvii. 7, marg., in 
some copies). Temptation. 

TE^^TH DEAL (Lev. xiv. 10, and else- 
where). The original word signifies a 
tenth part, used as a measure for things 
dry, specially grain and meal. It was 
doubtless the tenth of the ephab. And so 
in munb. xv. 4 the Septuagint supplies 
'ephah ' : comp. Lev. v. 11 ; Numb. v. 15. 

TE'RAH (station). The son of Nahor, and 
father of Abraham, ISTahor, and Harau. His 
original dwelling-place was TJr of the Chal- 
dees ; and he was, according to Jewish tra- 
dition, an idolater. This tradition receives 
some countenance from Josh. xxiv. 2, 15. 
One of his sons, Haran, died at Hr. And 
afterwards Terah took Abram (most 
likely his youngest son), and Lot his grand- 
son, -and migrated, intending to go into 
Canaan. But they tarried at Haran ; where 
Terah spent the rest of his life, and died 
at the age of 205 years (Gen. xi. 24-32 ; Josh, 
xxiv. 2 ; 1 Chron. i. 26). 

TER'APHIM (guardians and givers of 
-prosperous lifel). Images kept in the 
houses and honoured with a certain kind of 
reverence. Laban had some of them ; and 
Rachel took these when leaving Padan-aram 
with her husband for Palestine (Gen. xxxi. 
19, 30, 32-35). So we find that they were em- 
ployed for purposes of divination among 
theBabylonians(Ezek. xxi. 21). It is possible 
that Rachel, who was both impulsive and 
superstitious, imagined that some augury 
of the future might be obtained from them; 
and she must have considered them as hav- 
ing a tutelary power. The notion that she in- 
tended to check the idolatry of her father is 
groundless: instead of concealing, she would 
in that case rather have destroyed them. 
These images were probably some of the 
strange gods of which Jacob subsequently 
cleansed his household (Gen.xxxv. 2.4). But 
it is singular that the use of them prevailed 
long among the Hebrews, apparently with- 
out consciousness that it must be displeas- 
ing in God's sight as a breach of the second 
commandment. Thus Micah who had them 
in his house felt sure that Jehovah would 
bless him when he had a Levite to minister 
before them (Judges xvii. 5, 13). These the 
Danites eagerly carried off (xviii. 14-21). It 
is still more perplexing to find them in 
David's house (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16). And it does 
n ot seem that they were altogether put away 
till the thorough reformation of Josiah's 
days (2 Kings xxiii. 24). Then, indeed, 
they were classed with abominable things. 
The word is used (1 Sam. xv. 23, rendered 
in our version ' idolatry ') in expressing the 
truth that obstinacy wa^s sinful, ' iniquity 



and teraphim-worship.' "We find them also 
censured inZech. x. 2 ; and Hosea employed 
the term to signify the state of Israel with 
no kind of worship either of the true God or 
of false deities (Hos. iii. 4). 

We may gather that they were made of 
various materials, as of silver (Judges xvii. 
4), and that they resembled a human figure 
sometimes of the natural size (1 Sam, xix. 13). 
Perhaps they were like the Roman Penates 
or household gods. Small figures of baked 
clay, some with a human head and a lion's 
body, and others with a human body and 
lynx head have been found under the pave- 
ment of the porch of the Kliorsabad palace. 
These were, no doubt, intended to avert evil. 

TE'RESH (austere) . One of the two 
chamberlains or eunuchs who conspired 
against Ahasuerus (Esth. ii. 21, vi. 2). 

TER'TIUS (tJie third). The amanuensis 
who wrote as St. Paul dictated the epistle 
to the Romans (Rom. xvi. 22). 

TERTUL'LUS (diminutive of Tertlus). 
An advocate employed by the Jews to accuse 
St. Paul (Acts xxiv. 1-9). 

TESTAMENT (Hel). ix. 16, 17). See 
Covenant. 

TESTAMENT, NEW (Matt. xxvi. 28: 
Mark xiv. 24 ; Luke xxii. 20 ; 1 Cor. xi 25 • 
2 Cor= iii. 6 ; Heb. ix. 15, xii. 24, marg ) See 
Bible, New TESTAiyiENT, Scriptuhe. 

TESTAMENT, OLD (2 Cor. iii. 14 : corap. 
Heb. ix. 15). See Bible, Scripture. No- 
tice is elsewhere given (see Manuscripts) 
of written copies of the Old Testament : it 
may here be added that soon after the in- 
vention of printing the Hebrew scriptures 
were committed to the press ; at first in 
detached portions. The most ancient edition 
of the whole was printed at Soncino, in 1488 : 
it was followed by an edition at Brescia in 
1494. In 1502-1517 the Complutensian Poly- 
glott was printed at Alcala (Complutum) 
in Spain. In 1525-26 the second edition of 
Bomberg's rabbinical bible appeared at 
Venice, edited by Jacob Ben Chayim. The 
three last-named are the standard texts 
which later editions have followed. 

TESTIMONY. Besides the ordinary mean- 
ing of this word as witness or evidence (2 
Thess. i. 10), it designates particularly the 
tables of stone on which were inscribed the 
laws or conditions of God's covenant with 
Israel (Exod. xxv. 16, 21, xxxi. 18) : hence 
the ark where these tables were deposited 
was called the 'ark of the testimony' (xxv. 
22), and sometimes the ' testimony ' it- 
self (xxvii. 21, XXX. 6 ; Lev. xvi. 13) : the 
tabernacle similarly was termed the ' taber- 
nacle of testimony ' (Exod. xxxviii. 21). Also 
the whole revelation of God's will, the scrip- 
ture or a part of It, bears this name (2 Kings 
xi. 12 ; Psal. xix. 7, cxix. 88 ; Isai. viii. 16, 20). 
TjE'TA (1 Esdr. v. 28). Hatita (Ezra ii.42). 
TETRARCH (ruler of a fourth part). A 
title given to various princes under Roman 
supremacy. The sons of Antipater, Herod 
and PhasaeljWere constituted tetrarchs, the 
first in Palestine, by Mark Antony. Herod 
had afterwards authority over all Palestine 
and Idumea, with the title of king. This 
was the sovereign misnamed ' the Great.' 
After his death, his sons Antipas and Philip 
were tetrarchs, the first of Galilee and Pereaj 



874 



tlie other of Iturea and Tracliomtis (Luke 
iii l),.witli some other districts, while Ar- 
chelaus a third son had the title of eth- 
narch Lvsanias is also (ibid.) mentioned as 
tetrarch of Abilene. The name lost aiter a 
while its gigniflcance as designating the 
ruler of the fourth part of a country, and 
was given as a title generally. 

THADDE'US (breastt). The surname of 
Lebl>eus or Jude, one of the apostles Olatt. 
X. 3). See Jude. 

THA'HASH (a hadqer, or seal). One of tlie 
Eons of Kahor, Abraham's brother, by his 
concubine Heumah (Gen. xxu. 24). 

THA'MAH {laughter) (Ezra u. 53). bee 

THA'MAR CMatt. 1. 3). Taraar, 1. 
TIIAM'NATIIA (1 Mace. ix. 50). Tiranab, 
probablv the present Tibneli. _ 

TH \NK-OFi<^ERING. An eucharistic sa- 
criflce or peace-offering. See Offerings. 
THA'RA (Luk-e iii. 3i). Terah ^ i 

THAR'SHISH (a breaking). A descendaiu 
of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii. 10). i 
THAR'SHISH {icll) (1 Kings x. 22, xxu. j 
IS). See Taiishish. 1 
TEAB'BA attest of Esth. xu. 1). Teresh i 
(i:sth. ii.21). 

THAS'SI (1 ^lacc. ii. 3). The surname of 
Simon, son of Mattarhias. _ , 

THEATRE. Tiiis, according to its Greek ' 
, meaning, was a place where spectacles 
dramatic and others, were exhibited. It 
would be out of place to describe here the 
! construction of Greek or Roman theatres, 
and the mode in which dramatic entertain- 
i ments were conducted : reference must be 
1 made to works explanatory of classical anti- 
amties, as Smnh'^ Vict, of Gr. and Born. Ann- 
an ities But it may be noted that the Greek 
I theatre was generally used as a place for the 
i transaction of public business ; it was se- 
I nate-house, town-hall, forum, &c. &c. War 
i proclaimed there, peace announced, 
aud sometimes even criminals executed. It 
was in tne theatre at Gaesarea that Herod 
received tbe deputies of Tyre and Siaon 
(Act":; xii. 20-23). The position of the theatre 
at Ephesus would tend to exasperate the 
riot described in xix. 29-41 : it was within 
view of the temple of Diana whose worship 
was supposed to be endangered by the 
preaching of the gospel. Its site is now 
occupied by ruins testifying that it was 
' the largest known of any that have remain- 
ed to us from anticiuity.' See Conybeare 
and Howson, Life of St. Paul, vol. ii. p. 83, 
note 2nd edit. There are some other allu- 
Bions in the New Testament to the spec- 
tacles of the theatre, as in l Cor. iv. 9, where 
th^ apostles are represented as set forth 
last nerhaps like the ancient bestiarii, who 
^^'ere to fight with and be torn by wild 
beasts, a spectacle to which the universe 
directed its gaze. There is perhaps also a 
reference to the same subject in Heb. x. 33. 

THE'BEZ (brightness). A town not far 
from Shechera, where Abimelech was killed 
(Judges ix. 50 ; 2 Sam. xi. 21). It is now 
called Tubas, and said to be a thriving place. 
THECO'E (1 Mace. ix. 33). Tekoah. 
THEFT. See Deposit, Thief. 
THELAS'AR (Ass7/ria7i MID (2 Kings xix. 
\i). seeTELAssAE. 



THELER'SAS (1 Esdr. v. 36). Tel-harsa 
(Ezra ii. 59). 
THE' MAN (Bar. iii. 22, 23). Teman. 
THEOCA'NUS (1 Esdr. ix. 14). Possibly 
Tikvah (Ezra x. 15). 

THEOJD'OTUS {2 U&cc.xiv. 19). A com- j 
missiouer sent by Kicanor to Judas Mac- ' 
cabeus. 

THEOPH'ILUS (lover of God). A Christian 
of distinction to whom St. Luke inscribed 
his Gospel and apostolic Acts (Luke i. 3 ; 
Acts i. 1). Conjectures have been endlets' 
about his country and history, some ot 
which are noted by Winer (Bibl. BWB., arc. 
' Theophilns'). He was probably a Gentile ; 
but nothing certain is known of him. 

THEOPH'YLACT (Mark vii. 3, marg.). 
Archbishop of Acridia in Bulgaria, about 
l<i77 \.D. He wrote commentaries on many 
I ot tiie sacred books. He is cited for the 
I explanation of ceremonial washing, 
j TUE'BAS (1 Esdr. viii. 41, 61). A corrup- 
tion of Ahava (Ezra viii. 15, 21, 31). 
I TIIEB'UELETH (1 Esdr. v. 30). Tel- melah 
' (Ezra ii. 59). 

I THESSALO'NIAKS, THE EPISTLES TO 
j THE. When St. Paul was obliged to quit 
1 Thessalonica he went to Athens. Anxious 
to visit the Thessalonians again, he found 
himself unable (1 Thess. ii. 18) and in con- 
I sequence sent Timothy (iii. 1, 2). When 
Timothy rejoined him at Corinth (Acts 
xviii. 1-5 ; l Thess. iii. 6), he wrote t\\e first 
epistle. The subscription therefore is in 
error in stating that it was addressed from 
! Athens. | 
Of the genuineness of this letter there can | 
be no reasonable doubt. It is distinctly 
cited by Irenajus, Clement of Alexandria, 
and Tertullian ; and its authority was never 
seriously questioned till of late years. The 
arguments produced against it have been 
most satisfactorily disproved. The occasion 
of writing is easily gathered from notices 
in the epistle. St. Paul was gratified at the 
report he received from Timothy (6-10), 
Nevertheless there were some drawbacks. 
Opposition from the Jews as well as Gentiles 
(Acts xvii. 5-8 ; 1 Thess. ii. 14-16, iii. 2-4) had 
been exr.erienced. And the Thessalonians 
were disquieted in regard to the Lord's ap- 
pearance: they were restless, neglecting the 
daily duties of life, a conscientious discharge 
of which is the needful preparation for that 
day, and they imagined that believers who 
were already dead were somehow likely to 
be excluded from the full blessing of the 
manifestation of Christ's kingdom (iv.). 
Now notions of this kind would materially 
interfere with that sober, circumspect, holy 
•walk and conversation in which graces are 
more A'alued than gifts, and victory is ob- 
tained in the spiritual conflict. The apostle 
therefore wrote to confirm the Thessa- 
lonians in the faith, to strengthen them 
against persecution, to rectify mistakes, and 
to inculcate purity of life. 

The epistle consists of two main parts. 
I. After an inscription (i.l) Paul celebrates 
the grace of God in their conversion and ad- 
vancement in the faith (2— ii. 16), and then 
expresses his desire to see them and his affec- 
tionate solicitude for them (17— iii. 13). II. 
In the hortatory part he calls to holiness 



875 



and brotherly love (iv. 1—12), lie speaks of 
Christ's advent (13— v. 11), and adds various 
admonitions (12-24). He then concludes with 
a charge that the epistle he generally read, 
with greetings, and a benediction (25-28). 

This is the earliest of St. Paul's letters, 
and may be dated at the end of 62 or begin- 
ning of 53 A.D. 

The second epistle was written not long 
after the first ; for Silas and Timothy were 
still with him (2 Theas. i. 1), probably in 53 
A.D., and from the same place, Corinth. The 
evidence for it is even yet more conclusive 
than for the first. It is alluded to by Poly- 
carp, cited by Ireuaiuis, Clement of Alexan* 
drin, and Tertullian, and, indeed, has never 
been doubted till (very groundlessly) in the 
present centui-y. This letter is supple- 
mentary to the first. That had been in 
some measure misapprehended ; and the 
coming of Christ was taken to be close at 
hand. Moreover, an unauthorized use had 
been made of the apostle's name. He there- 
fore wrote to correct the mistake, and to 
check the evil results which had flowed 
from it in disorderly conduct. 

This letter comprises, besides the inscrip- 
tion and conclusion, three sections. I. A 
thanksgiving and prayer for the Thessalo- 
nians (i. 3-12). II. The rectification of their 
mistake, and the doctrine of the man of sin 
(ii.). III. Sundry admonitions (1) to prayer, 
with a confident expression of his hope re- 
specting them (iii. 1-5) ; (2) to correct the 
disorderly (6-15). He then concludes v/ith 
salutation and apostolical benediciion, add- 
ing a remarkable authentication of his 
letters (16-18). 

The style of these epistles is generally 
the same; and attempts to make out a 
diversity have failed. It is for the most part 
plain and quiet, save, as might be expected, 
hi the prophetic section (ii. 1-12). For the in- 
terpretation of this prophecy other works 
must be consulted. 

Of special commentaries on these epistles 
that of bp. Jewel, 1583, 1584, 1594, of which 
there are modern re-prints, and that of bp. 
Ellicott, 2nd edit, 18G2, may be mentioned. 

THESSALONI'CA. A large and populous 
city and sea-port of Macedonia, the capital 
of the second of the four districts into 
which the Romans divided that country 
after its conquest by Paulus JEmylius, and 
the seat of a Roman praetor. It was situ- 
ated on the Thermaic bay, and was nearly, if 
not exactly, on the site of the ancient 
Therme. It had its name from Thessalonica, 
the wife of Cassander, who built it. She 
was the daughter of Philip, father of Alex- 
ander the Great, and so named because he 
heard of her birth the day of his victory 
over the Thessalians. Many Jews had set- 
tled here, v/here they had a synagogue. In 
this St. Paul preached on his second mis- 
sionary journey (52 A.D.),soon after his first 
entrance into Europe. The foundations of 
a church were laid by him and Silas ; most 
of the persons who believed being Gen- 
tiles, and Jewish proselytes (Acts xvii. 
1-4 ; 1 Thess. i. 9). The apostle was, after 
a short stay, driven from the city by the 
violence of the Jews, who followed him 
even to Bereajand stirred up a persocuttou 



[thief 



against him there (Acts xvii. 5-10, 13). I>o 
doubt he visited Thessalonica at least once 
again (xx. 1-3). A note may well be here 
made of the accuracy of the sacred historian 
He calls the ' rulers of the city ' (xvii. 6, 8) 
politarchai, a singular word. But it appears 
to this day on an ancient arch which spans 
the street of modern Thessalonica. Thes- I 
salonica continued an important city: it 
was regarded as the capital not only of i 
Macedonia but of all Greece till the building ; 
of Constantinople : it had a large trade, and | 
it exists still under the name of Saloniki, \ 
a considerable place with a population 1 
of 70,000. Jews are numerous, and have \ 
much influence. The principal antiqui- 
ties are the propylaea of the hippodrome, 
and the triumphal arches of Augustus and 
Coiistantine. See Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 
' Thessalonich.' 

THEH'DAS. An insurgent to whom 
Gamaliel alludes in his prudent speech to 
the council at Jerusalem (Acts v. 36). Jo- 
sephus (Antig., lib. xx. 4, § 1) mentions an 
out-break under a person of this name who 
pretended to beaprophet, and carriedforth 
a multitude of followers to the Jordan. He 
was unexpectedly attacked, taken, and put 
to death by the Romans. This, however, 
occurred 44 a.d., eleven or twelve years after 
Gamaliel's speech. Various conjectures 
have been devised to explain the discre- 
pancy. Wieseler believes that the allusion 
is to one Matthias who in the last days of 
Herod the Great was a noted insurgent. At 
the head of a band whom he had gathered, 
he demolished the Roman eagle which the 
king had set up over the great gate of the 
temple. They were, however, soon over- 
powered ; and Matthias was burnt alive 
(Joseph., iibi supr., lib. xvii. 6, §§ 2, 3, 4). 
i'x'owthe Hebrew name Matthias is in Greek 
Theodotus, and this is equivalent to Theu- 
das {CUronol. Synops., pp. 101, &c.). If this 
explanation be not satisfactory, it must bo 
considered that, to take the lowest ground, 
it is most improbable that Luke would put 
a false piece of history in Gamaliel's mouth, 
that Josephus is frequently inaccurate, as 
has been abundantly proved, and, besides, ' 
that it is known that various insurgents 
appeared within no great space of time, ' 
and that there were several of the same \ 
name. See Alford's note on Acts v. 36. I 

THICK CLAY (Hab. ii. 6). This is often i 
interpreted as signifying riches. Henderson I 
translates, ' And ladeth himself with many i 
pledges,' supposing that the Chaldean power j 
is represented as a rapacious usurer, accumu- 
lating the property of others of which he ' 
would be himself plundered {Minor Prophets, \ 
p. 305). Ewald's idea is somewhat similar : | 
' He loads himself with a burden of debts ' I 
{Die Proph. cles A. B., vol. i. pp. 381, 382) : 
comp. Isai. xxxiii. 1, 

THIEF. The Mosaic law prescribed that 
a thief should make restitution. He was to 
pay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep 
for a sheep, that he had killed and sold, or 
double if he had not made away with his 
booty. And, if he was not a];le to do this, 
he might be sold for his tJiof t. If he com- 
mitted it in the 'night, and was ?,uilty of 
what we call burglary, he might bo killed 



THIMNATHAHJ 



^tie EvtKixxxvi at 



876 



with impunity by tlie person Avhose pro- 
perty he was plundering (Exod. xxii, 1-4). 
There seem, however, to have been some 
modifications of this law. For, on the one 
hand, in Solomon's time the restitution was 
seven-fold (Pro v. vi.31); and, on the other, if 
a man pricked in conscience came to ofEer a 
trespass-offering for his fault, the return 
was to he the principal and one fifth part 
more (Lev. vi. 1-5). 

Some question has been made m respect 
to the thieves crucified with our Lord ; and 
a discrepancy has been imagined between 
Matt, xxvii. 44 and Luke xxiii. 39-43. In 
reply it has been said that St. Matthew 
spoke indefinitely, and therefore used the 
plural, while St. Luke more precisely em- 
ploved the singular ; the one never mtend- 
iug'to deny what the other aflirms. It may 
be so. But we may well remember that our 
Lord hung several hours on the cross, that 
his meekness of endurance must liavemade 
a deep impression, and that several portents 
occurred during the time. The minds of 
many of the spectators seem to have 
chans-ed; and the howls of malice and de- 
rision with which he had been first assailed 
gave place to compassion and reverent awe 
(48). What marvel then— save a marvel of 
divine e-race— if he, who, crucified justly, 
had at first with callous heart joined his 
comrade and the mocking mob in revil- 
ing the great Sufferer, found by degrees 
the conviction growing that that Sufferer, 
to whom even nature bore witness, was a 
Saviour, and cried to him with new-born 
faith, 'Lord, remember me?' Some have 
suggested that this man was comparatively 
innocent, perhaps a patriot, who had plun- 
dered the Romans, or that he became peni- 
tent before his execution. It is enough to 
say that these are unfounded guesses. 

TniMNA'THAH (poHion assigned) (Josh, 
xix. 43). See Tiii^AH, l. 
THIRST. See Water. 
THIS'BE (Tob. i. 2). A city of Naphtali, 
bv some conjectured to be the birth-place of 
Elijah, thence called the ' Tishbite.' 

THISTLE. A well-known thorny plant, 
of which several kinds are found in Pales- 
tine. The Hebrew word dardar, implying 
luxuriant growth, is the Tribuhis terrestris, 
the thistle growing in fields and among 
grain (Gen. iii. 18; Hos. x. 8). 'Thistle' 
occurs in our version in 2 Kings xiv. 9 ; 
2 Chron. xxv. 18 ; Job xxxi. 40 : the origi- 
nal word is elsewhere rendered 'thorn,' 
thicket.' The Greek term for 'thistles' 
^^Matt. vii. 16) Is translated ' briers ' in Heb. 
Yi. 8. See Brier, Thorn. 

THOM'AS (twin). One of the twelve 
whom our Lord selected as his apostles. 
He is also called Didymus, a Greek term 
with the same signification as his Hebrew 
name (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 15 ; 
Acts i. 13). In the first three lists Thomas 
Is enumerated with Matthew, in the last 
with Philip. In spite of a differing tradi- 
tion, there can be little doubt that this 
apostle was a native of Galilee (John xxi. 2). 
In the character of Thomas we observe a 
desire for the clear understanding of things 
and sufficient evidence of facts (xiv. 5 ; xx. 
JW, 25). He was of a thoughtful mmd : his 



affection for his Master was warm and dis- 
interested (xi. 16) ; and his faith was not, as i 
some have characterized it, inconsiderate, 
runuine easily from one extreme to the 
other. He had doubted the resurrection, and 
described the kind of proof he required; but, 
when the Lord appeared, and showed by his 
address to him that he knew his thoughts, 
then the apostle nattirally desired nothing 
more. His reason was convinced : it was 
his Lord and his God (xx. 26-29). And, 
though we may very >vell say that he ought 
to have believed before on evidence, and. 
not sceptically have set experience, his 
single experience, in opposition thereto, 
yet there is nothing in Thomas's behaviour 
to surprise those accustomed to analyze the 
workings of the human mind. The scripture 
is afterwards silent as to this apostle. Ac- 
cording to earliest tradition, he preached in 
Parthia, and was buried at Edessa : later 
histories say that he went to India, and was 
martvred there ; and the Syrian Christians 
in that country claim him as the founder of 
their church. 

THOMO'I (1 Esdr. v. 32). Thamah (Ezra 
ii. 53). 

TH0RN,TH0RJ5"S. Thorns, thistles, bram- 
bles, and briers are frequently mentioned in 
scripture. Rabbinical writers say that there 
are not fewer than twenty-two Hebrew 
words which indicate thorny or prickly 
plants and shrubs. It would be difficult, 
perhaps In the present state of our know- 
ledge impossible, to identify and describe 
all these ; and such a minute investigation 
would be little suitable to the character of 
this work. Let it be enough to illustrate 
some of those passages where the mention 
of thorns has some peculiar interest. 

All travellers speak of the prickly pear as 
abounding in Palestine at the present day, 
and forming hedges well-nigh impene- 
trable. Dr. Bonar scrambled through such a 
fence on mount Zion (Tlie Land of Promise, 
P 145), and found plenty of this plant at 
NaNous (Shechem) : he suggests, therefore, 
that it may have been the bramble of Jo- 
tham's parable (Judges ix. 14, 15) : he found 
it also abounding at Shunem and Kazareth 
(pp. 371,392,400). Jotham's bramble has been 
otherwise supposed to be the Lycium Euro- 
va;vrn, which is common in hedges (comp 
Prov XV. 19). We find mention of the 'lily 
among thorns' (Sol. Song ii. 2); and Dr, 
Thomson tells us that in gathering the 
Huleh lilv he 'sadly lacerated his hands 
(The Land and the Book, p. 256). There is 
frequent reference to the burning of briers 
and thorns, which Dr. Thomson remark 
ably illustrates. He says that the matted 
thorn-bush is the fuel with which lime i£ 
burned. 'And thus it was in the days ol 
Isaiah, " The people shall be as the burnings 
of lime : as thorns cut up shall they be 
burned in the fire " (Isai. xxxiii. 12). Those 
people among the rocks yonder are cutting 
up thorns with their mattocks and pruning' 
hooks, and gathering them into bundles t( 
be burned in these bmrnings of lime. It is 
a curious fidelity to real life that, when the 
thorns are merely to be destroyed, they are 
never cut up, but set on fire where they grow 
They are only cut up for the lime-kiln ' 



1 



877 



m. Again, ♦ This lad who is setting fire to 
these tiriers and thorns is doing the Tery 
same act which typified to Paul the awful 
state of those apostates whom it was im- 
possible to renew again unto repentance ' 
(Heh. vi. 4, 8) (p. 341). Once more, ' In m- 
hum 1. 10 the prophet has a striking com- 
parison, or rather double allusion to thorns 
and fire. . . Is^ow these thorns, especially 
that kind called iellan, which covers the 
whole country, and is that which is thus 
burned, are so folden together as to be ut- 
teny inseparable, aud, being united by 
thousands of small intertwining branches, 
when the torch is applied, they flash and 
flame instantly, like stubble fully dry ; in- 
deed the peasants always select this bellan, 
folden together, when they want to kindle 
a fire from their matches ' (p. 342). 

The Christian would naturally be desirous 
of identifying the thorn of which the crown 
was plaited that was placed in mockery on 
the Redeemer's brow (Matt.xxvil, 29 : Mark 
XV. 17; John xix. 2, 5). No absolute cer~ 



MmU SUinfcole%e. [thresh, threshing 



eyes and given them to him well accords. 
But this IS but a conjecture: others are enu- 
merated by Dr. Alford, note on 2 Cor xii 7 

TEBA'CIA (2 Mace. xii. 35). Thrace, the 
country between the iEgean, the Propontis, 
and Euxme, and the rivers Strymon and 
Danuue, now Bulgaria and Boumelia. 

THBASE'AS (2 Mace. iii. 5). Father of 
Apollonius, governor of Casle-syria and 
Phenice. 

THREE TAYERNS, THE. See Taverxs. 

THE Three 

THRESH,' THRESHING. The Israelites 
used different modes of threshing, accord- 
ing as they were suited to the different 
kinds of grain. A level spot was selected 
for the threshing-floor, generally in an ex- 
posed situation where advantage might be 
taken of the wind for winnowing or separat- 
ing the corn from the chaff when the 
threshing process was couipleted. Dr Ro- 
binson tells us that he observed several of 
these floors near together of a circular form 
hardened by beating down the earth, and 




Thresliing-floor, Armenia. 



tamty can be arrived at ; still the ZizyvTms 
spina Christi, which grows to a considerable 
height, and spreads its branches widely, has 
been supposed, and with much probability, 
the thorn in question. ' Thi° plant was very 
suitable for the purpose, as it has many 
sharp thorns, and its flexible, pliant, and 
round branches might easily be plaited in 
the form of a crown; and what, in my 
opinion, seems to be the greatest proof is 
that the leaves much 'resemble those of ivy 
as they are a very deep green. Perhaps the 
enemies of Christ would have a plant some- 
what resembling that with which emperors 
and generals were used to be crowned, that 
there might be calumny even in the punish- 
ment ' (Hasselquist, Travels, p 288) 

' Thorn' was sometimes used symbolically, 
as by St. Paul (2 Cor. xii, 7 : comp. Gal. iv 
14, 15). Many have puzzled themselves to 
discover what the apostle's particular afflic- 
tion was. There is an ingenious letter, 
printed in Hannah More's life (vol. iii. pp 
419-425), by Mr. Stephen, who believes it was 
some disorder m the eyes, with which cer- 
tainly the expression that the Galatians 
would willingly have plucked out their own 



about fifty feet in diameter, the sheaves 
being thickly spread on them, ' Here,' near 
Jericho, he says, 'were no less than five 
such floors, all trodden by oxen, cows, and 
younger cattle, arranged in each case five 
abreast, and driven round in a circle or 
rather in all directions, over tlie floor ' 
By this process the straw is broken up aiid 
becomes chaff. It is occasionally turned up 
with a large wooden fork having two prongs 
and when sufficiently trodden is thrown up 
with the same fork against the wind in 
order to separate the grain, which is then 
gathered up and winnowed. The whole 
process is exceedingly wasteful' (Bibl. Ees., 
vol. i. p. 550). This practice is alluded to in 
scripture; and it was provided that the 
oxen should not be muzzled when so em- 
ployed (Deut. XXV. 4). This kindly custom 
is with some exceptions still observed. 
' The precept of Moses,' Robinson proceeds, 
• was not very well regarded by our Chris- 
tian friends ; many of their animals having 
their mouths tied up; while among the 
Mohammedans I do not remember ever to 
have seen an animal muzzled' (ibid.). Dr 
Thomson, however, says that it is only the 



III 



878 



thi^eshold] 

most niggardly peasauts that muzzle their 
oxen {The Land and the Book, pp. 540, 54l\ 

Flails or rods were sometimes used for 
thresliiug, but only for tlie lighter kinds of 
grain, or for small q.uantities (Ruth ii. 17 ; 
Isai. xxviii. 27, 28). 

A threshing-instrument or sledge was 
very generally employed. The Hehrew 
word barkdnim, rendered ' hriers ' (Judges 
viii. 7, 16), perhaps denoted such iustru- 



Henderson with greater probability Inter- 
prets of the eageru ess with which the ser- 
vants of the gi-eat rushed out to seize the 
property of others and thereby increase the 
wealth of their masters {Minor Prophets, 
p. 331). 

TB[Pi,OjSrE. The special seat of a monarch. 
It was raised higher than an ordinary seat, 
which in the east is often but a cushion or 
carpet ou the ground, and therefore it re- 




Threshing-fioor, Egyptian. From ancient painting, Thebes, 
ments. There were two kinds, one called | quired afoot-stool. Hence the force of words 



morag (2 Sara. xxiv. 22 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 23 , 
Isai. xli. 15), which was a cart or sledge of 
thick planks, the bottom being studded 
with sharp stones or pieces of iron : the 
other,'agdlah, rendered 'cart-wheel ' (xxA'iii. 
27), consisted of rollers of wood, iron, 
or stone, roughened and fastened to- 
gether in the form of a sledge or dray, 
perhaps with a seat upon it. Both these 



expressing God's majesty : 'The heaven is 
my throne ; and the earth is my foot-stool' 
(Isai. Ixvi. 1 ; Acts vii. 49). A throne was 
generally ascended by steps; for an ex- 
ample see the description of Solomon's 
throne a Kings x. 18-20). So the Lord's 
throne is said to be 'high and lifted up' 
(Isai. vi. 1). A throne is the emblem of 
regal power (Gen. xli. 40) ; hence used among 





T^Indorn mode of threslnng in Egypt witli the mowrej. 



instruments were dragged by oxen over the 
sheaves. Such instruments are still m 
common use in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria ; 
and the name moivrej yet survives (Thom- 
son, ilM supr., pp. 538-541). Similar modes of 
threshing are also common in Spain. 

THRESHOLD. The phrase of Zeph. i. 9 
has been thought to allude to the Philistine 
superstition in consequence of the misfor- 
tune to their god Dagon (1 Sam. v. 5). 



angelic orders (Cel. i. 16). To ' sit upon tne 
throne of the kingdom 'is to reign (Deut. 
xvii. 18 ; 2 Kings x. 30) ; and to sit upon a 
person's throne is to succeed to his sove- 
reignty (1 Kings i. 13). Relics of an As- 
syrian throne have been discovered at 
Nineveh, composed of wood overlaid with 
bronze elaborately engraved. The legs were 
of ivory skilfully carved. 
THRUM (Isai. xxxviii. 12, marg.). lue 



I 



879 



[rmm 



threads winch tied a web to the heain of a 
loom ; ends of weavers' threads. 

TlIV':SL'lynZ\L(2oerfections,trv.th). See TlRiir. 

THUNDER. See Lightning. 

THYATI'RA. A town of Lj^dia previously 
called Pelopia and Euhippia, seated on the 
river Lycus between Pergamos and Sardis, 
the Roman road leaving it a little to the 
left. Thyatira was a Macedonian colony ; 
and its chief trade was the dyeing of purple. 
It is a remarkable confirmation of the sacred 
history, that we find Lydia of Thyatira a 
seller of purple in the Macedonian city of 
Fhilippi (Acts xvi. 14). There are inscrip- 
tions, too, yet existing of the guild of dyers 
at Thyatira. One of the apocalyptic epistles 
is addressed to the Christian church here 
(Rev. i. 11, ii. 18-29), in which a female term- 
ed 'Jezebel' is specially threatened. Con- 
jectures about her are numerous ; but, as 
nothing certain is known, more cannot be 
here said. Thyatira is still a considerable 
town with many ruins, called Akhisar. 

THYIi^E-WOOD. A costly aromatic wood 
mentioned among the merchandize of the 
mystical Babylon (Rev. xviii. 12). It was 
used in various ornamental carvings, some- 
times inlaid with ivory. It appears to have 
been called citrus by the Romans, very 
likely the white ce^sjc, Cujpressus thyioides, 
which grows to the height of from sixty to 



of a famous academy, and to the present 
day it is one of the four holy cities. Near 
to Tiberias are the celebrated baths of Em- 
maus (Mammam), ^vmch may have been the 
ancient Hammath. See Haiimath. The 
present city, Tubariyeh, stands about foui 
miles from the southern extremity of the 
lake at the north-east corner of a small 
plain. The walls enclose an irregular paral- 
leloGjranj, and are strengthened by round 
towers, ten on the west, five on the north, 
and eight on the south. There were also 
some towers along the shore. It is described 
as a filthy place, fearfully hot in summer, 
and, according to Dr. Thomson, contains 
about 2000 inhabitants. It suffered much 
by the earthquake of Jan. l, 1837, when the 
houses and walls were shattered, and 600 
persons perished in the ruins. 

TIBE'RIAS, SEA OF (John xxi. 1). See 
Ge2?:n-esaret, Lake op. 

TIBE'RIUS. Claudius Tiberius Nero, 
the third Roman emperor, in the loth year 
of whose reign John the Baptist com- 
menced his public ministry (Luke iii. l), and 
under whom our Lord taught and suffered. 
He was the son of Tiberius Claudius JSTero 
and Livia Drusilla. He was born in Rome 
712 A.U.O., 41 B.C., and was in his ninth year 
when his father died. The emperor Au- 
gustus married his mother Livia ; and thus 




Coin of Tibprius. 



eighty feet, or Tluda articulata, also called 
Callitris quadrivalvis. The wood is of a dark 
colour, close-grained and fragrant. 

TIBE'RIAS. A town in Galilee, on the 
western shore of the lake or sea of Gen- 
nesaret, sometimes also called from this 
place the sea of Tiberias (Jolm vi. 1, 23). 
There w^as probably a more ancient city on 
or near the site (and there are various con- 
jectures as to what this might be) ; for 
Herod Antipas cleared away the ruins of 
sepulchres in order to find room for the new 
town, which he named after the emperor 
Tiberius. It was from his time till that of 
Herod Agrippa II. the chief city of the pro- 
vince. And it was adorned with buildings, 
a royal palace, and a stadium. But the popu- 
lation were a motley race. Herod brought 
in strangers and slaves. It may be that 
hence, as Tibeiias must have been, so to 
speak, ceremonially unclean, our Lord never 
\isitedit. He was of ten in the immediate 
iir lghbourhood ; but we never read of his 
entering Tiberias. The inhabitants were 
occupied in fishing and the navigation of 
the lake. In the Jewish war Tiberias was 
an important military station. Nor did it 
lose its repute after the destruction of the 
Jewish polity. It was the seat for centuries 



Tiberius had a career of distinction opened 
before him. He was formally adopted by 
Augustus, in 757 a.tt.c, and after A'arioua 
inferior honours succeeded his step-farlier 
as emperor 767 A.u.C, 14 a.d. His adminis- 
tration, somewhat promising at first, soon 
degenerated into a gloomy despotism ; and 
after a reign of twenty-three and a-half years 
he died at the age of 78. See Winer, Blbl. 
RWB., art. 'Tiberius.' He is frequently 
alluded to in the Jscw Testament under the 
title of CfEsar (Matt. xxii. 17, 21 ; Mark xii. 
14, IG, 17 ; Luke xx. 22, 24, 25, xxiii. 2 ; John 
xix. 12, 15). It may be added that the 
fifteenth year of Tiberius commenced Aug. 
19, 28 A.T). But Mr. Savile (Introd. of Christ, 
into Britain, pp. 12-14) argues thatTil)erins's 
government must be reckoned from the 
tinie when he was made colleague with 
Augustus, 12 A.D. If this be admitted, the 
fifteenth year commenced 26 a.d. 

TIB'YLAT'B. (butchery). A city of Zobah, 
from wijich David, after subduing the 
coimtry, brouglitaway nnicli l)rass (1 Cliron. 
xviii. 8). In the corresponding acct)unt 
(2 Sam. viii. 8) we find Botali. Rerlinps it 
may be Taibeh, between Palmyra and Aleppo. 

TIB'NI (bailding of Jehovah). The son of 
Ginath, whom haii the people of Israel 



tidal] 



elected king Trlien the military nominated 
Omri to the crown on the treason of Zimri, 
928 B.C. The straggle continued ahout 
four years (1 Kings xvi. 21-23), as it was not 
till the 31st of Asa that Omri ohtained full 
possession of the sovereignty. The sacred 
i historian says that Tibni ' died ' : it is likely, 
I as Josephus Untiq^lih. viii.l2, § 5) asserts, 
that he was slain. 

TID'AL (fear, veneration). One of the 
princes M'ho were allied with Chedor-laomer 
in his expedition against the king of Sodom 
and his confederates (Gen. xiv. 1-9). Tidal 
j is called the 'king of nations:' it may he 
supposed that he ruled over several nomad 
tribes that had been gradually subjugated, 
. and in some degree amalgamated. 
1 TIG'LATH-PiLE'SER (lord of the Tigris ? ' 
I adoration to the soji of the zodiac, i.e. Nin?). A 
! king of Assyria. So far as we can gather an I 
account of him from the scripture, we find ' 
that he was contemporary with Ahaz king ' 
of Judah. Pekah king of Israel had leagued 
i himself with Rezin king of Syria to attack < 
I and dethrone Ahaz. They were successful 
j in some great battles ; and Ahaz was further 
distressed by the incursions of the Edom- 
ites and Philistines. In his extremity he 
applied to Tiglath-pileser, who marched 
against Damascus and took it, killing Rezin, 
and deporting many of the inhabitants to 
Kir. But for this service he received large 
contributions from Ahaz, both out of the 
treasures of the temple and from the royal 
palaces. The Assyrian had his head-quarters 
at Damascus, where Ahaz visited him. He 
sent thence troops, probably under the com- 
mand of his lieutenants, who over-ran great 
part of the kingdom of Israel, plundering 
the northern districts and those of the east- 
ern tribes beyond the Jordan, and sending 
the population into Assyria (2 Kings xv. 29, 
xvi. 5-10, 17, 18 ; 1 Chron. v. 6, 26 ; 2 Chron. 
xxviii. 5, 6, 16-21; Isai. vii. i, 4-6). Some 
imagine that Tiglath-pileser invaded Pales- i 
tine twice. In Chronicles the name is 
written Tilgath-pilneser. j 
From the deciphered inscriptions it may ' 
he inferred that Tiglath-pileser, the second 
of the name, was a man of low extraction, ' 
and dethroned his predecessor. He made 
many conquests, and is thought to have 
reigned from 747 to 729 B.C. 

TI'GRIS (Judith i, 6). A verv noted river 
of the east, the Hiddekel of scripture. 

TIK'YAH {expectation).—!. The father of 
Shallum, husband of the prophetess Huldah 
c2 Kings xxii. 14). He is called Tikvath in 
2 Chron. xxxiv. 22.-2. Father of a person 
whom Ezra employed (Ezra x. 15). 
TIK'VATH {id.). See Tikvah, 1. 
TIL'GATH-PILKE'SER (1 Chron. v. 6, 26 ; 
2 Chron. xxviii. 20). See Tiglath-Pileser. 

TI'LOI^ {gift). A descendant of Judah 
(1 Chron. iv. 20). 

TQIBREL. A musical instrument of 
percussion (Exod. xv, 20; Judges xi. 34; 
2 Sam. vi. 5 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; Job xxi. 12 ; 
Psal. Ixviii. 25, Ixxxi. 2, cxlix. 3, cl. 4). The 
Hebrew word tdph (frequently rendered 
' tabret ' ) may be taken to signify a drum, 
or tambourine. It was known in very early 
ages (Gen. xxxi. 27) :'it was common in re- 
ligious festivities and seasons of joy, and 



880 

is noted as an accompaniment of luxury 
(Isai. xxiv. 8). We nowhere find it used 
with martial music. And it seems to have 
been generally played by females, often ac- 
companied by dancing. In the Egyptian 
pictures it is always in the hands of women. 
The form was various, sometimes circular: 
it was composed of a simple rim or frame of 
wood, over which parchment or some other 
membrane was stretched. The jingling 
pieces of metal fastened to this rim are prob- 
ably a modern addition. The instrument is 
still in common use among the Arabs, and is 
called doff, and by the Spaniards adufa. 

TIME'US (perhaps polluted). The father 
of a blind man whom oi>r Lord restored to 
sight (Mark x. 46). 

TIM'XA or TIM'is'AH {one loitlilield, in- 
accessible).—!. The concubine of Eliphaz, 
Esau's son, by whom she had Amalek (Gen. 
xxxvi. 12). She may be the same person 
who is said to be sister to Lotan, son of 
Seir the Horite (20, 22 ; l Chron. i. 39\— 2. A 
son of Eliphaz (36). He it is who was one 
of the dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40; 

1 Chron. i. 51) ; probably ruling a district 
so called. 

TIM'NAH {jym-tion assigned).—!. A town 
on the border of Judah and Dan (Josh. xv. 
10), but belonging apparently to the last- 
named tribe. In the time of king Ahaz it 
was occupied by the Philistines (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 18). It is most likelv the same with 
Tiranath, andThimnathah. It isnow known 
by the name of Tibneh.—2. A town in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 57). 

THI'XATH, TIMNA'THAH {id.) (Gen. 
xxxviii. 12, 13, 14 ; Judges xiv. 1, 2, 5). This 
is probably identical with Timnah, 1. It 
was the residence of Samson's wife. It lies 
heloAv Zorah, not far from the Wady Surar 
(sec Thomson, TJie Land and the Book, pp. 
566, 567). 

TIM'NATH-HE'RES {poHion of the ^un). 
The name of a city (Judges ii. 9), called 
more generally 

TIM'XATH-SE'RAH {poHion of abun- 
dance). A city in mountEphraim which was 
given to Joshua ; he built it and dwelt there 
(Josh. xix. 50), and there he was buried 
(xxiv. 30). His grave was still pointed out 
in the time of Eusebius, who was inclined 
to identify this city with Timnah in the 
territory of Dan. 

TIM'IsITE. An inhabitant of Timnah,! 
(Judges xv. 6). 

TI'MON {honouring). One of the seven 
appointed by the apostles to administer 
the secular matters in the early church 
(Acts vi. 5). Is^othing more is certainly- 
known of him. 

TIMO'THEUS {honouring, i.e. worshipping, 
God?) (1 Cor. iv. 17, xvi. lo ; 2 Cor. i. 19 ; 
Phil. i. 1, ii. 19; Col. i. l; l Thess. i, 1* 

2 Thess. i. 1). See TnrOTHT. 
TIMO'TREUS (1 Mace. v. 6, 11, 34-44 

2 Mace, viii. 30, 32, ix. 3, x. 24, 32, 37, xii. lO, 
18-21, 24). A captain of the Ammonites, re- 
peatedly defeated by Judas Maccabeus. 
Possibly the same person is not intended in 
all the places referred to. 

TIM'OTHY (fcZ.). One of St. Paul's most 
noted fellow-labourers. He was a Lycao- 
nian, a native of Derbe or Lystra, son of 



881 



MtU MtwMttiQt, [timothy, epistles to 



a Greek fatlier and Eunice a Christian 
Jewess. His grandmother Lois was also a 
woman of piety. The apostle calls Timothy 
his ' own son in the faitli' (1 Tim. i. 2) : he 
was therefore probably converted at St. 
Paul's first visit to Lycaonia (Acts xiv. 6, 7). 
On his second visit, finding him well re- 
ported of by the brethren, Paul resolved to 
take him as one of his companions in travel. 
He circumcised him (xvi. 1-3) as being by 
one parent of the stock of Israel, and as 
thereby he would have freer access to Jews. 
It was perhaps not long after that Paul 
solemnly ordained him by laying his own 
hands on him in conjunction with the pres- 
bytery or elders ; and it would seem that 
some divine intimation had pointed 
Timothy out for the weighty charge he 
thus received (1 Tim. i. 18, iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. 
i. 6). Perhaps his subsequent history will 
be best exhibited by the following table 
constructed by Dr. Alford, with which the 
account given by Bleek (Einleitung in das 
N.T., pp. 478, 479) may be compared. 

A.D. 

45 Converted by St. Paul, during 
the first missionary journey, 
at Lystra. 

51 Taken to be St. Paul's com- 
Autumn panion and circumcised (Acts 

xvi. 1, &c.). 
Sent fromBereatoThessalonica 
(xvii. 14 ; 1 Thess. iii. 2). 

52 With Silas joins St. Paul at 

Corinth(Acts xviii. 5; 1 Thess. 
iii. 6). 

Winter With St. Paul (i. 1 ; 2Thess. i. 1). 

57 With St. Paul at Ephesus (Acts 
Spring xis. 22); sent thence into 

Macedonia and to Corinth. 

(Acts ihicl.] 1 Cor. iv.l7, xvi. 10). 
Winter With St. Paul (2 Cor. i. 1). 

begfnning } With St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 21). 
Spring Journeying with St. Paul from 

Corinth to Asia (Acts xx. 4). 
62 or 63 With St. Paul in Rome (Col. i. 1; 
Philem. l ; Phil. i. 1). 
63-66 Uncertain. 

66 or 67 Left by St. Paul in "charge of 

the church at Ephesus (1 
Epist.). 

67 or 68 (2 Epist.). Sets out to join St. 

Paul at Pwome. 
Afterwards Uncertain. 

The reference to Timothy in Heb. xiii. 23 
is not easily explained. 

The dates given by Dr. Alford vary from 
who those adopted by some other critics, 
place St. Paul's martyrdom in 66 or 67. 
According to tradition Timothy was the 
first bishop of Ephesus ; and he is said to 
have been martyred for the faith under Do- 
mitian. We may gather from the scriptural 
notices of him that Timothy was earnest 
and affectionate in his disposition. His 
willingness to leave his homo and accom- 
pany Paul proves his zeal ; and we find that 
he was abstemious (1 Tim. v. 23). It is clear 
also that he was not a man of strong health ; 
and this, added to his being entrusted while 
yet young with important commissions, 
with perhaps some constitutional shyness, 
inay account for the admonitions given in 



1 Cor. xvi. 10, 11 ; l Tim. iv. 12; 2 Tim. i, 6-8 
iv. 1, 2, without imputing to him that 
wavering which some imagine they dis- 
cover, but which surely, if it existed, would 
have prevented the apostle from so fre- 
quently employing him on occasions where 
judgment and stedfastness were Indispen- 
sable. 

TIM'OTHY, THE EPISTLES TO. The 
two epistles to Timothy and that to Titus 
are termed pastoral epistles, as containing 
directions for the ministry and superinten- 
dence of churches. 

In the early church they were unhesita- 
tingly received as written by the apostle 
Paul : allusions to them are found in Cle- 
ment of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and 
others: they are expressly cited as 
Paul's by Irengeus, Clement of Alexandria, 
&c. : they are contained in the Peshito 
Syriac version ; and in short it was only 
by heretics such as Marcion that their 
authority was disputed. But of late years 
critics have again opened the question. It 
is alleged that they show a state of things, 
especially in church government, later than 
the times of the apostles, that the mode of 
thought and the diction are in marked con- 
trast to those of Paul's recognized epistles, 
and that it is well-nigh impossible to find 
any place in his history to which we can 
suppose these letters to belong (see Bleek, 
Einleitung in das N,T., pp. 464, 465). The 
objections ought to be very strong to over- 
come the force of the external evidence, 
which, as just observed, is very early and 
very decided. And it must be noted that 
those who think these epistles spurious 
rest their opinion mainly upon the supposed 
necessity of bringing then; down to a later 
period than St. Paul's life-time, to a period 
in fact almost close upon the testimony 
given of their genuineness. It would ob- 
viously be more diflicult for a forger of the 
second century to escape detection, than 
for one of an earlier date. So that it is 
hard indeed, if the letters be spurious, to 
account for their immediate and general 
reception by all but heretics, who on the 
supposition would be more gifted with 
spiritual discernment than the orthodox. 
But in truth the objections will not bear 
examination. It is impossible to institute 
such an examination here : it must suffice 
to refer the reader to authors where he may 
find the matter at large discussed, as Cony- 
beare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. 
Paul, vol. ii.pp. 553-557; Davidson, Introduce 
tion to the Neio Testament, vol. iii, pp. lOO- 
153 ; Alford, The Greek Testament, Prolego- 
mena, vol. iii. pp. 69-86. The result alone 
can be stated that the best-qualified cri- 
tics believe the external evidence most 
satisfactory, and that the objections that 
have been urged are not sufficient to raise 
even a doubt of ;the genuineness of these 
letters. It is fair to say that some critics, 
such as Bleek {ubi siqn., pp. 485-497), admit 
that St. Paiil wrote the second epistle to 
Timothy and that to Titus, though they as- 
sign the first to Timothy to a later penman 
The time,when these pastoral epistles were 
composed has been the subject of keen 
dispute. Some fix them to the Romau 
3 L 



882 



Imprisonment mentioned in tlie Acts, and 
deny that St. Paul was ever liberated. But 
certainly it would be liard to make the di- 
rections, e.g. in 2 Tim. Iv., fit in with such a 
theory. The state of things, too, at Eplie- 
sns, which may he gathered from what the 
apostle says, betokens a later period, when 
the 'grievous w^olves' of which he tore- 
warned the church there (Acts xx. 29, 30) 
were beginning to appear, with the per- 
verse' men of their own body. Besides, 
the testimony of ecclesiastical history to 
St Paul's liberation and a second imprison- 
ment which was terminated by martyrdom 
seems too strong to be set aside. It is not 
unreasonable therefore to suppose that the 
apostle paid a visit to Ephesus, where he 
left Timothy, that after passing through 
Macedonia lie was in Crete, assigning Titus 
a charge there, that he thence went into 
Asia Minor, and intended to winter at Kico- 
polis, but, being there very probably seized, 
was sent again a prisoner to Borne. _ If his 
death be placed in 66 a.d., the first epistle to 
Timothy miglit be written from Macedonia i 
jor after quitting it) in 64 or 65, that to \ 
Titus soon after, perhaps from Asia, and tne 
second to Timothy from Bome in the later 
part of 65. Dr. Alf ord as noted above places 
the dates still later. 

The first epistle to Timothy, after an in- 
gcription (1 Tim. i. 1, 2), reminds hini of the 
charge entrusted to him to preserve the 
purity of the gospel in opposition to false 
teachers who perverted God's law (3-11). 
Having mentioned the gospel, the apostle 
dilates on the mercy which made him a 
minister of it (12-17), and reiterates his 
charge to Timothy (18-20) : he next gives 
directions respecting the order of public 
worship (ii.), prescribes the qualiflcations 
of ministerial officers (iii.) ; and then, after 
foretelling the corruptions of the latter 
davs (iv. 1-5), he Instructs Timothy how to 
behave himself in his office (6-10), how to 
admonish and direct others (v. 1— vi. 2) : a 
censure of false teachers follows, with a 
w^arning against the love of money (3-10) ; 
then, with a reiterated charge to Timothy 
himself, and a benediction, he concludes 
(11-21) The reference to Timothy's youth 
(iv 12) has been supposed to militate 
against the late date of the epistle. But he 
could hardlv, on any supposition, be more 
than thirty-four or thirty-five, young to be 
placed over such a church as Ephesus. _ 

In the second epistle, after the inscription 
(2Tim.i. 1-5), there are exhortations to dili- 
gence and firmness in holding sound doc- 
trine (6-18), to.fortitude under affliction, ana 
purity of life (ii.), with a warning against 
false teachers and corrupters who should 
abound in the last times (iii. 1-13) : Paul 
next exhorts to diligence In ministerial 
labour and touches on his own good hope 
n4— iv 8), then charges Timothy to join 
him shortly, and concludes with various 
directions, salutations, and ablessmg (9-22). 
The stvle and tone are just what might be 
expected from an affectionate fatner to a 

^^oTconimentaries, bp. Ellicott's C'ommeni. 
on- St. PauTs Pastoral Epistles, 3rd. edit. 1864, 
may be specially named. 



TIN. A well-known metal (Numb. xxxi. 
32 ; Ezek. xxii. 18, 20). It is mentioned as 
one of the articles of Tyrian trade with 
Tarshish, procured it may be supposed from 
the Phoenician colonies in Europe (xxvii. 
12), and most probably by them from the 
British Isles. The same w^ord occurs In 
Isai. 1. 25; but there it must be taken to 
mean some base alloy of inferior metals, 
combined with silver ore and separated 
'from it by smelting. The 'plummet' 
(Zech. iv. 10), ' stone of tin ' (marg.), was 
probably an alloy of lead or tin. 

TIPBL'SAH (passage, ford, i.e. of the Eu- 
phrates).— 1. A city on the west bank of the 
Euphrates, the frontier of Solomon's do- 
minions (1 Kings iv. 24). It was the Greek 
Thapsacus, the place where armies crossed 
the river, and the landing-place or point 
of embarkation for merchandise brought 
to or from Batn'lon, from which it was said 
to be six hundred miles distant. In later 
days, from the time of Seleucus Nicator, it 
was called Amphipolis. From the fourth 
i century it decayed ; and the village ed-Deiir 
\ has been supposed to mark the site. But as 
I there is no ford there Rawlinson would 
place it at Suriyeli, higher up the stream.— 
2 A place, it is thought near Tirzah, sacked 
by Menahem (2 Kings xv. 16). Keil, how- 
ever, maintains, though hardly with sac- 
cess, that this is the Tiphsah on the Eu- 
phrates (Comm. 011 Kings, vol. ii. pp. 25, 26). 

TI'IIAS (desireV. One of the sons of 
Japheth (Gen. x. 2 ; 1 Chron. i. 5). It is 
very generally supposed that his descend- 
ants peopled the regions of Thrace. See 
Winer, Bibl. JiWB., art. ' Thiras,' where 
other opinions are noted. But Kalisch, 
looking at the connection in which the 
name stands with Tubal and Meshech, 
thinks that the seat of this people must be 
near Armenia. He identifies Tiras, there- 
fore Avith the great Asiatic mountain-cham 
of Taurus, and believes that it ' comprises 
all those Asiatic tribes the territory of 
^vhich is traversed by the Taurus proper, 
and that it includes, therefore, Cilicia and 
Pamphylia, Pisidia and Lycia, and, with 
the extension usual in almost all thena.mes 
of the Japhethites, embracing likewise 
most of the nations of Asia Minor and of 
the interior' (Comm. on the Old Test. Gen., 
pp. 246, 247). ^ , 

TI'PvATHITES. A family of scribes who 
dwelt at Jabez (1 Chron. ii. 55). The word 
from which this designation is derived 
signifies a gate ; but no place of the name is 
known. ^ . 

TIRE An ornament enumerated among 
the articles of female dress (Isai. iii. 18\ 
These tires appear to have been in the shape 
of crescents, hung upon aneck-chain. They 
were not peculiar to women ; for we find 
them worn both by men and by camels 
(Judges viii. 21, 26, where the same word 
occurs, rendered in our version 'orna- 
ments,' and in the margin ' ornaments like 
the moon'). The 'tire' of Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23, 
was an ornamental head-dress, a turban. 
1 The original word for this is the same as that 
used in Isai. iii. 20, in our version ' bonnets.' 

TIR'HAKAH (exaZfed ?). AkingofCush, 
I or Ethiopia, who marched against Senna- 



883 mmt mnQMtts^t. 



cherib wliile invading Judali (2 Kings iix. 
9 ; Isai. xxxvii. 9). Sennacherib, when he 
heard of the approach of this formidable foe, 
was naturally anxious to secure Jerusalem: 
he therefore dispatched forces at once to 
alarm Hezekiali into submission. Tirhakah 
was a powerful monarch, sovereign of 
Ethiopia and Thebais : he must be identified 
with the Tarakos of Manetho, the third 
king of the twenty-fifth dynasty of Ethio- 
pian kings, and the Tearkon of Strabo,with 
whom the Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt came 
to an end. He is variously said to have 
reigned eighteen or twenty years, 714-696 
B.C., or 717-696 B.C., or even longer. We are 
told that he penetrated as far as the pillars 
of Hercules westward, and deserved to be 
ranked, like Sesosrris, with the great con- 
querors of the ancient world. 

TIR'HANAH {ascourgel). A son of Caleb, 
son of Hezron (1 Ohron. ii. 48). 

TIR'IA ( fear). A descendant of Judah (1 
Chron. Iv. 16). 

TTRSHA'THA {severe, your severity). The 
title of the Persian governor of Judea. It 
has invariably the article, and is given to 
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 63 ; Neh. vii. 65, 70), and 
to Nehemiah fviii. 9, x. 1) ; who in xii. 26 
has another title,rendered 'governor' in our 
version. 

TIR'ZAH {delight). One of the five 
daughters of Zelophebad, who were to have 
their father's inheritance, but to marry 
only in their own tribe (Numb. xxvi. 33, 
xxvii.l, xxxvi. 11 Josh.xvii. 3). 

TIR'ZAH {id.). A Canaanitish city, the 
king of which was one of those destroyed 
by Joshua (Josh. xii. 24). It appears to have 
been proverbial for its beauty (Sol. Song vi. 
4). Tirzah, shortly after the disruption of 
the kingdom, became the residence of Jero- 
boam and his successors, till, the royal 
palace having been burnt by Zimri, and 
probably the city despoiled, Orari chose 
out anothermetropolis and built Samaria (1 
Kings xiv. 17, xv. 21, 33, xvi. 6, 8, 9, 15, 17, 23, 
24). We have afterwards only a brief notice 
of Tirzah in the time of Menahem (2 Kings 
XV. 14, 16). Its site has not yet been identi- 
fied, though some would fix on TelKizah, a 
thriving place in the mountains north of 
Nablous. 

TISH'BITE. The designation of the pro- 
phet Elijah (1 Kings xvii. 1, xxi. 17, 28; 2 
Kings i. 3, 8, ix. 36). See Elijah, p. 255. 

TIS'RI {expiation! beginning t). See 
Month. 

TFTANS (Judith xvi. 7). According to 
classical legend the children of TJranus 
(heaven) and Gaia, or Terra (earth), van- 
quished by the gods of Olympus. 

TITHE. There are some instances in 
patriarchal history of the dedication of a 
tithe or tenth part of property to the Deity, 
or to his priest. Such we find in regard to 
Abram and Jacob (Gen. xiv. 20, xxviii. 
22). And examples may readily be produced, 
whether derived from scripture or sanc- 
tioned by fcjome original tradition , of similar 
offerings among heathen nations. 

The first command given to the Israelites 
respecting tithes was shortly after the de- 
liverance from Egypt (Lev. xxvii. 30-33: 
eomp. Numb, xviil. 21-28). Here a general 



[tithe 



principle is laid down. The tenth of the 
cattle and of the produce of the earth was to 
be devoted to the Lord, and to become the 
property of the Levites, a tribe which had 
no territorial inheritance as the rest had ; 
and a tenth of the Levites' tithe was to be 
devoted to the priests. Of this tithe that 
of cattle must be paid in kind : that of 
fruits might be redeemed on addition of 
one-fifth to the estimated value. 

As the Israelites approached the promised 
land, more particular legislation became 
necessary. Accordingly it was prescribed 
that the tithes (especially those of the 
produce of the land) were to be canried to 
the place God intended to choose 'to puc 
his name there,' and there to be eaten by 
the v.'hole family with the Levites in re- 
joicing thankfulness before the Lord (Deut. 
xii. 5-18). If, however, the sacred place 
were too far distant, then the tithes and 
firstlings might be turned into money, and 
that money laid out in the chosen place for 
the purchase of meat and drink, in which 
as before the family and the Levites might 
participate and rejoice (xiv. 22-26). Further, 
every third year (the sabbatical year would 
be left out of the computation) this tithe 
was to be laid up in a man's gates, as dis- 
tinguished from the place of the sanctuary, 
and there it was to be shared with the poor, 
the stranger, and the Levite (28, 29). And, 
as it would seem that the tithes were not 
collected or reckoned by any officer, but 
were to be carried as a glad offering to the 
Lord, it was further commanded that aman 
bringing his basket should profess before 
the priest that he had truly tithed the in 
crease with which God had blessed him 
(xxvi. 12-14). The institution, then, ap- 
pears to have embraced two objects : there 
must be a grateful acknowledgment of God 
in the dedication of a tenth to the support 
of the sacred tribe who were specially en- 
gaged in holy services ; and there must be 
another similar portion set apart for the 
promotion of social intercourse in a holy 
festival, the Levite being invited also 
thereto ; and, that this might not degene- 
rate into a mere worldly feasting of friends.. 
every third year the festival wa,s to be held 
at home for the special benefit of the needy. 
Some biblical critics, indeed, suppose that 
the last-mentioned was an additional tithe, 
so that there were three every third year : 
it is more reasonable, however, to imagine 
that there were but two, as above stated. 

Samuel warned the Israelites that a king 
would exact a tenth for his royal establish- 
ment (1 Sam. viii. 15, 17) : it has been ima- 
gined that this was the poor man's tithe : 
more likely the prophet meant that, whereas 
there had previously been but ecclesiastical 
offerings, there would now, in additioja, be 
a tenth exacted for purposes of state. If It 
were merely a transference, not afresh bur- 
den, Samuel's warning could have had little 
weight. 

Through the deterioration of the people 
the proper offerings of the tithes were neg- 
lected. Hczekiah therefore re-imposed the 
obligation ; and the produce was under cer- 
tain officers (2 Chron, xxxi. 4-19 : comp.Neh, 
xii. 44). The prophets censure theprevaienc 



tittle] 

neglect (Amos iv. 4 ; Mai. iii. 8-10). In New 
Testament times some ran intotlie opposite 
extreme, and tithed the most trifling arti- 
cie^ though,whiie they thus attended to the 
form, they disregarded the substance of re- 
ligion (Matt, xxiil. 23 ; Luke xl.42, xvui. 12). 

Various regulations in regard to tithes 
insisted on hy rabbinical writers may be 
seen in Winer, Bibl BWB., art. ' Zehent. 

TITTLE. The point or fine stroke by 
which one letter differs from another (Matt. 
V 18 ; Luke xvi. 17). Some of the Hebrew 
characters have a close resemblance : thus, 
those equivalent to our d and r are distin- 
guished only by the shoulder of the one 
being rounded, while the other has a shght 
projection— a ' tittle.' 

TI'TUS. One of St. Paul's companions 
and fellow-labourers. He was a Greek or 
Gentile by birth, and as such uncircumcised. 
It is presumed that he was converted by 
the instrumentality of St. Paul, .who ad- 
dresses him (Tit. i. 4) as his ' own son, and 
whom, with Barnabas, he accompanied pro- 
bably from Antioch to Jerusalem at the 
time that the council of apostles and elders 
was held there (Gal. li. 3 compared with 
Acts XV. 2). Afterwards, on St. Paul's third i 
missionary journey, at the close of his long 
stay at Ephesus, he sent Titus to Corinth 
to promote the collection for the saints at 
Jerusalem, and to ascertaiuthe temper with 
' which the apostle's first letter to the Co- 
rinthian church (which possibly Titus had 
himself with another disciple carried) was 
received (2 Cor. viii. 6, xii. IS). At Troas 
Paul had expected to meet Titus; but not 
finding him there he went into Macedonia 
(ii 12 13) ; Iwhere he met him, and was 
cheered with the news he brought (vii. 6, 7, 
13) • he subsequently sent him again to 
Corinth with the second epistle, to comp ete 
the collection (viii. 6, 16-18, 22-24). We then 
lose sight of Titus ; and .it is singular tliat he 
is nowhere mentioned in the Acts of the 
Apostles. Some have imagined he may be 
in that book under another name ; but 
there is no name there to which wecan Avell 
fit what we know of his history. We af ter- 
wards learn from the letter to him that he 
left in Crete (Tit. i. 5), but that when 
Tvchicus or Artemas should arrive he was 
to hasten to join the apostle at Xicopolis 
(iii. 12, 13), most likely the city so called m 
Epirus. Titus probably did rejoin him, and 
subsequently left him for Dalmatia (2 Tim. 
iv 10), whether or no with St. Pauls sanc- 
tion has been doubted, is'othing more of 
him is certainly known ; but we may gather 
fi-om the notices already referred to that 
he was zealous, with steadiness of purpose 
and iudicious mind : no other surely would 
the apostle have placed among the Cretans, 
or serit to Corinth at the time he did Titus. 
According to tradition, after preaching m 
DSatia, he returned to Crete,. lived ong 
as bishop there, and there died m extreme 

^^TI'TUS, THE EPISTLE TO. The short 
letter to Titus, after an inscription (Tita. 
1 -4) explains why the apostle had left him in 
Crete, and gives liim instructions for his 
l)ehaviour therein ordaining elders (5-9), in 
censuring the evH-disposea (10-16), m ad- 



884 



monishing various classes, being himself an 
example to all, and enforcing his counsels 
with the highest sanction (ii.). He was also 
to urge obedience to constituted authorities, 
and holiness of life generally, from the 
consideration of God's infinite love m Christ 
(iii. 1-8): foolish questions were to be 
avoided, and heretics rejected (9-11;. An 
invitation to join the apostle at Isicopolis, 
and some special directions and salutations, 
conclude the letter (12-15). The inhabitants 
of Crete were noted for their avarice, fraud, 
mendacity, and general depravitj'. It was 
110 Yi^ht charge, therefore, that was com- 
mitted to Titus ; and very precious to him 
would be the fatherly counsels of the 
apostle for his guidance among such a 

^*The^"date of this epistle and the place 
of writing have been much controverted. 
Some would assign it to a comparatively- 
early period, while others with moreproba- 
bilitv suppose that it was penned nearly at 
the close of St. Paul's life. It very much 
resembles the first epistle to Timothy ; and 
the reasons which indicate the time of wri- 
ting that will decide in regard to this letter. 
See TIMOTHY, THE EPISTLES TO Perhaps 
\Ye mav suppose it written, about 6o A.D.,in 
I A^ia Aluior, while the apostle was on his 
Avav to Is-icopolis. Its genuineness is amply 
1 established. Besides earlier references, we 
have the distinct testimonies of Irena3us, 
Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian ; and 
in fact, if the epistles to Timothy be receiv- 
ed, it is impossible to reject that to iitus. 

Bo EUicott's Commeiit. on the Pastoral 
Epistles, 3rd edit. 1864, of course includes 
that to Titus. 
TI'TUS MAX' LIUS. See Manlius. 
Tl'ZITE. The designation of one ot 
David's heroes (1 Chron. xi. 45) ; it is not 
known whence derived. 

TO'AH (mchned, lowly). ALevite(l Chi on. 
vi 34) ; but in 26 the name of ]S;ahath is sub- 
stituted, and in 1 Sam. i. 1 that of Tohu. 

TOB (good). The place or district to which 
Jephthah fled when expelled by his brethren 
(Judges xi. 3, 5). It was probably to the 
north-east of Palestine, and identical A\ith 
the place noted in 2 Sam. x. 6 : comp. 1 Mace. 
V 13 where the Jews of Tobie are said to 
have been put to death. We can only con- 
jecture its exact position. -r t 

TOB-ADOisI'JAH (good ^s my Lord Je- 
Iwvah) A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to 
teacli in the cities of Judah (2 Chron. xvu. 

^''tOBI'AH (pleasing to Jeliovali).— I. One 
who=e descendants returned from captivity 
with Zerubbabel ; but they could not prove 
their pedigree (Ezraii. 60; Neh vii. 62).— 3. 
An Ammonite, who joined with Sanballat 
and other enemies of the Jews in obstruct- 
ing Kehemiah's purpose of re-buildiug the 
wall of Jerusalem. He is caUed ' the ser- 
vant:' he perhaps had been a slave, but 
had risen to influence (ii. 10, 19, iv. 3, 7, ^ i. 
1 12 14 17-19). He was aUied to some ol 
the chief Jews; and therefore many fa- 
voured him. There was even a connection 
between him and Eliashib the high priest. 
So that while Nehemiah was absent from 
Jerusalem opportunity was taken to auoi 



885 



^tbXt %ntiMttSQt* [tongues, confusion 



Tobiah an apartment in the buildings be- 
longing to the temple. At the governor's 
return this sacrilege was put an end to, the 
chambers purified and restored to their pro- 
per use (xiii. 4-9). 

TOBI'AS.—l (Tob. i. 9, and elsewhere). The 
son of Tobit, and hero of the apocryphal 
book so called.— 2 (2 Mace. iii. 11) . The father 
of one Hircanus, a man of note. 

TO'BIE (1 Mace. v. 13). Tob. 

TOBI'EL (Tob. i. 1). The father of Tobit. 

TOBI'JAH {pleasing to Jehovah).—!. A 
Levite whom Jehoshaphat sent forth to 
teach (2 Chron. xvii. 8).— 2. One to whom a 
memorial crown was to be given after the 
return from captivity (Zech. vi. 10, 14). 

TO' BIT. A person who, according to the 
apocryphal book which bears his name, was 
an Israelite of the tribe of ISaphtali, and 
was carried captive by Enemessar or Shal- 
maneser to Nineveh. 

TO' BIT, THE BOOK OF. It is questioned 
whether the account of Tobit is histori- 
cally true— whether it has a basis of truth 
with legendary stories grafted thereupon, 
or whether it is altogether fabulous. But the 
improbabilities, the inconsistencies of the 
narrative, and contradictions to what au- 
thentic history proves and to what we know 
of geography, are so great and glaring that 
it is not easy to arrive at any other conclu- 
sion than that the whole is a fiction (see 
Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Jan. 1858, pp. 373-382). 

The object of this work is to show that a 
truly-pious man, who relies on God and is. 
diligent in prayer and good works, will se- 
cure the divine favour and be delivered out 
of difliculties. The author was in all pro- 
bability a Jew of Palestine ; and, though no 
certainty can be arrived at as to the date of 
the composition, it may not unreasonably 
be placed before o»r Lord's time— perhaps 
about the Maccabea.n period, or even still 
earlier. And very likely the language in 
which this book was originally written was 
Hebrew. Several translations were made, 
some of them at an early date ; and various 
texts, more or less differing, are now ex- 
tant. Of these may be enumerated (l) Je- 
rome's Latin, rendered as he says from the 
now-lost Chaldee. But he probably con- 
sulted also some other text. This is the 
^^ulgate, adopted by the Roman-catholics : 
Luther translated from it ; (2) The Greek of 
the LXX., which some have believed to be 
the original ; (3) A revised incomplete Greek 
text, printed by Tischendorf in 1846; (4) The 
Syriac, m.ade from the Greek, in the London 
Polyglott ; (5) The ante-Hieronymian Latin, 
published by Sabatier, of which some varia- 
tions have since* appeared ; (6) The Hebrew 
text of Sebastian Munster, first printed at 
Basil in 1542 ; (7) The Hebrew of Paulus 
Fagius, of the same date, but which appeared 
originally at Constantinople in 1517. 

The natural air of this story and the curi- 
ous incidents it relates have always made it 
popular ; and it was referred to or cited with 
respect by many of the early fathers. But it 
was not deemed to have a placein the sacred 
canon. The ancient lists almost unanimously 
are silent, or expressly exclude it. The small 
evidence which has been produced in its fa- 
vour is verv dubious. So that it was not till 



the council of Trent (1546) that a solemn 
decree was pronounced for it, and it became 
authoritatively canonical in the Romish 
church. 

TO'CHEN (a measure). A village or town 
of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 32). 

TOGAR'MAH {breaking bones t Armenian 
tribe 1). A son of Gomer of the family of 
Japheth (Gen. x. 3; l Chron. i. 6). His de- 
scendants are represented as an agricultural 
tribe, breeding horses and mules, in which 
they traded with Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 14), also 
as a well-armed and military nation (xxxviii. 
6). The inhabitants of the Tauric peninsula 
answer in the different divisions of their 
population to both these characteristics : 
we may therefore with much probability 
identify Togarmah with the Taurians. See 
Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 238, 
239. Others would connect Togarmah with 
Armenia, and suppose the Phrygians de- 
scended from this stock. 

TO'HU (perhaps incli^ied or lowly) (1 Sam. 
i. 1). __SeeT0AH. 

TO'i' {error). King of Hamath (2 Sam. 
viii. 9, 10). He is called Ton in l Chron. 
xviii. 9, 10. 

TO'LA {a worm).—l. One of the sons of 
Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13 ; Numb. xxvi. 23; 1 
Chron. vii. 1, 2).— 2. A judge of the tribe of 
Issachar, who dwelt and was buried in Sha- 
mir in mount Ephraim. His administration 
lasted twenty-three years (Judges x. 1, 2). 

TO'LAD {birth, generation). A city of 
Simeon (1 Chron, iv. 29). It is identical with 
Eltolad (Josh. xv. 30, xix. 4). See Eltolad 

TO'LAITES. A family of Issachar, de- 
scended from Tola (Numb. xxvi. 23). 

TOL'BANES (1 Esdr. ix. 25). Telem (Ezra 
X. 24). 

TOMB. See Burial, Sepulchre. 

TONGUE. Besides the literal meaning 
of this word (Judges vii. 5 ; Mark vii. .33), it 
is sometimes personified (Isai. xlv. 23), 
sometimes used for speech generally (l 
John iii. 18), sometimes for a language 
(Acts ii. 11), or for the people speaking a 
language (Isai. Ixvi. 18). The phrases 
' scourge of the tongae ' (Job v. 21), i.e. a 
slanderer, ' double-tongued ' (1 Tim. iii. 8), 
i.e. a deceiver, ' the tongue of the learned ' 
(Isai. 1. 4), i.e. the ability to speak wisely, 
are easily intelligible. The word is also 
used for anything resembling a tongue in 
shape: a 'tongue of gold' (Josh, vii, 21, 
marg.), a ' tongue ' of the sea (xv. 2, marg.), 
i.e. bay, a ' tongue of fire ' (Isai. v. 24, marg. ; 
Acts ii. 3). 

TONGUES, CONFUSION OF. The dif- 
ferent nations of the world are at the pre- 
sent day yet more separated by the diver- 
sity of their speech than they are by 
geographical distance and position. There 
is a natural tendency in tongues to diverge. 
The habits, the wants, the productions of 
one people vary from those of another ; and 
therefore words and phrases are needed 
and will be formed by the ou<» which, as un- 
necessary, are never even conceived by the 
other. Thus we see continually new words 
establishing themselves in our own lan- 
guage, keeping pace with the progress of 
invention: 'photograph,' 'telegram' are 
familiar examples. Again, if there is a 



rrnvmms. GIFT OfI ^XtK^XlVV flt 886 


commingling of different tribes, there will 
be in course of time a tongue compounded 
of tbe dialects tbey severally spoke. Tbus . 
! of modern English tbe Roman Saxoii, and 
Norman ingredients may yet be distm- 

^ Seeing tbat there Is such a variety of 
languages in tbe Avorld, it Is a question 
whether thev have been produced m the 
wavs just indicated, or whether at any 
period there was a more sudden deveiop- 
mcnt of change. Those best qualified to 
form a judgment agree in i^^l^cing the 
almost-innumerable existing dialects to a 
very small number of families. In a pre- 
vious article it was shown that, excluding 
certain American and African languages, 
the rest might be arranged in three fami- 
lie<^ called, as Max Miillcr and many other 
philologists denominate them, the Semitic, 
the Arian, and the Turanian families. See 
LANGUAGE. Dr. Bunsen is very nearly of 
the same mind, and deduces tongues from 
the Semitic, the Iranian, and the Turanian 
stocks. T^Ioreovcr, he thinks that there 
are mutual material affinities perceptible, 
which seem to imply a common descent. 
And there are indications, too, that Ameri- 
can and African tongues, not formally 
ranked under the three great families, ex- 
hibit tvpes not altogether dissimilar,which 
point to one or other of them as a source. 
The examination, therefore, of the existing 
phrenomena of language would seem to 
corroborate the scripture assertion that for 
some time after the deluge 'the who e 
earth was of one language and of one speech 

^^^Sn^^" philologists, however, maintain 
that for the developments and diversities 
now existing a Ya^t succession of ages— far 
more than the scripture chronology allows 
—must have elapsed. To meet this acknow- 
ledged difficulty the scripture alleges the 
^up^eruarural interference of God (2-9). 
These who object to miraculous interven- 
tion at all of course cavil at the statement 
Thev must be replied to on the broad 
ground of principle : see Miracle, Scrip- 
ture. But such as see nothing incon- 
gruous in God's moral government of the 
world he has formed, and who deem the 
scripture credible when it relates superna- 
tural equally with ordinary events, will ac- 
knowledge the harmony of the inspired 
record with the results of investigation- 
one original tongue, an impulse of change 
by the divine touch, the natural ramifica- 
tions of that change iu the vast variety of 
existing tongues. And that there was time 
for these so far to diverge as they have 
done fi'om the stock to which_ they 
belong is proved by the fact that m mo- 
dern times, in our o^vn days, a new dialect 
is knovvTi to establish itself in the course oi 
afew years, or sometimes evenrnonths. _ 

The matter is well discussed by Duns in 
his Bibl. Nat Science,\o\. i. pp. 280-291 ; and 
his conclusions are: ' that^^i?^^ JP: 
guage was originally the direct gift of God 
to man ; 2nd, that at Babel he showed his 
sovereignty over his own gift in interfer- 
ing with it, that it might subserve his pur 
poles after the flood as it had done before 


3rd, that language was originally one ; and 
ith, as a souiTd and legitimate deduction 
from this, that the human race was from 
the becrinning one.' Kalisch agrees so far 
as to say that ' the linguistic researches of 
modern times have more and more confirm- 
ed the theory of one primitive Asiatic lan- 
gua£?e, gradually developed into the various 
modifications by external agencies and 
influences ' (Com m. on Old Test. Gen., p. 318). 

It was God's purpose when the families of 
Noah's descendants multiplied that tbey 
should overspread the earth; and, according 
to an old tradition, Noah was to command 
their migration, and to divide, as it were, 
the world among them. But they did not 
choose so to separate. In the plain oi 
Shinar multitudes of them resolved to 
settle, and to establish there a proud so- 
vereignty. Nothing was better fitted, to 
disappoint their plans than to confound 
their speech : they were compelled to leave 
unfinished the vast tower they had com- 
menced, round which Babylon afterwards 
clustered, and to go forth apart, dwelling, 
according to their generations, m the va- 
rious regions of the globe : see an inter- 
esting paper on the dispersion iu Kittos 
Daily Bibl. Illust, first series, sixth week, 
fifth day The ruin now called JStrs Aim- 
riid has been supposed to be the remnant 
of the mighty tower commenced in the 
plain of Shinar. It may occupy the same 
site : but the existing fragments are of a 
le«s ancient building— one, it would seem, 
erected or completed by Nebuchadnezzar. 
See BABEL, pp. 84, 85. It may be added that 
a cuneiform inscription by this king at Bor- 
=ippa, Avhere the tower stood, has been in- 
terpreted by Dr. Oppert. It comprises a 
notice of the confusion of tongues : Smce 
a remote time people had abandoned it, 
without order expressing their words : see 
Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. PP. ioo4, - 

"""^It' is well to obserA-e that we must not 
class the three families of languages ac- 
cording to the three sons of Noah : those 
of Hamitic descent are sometimes found 
using what are called Semitic tongues. 
But to discuss this part of the subject is 
impossible in the present work, p must 
suffice to say that the confusion at Babel 
did not regard tribes as such ; for it cannot 
be satisfactorily shown that the Semitic 
families received one form of speech, tne 
Japhetic another, the Hamitic a third. 

TONGUES, GIFT OF. A promise was 
given by the Lord that his disciples should 
in his name 'speak with new tongues 
Olark xvi. 17). This was first fulfilled on 
tiie day of pentecost, when the Holy Spirit 
descended; and a multitude of Jews af 
various countries, gathered at Jerusalem to 
the feast, heard the apostles speak m the 
vernacular dialects of the different lands 
where these, Parthians, Modes, Elamites, 
&c &c., resided. This wonderful event 
was declared to be the accomplishment of 
Joel's prophecy (Joel ii. 28-32 ; Acts ii.). 
And subsequently others, too, received the 
same supernatural power (x. 44-46). _ 

It is evident that it was no inarticulate 
sound that was thus uttered ; for the foreign 



887 



[tooth 



Jews understood the apostles : it was not 
merely a mystical phraseology that was 
used ; for each man recognized the tongue 
of the country in which ho was horn : a lin- 
guistic power was actually imparted. It is 
necessary to enquire whether this was per- 
manent—whether, in fact, it was intended 
to enable the first preachers of the gospel, 
visiting the diiferont. regions of the earth, 
to converse with each nation they came to 
in languages which they had never learned. 

Now, first of all, so far as Ave have accounts 
of the propagation of the gospel in scripture, 
there was little need of such a faculty. The 
extraordinary prevalence of the Greek lan- 
guage through the civilized world was one 
of those preparations which the providence 
of God had ordered, and which contributed 
to render the time when Christ appeared so 
! fit for the purposes of his advent. Wherever 
f the apostles went through the Roman 
; dominion, Greek was understood, not 
merely by the educated but really by the 
I masses of men, to whom they could thus 
I freely make known their message. And, 
i besides, there were Jews in every city, to 
whom they first applied themselves. Most 
of the Jews, no doubt, rejected the gospel ; 
but generally there were some indlA^iduals 
whose hearts God touched, and who thus 
could be the means of explaining in the 
vernacular tongue of the district the teach- 
ing of the apostles and evangelists. 

Again, we find no hint in scripture of any 
of the first preachers using such a power 
for access to those to whom they spoke : 
rather, there are indications of their some- 
times being ignorant of what persons 
around them said. Thus, when Paul and 
Barnabas were at Lystra, the circumstances 
that occurred are not easily explained if we 
suppose that they could speak Lycaonian. 
For immediately on the healing of the 
cripple there was a shout, in Lycaonian, 
'The gods are come down to us in the like- 
ness of men.' Had the apostles understood 
this, they would surely have interfered at 
once ; whereas it was not for some time, till 
the priest of Jupiter came forth, and oxen 
and garlands were brought, that they under- 
stood what was going to be done (xiv. 8-18). 

Still further, the description of the speak- 
ing with tongues on the day of pentecost 
does not agree with the notion that the 
disciples had acquired a new faculty of con- 
versing at their pleasure in one or more 
languages hitherto unknown to them. It 
is expressly said that they spoke 'as the 
Spirit gave them utterance' (ii. 4), evidently 
implying that they gave utterance to sounds 
(possibly not understood by themselves : 
comp. 1 Cor. xiv. 3) dictated by the Holy 
Spirit. 

Besides, such manifestations of divine 
poAver usually, if not exclusively, occurred 
(so far as we read) in Christian assemblies, 
in which men so gifted uttered Avords of 
prayer or praise. On the day of pentecost 
it was not that the disciples Avent forth to 
search out foreigners : they Avere engaged 
in a private assembly in a house ; and it Avas 
only at the neAvs of something extraordi- 
nary occurring there that the crowd collect- 
ed Avhom Peter seized the opportunity of 



addressing, evidently In Greek. When the 
supernatural gift Avas bestoAved on the 
Gentiles, this also was In the house of 
Cornelius, AAdiere but a few AA^ere'assembled 
(X. 44-46). And St. Paul, discussing the 
matter, speaks of it as occurring in a Chris- 
tian congi-egation (1 Cor. xiv.). The gift, 
he says, Avas to be repressed if there was no 
poAver of interpretation. Else it was very 
likely that such utterances would make 
plain unlearned persons believe the speakers 
mad. The people who did not understand 
on the day of pentecost had similarly 
charged the apostles with drun.kenness 
(Acts ii. 13). 

Whereto, then, it Avill be asked, serA^ed 
the gift of tongues? It may be replied, 
that the benefit Avas two-fold. 'He,' says 
St. Paul, ' that speaketh in a tongue edifieth 
himself (1 Cor. xiv. 4): his spirit holds 
high communion with God, as that of Paul 
himself did when, whether in the body or 
out of the body he could not tell, those 
charmed words fell into his opened ear 
which Avith human tongue he could not 
utter. So man may be brought in near ap- 
pulse to the Deity : his soul may be filled 
Avith mystic poAver ; and from his lips there 
may issue some lofty strain as the Spirit 
moves them, of the full meaning of Avhich 
he is himself unaware, though he feels to 
his joy that he is brought into the secret 
place of the Most High. In some measure 
this Avas the case Avith the prophets. They 
lost not their individual consciousness, but 
they comprehended not all that ' the Spirit 
of Christ which was in them did signify' 
(1 Pet. i. 10-12). Then, again, the gift of 
tongues Avas a sign, an authentication of 
the divine mission not alone to those who 
exercised the gift,Avho felt in themseh^es the 
energy of the Holy Ghost, but to those also 
in Avhose language they uttered prayer or 
praise. As before said, to such as understood 
not the language spoken it Avould seem con- 
fusion, but to one Avho heard in his own 
tongue the Avonderful Avorks of God a 
Aveighty testimony Avas afforded (Acts ii. 
5-12). And so, as St. Paul says, ' tongues 
are for a sign .... to them that believe 
not'(l Cor. xiv. 22). Dr. Alford's note on 
Acts ii. 4-8 may be consulted Avith advan- 
tage. 

TOOTH. The tooth is instanced as one 
of the particulars in AAdiich, in the public 
administration of Justice,' a retaliatory 
punishment Avas to be inflicted (Exod. xxi. 
24; Lev. xxiv. 20 ; Dent. xix. 21). For the 
loss of a tooth, too, a bondman Avas to be 
set free (Exod. xxi. 27). Several common 
phrases or proA-^erbial expressions Avere in 
use in regard to the teeth. Thus to ' gnash 
the teeth ' implies rage, suffering, or de- 
spair (Matt. viii. 12 ; Acts viii. 54). ' Clean- 
ness of teeth' indicates famine (Amoa 
ir. 6). The action of an acid substance on 
the teeth is alluded to in Ezek. xviii. 2. 'To 
escape with the skin of the teeth' (Job xix. 
20) is sometimes explained as escaping just 
Avith life. But, proba])]y. Job describing 
his emaciation means to say that the only 
part of his flesh which did not adhere tightly 
to his bones Avas the integument covering 
the teeth. 



THPAzi €l\t Em^ute 0f 888 


TOPAZ. The Hebrew word pitd&h is sup- 
posed to be derived from the Sanscrit pita, 
yellowish, pale. It occurs several times in 
scripture (Exod. sxviii. 17, xxxix. 10 ; Job 
xxviii. 19 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13). In the passage 
referred to in Job the gem intended is 
called the ' topaz of Ethiopia' or Cush; and, 
according to Pliny, there was an Island 
named Topazos on the western coast of the 
Red sea, and another called Cytis, at the 
entrance of the sea, both noted for topazes. 
A' topaz ' was one of the foundations of the 
new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). But in all 
probability the so-called 'topaz' is our 
chrysolite. , ^ , . 

TO'PHEL (lime). A place to the east Oi. 
the Arabah (Deut. i. 1). It is now called 
Tdftleh, 

TO'PHET, TO'PHETH (place to be spit 
upont tabret-grovel according to. some, 
pleasant) (2 Kings xxiii. 10 ; Isai. xxx. 33 ; 
Jer. vii. 31, 32, xix. 6, 11, 12, 13, 14). See 
Gehenna, HiNxoii. Tophet at the ex- 
tremity of the valley of Hinnom, placed by 
some to the south, and by others more to 
the east, near the mouth of the Tyropoeon, 
was probably once a place of recreation, a 
part of the royal gardens; afterwards it 
was defiled, and became an abomination. 

TOR'MAH ifraucl). If this be a proper 
name, it must be that of a place not far 
from Shechem (Judges ix. 31, marg.). 

TORTOISE. One of the reptiles pro- 
hibited to the Hebrews for food (Lev. xi. 29). 
Probably a species of lizard, Lacerta Libyca, 
living in deserts, may be intended. The 
Psammosaurus Scincus or Monitor terrestris 
has also been suggested. See Lizarb. 

TO'ij {error). A king of Hamath (1 Chron. 
xviii. 9, 10). See Toi. 

TOWER. The Hebrew for tower is de- 
rived from a word signifying ' to be great ; ' 
It was so called from its altitude (Gen. xi. 
4 5) It generally signified the towers or 
citadels of fortified towns (Judges viii. 9, 
ix 46 47, 49, 51, 52 ; 2 Ohron. xiv. 6), some- 
times a fortress itself (1 Chron. xxvii. 25, 
where in our A'-ersion ' castles ; ' Prov. xahu. 
10) Again, it is put for a watch-tower 
(2 kings ix. 17, xvii. 9), or the watch-turret 
of a vineyard (Isai. r. 2 : com p. Matt. xxi. 
33) The word is :figuratively used, as 
when God is said to be 'a strong tower 'to 
his people (Psal. Ixi. 3), and probably for 
proud ungodly men (Isai. ii. 15, xxx. 25). 
TOWN. See Cities. 
TOWN-CLERK. The officer so called m 
Acts xix. 35 was keeper of the archives, 
and public reader of decrees. He presided 
over popular assemblies, and put matters 
in them to the vote. Other functions were 
sometimes assigned to him. The post 
therefore was one of dignity and influence. 

TRACHONI'TIS (Luke iii. 1). A region 
called Argob in the Old Testament : see 
ARGOB. Augustus placed the country under 
the authority of Herod the Great, that he 
might clear it of the banditti with wliicii it 
was over-run. It was afterwards a part of 
the tetrarchy of his son Philip. 

TRADITION. A delivery or handing 
down (Judges vi. 13). Tradition is usu- 
ally considered to imply that which was 
tauRht by oral instruction, in opposition to 


that which had been committed to writ- 
ing At the beginning of the gospel 
the' Christian doctrine was taught orally, 
there being as yet no written docu- 
ments. Consequently St. Paul refers to 
' traditions ' which he comm.ands to beheld 
fast, being as binding as any command- 
ments delivered in any other way (2 Thess. 
ii. 15, iii. 6). Instruction so conveyed 
through many intermediate persons was, 
however, liable to be corrupted. And so 
the Jews had really contradicted God s law 
by expositions which they pretended were 
of equal or even superior authority. For 
this our Lord reproved them (Matt. xv. 1-9). 
They attached more importance to then- 
traditionary exposition of the law than to 
the law itself, calling the latter water, the 
tradition the wine that must be mingled 
with it. Their traditions were subsequently 
collected into the Talmud. The Christian 
church has been divided on this subject. 
According to the Anglican confession, holy 
scripture containeth all things necessary to 
salvation' (Art. vi.), being the sole rule of 
faith. The church of Rome, on the other 
hand allows a co-ordinate authority to un- 
written traditions handed down in the 
church from the apostles {Coneil. Tnd., 
Sess. iv. Decret. April 8, 1546). ^ 

TRANCE. A supernatural state of body 
and mind, in which without the loss of con- 
sciousness the mind is borne aloft, and 
scenes are vividly represented to the inter- 
nal eye, and divine communications made 
to the understanding (Numb. xxiv. 4, 16, 
' lying ' in sleep probably, ' with open eyes 
i. e. of the mind ; Acts x.lO, xi. 5, xxii. 17). 
The ' deep sleep ' of Adam (Gen. ii. 21) has 
been thought to be a trance. . 

TRANSFIGURATION. The glorious 
change in our Lord's appearanceunderstood 
by this word is narrated by three of the evan- 
gelists (Matt. xvii. 1-8 ; Mark ix. 2-8 ; Luke 
ix 28-36). It is also referred to by one of the 
eye-witnesses (2 Pet. i. 17, IS). The trans- 
figuration occurred shortly, about a week, 
after Peter's remarkable confession (Matt, 
xvi 16), and may fairly be supposed to have 
some connection with it, and with the an- 
nouncement immediately after made of ap- 
proaching suffering and death. The ais- 
ciples could not bear to hear of events so 
mournful, which, if they should happen, 
would seem to quench all their Jiopes of 
Messiah's triumphant kingdom. They were 
to be taught, therefore, that, while the law 
and the prophets paid homage to tlie gospel, 
and Moses and Elijah, the representatives of 
the one and the other ,were seen as Messiah s 
servants, the communion they held with 
him was, even while he was radiant with 
heavenly splendour,in regard to his decease 
which he sliould accomplish at Jerusalem. 
This, the death of Jesus, was the great 
event to which the finger of the past was 
pointing, and for which he had come into 
the world ; and the lesson was designed to 
strengthen and comfort the apostles mthe 
dark Approaching hour, with the assurance 
that he that died in weakness was yet the 
power of God, heaven's mighty King, to 
whom all creation must do reverence. After 
this their faith ought not to have faltered. 



689 ^mt UnfltoMfl^. 



Thelocality of the transfiguration is tradi- 
tionally Tabor ; "but there was then a fortified 
town on its summit ; and, as the place last 
named is Ctesarea Philippi (13), it is more 
reasonable to believe that the scene was on 
one of the spurs of Hermon. 

TRANSGRESSION (Rom. iv. 15;lJohn 
iii.4). See Sin. 

TREASURE-CITY (Exod. i. 11). See 

PiTHOM. RAAMSES. 

TREASURY (Luke xxi. 1 ; John yiii. 20, 
and elsewhere). See Temple, p. 870. 

TREE. Both good and evil men are com- 
pared to trees (Psal. i. 3 ; Isai. Ixi. 3 ; 
Matt. iii. 10 ; Jude 12). Fruit-trees were not 
to be destroyed in the siege of a city (Deut. 
XX. 19, 20). 

Tree-worship has been a form of idolatry, 
extending over a large part of the world. 
Single trees were perhaps venerated for the 
beauty of their form ; and under groves 
altars were erected and evil rites performed 
in the gloom of their shade (Isai. Ivii. 5 ; 
Ezek. XX. 28) ; hence the prohibition against 
planting a grove near to the altar of God 
(Deut. xvi. 21). Oracular trees are mentioned 
in classic authors ; and the Druidical reve- 
rence for oak-groves is well known. 

TREE OP KNOWLEDGE, THE. See 
Knov^ledge, The Tree of. 

TREE OF LIFE, THE. See LIFE, THE 
Tree op. 

TRESPASS-OFFERING. See OFFERINGS. 

TRIAL. The earliest account we have of 
judicial proceedings in Israel is that which 
describes Moses as sitting daily to adminis- 
ter justice (Exod. xviii. 13-16). At the sug- 
gestion of Jethro, sanctioned by the divine 
command, he afterwards appointed inferior 
courts (17-26 ; Deut. i. 9-17). There appear to 
have been subsequently various smaller lo- 
cal or provincial courts, besides the highest 
tribunals. See Council, Judges, Atrial was 
generally very summary. It was held, some 
suppose, in the morning (Jer. xxi. 12) ; but 
the text alleged can hardly be taken as suf- 
ficient authority for this. It is likely that 
anciently people pleaded their own causes 
(1 Kings iii. 16-28) ; but in later times the 
Jews were familiar with the practice of hi- 
ring advocates (Acts xxiv. 1-9). The courts 
were public, held occasionally at the gate of 
a city (Deut. xxi: 19). The judges were en- 
joined to act with impartiality (xvi. 18, 19) ; 
and the severest censures were passed on 
such as received bribes or perverted justice 
(e.g. Isai. i. 23, 24 ; Luke xviii. 2-6). The 
matter was investigated by witnesses and 
the oath of the parties, the accused himself 
being sometimes adjured to tell the truth 
(INIatt. xxvi. 63), In criminal cases a single 
witness was not sufBcient (Deut, xvii. 6, xix. 
15) ; and, if the witnesses could be proved to 
have spoken falsely, the same punishment 
was inflicted on them as the accused, had he 
been guilty, would have suffered (xix, 16-21), 
When the charge was brought home to the 
criminal, judgment and execution followed 
Immediately, the hands of the witnesses in 
capital cases being the first upon him (xvii, 
7 ; 1 Kings xxi, 13 ; Matt, xxvii. 1, 2 ; Acts vii. 
57, 58). On some occasions, however, there 
might be an appeal (Deut. xvii. 8-13). Some- 
times the lot was employed to discover a cul- 



prit, but not to convict him (Josh. vii. 14-18 ; 
1 Sam. xiv. 37-45). See Saalschtitz, Arch, der , 
Eebr., cap, 72, vol, ii, pp. 271-278. [ 

In countries where the Romans estab- ' 
lished their authority they allowed the con- 
tinuance of certain native courts ; but the 
tribunal of the Roman prefect or other 
superior officer was supreme. And the 
Roman law prescribed that every accused 
person should have fair opportunity of de- 
fending himself (Acts xxv. 16). Neither 
might a Roman citizen be scourged or in ■ 
any way tortured to force a confession 
(xxii. 24-29). 

TRIBE. A distinction into families or 
tribes was very general among the nations 
of the east. And so we find that the twelve 
sons of Jacob were each the head of a clan 
or tribe in Israel. An enumeration of these 
twelve patriarchs and their children is given 
in Gen. xlvi. 8-27; and a fuller list, when each 
tribe had become numerous, with the fa- 
milies of which it was composed, may be 
found in Numb. xxvi. 5-51. The number of 
tribes was indeed thirteen, because Joseph's 
two sons Ephraim and Manasseh were each 
made a tribe-progenitor. But, as to the 
Levites the priesthood was assigned, and 
they were to have no separate territory but 
towns situated locally in all the different 
parts of the country, there were but twelve 
territorial divisions, and Israel was ordi- 
narily regarded as composed of twelve 
tribes (Exod. xxiv, 4 ; Josh, iv. 4 ; 1 Kings 
xviii. 31 ; James i. 1). At the head of each 
tribe was a prince (Numb, i, 16, 44, ii, 3-31, 
vii. 2), a regulation which continued sub- 
stantially in force under the monarchy 
(1 Chron. xxviii. 16-22). There were probably 
other inferior tribe-oflBcers. The tribes, 
though forming one nation, and on great 
occasions acting collectively, yet exercised j 
much independent power, and had their 
separate wars (Judges i. 3) ; remarkable in- 
stances of which occurred in ihe reigns of 
Saul and of Hezekiah (1 Chron, iv. 41-43, v. 
10, 18-22), Several of the judges, too, seem 
to have had their authority acknowledged 
only by certain tribes. When the kingdom 
was established, the unity of the whole was 
to a great extent consolidated; though | 
we still find evidences of tribal jealousy (2 
Sam, ii, 4-9, xix, 41-43), The two leading 
tribes of Judah and Ephraim were especi- 
ally rivals ; and so necessary was it felt for 
the king, though of Judah, to conciliate 
Ephraim, that Rehoboam went to Slie- 
chem to be inaugurated (1 Kings xii, 1). 
There, however, his folly produced a de- 
cided breach : an Ephraimite monarchy 
was established, in opposition to that of the 
house of David; and, while ten tribes banded 
together under Jeroboam, Judah and Ben- 
jamin alone, augmented by the Levites, and 
ultimately by portions of Simeon and Dan, 
continued to obey Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 
1, 13, 14). The breach was never healed ; 
and the nation was thenceforward two 
great bodies. Still, as before noted, the 
tribal divisions were kept in mind, and the 
brotherhood of the whole from time to time 
acknowledged. It was probably in refer- 
ence to the twelve tribes that our Lord ap- 
pointed twelve apostles CMatt. x. 1-4) ; and 



Clje Cr^asurw of 



890 



In the last book of the Jfew Testament 
canon the extension of the church and her 
ultimate glory are set forth hy illustrations 
taken from the twelre-fold division of Is- 
rael (Rer. Tli. 4-8, xsi. 10-21). 

TRIBUTE. See Tax, Taxing. The tri- 
bute-money demanded of our Lord (Matt, 
xvii. 24-27) was the temple-rate. It had 
been a question between the Pharisees and 
Sadducees, whether the payment was to be 
obligatory. Our Lord, in yielding to the 
! demand in compliance with the dogma of 
the former, yet asserted the moral freedom 
of himself and his disciples, who belonged 
to a higher kingdom, from the impost. 
TRI:NITT. This word does not occur in 
i scripture: it has been devised by theologians 
' to express that which the scripture plainly 
' teaches, that in the unity of the Godhead 
i there are three Persons, that in the mode of 
his subsistence the Divine Being is, in some 
way incomprehensible to us, three and yet 
one. In a book compiled by ordinary men 
some attempt would probably have been 
\ made to explain the mystery, at all events 
: to define the terms of it. Scripture makes 
I none. For human language is inadequate 
: to such a task ; or, even if language were 
not inadequate, the human understanding 
could not have grasped the full knowledge 
; of a theme so high. But it by no means 
i follows that we are co reject a thing as fact 
because it is above our comprehension. 
Continually in ordinary life we admit that 
I to be true which we cannot explain. It is 
to the fact, then, as scripture teaches, that 
' we must look. And as a fact the scripture 
i reveals the doctrine of the Trinity in two 
ways, first in passages in which the Father, 
Son, and Holy Spirit are mentioned toge- 
ther as God, and secondly in passages which 
speak of each as divine. A reference to 
some of the former class only can be made 
i here. It is admitted that, though the Old 
i Testament, read in the light of the is'ew, is 
I in perfect unison with it, yet the great 
1 doctrine there taught is the unity of God as 
! opposed to polytheism. In the Xew Testa- 
1 ment further and clearer evidence is given. 

See Matt. iii. 16, 17, xxviii. 19 ; 1 Cor. xii. 
' 3-6 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 14 ; Eph. iv. 4-6 ; Tit. iii. 4- 
6 ; 1 Pet. i. 2 ; Jude 20, 21. These passages, 
carefully read and diligently pondered, are 
sufficient to prove that 'the Godhead of tlie 
Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost 
] is all one, the glory equal, the majesty co- 
1 eternal ; such as the Father is, such is the 
I Son, and such is the Holy Ghost; the Father 
is God, tbe Son is God, and the Holy Ghost 
j is God ; and yet they are not three Gods, 
but one God.' Among eminent authors who 
1 have vindicated the doctrine of the Trinity 
mav be named bp. Bull in his Defensio Fidei 
Nicence; and Dr. T^^aterland, Works, vols. i. 
ii. iii. edit. 1843. 

TRIP'OLIS (2 Macc.'xiv. 1). A Syrian city, 
the point of federal union for Aradus, Sidon, 
and Tvre. It was long an important place. 
It is represented by the modern Tarablous ; 
but the small fishing-place el-Mijna is pro- 
bably on the site of the ancient city. 

TRIUMPH. We have repeatedly accounts 
in scripture history of rejoicings and 
^l iuniphal processions when a victory liad 



been obtained or some great national suc- 
cess achieved. The first noticeable occasion 
was Tvhen Abram returned from the slaugh- 
ter of the eastern kings, bringing back the 
plunder which they had carried from the 
cities of the plain, and the recovered cap- 
tires. Princes went out to meet him ; and 
grateful offerings were made (Gen. xiv. 
16-24). Another example is when Israel 
had safely passed through the Red sea, and 
their enemies the Egyptians lay dead upon 
the shore. Then indeed did Moses lead a 
noble song ; and the people joined their 
voices with his ; and the women took their 
part with timbrels and diiuces, in praise of 
him, the Lord Jehovah, who had so glori- 
ously triumphed and given marvellous de- 
liverance to his chosen, the seed of Jacob 
(Exod. XV. 1-21). 

It was customary for victors to form a 
joyful procession, bearing with them and 
sometimes parading the booty they had 
taken and the captives they had brought 
(Numb. xxxi. 12 : 1 Sam. xxx. 16, 20 ; 2 Chron. 
XX. 25-28). The returning troops were met 
by those who welcomed them and celebra- 
ted their praises (Judges xi. 34; 1 Sam. 
xviii. 6, 7) : congratulatory odes were com- 
posed (Judges V.) ; honours were heaped 
upon the general, presents given him, 
olferings made to the Lord, and a portion 
of the spoil bestowed on friends (Xumb. 
xxxi. 48-54 ; Judges viii. 22, 24-27 ; 1 Sam. 
xxx. 26-31). It was natural that on such oc- 
casions there should be great joy ; and ac- 
cordingly the gladness of conquerors divid- 
ing the spoil passed into a proverb (Isai. ix. 
3). Allusion seems to be made to such 
festal scenes in the Psalms (e.g. Psal. xxiv. 
7-10, Ixviii. 17, 18) ; the rather as the battle 
was the Lord's ; and he gave his people 
victory ; and, moreover, the prophetic eye 
looked forward to the complete conquest, 
to be obtained by Messiah over his and his 
church's foes, and his glorious return to his 
Father's throne (comp. Eph. iv. 8). 

It is well kno-mi that what was eraphati- 
cally termed a ' triumph' was a high honour 
conferred by the Romans on a successful 
general. A particular description of the 
ceremonies of it must be sought in other 
works. Here it can be only said that there 
was a raagniflceut procession, that the 
spoils taken from the enemy were exhibited, 
that the kings and commanders captured 
were made to walk in chains, and that the 
conqueror rode in a splendid chariot, clothed 
in a gorgeous robe, and attended by hia 
troops^f rom the gate of the city to the capi- 
tol. It was in such a way that the furniture 
of the temple was carried before Titus on 
the conquest of Jerusalem ; and the figures 
of some of the sacred articles yet remain 
sculptured on his triumphal arch. To such 
a triumph there are allusions in the IS'ew 
Testament. Thus St. Paul thanks God for 
leading us in triumph as participators of 
Christ's victory (2 Cor. ii. 14). For, as Dr. 
Alford notes on the place, ' in our spiritual 
course our only true triumphs are God's 
triumphs over us.' Also the triumph of 
God in Christ, when he exhibited all princi- 
palities and powers as subject to his supre^ 
macy, is spoken of (Col. ii. 15). 



891 MibXt W.mMttSQt. 



TRO'AS. A sea-port town near to the 
Hellespont, between the promontories Lec- 
tum and Sigeuin, south at the site of ancient 
Troy; sometimes considered as belonging 
to the Lesser Mysia. It was built by king 
Antigonus, and called AntigoniaTroas ; but 
afterwards the name was changed to Alex- 
andria Troas, in honour of Alexander the 
Great. This town was made a colony with 
the jits ZiaZicim by Augustus (see Colony), 
and must, if we may judge by the ruins, 
have been of considerable extent. Indeed, 
it was of importance as the point of arrival 
and departure for those journeying between 
Macedonia and certain Asiatic districts. 
Two visits of St. Paul to Troas are recorded 
in the apostolic history (Acts xvi. 8, 11, 
XX, 5, 6). It was here that he had the hea- 
venly vision which led him to cross over 
into Europe with the gospel message ; it was 
here too that the fall and restoration to 
life of Butychus occurred. See also 2 Cor. 
ii. 12 ; 2 Tim. Iv. 13. It is now called Eski 
Stamboul. 

TROGYL'LIUM. A cape and town on the 
Ionian coast between Ephesus and the 
mouth of the Meander at the foot of mount 
Mycale over-against Samos. St. Paul in 
sailing along the coast stopped a night 
there (Acts xx. 15). 

TROPH'IMUS (a person nourished, or a 
nourishes-). AnEphesian Christian, who, on 
St. Paul's third missionary journey, having 
preceded him to Troas, went thence with 
him to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 4). It was on his 
account that the tumult against Paul was 
excited by the Jews (xxi. 29). He is after- 
wards mentioned as being left at Miletum 
sick (2 Tim. iv 20) ; which cannot well have 
occurred till after the apostle's imprison- 
ment at Rome. Trophimus was probably one 
of the brethren who carried the second epis- 
tle to the Corinthians (2 Cor. viii. 16-24). 




Egyptian trumpeter. 



TRUMPET. The Hebrev/ word shdphdr 
is frequently so rendered in our version, but 
occasionally COENET, Which see. Possibly 



[trumpet 



it was a straight tube, as distinguished 
from the curved horn ; but opinions differ. 
This is sometimes combined with another 
word (e.g. Josh, vi. 4), rendered 'trumpets 




Roman trumpet. 



of rams' horns more probably it should be 
trumpets of loud sound or alarm. There is 
another word hhatzutzerah, also translated a 




Roman trumpeter. 



* trumpet.' Two of these were made of silver 
by Moses, and they were to be used by the 
priests in calling an assembly of the people, 
or summoning the princes, or as the signal 




Greek trumpeter. 

for a mafch, also in war, and on days of 
gladness, and on certain festivals, or at the 
beginnings of months. Solomon must liave 
made many more tov XhQ temple-service. 



TRUMPETS, FEAST Of] ^XtK^UX'^ 0f 892 



For ^ve find one hundred and twenty priests 
At ouce blowing with them at the dedication 
of the temple (2 Chrou. y. 12, 13). We may 
conclude that the instrument, no douht a 
long (according to Josephus nearly a cubit) 
straight tuhe, was thenceforth used on or- 
dinary occasions of rejoicing and of sacred 
worship (XX. 28, xxiii. 13). These trumpets 
are figured on the arch of Titus. 

TRUMPETS, THE FEAST OF. The first 
day of the seventh month was appointed 
to be a sabbath of rest, all servile business 
i being suspended, and a holy convocation, 
! accompanied by a continuous blowing of 
: trumpets. This, therefore, was the feast of 
trumpets. It was the beginning of the civil 
year. The special sacrifices were to be a ram 
Kind seven lambs as a burnt-offering, with 
the appropriate meat-ofl:ering, also a kid as 
a sin-oflering, all in addition to the re- 
gular daily and monthly sacrifices (Lev. 
xxiii. 23-25 : Xumb. xxix. 1-6). Psal. Ixxxi. is 
used in the service of the day, by the 
modern Jews. Trumpets are still blo^s'n by 
them the first day of the seventh month, 
and on the morning of each preceding day 
for a month; also at sun-set on the day of 
atonement. This blowing of the trumpet 
is considered as a memorial of the joyous 
day of creation ; it is a call to repentance, 
to remind men of the law, the prophets, 
the destruction of the temple, the binding 
of Isaac, the day of judgment, and the re- 
surrection ; it is also a call to prayer for the 
restoration of Israel. :So Jew with any 
sense of religion neglects attendance at 
this solemn rite on the first of Tisri. For a 
full account of the ceremonies observed see 
Mills' British Jeics, part ii. chap. vi. pp. 
1 157-166, 173. 

I TFtFTH. Til e conformity of words with 
! things. God is described preeminently as 
! true, one who cannot lie (Tit. i. 2 ; Heb. vi. 
I 18"). Our Lord declares himself ' the truth' 
i (John xiv. 6), and is said to be 'full of grace 
i and truth' (i. 14). Hence whatever comes 
I from God is true ; and the divine word or 
the gospel is called ' truth' (viii. 32 ; 1 John 
ii. 21). So any divine revelation is charac- 
terized (Dan. X. 21). Truth is enjoined 
(Zech. viii. 16), also as a Christian grace 
(Eph. iv. 25), and is to be the girdle of the 
Christian warrior's loins (vi. 14) ; and they 
that are not truthful are excluded from the 
celestial city (Rev. xxi. 27). Still we have 
remarkable examples of a want of truthful- 
ness in many eminent persons (Gen. xii. 13, 
XX. 2, xxvi. 7, xxvli. 19, 24 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 2, 
and elsewhere). Their conduct, however, 
must not be taken in any way to authorize 
or excuse insincerity-. It was certainly dis- 
pleasing in God"s sight. 
There are two Greek words alcthcs nnd 
I alethinos, hot\i often rendered 'true.' The 
t latter rather implies ' real,' ' genuine," un- 
feisned,' as in Luke xvi.ll. 

TRYPIIE'jS'A {delicate). A Christian fe- 
male at Rome whom with Tryphosa St. Paul 
commends and salutes (Rom. xvi. 12). 

TBY'PHONO- Mace. xi. 39, 54, 50, xii. 39-53, 
Xiii. 1, 12-24, 31-34, xiv. 1-3, XV. 10 14, 37-39). 
A native of Cariana, originally named Dio- 
dotns. After the death of Alexander Balas 
be professed to support the claim of Antio- 



chus YI. his son to the Syrian throne, but 
before long he murdered Antiochus and 
seized the crown himself. His authority, 
exercised with violence, was not universally 
acknowledged ; and at length he was ex- 
pelled by Antiochus YII. and put to death ; 
or, according to some accounts, he commit- 
ted suicide. 

TRTPHO'SA (living delicately) (Rom. 
xvi. 12). See Trtphena. 

TSI'DOX (Gen. x. 15, marg.) See SiDON. 

TU'BAL {a flowing foHli). One of the sons 
of Japheth (Gen. x. 2 ; 1 Chron. i. 5). Tubal 
and Meshech are freguently united in 
scripture, and are spoken of as distant 
nations, and as trading with Tyre (Isai. 
Ixvi. 19 ; 'Ezek. xxvii. 13, xxxii. 26, xxxviil. 
2, 3, xxxix.l). They must therefore be north- 
ern tribes, powerful hordes of Scythians. 
And, as Meshech denotes the Moschi, 
we may well suppose Tubal the Tibareni, 
once spreading over the country between 
the Caspian and Euxine, but in later days 
occupying a more restricted territory on 
the south-eastern shore of the Euxine. 
Copper is still abundant in the mountains 
of northern Armenia ; and beautifuF slaves 
have been furnished to the Asiatic markets 
from the neighbouring localities. These 
are just what Tubal is represented as deal- 
ing in with Tyre. 

TU'BAL-CA'IX (ivorker of metallic orel). 
One of the sons of Lamech of the line of 
Cain : he is said to have been the first artificer 
in brass, i.e. copper, and iron (Gen. iv. 22). 
Perhaps he was the original of the Yulcan of 
heathen mythology. 

TTJBIE'XI (2 Mace. xii. 17). A colony of 
Jews settled in the places of Tobie (1 Mace. 
V. 13), probably Tob. 

TURBAiN" (Dan. iii. 21, marg.). The word 
so rendered, but in the text 'hats,' more 
properly signifies mantles. The turban is 
a well-known kind of head-dress in common 
use among oriental and Mohammedan na- 
tions. See Head-dress. 

TURPEXTINE-TREE (Ecclus. xxiv. 15). 
The terebinth, Pistacia t^rebintlius, very 
common in the east. 

TURTLE-DO^T:. see Dove. There are 
several species of this bird enumerated by 
Mr. Tristram as common in Palestine, such 
as Turtur awitiis, the turtle-dove, Turtur 
^gjjptiacus, the palm-dove or EgypciAn 
turtle, Columha livia, the rock-dove, &c. 

TY'CHICFS (fortunate). A Christian of 
Asia, possibly an Ephesian, who was St. 
PaiTl's companion in travel (Acts xx. 4). It 
would seem that he carried the epistles to 
the Ephesian and Colossian churches (Eph. 
vi. 21 ; Col. iv. 7). Later journeys of Tychicus 
are mentioned (2 Tim. iv. 12; Tit. iii. 12); 
and it is thought that he and Trophimus 
were associated with Titus in the mission 
to Corinth referred to in 2 Cor. viii. 16-24. 

TYPE. This word is immediately from 
the Greek, which signified originally any- 
thing produced by blows, hence imjiression, 
2-irint (John xx. 2b), figure, form, as an image 
(Acts vii. 43), or, tropically, as the meaning 
of a letter (xxiii. 25), the purport of a doc- 
trine (Rom. vi. 7) ; also, with a more ex- 
act reference to the thing which makes the 
imi:)rc&sioii, counterpart (v. 14); and hence, 



! 



693 m^}U mwmtdQt. 



f generally, pattern, example to he followed 
i or to be ayoided (Acts vli. 44 ; ] Cor. x. 6, 11 ; 
i Phil. lil. 17). If, then, we take type as de- 
noting a rough draught or model from 
• which a more complete image is made, we 
may define a type theologically considered 
as the symbol of some future person or 
thing, the example prepared and designed 
to pre-figure that future person or thing. 
"What is so pre-flgured is commonly called 
the anti-type. 

The reality of a type depends on the 
truthfulness of the supposed relationship. 
1 It is not enough to discover a resemblance. 
' The typical relation must be intended, that 
I is, the type must be designed and prepared 
I by God. The belief in an intended relation- 
ship must not be stigmatized as fanciful. 
I It prevails through various departments of 
} the natural as well as the moral world, the 
law of growth and progress in organized 
j life. ' In the typical system of nature, 
I says Dr. M'Cosh {The Supernatural in relation 
to the Natural), ' the earlier is a sort of pre- 
figuration of the later. The seed contains 
what is to become the full-grown plant. 
' The embryo has already what is to expand 

into the full-grown animal.' 
[ Now, in examining this relation theologi- 
cally (for we may well suppose that the pre- 
ternatural operations of God will be go- 
I verned by laws similar to those which rule 
the order of nature), we have to see whether 
I there is a sufficient basis furnished by scrip- 
ture itself ; for, if not, typical interpreta- 
tion can be but an imaginary thing. That 
there is such a basis, examination of the 
divine word will sufficiently show. There 
are a multitude of illustrations, as when 
j the Baptist was to go before Messiah 'in 
j the spirit and power of Elias' (Luke i. 17), 
j and was actually designated as Elias by 
[ Christ (Mark ix. 12, 13). Again, according 
to the lifting itp of the brazen serpent was to 
be the elevation of Christ upon the cross 
(Numb. xxi. 8, 9 ; John iii. 14, 15). So, too, 
Adam is termed .'(by way of antithesis) a 
figure or type of Christ (Rom. v. 14). And, 
not to accumulate examples,through a great 
part of the epistle to the Hebrews the writer 
expressly asserts that there was an ulterior 
meaning in the ritual of the old dispensa- 
tion, so that it was introductory to and pre- 
signiflcative of the new and better covenant. 
He that misses the understanding of this 
must have a most inadequate conception of 
the Mosaic law. Its ceremonies must appear 
to him burdensome and well-nigh useless 
rules: he must read scripture without a 
I plan : he cannot see the consistent march 
of God's purposes ; nor is his ear open to 
the harmonies of revelation. For in truth, 
though the Jews could not perceive it, 
Christianity lay , in Judaism as leaves and 
fruit lie in the seed. There was an unity 
in the religious design of the two dispen- 
sations, which as time rolled on was con- 
tinually developed, every divinely-given 
rite, and promise, and prophecy disclosing 
more and more God's counsels, even to the 
completion of the Avhole plan in Christ. 
Setting out from this truth, and taking al- 
I ways the New Testament as the key to the 
; fuU understanding of the Old, we conclude 



that type was connected with anti-type, not 
by an accidental similarity of outward cir- 
cumstances, but by a divinely-appointed 
inward relation of one to the other, involv- 
ing the idea of fulfilment. The teaching by 
sensible objects was intended and was cal- 
culated to make a broad impression. It is 
true the whole purpose of God was probably 
not comprehended at the time. The person 
who was a type, or the writer who made 
mention of atypical thing, might not always 
be aware of the fact. Still typical persons 
and things, pointing surely to the future, 
were not without their present use : they 
were institutions in the existing worship, 
or events in the current providence of God, 
with a purpose to accomplish at the time, 
apart from the prospective reference to the 
future. In this prospective aspect type was 
a kind of prophecy, distinguished indeed 
from ordinary prophecy, because it pre- 
flgured while prophecy predicted, but yet 
serving in a manner the same purpose, and 
admitting illustration on similar principles. 
This, then, the real and designed con- 
nection between the Old Testament and the 
New, is the basis of typical interpretation. 

There have been various arrangements 
proposed of types : perbaps they may most 
conveniently be classified as ritual, prophe- 
tical, and historical types. (1). If we compare 
the history and economy of Moses with the 
New Testament, we shall see pre-figura- 
tions of better things to come in the gos- 
pel. The rites and ceremonies prescribed 
were typical of Messiah's work and of the 
blessings thence obtained. This (as before 
remarked) is fully established by the epistle 
to the Hebrews. (2). In using the term 
' projohetical types' care must be taken to 
guard against misapprehension. A prophet 
may perform a symbolic action to convey 
more vividly the idea of what he predicts to 
the minds of those around him ; and yet his 
action may not be aprophetical type. Isaiah 
was to walk naked and barefoot (Isai. xx. 
2-4), to picture out the shameful captivity 
of the Egyptians— but this was symbolical, 
' a sign and wonder,' nothing more. It is, 
however, easy to imagine a combination of 
type and prophecy, and to expect that, by 
means of the typical in action, a body and 
form might be supplied to the prophetic in 
word. Now this, according to Dr. Pairbairn 
(Typol. of Script, 2nd edit, vol. i. book i. 
chap. iv. pp. 100-127), may occur under four 
different modifications, (a). "When a typi 
cal action is historically mentioned in the 
prophetic word; and thus the mention, 
being that of a prophetical circumstance, 
comes to possess a prophetical character. 
Various instances may be found, as in Psal. 
xli. 9 compared with John xiii. 18 ; Exod. 
xii. 46 with John xix. 36. As they origi- 
nally appear, these are of an historical cast ; 
in the one case David's personal experience 
of treachery, the like to which might often 
occur. But it was not merely a casual re- 
production of these facts, and a noting of 
the coincidence, which we find in the gospel 
history. Our Lord and his apostles see 
here a closer connection, a prophetical ele- 
ment, which must find its fulfilment in the 
personal experience of Christ. The utter- 



TYPE J 



m)t Crtai^ttrg at 



894 



ances concern David and the paschal lamh, 
both hearing a typical relation to Messiah; 
BO that their heiug descriptive in the one 
respect necessarily implied their heing pro- 
phetic in the other. What had formerly 
taken place in the experience of the type 
must suhstautially renew itself in the ex- 
perience of the great Anti-type, whatever 
inferior renewals it might And besides, (h). 
When something typical in the past or the 
present is represented in a distinct prophe- 
tical announcement as to appear again in 
the future ; the prophetical in word heing 
combined with the typical in act, into a pro- 
spective delineation of things to come. We 
have an example in Zech. vi. 12, 13 ; w^here 
in language taken from tbe literal re-build- 
ing of the temple a like but more glorious 
-work is predicted for the future. The 
building of the temple was itself typical of 
the incarnation, and of the raising up in 
Christ of that house which should be ' an 
habitation of God through the Spirit : ' see 
John ii. 19 ; Eph. ii. 20-22. Another example 
is inEzek. xxxiv. 23 ; where the future bless- 
ing on God's people is described as a return 
of the person and times of David, (c). When 
the typical, not expressly and formally, but 
iu its essential relations and principles, is 
embodied in an accompanying prediction, 
which foretells things corresponding in 
nature, but far higher in importance. This 
modification is similar to the preceding 
one, but extends beyond it. We have ex- 
amples in the song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii. 
1-10), which seems to have formed in some 
degree the groundwork of that of the Virgin 
(Luke i. 46-55) ; and in Psal. ii. (d). When 
the typical is itself future, and is partly 
described, partly prc-supposed in a prophe- 
tic w^ord, as a ground for the delineation of 
other things yet more distant, to which it 
will hold a typical relation. Examples are to 
be found in those prophecies which, while 
Babvlou yet held her supremacy, depicted 
her fall and the deliverance of captive Judah 
from thraldom, and the return of the banish- 
ed to their own land. The deliverance accom- 
plished from the yoke of Babylon was a 
fitting prelude to the raain subject of the 
prophecy, which, by means of the imagery 
hence supplied, described a greater fall, and 
a happier rescue, and a more settled esta- 
blishment of God's ransomed church in a 
better land, from which they should never 
be cast out. (3). Historical types are the 
characters, actions, and fortunes of some 
eminent persons whose history is recorded 
in the Old Testament, ordered by divine 
providence to be pre-flgurations of the 
characters, actions, and fortunes of future 
persons who should live under the gospel 
dispensation. And here it is seen that 
•Christ is the end of the history as well as 
of the law of the Old Testament.' 

Many rules have been given for the inter- 
pretation of types. Only a few observations 
which appear most likely to be useful can 
be made here. 1. There must'be a fit appli- 
cation of the type to the anti-type. It has 
been already shown that more is required 
than mere resemblance to constitute one 
thing the type of another. There must 
haTe been designed resemblance. The type 



and the anti-type must both have been pre- 
ordained, as constituent parts of the same 
general scheme of divine providence. It is 
the previous design and the pre-ordained 
connection which constitute the relation 
of type and anti-type. It is necessary to 
repeat and insist on this, because, obvious 
as the rule is, it is continually neglected ; 
and fanciful expositors seeing types in 
everything have almost turned the scrip- 
ture into a book of riddles. Thus some 
have declared that the oak in which Absa- 
lom was caught was a type of Christ's 
cross ; and the long war between the house 
of Saul and the house of David (2 Sam. iii. 1) 
is said to typify the contest between the 
righteousness of works and that of faith 
(Muenscher, On Types and Typical Interpre- 
tation, in Amer. Bibl. Repos., Jan. 1841, pp. 
93, &c., very well exposes this unwarranta- 
ble licence). 2. There is often more in the 
type than in the anti-type ; so that we must 
not apply all the particulars of the one to 
the circumstances of the other. But l)e it 
observed, that it is only in accidental 
particulars, not belonging to the typical 
relation, that this can occur. A type as such 
can contain no more than the anti-type. But 
God may very well design one person or 
thing to" be a shadow of somewhat to come, 
not in every particular but only in respect 
to some special feature ; so that every cir- 
cumstance in a type is not typical; and 
great care must be used in discovering the 
intended typical resemblance. For exam- 
ple, the ritual of the law generally points 
onward to Christ ; but many things per- 
taining to the Levitical priests have no 
counterpart in Christ. The Mosaic priest 
was to sacrifice for his own sins (Heb. v. 
3), an act in no respect applicable to Christ 
(vii. 27). 3. Frequently there is more in the 
anti-type than in the type. No single type 
can fully express the life and actions of 
Christ, who far transcends all adumbration 
of him by earthly things. One type, there- 
fore, may signify one particular and another 
type another of him. And so from the im- 
perfection of a single type we occasionally 
find two conjoined, as in the appointment 
of the two goats (Lev. xvi. 5-28). 4. A sin- 
ful person or a sinful act must not be made 
a type of Christ. That which is bad in itself 
cannot pre-flgure that whicli is good. Neg- 
lecting this rule, some expositors have 
represented the adultery of David as having 
a tvpical reference to Messiah. And iu the 
case of the relation of Jonah to Christ we 
must carefully observe that the point of 
resemblance consists not in the prophet's 
being in the belly of the fish, which was 
the punishment of disobedience, but iu his 
coming forth alive after three days, a fact 
wdiich pre-figured the resurrection of 
Christ. 5. Much difference of opinion has 
prevailed on the limitation of types. By 
some it has been held that, unless we have 
the express authority of the sacred writers, 
we cannot conclude with certainty that any 
person or thing mentioned in the Old Tes- 
tament is a type of Christ, however g-r.eat 
the resemblance which may appear to exist. 
But this is too restricted a view. The 
I fanciful extremes into which some inter- 







i 


S9o mhl2 WiUoMtn^e. [tyrb 




il 

1 

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i 
•1 

1 

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1 
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j 

I 
1 


preters have run may teach us a salutary 
caution, but need not require us to deny 
the existence of types which all reason and 
analogy are ready to point out. The exam- 
ples furnished by scripture may be taken 
as specimens rather than as exhausting 
the whole number of divinely-intended pre- 
flgurations. They are to establish a prin- 
ciple which may properly be acted on in 
other cases. Indeed, just as our Lord re- 
prehended his disciples (Luke xxiv. 25) for 
failing to recognize largely enough the 
element of prophecy, so the author of the 
epistle to the Hebrews blames them for not 
having better appreciated the typical cha- 
racter of Melchizedek (v. 11, 12). 6. One 
other caution shall be added. I^o doctrine 
must bepressed as fundamental if grounded 
merely on tj^ical analogy. This analogy 
may illustrate a teaching Avhich is declared 
in plain language ; but it cannot be taken 
as proof of anything not otherwise distinct- 
ly taught. 

TYRAN'NUS (king). A person at Ephesus 
in whose 'school' St. Paul disputed (Acts 
xix. 9). This might have been a private 
synagogue ; or, more probably, Tyrannus 
was a Gentile sophist. 

TYRE {rock:). An ancient and most cele- 
brated maritime city of Phcenicia, about 
twenty miles to the south of Sidon. It Avas 
seated on an island. But there was also a 
city on the continent bearing the name of 
Palsetyrus, that is, old Tyre ; and questions 
have been raised which of the two was the 
more ancient. If the name is to be taken 
as an indication, we must suppose that the 
town upon the rocky island was the original. 

Be this as it may, we find Tyre mentioned 
early in the sacred volume. In the di vision 
of Canaan the border of Asher is described 
as reaching to ' the strong city Tyre ' (Josh, 
xix. 29). No attempt, however, was made 
by the Israelites to subdue it ; and indeed 
for some centuries no further notice is 
taken of Tyre. Sidon, or Zidon, seems to 
have been the most important city ; and the 
name 'Zidonians ' is used for the inhabit- 
ants of Phoenicia (Judges i. 31, xviii. 7, 28). 
It is not till the reign of David that we 
again hear of Tyre. We then find it under 
the government of a king called Hiram, 
with whom David was in political alliance, 
and on terms of personal friendship. Prom 
Tyre both timber and skilled workmen were 
obtained for the buildings erected bv the 
Hebrew monarch (2 Sam. vi. 11; 1 Ohron. 
xiv, 1) ; and up to Tyre extended David's 
census (2 Sam. xxiv. 7). The alliance was 
continued in the reign of Solomon. It was 
to Tyre that that prince applied when about 
to commence the temple, and to carry out 
his other magnificent architectural plans. 
He met with a ready response. Hiram 
replied in terms which showed him to have 
■ some knowledge of the God of Israel ; and, 
besides, it was greatly to the advantage of 
the Tyrian king to receive in th e interchange 
of commerce the corn and wine and oil 
which were plentifully produced in Israel. 
Timber was cut in Lebanon, and conveyed 
by floats to Joppa by the Tyrians, whence 
it could be transported overland to Jerusa- 
lem. Tyrian workmen were also furnished ; 


and the principal architect, though son of 
an Israelitish woman, had a Tyrian father, 
and had become in Tyre skilful in all the 
different branches of art for which his 
services were required. Thisfact, of course, 
speaks strongly for the perfection to which 
the arts were then carried in Tyre (1 Kins-s 
v., vii. 13, 14 ; 2 Chron. ii.). After Solomon's 
buildings were completed, he presented to 
the Tyrian king twenty cities in Galilee. 
The two monarchs met on this occasion ; 
and the cities did not please Hiram. They 
were therefore restored to Solomon, who 
fortified them and colonized them with 
Israelites (1 Kings ix. 10-14 ; 2Chron. viii. 
2). This did not, however, interrupt the 
friendship ; and the Tyrian fleets, in con- 
junction with those of Solomon, were in the 
habit of making trading voyages (1 Kings 
ix. 25-28, X. 11-22; 2 Chron. viii. 17, 18, ix. 
21). It might be that it was from this close 
intercourse with the Phcenicians that Solo- 
mon was led to go after the Zidonian god- 
dess, and to have Zidonian women in his 
harem (1 Kings xi. 1, 5). 

We hear no more of Tyre for some time ; 
but at length an alliance was contracted 
which proved of the most fatal consequence. 
Ahab, the king of Israel, married Jezebel, 
daughter of the king of Tyre. It is true that 
he is called 'king of the Zidonians' (xvi. 
31) ; but there can be no reasonable doubt 
that the Eth-baal there mentioned wag 
Ithobalus, king of Tyre and Sidon, and 
priest of Astarte, who raised himself to the 
throne after murdering the king Philetos 
(see Keil, Comm. on Kings, vol. i. p. 259, 
note). Idol-worship was thus established 
in Israel, and introduced also into Judah 
by the marriage of Jehoram with Athaliah, 
Jezebel's daughter (2 Kings viii. 18, 26, 27). 
But whatever friendship there was with the 
Tyrians and the two Israelitish kingdoms 
would 1)6 ended by the revolution in Sa- 
maria which placed Jehu on the throne, and 
the deserved execution of Athaliah in Ju- 
dah. There is, however, a notice of Tyre as 
hostile to Judah which has been supposed 
to be of an earlier date. It is contained in 
Psal. Ixxxiii. 11, where the Tyrians are de- 
scribed as confederating with other nations 
against God's people. This is generally 
referred to the great war of Moab and 
others against Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xx. l). 
It is not easy to see why Tyre should join 
against a king who had allied himself with ! 
Ahab and Jezebel so closely connectedwith 
Tyre. 

In later times unquestionably there was 
bitter enmity between the Tyrians and the 
Hebrews. J oel and Amos complain that the 
Tyrians had made bond-slaves of and had 
sold away the Israelites in the time of their 
distress, and therefore they denounce 
judgment against them (Joel iii. 4-8 ; Amos 
i. 9, 10) ; and Isaiah afterwards delivers a 
remarkable prophecy — ' the burden of Tyre ' 
(Isai. xxiii.). Various opinions have been 
held as to the interpretation of this pro- 
phecy. For there are three notable sieges 
of Tyre recorded in history, by Shalmaneser, 
by Nebuchadnezzar, and by Alexander the 
Great. Some critics think that the denun- 
ciation of Isaiah referred to the first of 




1 
1 

1 

J 







tyke] 



896 



these: more likely it was fulfilled in the 
second (see Henderson, Isaiah, pp. 202, 203). 

The first of these sieges is not mentioned 
in scripture. According to Josephus, it 
occurred when a king named Eluloeus 
reigned at Tyre. It must have taken place 
after the Assyrians had subjected the rest 
of Phoenicia, ahout 721 B.C. ; and it is said 
to have lasted five years ; hut though hardly 
pressed the city held out against the invader 
{Antia., lih. ix. 14, § 2). Tyre after this 
flourished greatly, extending her commerce 
and planting her colonies in distant coun- 
tries. Carthage, indeed, her most iiohle 
colony, is said by Josephus to have been 
founded a century and a half after the 
building of Solomon's temple {Contr.Apio'n., 
lib. i. §18). The siege by Nebuchadnezzar 
was longer than the preceding one. Jere- 
miah predicts it (Jer. sxv. 22, xxvii. 2-6) ; also 
Ezekiel more particularly, who describes 
the splendour of Tyre with its peculiar 
privileges and its vast trade, and declares 
not only that Js'ebuchadnezzar shall come 
against it, but details minutely that ulti- 
mate ruin of it and desolation which 
modern travellers have found fulfilled 
(Ezek. xxvi., xxvii., xxvili. 1-19). The 
king of Babvlon beleaguered Tyre for thir- 
teen vears ; and the city which had re 



first under the Syrian monarchy, and then 
under the Romans, who professed to respect 
its freedom ; though Augustus is said to 
have taken away some of its liberties. 

Besides the incidental notices occurring 
in different parts of scripture, the prophet 
Ezekiel has in a chapter already referred to 
(Ezek. xxvii.) left a detailed account of the 
large amplification of Tyrian trade. In addi- 
tion to the commodities from more distant 
countries, as metals from Tarshish or Spain, 
rams and goats from Arabia, precious 
stones, spices, and gold from Sheba and 
Raamah, it is said that of the fir-trees of 
Shenir or Hermou, of the cedars of Lebanon, 
and the oaks of Bashan, their ships were 
constructed, that Judah supplied wheat, 
and honey, and oil, and balm, and that from 
Damascus came the choice wine of Helbon, 
and white wool. Verily Tyre was indeed a 
mart of nations; and strangely must the 
warning voice have sounded Avhich de- 
clared that all these riches should be dis- 
persed, and the 'crowning city' be bare 
'like the topof a rock ... a place to spread 
nets upon.' 

In our Lord's time Tyre was still a popu- 
lous town ; and he declared that, if the 
mighty works which were done in Chorazin 
and Bethsaida had been done in Tyre and 



ioiced'at the fall of Jerusalem was now her- Sidou, they would have repented (Matt. xi. 
self to drink the cup of suffering. But it : 21, 22). Judgment was hanging over Tyre ; 
ha^ been doubted whether ^'ebuchadnezzar | but a worse condemnation awaited tlie 
actually took it. Stress is laid on the as- i cities which had had greater privileges, 
sertion of Ezekiel that he had no wages for ; Christ visited once ' the coasts of Tyre and 
his hard service against Tyre (xxix. 18-20), : Sidon' (xv. 211, and performed there a deed 
and it is argued that this could not have : of mercy ; but it is not likely that he ever 
been said if he had really captured the city. | entered the city. Js'evertheless tne gospel 
But it has been alleged in reply that the 1 was received there (Acts xxi. 3-6) ; ana lU 
continental citv fell, while the inhabitants 1 subseauent times Tyre was an episcopal see. 
placed their riches in their vessels, and re- \ Then, surely, some at least of her mer- 
treatedto the island which the conaueror ' chandize and her hire' must have Deen 



could not assail; conseciuently his prey 
was but the deserted habitations (see Ewald, 
BieProph. cles A.B., vol. ii. p. 324). Then 
perhaps it was that Tyre was forgotten 
(Isai. xxiii. 15). Yet it seems evident that 
Tyre must have become subject to the 



holiness to the Lord' (Isai. xxiii. 18). It 
mav be added that we have a remarkable 
illustration of Tyre's dependence on Pales- 
tine for corn in Acts xii. 20-22. 

The final blow was given when the city 
was occupied by the Saracens in 1291 a.d. 



Babvlonian kintr, a vassal prince being al- since that time it has_ sunk to its present 
lowed to hold the government. For it ' — ^^^^ -^-^^ ^i^^ "^i ■ 

, afterwards passed under the Persian rule, 
I and again, by the decree of Cyrus, supplied 
the materials of the temple at Jerusalem 
(Ezra iii. 7) ; when other trade with the Jews 
sprang up (Xeh. xiii. 16). The Tyrians, too, 
furnished their contingent to the expedition 
of Xerxes against Greece (Herodotus, lib. 
vii. 98). In the course of Alexander's cam- 
paign. Tyre alone of the Phoenician cities 
resisted him. She depended on her in- 
sular position ; and for seven months the 
great congueror was engaged in the siege. 
The harbours of Tyre (there are said to have 
been two, north and south) were blockaded ; 
and a mi arhtv mound was constructed which 
joined the island to the continent. The city 
was taken, and multitudes of its inhabitants 
were put to death ' or sold for slaves ; and 
ever since Tyre has stood upon a spit of 
land running out into the sea, with no ap- 
pearance, so far as ordinary observation 
goes, of having ever been surrounded by 
the waters. Yet, after this catastrophe. 
Tyre reyiyed, and was again flourishing, 



....serable state of ruin. The island Dr. 
Robinson describes as 'now unoccupied 
except bv fishermen, as "a place to spread 
nets upon "... The present city (Sfir) stands 
upon the junction of the island and isthmus 
. . . nothing more than a market-town, a 
small sea-port, hardly deserving the name 
of a citv . . . The houses are for the most 
part mere hovels . . . The streets are narrow 
lanes, crooked and filthy ' {Bibl Ees., vol. ii. 
pp. 464, 466). Dr. Thomson observed at the 
extreme northern end of the island a vast 
stone nearly seventeen feet long, and six 
and a half thick, which was no doubt a por- 
tion of the ancient wall. He speaks also of 
e-ranite columns, and of the ruins of 'a 
superb temple, possibly the remnant of the 
celebrated teuiple of Hercules. Referring 
to the apparent blending in the prophecies 
of the continental and insular city, he says 
that there is 'a propriety in their joining 
together continental and insular Tyre. The 
same people, guilty of the same vices, they 
deserved and received the same judgments, 
though in different degrees, and at varioiM 



897 ^mt mmmtiSQt. 



times. The one was totally destroyed, never 
to rise again ; the other repeatedly over- 
whelmed, but again partially reviving, just 
as the whole drift of the prophecies would 
lead us to expect,' He thinks that there 
was some junction between the two cities, 
even in Solomon's time, and that ' conti- 
nental Tyre extended along the shore from 
Ras el 'Ain (a fountain) to the island.' The 
measurement would then ' agree with the 
statement of Pliny that Tyre was nineteen 
miles in circumference, including old Tyre, 
but without it about four.' He adds : 
' With but few exceptions, it is now a 
cluster of miserable huts, inhabited by 
about 3500 impoverished Metawelies and 



[UNICOKN 

Arab Christians, destitute alike of education, 
of arts, and of enterprise, carrying on with 
Egypt a small trade in tobacco from the 
neighbouring hills, and of lava miU-stonea 
from the Hauran.' An attempt was made a 
while ago by Redschid Pasha to revive Tyre, 
but ' it is so sickly that not even a village 
of any size can be established there' (The 
Land and the Book, pp. 178-185). 

TTR'IANS (Ecclus. xlvi. 18). Inhabitants 
of Tyre. 

TY'RUS {rode) (Jer. xxy. 22, xxvii. 3, 
xlvii. 4; Ezek. xxvi. 2, 3, xxvii. 2, 3, 32, 
xxviii. 2, 12, xxix. 18 ,* Hos. ix. 13 : Amos i. 
9, 10 ; 2ech. ix. 2, 3). See Tyre. 

TZOR {id.) (Josh. xix. 29, marg.). Tyre. 



U 



TJ'CAL (I shall prevail). One of thepersons, 
otherwise unknown, to whom Agur ad- 
dressed his maxims (Prov. xxx. l). 

TJ'EL (will of God?). One who had married 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 34). 

U'KNAZ (1 Chron. Iv. 15, marg.) See 
Kexaz, 3. The word TJknaz is Kenaz with 
a copulative conjunction prefixed. Per- 
haps a previous name was accidentally 
omitted. 

TJ'L AT {strong xoater ?). A river of Susiana, 
on the banks of which Daniel had one of 
his visions (Dan. viii. 2, 16). It would seem 
to be the Eulasus of the Greeks. Mr. Loftus 
has specially investigated it, and believes 
it to be a river or artificial channel which 
connected the Kerkhah (Choaspes) and the 
Kdrrtn (Pasatigris). The ancient channel 
may yet be traced, though now there is but 
a small runner of water in it. And, as the 
EulEeus is said to have surrounded the cita- 
del of the Susians, the Kerkhah and this old 
channel were the two streams intended. 
This explains the words of Daniel, ' between 
the two banks of TJlai,' i.e. between the 
two streams (Loftus, Chaldea and Susiana, 
chap. xxxi. pp. 423-431). 

U'LAM {in front).— 1. One of the descend- 
ants of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 16, 17).— 
2. A Benjamite, it would seem of the family 
of Saul (viii. 39, 40). 

TJL'LA {yoke). A chieftain of Asher 
(1 Chron. vii. 39). 

UM'MAH {community). A city of Asher 
(Josh. xix. 30). 

UNCIRGTJMCTSION, THE (Rom. ii. 26, 27 ; 
Gal. ii. 7). Gentiles, the heathen. 

UNCLEAN. See Clean and Unclean. 
A person who had contracted ceremonial 
un cleanness was, according to'the Mosaic 
law, deprived for a time of social privileges, 
and cut ofE from sacred functions. Thus the 
priests who were defiled must not eat of the 
holy things (Lev. xxii. 2-9) ; and one of the 
people generally, if unclean, must not take 
part in sacrificial offerings (vii. 20, 21) or 
hold his position as one of the congrega- 
tion of the Lord. There were three degrees 



of uncleanness measured by time, and the 

kind of purification necessary,viz.that which 
lasted till even— such was contact with dead 
animals ; that which defiled for seven days 
— such as resulted from the touching of the 
human corpse (Numb. xix. 11) ; that which 
was occasioned by certain diseases or infirmi- 
ties-leprosy for example, by the menstrual 
fiux, and child-birth ; these cases of unclean- 
ness lasted as long as the morbid state con- 
tinued. Purification from the first-named 
was received by washing the clothes, from 
the second by the use of the water of 
separation (9), from the third by speci- 
fied sacrifices. It is impossible to enter 
here into the details of personal un clean- 
ness; but let it be noted that the disabilities 
and propagation of it marked in the most 
telling way the loathsomeness of sin, and 
the hatred which God had for everything' 
which deflleth. See Pitrification. 

UNCTION. See Anoint, Ointment. The 
word is used in l John ii. 20 in a spiritual 
sense as denoting a gracious divine commu- 
nication : comp. Rev. iii. 18. 

UNDERGIRD. The ship in which St 
Paul sailed to Italy is said to have been 
undergirded (Acts xxvii. 17) ; that is, some 
turns of a cable were passed round the 
hull. Mr. Smith produces some examples 
of this undergirding in modern seaman- 
ship {Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul 
chap. iii. pp. 104-106). ' 

UNICORN. The word by which the He- 
brew reim is rendered in our translation 
(Numb, xxiii. 22, xxiv. 8 ; Dent, xxxiii 17 • 
Job xxxix. 9, 10 ; Psal. xxii. 21, xxix. 6, xcii' 
10 ; Isai. xxxiv. 7). But it is clear that the 
animal intended had more than a single 
horn. For, though our version has * horns 
of unicorns' (Deut. xxxiii. 17), yet in the 
margin we find ' an unicorn,' the word being 
really in the singular number. This fact 
renders it unlikely that either the rhino- 
ceros, or the animal like a horse, with a 
single long curved horn growing out of the 
forehead, discovered in-Thibet {Quart. Rev 
vol. xxiv. pp. 120, 121), can toe meant. Some 

3 M 



umTY OF THE SPmT]_^^e_Cte^^ 



.vnuTd understand tlie Oryx leiicorijx, a large 
redes ?f antelope; and certainly the A^^^ic 
uvaie ijv wliich it is known corresponds with 
t Ve Hebrew ree»i. But this animal may he 
t^mfd Others, with much greater proha- 
MUtr lix upon the Bos dubalus, otherwise 
]^&TAlus, or oriental huflalo whic^ 
is still very common m Palestine. Mi . Carey 
in his Book of Job has examined the ques- 

^fvty'afsodated and placed^^^^^ 
with bulls or bullocks ; .^^^^^^^ 

S mention made of ^^reBn^inJo^^x ; 
« 19 is decisiTC of its being a ^^lld ox. it is 
tnoken of hi7elation to the stall, ploughing, : 
ha?rowinV, and carting, also in connection 
with otheV wild animals, certain species of | 
which have been domesticated. ' The analo- i 
S^theii; he proceeds, ' of the context won d : 
w5d us to suppose that such as the wild 
goat, or ?£e stag that is removed from the 
haunts of man, or the wild ass, is to the 
common goat, and stag, and ass respec- , 
tivdy such is the reem to the. com mow or 
dmnlsticox. Besides which, it is described 
domestic ac^ manifestly an untamable 
aiimaCand on^e useless to man f or^ any 
ftcrvicultural purpose. Judging fiom his 
oSrSppea\-ance,anatpmy^^^^^^ 
have suDDOsedhim (such is God * intimation 
hS Sle of ploughing, harrowing, &c ; 
1 S exnerience shows that such is his dis- 
Sion She cannot be brought under 
the vole. In short, whilst in all outward 
aupeaiance he is an ox, yet in untamab e- 
n??fof disposition he shows himself to be 

^^^^ItY 0y^¥™klT (Eph. iv. 3, 13). 1 
The holy feUowship in which the divme 
Si^?-it unites believers. See Co.rMUXioN. 

i«-STLe^?e^Sr^h^5^S 
from captivity (Neh. xii 9). 
UPHAR'Sm (Dan. v. 2o). See Me^e 
U'PHAZCJer.x. 9;Dan.x.o). Ophii f 
UPPER ROOM. (2 Kings i. 2 ; Mam xiv. 
in • T.Skexxii 12 ; Acts i. 13, ix. 37, 39, xx. 8). 
The lar-er houses In Palestine had upper 
ap£tmef^s,whichwerethosebe 
and the most desirable and quiet part of the 
IstablfsSnent. The mode of arrangement 
is probably much the same now as it was m 
ancient times. The lower story, the ord - 
i nary residence of the family, is called auZ - 
veh, or ground-floor : the upper is cdUvf' 
I^d iV still ^iven to guests who are to be 
??eated w th ionour. It was this chamber 
that was assigned to Elijah, at Zarephath, 
and not a^neIner room, as implied by the 
word 'loft' in our version (l Kings xvii. 19). 

^UR57Sorpossibly/ortr.ss) Thef^^^^^^^^ 
of one of David's heroes (1 Oliron. xi. 3o). 
BuUn 2 Sam. xxiii. 34 the same person ap- 
narentlv is called Ahasbai. 
"" vi ilicjM, land ot lights). A f or glac^ 
which has always the addition' of tlieOhal- 
dees ' where Abraham's family resided, and 
from which he with his father Terah and 



other relatives went forth to Haran (Gen. 
xi. 28, 31, XV. 7 ; Neh. ix. 7). i 
There are discordant opinions as to tiie 
localitv of TJr. Some have identified it with 
Edessa, the modern Orfah, and some with 
a Persian fortress, so called, between Dura 
on the Tigris and Isisibis. Others suppose 
it to be Warka. But this is more probably 
the ancient Erech. On the whole it may be 
mis? reiTonably imagined to be or 
Umalieir where considerable rums exist. 
DrSsch indeed, whose authority is. de- 
ieiVedly high, disagrees with this opinion, 
and belfevel TJr to be the ^^ame of a province 
to which Haran belonged. But his only 
J-earoii is that Abraham, asheinterpretsthe^, 
text was at Haran when the divine sum- 
mmis cametohim (Gen. xii.l), whereas God 
S el^ewTere s.id to have brought him from 
Ur (Comvi. on Old Test. Gen., p. 323). This 
ran hardlv be reason sufficient. _ 

MuSever is unquestionably very ancient. 
It is sftuated on the right bank of the Eu- 
T.hrates near the marshes which the conflu- 
Ince of the Shat-el-Hie and the Shat-e - 
Kahr with the Euphrates has formed; and 
hi peHods of inundation the rums are sur- ^ 
rounded by water. They are of an oval 
sSape, and measure about half a mile from , 
north to south. The name Mugeyeris said : 
to s^^-nify ' place,' or ' mother, of bitumen,' i 
hich is the cement used in the remarkable , 
?emple here built in stages, two of which j 
rema 11 This temple is in the form of a | 
mraUelogram 198 by 133 feet. The lower | 
ft'o?^ fs supported by thick bi^^^^^^^ 
the height of the whole is 70 feet. The ex- 
teSoi fs faced with red kiln-baked bricks ; | 
and he interior is constructed of bncks 
burnt or sun-dried. Th e name of TJrukh , an 
I earlv king, 2230 B.C., has been f o^m^ upon 
' the bricks ; and the place was probably the 
capital of this monarch. The temple was 
dedicated to the moon-god Hurki: hence 
perhaps tbe town derived its name. The rest 
of the ruins are for the most Part tombs 
°Kalisch; pp. 292, 293; Loftus, Chaldea, 

^ ur'bUb (bdoming to 
A Christian man in Rome to whom St. Paul 
sent a salutation (Rom. xvi. 9)- ^ , , 
wni tnenn.-l. The father of Bezaleel, 
th? a'i'tiS of the tabernacle : he wasof the 
tribe of Judah (Exod. xxxi. 2, xxx^ . 30, 
xxxviii 22; 1 Chron. ii. 20; 2 Chron. i. 5). 
_9 The father of one of Solomons com- 
missariat officers (1 Kings iv. 19)--^- 
Oiie 6f the Levite porters who had married 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 24). 

UR'IAH (jiame or light of Jehovali).-}. 
One of the distinguished officers of David s 
army He is called ^ the Hittite : ' Possibly, 
born of Hittite race, he or some ancestor 
had become a Hebrew proselyte. He ^as 
husband of Bath-sheba, with whom DaMd 
formed an adulterous connection whUe 
TTriah was in the field under Joab. Da^ id s 
SVaedI?^ble attempts to conceal J^s crime, 
and, on their failure, cold-blooded niurder 
of Uriah, are faithfully ^arnited by the 
Scred historian. Uriah is represented as a 
Sav^and high-minded man (2 Sam xi xn 
9 10, 15, xxiii. 39 ; 1 Kings xv. o ; 1 C^on. xi. 
41).-2 (lsai.viii. 2). See TJmJAK 1.-3. A 



S99 



priest, father of that Meremoth who Tvas one 
of those who weighed the vessels brought 
by Ezra (Ezra viii. 33). See TJrijah, 3. 

URI'AS (Matt. i. 6). Uriah, 1. 

URI'AS (1 Esdr. ix. 43). Urijah (Neh. 
viii. 4). 

TJ'RIEL {flame of God).— I. A Levite of 
the family of Kohath (1 Chron. vi. 24). But 
see 36, where three descents are given 
differently, and the name Zephaniah an- 
swers to Uriel.— 2, The chief of the Koha- 
thites in David's time (xv. 5, 11).— 3. The 

. father of Michaiah or Maachah, w^ife of 
Rehohoam (2 Chron. xiii. 2). But in xi. 20 
Maachah is called the daughter of Ahsalom. 
It would seem that Uriel married Absalom's 
daughter Tamar (his sons not surviving 
him), and had Maachah by her (2 Sam. xiv. 
27 ; 1 Kings xv. 2). 

URI'JAH {flame of Jehovah').-— 1. A high 
priest in the reign of Ahaz. He Aveakly 
complied with the order w^hich the king sent 
him to make an altar like that used for idola- 
trous worship at Damascus, and to sacri- 
fice upon it instead of on the one wdiich Solo- 
mon had constructed after the divine pat- 
tern (2 Kings xvi. 10-16). He is also called 
Uriah (Isai. viii. 2).— 2. The son of Shemaiah 
of Kirjath-jearim who prophesied against 
Judah and Jerusalem in the reign of Jehoi- 
akira. The king was enraged, and resolved 
to put him to death. Urijah, however, fled 
Into Egypt : but, as Jehoiakim was Pharaoh's 
nominee, he had no difficulty in seizing the 
prophet there. Urijah was brought back to 
Jerusalem and executed (Jer. xxvi. 20-23). 
— 3. A son of the family of Koz and fsther 
of Meremoth (Neh. iii. 4, 21). Perhaps it 

I was the same who stood by Ezra when he 

I read the law (viii. 4). 

I U'RIM AND THUM'MIM. Few matters 
I connected with the ancient Hebrew ritual 
j have excited more curiosity than the Urim 
I and Thummim. The scripture gives no de- 
; scription of the things meant. In the direc- 
tions communicated to Moses for the high 
priest's garments it is simply said that the 
; Urim and Thummim are to be put into the 
j holy breast-plate, to ' be upon Aaron's heart, 
when he goeth in before the Lord ' (Exod. 
xxviii.30). But it is observable that, whereas 
I certain skilled artists made the robes and 
the furniture of the tabernacle with the 
tabernacle also, there is no mention of 
any making of Urim and Thummim : it is 
Moses himself who, when all is finished, 
and Aaron arrayed, puts these into the 
breast-plate (Lev. viii. 8). By means of 
Urim and Thummim counsel from the Lord 
was to be delivered (Numb, xxvii. 21) ; and 
the possession thereof was the crowning 
glory of the priestly tribe (Deut. xxxiii. 8). 
In after times we find this mode of consult- 
ing God exercised (1 Sam. xiv. 18, 19, 36, 37, 
xxii. 2, 6, 9-12, xxviii. 6, xxx. 7, 8); and subse- 
quently to the Babylonish captivity we have 
the impossibility noticed of discriminating 
the right descent of some who claimed the 
priesthood, until there stood up a priest 
with Urim and Thummim (Ezra ii. 63 ; Neh. 
vii. 65). The most, then, that we can gather 
seems to be that the Urim and Thummim 
i were no work of art, that they were con- 
nected with the hreast-plate of the high 



priest's ephod, and that they were put in 
after this breast-plate with its rows of pre- 
cious stones was completed. 

These things duly considered, several of 
the theories of explanation are proved un- 
founded. Thus it has been imagined that 
Urim and Thummim were the stones on the 
shoulders of the priest ; but they are ex- 
pressly said to be upon his breast. They have 
been identified with the gems in rows in the 
breast-plate; but, after these gems w^ere 
engraven and in their place, the Urim and 
Thummim w^ere put in. It is needless, how- 
ever, to enumerate all the theories or differ- 
ent guesses which have been excogitated. 

The origin of Urim and Thummim has been 
traced to Egypt, The meaning of the words 
is lights and 2^erfectio7is; and it would seem 
that symbols of light and truth wero worn 
by the Egyptian priesthood, an image re- 
presenting truth, and the mystic scarabsiL'^ 
or beetle which denoted light. But, even 
granting that this notion were a just one, lit- 
tle progress would be made in elucidating 
Urim and Thummim, andin discoveringhow 
the divine response was obtained thereby. 

The view adopted by archbishon Trench 
is curious and well worth attention. He 
sets out with the principle that, whatever 
the Urim and Thummim might be, two dis- 
tinct things were not meant : they were two 
names for one and the same thing: hence 
Urim alone is repeatedly spoken of (Numb, 
xxvii. 21 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 6). Now the breast 
plate was doubled (Exod. xxviii. 16) ; that 
is, it was a bag, or purse, adorned with 
costly jewellery and of elaborate Avorkman- 
ship. It was made to contain something; 
and, as the outer case Avas so magnificent, 
that which Avas placed in it must have been 
more precious still. What was there which 
was of rarer value? The archbishop be- 
lieves that, among the stones on the breast- 
plate externallj^ one was wanting, the one 
far more lustrous, and perfect, than all I 
others— that priceless gem, the diamond. 
What if this were placed inside ? What if 
thereon were engraved the ineffable Name ? 
When the apocalyptic seer would describe 
the priestly dignity to which the faithful 
ones should be advanced, he says that each 
shall have a white stone— not dead milky 
white, but a sparkling colourless brilliant, 
on which there should be a secret name 
(Pv,ev. ii. 17). It might be there was a refer- 
ence intended to the Urim. If such a stone, 
inscribed with the great Name, were en- 
folded in the breast-plate, none but the high 
priest could,read or know that nam-e {Comm. 
on Epistles to Seven Churches, pp. 12-1-127). 

But, if this were so, how was the divine 
response obtained ? Was it that by gazing 
on the brilliant the priest's thoughts were 
concentrated and raised so that the words 
he uttered were not his own 1 It might be 
so, provided we do not suppose he was 
thrown into an ecstatic state in which per- 
sonal consciousness was lost. Such a no- 
tion must not be entertained for a moment. 
And if an argument against it were wanting 
the address of Saul to Ahiah, ' withdraw 
thine hand ' (1 Sam. xiv. 19), would be deci- 
sive. But here the matter must be left : it 
is shrouded with an awful veil. 



trsuBY] 



900 ! 



USURY. Tiae gain exacted alcove the 
principal, or ^vliat was lent in consideraaon 
It tlie lo'an, now comnipnly nnderstood as 
excessive profit. Lending for profit was 
Sdden among tlie Hebrews ; tliongli to 
a stranger it was allowed (Exod^xn.2o 
Lev. XXV. 36, 37; Deut. xxiii 19 20, and 
elsewliere : comp. Matt. xxv. 27 ; Lnke xix. 
23). See LOAX. 

U'TA (1 Esdr. v. 30). 

U'T^H \I (whom Jelwvali s7iCConrs).—i. A 
descendant ot Judali (1 Chron i^; ^J---- 
One of those who went from Bahylon ^ith 
Ezra (Ezra viii.U).__ 

U'TET a Esdr. viii. 40). Uthai, 2. 
VZ (fertile land2\-l. The son of Aram 
.Gen X. 23 : 1 Chron. i. r7).-2. A descendant 
of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 28 ; 1 Chron. 
i 42) See for their posterity the next arti- 
cle Hnz (Gen. xxii. 21) is the same name. 

UZ (id ^ There has heen much keen dis- 
cussion 'as to the locality of Uz, the coun- 
trv in which the patriarch Joh resided. The 
g7ne^-S opinion would place it in Idumea 
f^e findUz first mentioned in the t^hle of 
nations (Gen. x. 23 ; 1 Chron. 1. 1-). It must 
have heen exposed to marauding Sabeans 
aSd Chaldeans, and was probably not very 
far from Teman, the residence of Eliphaz 
Job i 15, 17, ii. 11) ; and Teman was near to 
Petra kow the Septuagint translators 
render Uz as Ausitis : and accordmg to 
Ptolemv (lib. v. 19^ there was a tribe called 
^sitTTn the northern part of the desert 
£-abfanear the Euphrates Hence we may 
not unreasonably conclude that Uz wa. a 
re-ion between Idumea and the Euphrates 
(«ee Kalisch, Comm. on Old Test Gen., mx 
285 286). This view is confirmed by the 
notices we have of Uz in other parts of 
scripture. For the ' daughter of Edom is 
deirihed as dwelling in the land of Uz 
film ix. 21), an appropriate expression 
only if rz were a province occupied by 
EdSmites without their own boundarj-^. And 
asain Uz and Edom are si^cially di.tm- 
Jvished (Jer. xxv. 20, 21). V^e are further 
fed tS consider, from the mention of Uz and 
Buz as sons of 2sahor (G|n xxii 20 21), the 
probability that some oH?,<it 
Sad settled in the land of Lz, indicating a 
connection of the latter with Mesopotamia 
or the vicinity of the two regions. And so 
with the Horite Uz (xxxvi. 28 ; 1 Chron. i. 
42^ • a part of the Horites roamed north- 
eastward in the Arabian desert, and amal- 
gamated with the tribe of Uz, which had 
cnread in those tracts (Kalisch, siijjr , p. 
^99) If this location would seem to place 
Uz too far from Eliphaz the Temanite, it 
maveasilv be conceived that along :iourney 
would no't unwillingly be made to comfort 
T gi-eat tribal chieftain. And indeed the 
mode of expression (Job ii. 11) might in- 
dicate that Job's friends had come from a 
Snsiderable distance. Col. Chesney m his 
expedition to the Euphrates found reasons 
lor adopting the opinion here advocated 
He would place Uz in the neighbourhood of 
Orfah, where a brook and a well on the 
road to Diarbekr with other loca ities are 
consecrated to the memory of tbe great 
patriarcli. See Home's Intivd., Tol. u. edit. 
Ajre, p. 676 



U'ZA.1 (strong). The father of oue_ who 
repaired the waU of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 

U'ZIL (a wanderer 1). A son of Joktan 
rGen x 27 ; 1 Chron. i. 21). His descendants 
appekr to have settled in Yemen, the capital 
of which, now Sanaa, had long the name of 
Uzpl "^till perhaps to be traced in a suburb 
Oseir, "v^here about 2000 Jews reside. This 
di=triGt was noted for its commercial im- 
portance It traded with Tyre, and is 
thought to have had Javan as its port See 
■MEuL^. Sanaa stands on a plateau 4000 
feet above the level of the sea : the air is 
salubrious, and the temperature eauable 
But the district suffers from drought, and 
is consequently subject to lammes The 
inhabitants are celebrated for the manu- 
f actnre of beautiful stuffs. See D'Herbelot, 
Bibliotn. Orient, art. ' Sanaa' ; Wmer, Btbl. 
RTF^., art. ' Usal.' 

UZ'ZA (strength).-!. The name of a man 
in whose garden Manasseh and Araon, 
kinss of Judah, were buried (2 Kings xxi. 
18 ^6) This garden retained the name ot 
its former owner, but had become a royal 
property (see Keii, Comm. on Kings,jo\. ii. p. 
loo) _9 ALevite of the family of Merari 
(1 Chron. vi. 29).— 3. A Benjamite (vni. 7). 
—4 (xiii. 7-11). See Uzzah. One whose de- 
scendants, Nethinim, returned from Baby- 
lon with Zerubbabel (Ezraii. 49 iTsch. vii. ol). 

UZ'Z IH (id.). A son of Abinadab, m whose 
bouse at Klrjath-jearim the ark of God had 
rested When David desired to bring it to 
Jerusalem, Uzzah and Ahio his brother 
-uided the carriage on which the ark was 
Placed And, when the oxen stumbled or 
shook it, Uzzah presumptuously put out his 
band to lav hold upon It. This, as contrary 
to the divine command (^sumb. iv. 15% was 
nuni«hed bv the immediate death of Uzzah 
(2 Sam. vi. 3-8). See 1 Chron. xiii. 7-11, where 
the name is given as Uzza. 7 

UZ'ZEN-SHE'RAH (ear of Sl^^erah, or 
Slierah's corner}. A town founded by Sherah 
the daughter or descendant of Ephraim (1 

^^^ilOniglit of Jelwvah)—!. A priest of 
the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. vi. 5, 6, d1 ; 
Ezra vii. 4).— 2. A descendant of Issachar (l 
Chron. vii. 2, 3).— 3. A Benjamite, son ol 
Bela (7) —4. Another Benjamite (ix. 8).— 5. 
Overseer of the Levites at Jerusalem (Neh. 

22).— 6. A priest in the days of Joiakim 
(xii 19, 42). _ 
UZZI'A (id.). One of David's warriors (1 
Chron. xi. 44). 

UZZI'AH (M.).-l. The son and successor 
o-F Amaziah, king of Judah. He is also 
called Azariah (2 Kings xiv. 21, xv. 1, 6, 7, S, 
17, 23, 27). He was sixteen years old when 
be be'ean'to reign, and he reigned fifty-two 
i years,^809-758 B.C. He was fond of the artsof 
' peace, and was very prosperous in war. He 
strengthened the fortificatious of Jeru- 
salem, built towers in various places,.dug 
or re-constructed wells, bred cattle, and 
promoted the cultivation of the ^-Ine. He 
also defeated the Philistines, and curbed 
them with fortresses in their country. He 
was successful against the Arabians, and 
forced the Ammonites to pay him tribute : 
he also recovered the port of Elath on the 
. Red sea ; so that his reputation was widely 



901 mm miiGMttjiQe. 



spread. And, while so prosperous, lie 
reigned in the fear of the Lord, and trod in 
the steps of pious predecessors. But his 
prosperity intoxicated him. He proudly 
desired to usurp the priest's office, and went 
into the temple and took a censer to burn 
incense with his own hand, in spite of the 
bold resistance of the high priest. But in 
his fancied hour of triumph the Lord smote 
him. Fearful leprosy rose at once in his 
forehead, which the priest beheld and 
pronounced him unclean. And then he was 
thrust out of the temple : indeed, a stricken 
man, he himself hurried forth, and lived 
ever after in a separate house; his son 
Jotham taking the administration of the 
kingdom (2 Kings xv. 1-7 ; 2 Chron. xxvi.). 
There is a chronological difficulty which 
must be noticed as to the year of Uzziah's 
accession. Amaziah, his father, survived 
Jehoash of Israel fifteen years (2 Kings xiv. 
17). Yet Uzziah's reign is said to begin in 
the 27th year of Jeroboam IL, successor of 
Jehoash (xv. 1). It is probable that 27 is by 
a transcriber's error put for 15, the Hebrew 
numerals for the one so nearly resembling 
those for the other that mistake might 
easily occur. Or it was the 27th year 
before the end of Jeroboam's reign. A few 



[VASHTl 



incidental notices of TJzziah are scattered 
through the prophets. A great earthquake 
occurred in his reign (Amos i. l ; Zech. xiv. 
5) : Josephus's assumption that it was at 
the moment of his sacrilege is groundless. 
Isaiah began to prophesy in the year of Uz- 
ziah's death (Isai. vi. 1) : Hosea also (Hos. i. 
1) and Amos were his contemporaries.— 2. 
A Levite of the family of Kohath (1 Chron. 
vi. 24), called also (36) Azariah.— 3. The fa- 
ther of one of David's officers (xxvii. 25). 
—4. A priest who had married a foreign 
wife (Ezra X. 21) .—5. One of the descendants 
of Judah (Neh. xi. 4). 

UZ'ZIEL (might of God).—l. A son of 
Kohath and grandson of Levi (Bxod. vi. 18, 
22 ; Lev. X. 4 ; Namb. iii. 19, 30 ; 1 Chron. vi. 
2, 18, XV. 10, xxiii. 12, 20, xxiv. 24).— 2. A Sim- 
eonite captain (iv, 42).— 3. A Benjamite, son 
of Bela (vii. 7).— 4. One of the sons of He- 
man, the Levite musician (xxv. 4), perhaps 
the same with Azareel (18),— 5. A Levite, de- 
scended from Jeduthun, in the reign of 
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 14).— 6. One who 
helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
iii. 8). 

UZ'ZIELITES. A family of Levites, de- 
scended from Uzziel cNumb.iii. 27* 1 Chrou 
xxvi. 23). 



V 



VA'HEB. This word is found as an extract 
from the book of the Wars of the Lord 
(Numb. xxi. 14, marg.). The passage is frag- 
mentary and obscure. Perhaps it is the 
proper name of a place in the territory of 
Moab on the Arnon. But no satisfactory 
explanation has yet been given. 

VAIL. See TEiiPLE, Veil, pp. 869, 902. 

VAJEZA'THA (ivhite, pure). One of the 
sons of Haman (Esth.ix. 9). 

VALLEY. V alleys, in the proper sense of 
the term, the hollow tracts between paral- 
lel rangos of hills, are seldom found in 
Palestine. Ravines, and those hollows 
through which streams flow in winter, 
while in summer their beds are almost or 
entirely dry, and which are now called 
toadies l)j the AvELhs, occur from the struc- 
ture of the country much more frequently. 
But our translators have unfortunately used 
the word 'valley ' with little discrimination, 
not only for these, but also for what might 
more accurately be called plains. Thus they 
have termed the extensive district of low 
land between the mountains of Judah and 
the Mediterranean coast, in which the 
Philistine cities stood (the Shefelah), the 
« vale ' or the ' valley' (Deut. i. 7 ; Josh. ix. 
1, X, 40, xl. 2, 16, XV. 33, and elsewhere). 
Several^other words are also translated val- 
ley. '-B^izeA;, implying 'deep,' most nearly 
corresponds with our English valley. This 
term is used to describe the valleys of 
Achor, Ajalon, Baca, Elah, Jezreel, Succoth, 
&c,, &c, Ge, signifying a, 'burstipg' or a 



'flowing together, that is, where waters 
congregate, is applied to a deep narrow 
ravine. Thus we have the word designat- 
iag the ravines or glens of the son of Hin- 
nan, of Salt, &c. This is the name given 
also to the secluded spot in Moab in which 
Moses was buried (Deut. xxxiv. 6). Nahhal 
is the term which describes the course of 
a stream, the modern iocuIt/, as above re- 
marked. Sometimes the torrent itself is 
so designated, and sometimes, when it dries 
up, the bed through which it flowed. Our 
translators, therefore, have occasionally 
been uncertain in what way to render it (as 
in Numb. xiii. 23, 24, comp. marg.). Such 
M'adies were Cheritli, Eshcol, Sorek, Zered, 
&c. There is another word, Mk'dh, which 
properly means a ' cleft ' of the mountains, 
and often designates a wide plain, bounded, 
however, by mountains. The 'valleys' of 
J ericho, Megiddo, &c., are described by this 
word. 

VANI'AH (weak). One who had married 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 36). 

VASH'NI. This name appears inl Chron. 
vi. 28 as the eldest son of Samuel. But (1 
Sam. viii.2) the name was Joel ; as is implied 
also in 1 Chron. vi. 33. It seems then that 
Vashni is a mistake. By a very slight altera- 
tion the word would mean ' and the second. 
We may suppose that 'Joel 'has accidentally 
been omitted, so that the verse should be 
translated ' The sons of Samuel ; the flrst- 
born [Joel], and the second Abiah.' 

VASH'TI (a beauty). The queen of Aha- 



902 



^is consmnemlj dirorced, wliicli made 
Zlj for tie marriage of AJiaBuerus y^nU 
Estlier (Esth. i. ^19, n. 1, 4, 10- See 

^^^A'N Tliis word does not occur m 
oiireision ; but we find it in the original 
F7Pk xxVii 19 : wbere our translators 
rpiider 'Dan also. Dan is ueic 
fe^tlv out of place tliat critics are m eu. 

the Hebrew copulatlTe ' and,' ' aUo. J eu^n, , 
thPn mar be said to be an Arabian city, 

AHpn nr)T>ear= to Lave traded m tue Yep 
trtiSe?Stio«c.d l.y E.etle!. Ada. lu 
?!,(. iirovinoe of Yemen, is now a Britisli 
ni!=SoD with au mcreasing ™'">""f 
^ ^IL several words so rendered mom 

1 dressed (see Ginsbnrg^ Song ■ 
li>4, note). It 15 more c^oi bti^.-- ^ - - - - - 

1 'kprcMefs' cEzek. xiii. xS, . 

some scholars of repute wou 

affirmative: see Kebchief. . . _ 

the face was Ire.iuentiy veuca | 
co?er\n? it wUh the fold of another j.r- \ 
ment. This probably was tii^ c-;.- 
Rebetah (Gen. xxit. 65', and x ^- - - - - 
li 19V thev wrapped themsf . . - - 
IP aWge mantle or shaw.. - - --^ ■ 

nSgS^iSmg nations to T^l t^^^^-: 
e^^cept on occasions, as m the ca^ - 
Hpbekahiust referred to (corap. xxix - . 
Sken litural modesty would prompt 
lor for concealment, as Tamar or f,. 
special ornament. This is ^uffl^eu^ ■ 
proTed by such Passages a. Gen x.i. x-, 
x^ix 10: 1 Sam. i. 12: Froy. vu. 
i vA, moi^over, is not found m tl^e As^yr-.^.- 
or Egyptian 

St. Paul reproves the iep^Hle= v> ho_^tteu.^ 
and prayed or prophesied ^^.^^^'^If^^, 
I RPinblies with uncoverea heads (1 -or. x . 4 
i lv hit this does not necessarily imply that 
^aJS ougM to be concealed by veils 
! ffe covering of the Head was the decent 
r.ll^^nf Sbiecrion : a woman who threw 
^.J thl« seeS io herself in de- 

' indent S?Io dishonoured her head, that 
her inland, the man being the head of 

^^^S?necessaryto.aytbB.^n2 
[il flce Somsof the face-yelU worn by 



- .^^P- a" '^ h^ -'nl'^ ornamented and embroi- 
P%d Th^^^^are made of white mu&lin or 
occasionally black crape ; and are often 
thrown over the horn worn m Syria. 

OF THE TABERifACLE OR 
TEMPLE The ri ch curtain which screened 
off the holv of holies. See Tabernaci^. 
TEMPLE It was rent at the cruciftxion 
rM^tt xxvil r>l ; Mark xv. 38 : Luke xxin.4^) 
For accel; iuto Gods presence, ^re^-lous^ 
aUowed only ^0 the priest, wa. now obtained 
for all men by the great sacrifice. 
YeK' met all IC. Mimng and the 

V, : Ezek. xxiii. 

^ - ' -„e small divi- 

sioiS;;.fThe bible so "caued is explained m 
1 a former article: see Bible, pp. Ill, 11-. ^It 

i may be added tL' - :.- — ..-.t.:;: 

I mentioned by v.: ; - " : - 

1 apr-ear in the >^ - : . 
j from those introa-:_^^ .^ 

mld^e^of ^the liofvtcriptur^^^^^ 
I and modmi times. They are of the greatest 
service £ur both critical and ^.r^-^-^ 
purposes. They tend to she • - 
! iu2-s of the text which the tr - - ^ ^ . 
' and indicate the se^isr - _ 
I words before h::."-, - ■ - ; 

■ the more impor::.::: - - ^,"1; 
T---\re. as irlcads us : t-^- ^- - 
- •- lich closer to rae t.i^e ^.^-e-^-i 
- "v,o=ition; the evidence in tnis respect 
:^e^akin to that furnished Ly^^c^ 



manuscripts. And the::, 
words, especially in 

-vi '^''^ - c::ir but onc^ 



: those of : 
£d as fully 



sre many 
s:riment, 
:i:e sig- 
:ii from 
::rpreted 
:riginal 
:. lining 



u^ce shall 
i of this 



Old'ESn'^'^ti^ V^^ffai^; and of : 

"5t?TJ,?itSf Targumi^ 
which appears to signify 'version'or ' expl^ 
IS; The captivity bad ne(^s^i^^y a^ 
influence upon the national speech oi the 
JewV For, though they brought ^ack 
tS^m from Babylon their own Hebrew, 

and Babylonian rr-.^-.^ ^^^^ 



903 mmt muatolelfg^. [yersions 



into contact with divers nations— far differ- 
ent from that Egyptian pressure which had 
kept them compacted in Goshen— intro- 
duced naturally other forms, till by degrees 
the language in which their ancient hooks 
were written was changed, and for common 
use lost. The law, however, and afterwards 
other parts of scripture, continued to be 
publicly read. But, to make it intelligible, 
it had to be expounded. Some have ima- 
gined that on the return from captivity the 
change of speech had been accomplished. 
This cannot well be admitted ; for the 'Jews' 
language' is expressly mentioned in ISTeh. 
xiii. 24 ; and the post-exilian prophets still 
used Hebrew ; the Chaldee portions of Ezra 
being little more than some documents 
inserted into the history. Hence, then, in 
j Ezra's teaching (viii. 8j it was rather exposi- 
tion than translation that is meant. Be 
I this, however, as it may, interpretation 
i was soon required ; and, as it became more 
! and more needful, in process of time a body 
i of interpreters sprang up, distinct from 
! the public readers. And, though at first 
their interpretations were oral, yet at 
j length they were committed to writing, 
I and thus Targums have come down to us. 
! There are Targums to nearly the whole 
of the Old Testament. 1. The first to be 
j mentioned is that which bears the name of 
Onkelos, and is on the Pentateuch. It is 
I not known who Onkelos was. He has been 
I represented as a disciple of Gamaliel: he 
i has been supposed identical with Aquila, 
I one who translated the Hebrew scriptures 
I into Greek ; and again it has been main- 
I tained that, as Aquila's Greek transla- 
j tion was literal, this Targura, if not 
] exactly literal, yet faithfully giving the 
sense of the text, acquired, without refer- 
ence to the author, the same name, and 
became the Chaldee Aquila, Onkelos cor- 
responding with Aquila. The date is vari- 
ously assigned. It has been thought con- 
temporary with our Lord, and again it has 
been supposed to be begun in the second 
century and not completed till the fourth 
after Christ, and to be of Babylonian origin. 
It is a pretty close version of the Hebrew 
text, clear and well adapted for its purpose ; 
and it is note-worthy that it interprets only 
two places (Gen. xlix. 10 ; l^umb. xxiv. 17) of 
the Messiah. The language is a pure Chaldee. 
2, 3. There are two other Targums on the 
Pentateuch. One is generally known as the 
Pseudo-Jonathan, so called because it has 
been untruly fathered on Jonathan Ben 
Uzziel, the other as the Jerusalem Targum. 
The last-named is fragmentary in its inter- 
pretation. These two are only different 
recensions of the same work, of Palestinian 
origin ; the Jerusalem being the first, in- 
tended perhaps as notes and corrections to 
Onkelos, the other filling up and complet- 
ing after the same manner what the earlier 
had left undone. This work is stored v/ith 
legendary tales. It cannot be prior to the 
seventh or eighth century. 4. A Targum on 
the former and later prophets, i.e. Joshua, 
Judges, the books of Samuel and Kings, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve 
minor prophets. Is ascribed to Jonathan 
Bea TJzziel, a disciple of Hillel the elder. 



This is much in the style of Onkelos; and 
critics have supposed that one was acquaint- 
ed with the work of the other, and have 
disputed which had the priority. Perhaps 
this of Jonathan was somewhat later ; but, 
as it is doubtful whether there ever was an 
individual Onkelos, so it may be doubted 
whether this was the work of the real Jona- 
than. Possibly something that he did write 
may have formed a ground-work, and have 
been afterwards Avith other materials 
gathered in the third or fourth century 
at Babylon by some one person (there being 
a visible unity in the work) into the whole 
now existing, in which allegories, parables, 
and legends are embodied. 5, 6. Targums 
on Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, and on the 
five megilloth, i.e. Ecclesiastes, Song of Solo- 
mon, Ptuth, Lamentations, and Esther, 
have been ascribed to Joseph the Blind in 
the third century after Christ. They are 
probably by different hands of a far later 
date ; some critics being inclined to place 
them as late as the tenth or eleventh century. 
7, 8. There are two more late Targums on 
Esther, heretofore supposed to be three ; 
but of the three two are but different re- 
censions of the same work. 9. A Targum 
on Chronicles is of comparatively-moderji 
discovery, being first edited in 1680. It is of 
late date, of Palestinian origin. 10. There 
is also a Targura on Daniel, probably of the 
twelfth century. And it may be added that 
there is a Chaldee translation of some of 
the apocryphal additions to Esther. 

Gh-eek. Erom the time of the first capti- 
vity and onwards colonies of Jews were 
settled in Egypt, These had a temple of 
their own erected at Leoutopolis, in the 
Heliopolitan norae, by Onias, son of the high 
priest Onias, who, despairing of the pontifi- 
cal dignity himself, fled into Egypt in tho 
time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and ob- 
tained permission from Ptolemy Philometor 
to raise a temple, and to consecrate priests 
and Levites for its service, under the plea 
that such an establishment had been pre- 
dicted (Isai. xix. 18-21). A rallying-point 
was thus formed: the Egyptian temple 
\va3 after the fashion of that at Jerusalem, 
and the rites were similar. Connection, 
however, with Palestine was by no means 
broken off : see Alexandria, Ir-ha-heres; 
and a natural result of the residence of so 
many Jews in Egypt under the dominion 
of the Greek-speaking Ptolemies was the 
translation of their sacred books into 
Greek. 

1. The principal Greek version is called 
the Septuagint, The history of this is in- 
volved in much obscurity. The popular 
account is contained in a letter said to be 
written by Aristeas, an officer of the court 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Seven ty-two per- 
sons, at that monarch's request, in order to 
furnish his library with the Hebrew sacred 
books, were commissioned by Eleazar, the 
high priest at Jerusalem. These, on their 
arrival at Alexandria, were shut up in the 
island of Pharos, and accomplished their 
translation in seventy-two days. From the 
number of the interpreters the name ' Sep- 
tuagint' was derived. This story has been 
repeated with more or less embellisiiment, 



torsions] 



904 



and was for long implicitly believed. But 
critical research lias exposed its falsehood. 
The letter of Aristeas, though unguestion- 
abJy of old date, is now admitted to he 
SDurious. There is a more trust-worthy 
authority, that of Aristohulus (ap. Euseh. 
Pr(Bp. Evang., lib. xiii. cap. 12) who,_ writing 
in tie second century before Christ, says 
that the Pentateuch was translated very 
earlv for he supposes Plato to have drawn 
from' it, and that Demetrius Phalereus, 
under Ptolemy Philadelphus, was the means 
of promoting the translation of the rest of 
the Old Testament. Without implicit y 
following this author, we may substantially 
accept his testimony, and we have corrobo- 
ration of the fact that a translation of the 
entire Hebrew scriptures was early in ex- 
istence in the second prologue to Eccle- 
«iasticus, written probably about 130 b.c._ it 
is clear from an examination of the version 
itself that it was made in Egypt ; for we find 
several Coptic words ; and ideas purely He- 
brew are rendered in the Egyptian manner 
Moreover ,from the observable differences of 
style and of acquaintance with the original 
language, different individuals, probably 
at different times, must have been engaged 
in the work. And, sifting the whole matter, 
we mav fairly conclude that the version 
made at Alexandria was begun in the time 
of the early Ptolemies, perhaps 280 or 28o 
B C , and that the law alone was first trans- 
lated, the other books following at uncer- 
tain intervals. There is, besides, no impro- 
bability in believing that a copy had its 
place in the royal library. But whether the 
version originated with the Jews, rendered 
nece^'sary by the reading of the law and the 
prophets in their synagogues In a tongue 
they could understand, or whether one of 
the Egyptian kings, Soter, or Philadelpbus, 
commandedthe translation,is more m Qoubt. 
Considering, however, the attachment of 
the Jews to their own tongue, and consider- 
ing how long a language is often preserved 
for ecclesiastical use after it has ceased to 
be the medium of common intercourse, it 
mav be thought on the whole most pro- 
bable that the version was produced, in 
some measure at least, by the sovereign s 
desire. It grew into high consideration. 
And we may well suppose that the object 
of the pretended letter of Aristeas was to 
exalt its credit. Philo believed in its in- 
spiration : Josephus generally used it ; as 
also the earlier Christian fathers. Its al- 
leged miraculous origin is mentioned m 
the Talmud ; and there is reason to conclude 
that it was read not only in Egyptian 
Bvnagogues, but in those of Palestine and 
elsewhere. But, some time after Christ, the 
Jews, pressed by the arguments from pro- 
phecy began to question and to deny the 
faithfulness of the Septuagint to the He- 
brew original : they instituted a fast on 
the 8th 5f their month Tebeth, to show 
their sorrow for its having ^een made and 
ultimately adopted in preference the literal 
version of Aquila. , , ^ 4.+!-,^ 

It has been already hinted that some of the 
Septuagint translators were but imperfectly 
acquainted with Hebrew. There are many 
mistakes therefore ; and there is a singular 



connection not yet fuUy explained between 
this and the text of the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch. The Pentateuch is best rendered : 
the poetical portions are generally inferior 
to the historical. Of the prophets J eremiah 
is the best given ; yet there are remarkable 
variations in the version from the original. 
And generally many important predictions 
are obscured in the Septuagint. The trans- 
lation of Daniel (supposed for long to be 
lost, but discovered and published at Rome 
in 1772) was considered so erroneous that 
that of Theodotion was substituted for it. 
Still, with all the errors, variations, miscon- 
ceptions, and corruptions of the Septuagint, 
it is of inestimable value for both the criti- 
cism and the interpretation of the sacred 
book. It is evident that the translators had 
before them a text differing from that of our 
oldest manuscripts ; and some corrections 
may be obtained from it which we cannot 
hesitate in pronouncing just ones. And then 
its language is the pattern of that of the 
apostles and evangelists. Hebrew idioms 
appear in a Greek form ; and we are led 
therefrom to understand the sense in which 
nianv words and phrases of the New Testa- 
ment are used. The theological student 
Avho would fuUy understand the original of 
the New Testament must give all diligent 
attention to the Septuagint version of the 
Old. . ^. 

By the frequency of transcription many 
errors crept into the Septuagint text. On- 
gen, therefore, in the early part of the third 
century, undertook to collate it with the 
Hebrew, and with other Greek versions, so 
as to produce a new and accurate recension. 
It is said that he spent twenty-eight years 
on this great work, which was called va,- 
riously, Tetrapla, Hexapla, Octapla, and 
Enneapla. The Tetrapla comprised in four 
columns the translations of Aquila, Symma- 
chus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion : the 
Hexapla had two additional columns, the 
Hebrew text, and the same in Greek charac- 
trr* Other columns were subsequently 
added, for two other Greek versions of some 
parts of the bible ; hence the name Octapla, 
which, augmented by an additional transla- 
tion of the Psalms and minor prophets, was 
ultimately the Enneapla. But it is not very 
probable that Origen himself edited more 
than the Tetrapla and Hexapla. He ad- 
joined special marks and signs to indicate 
the variations of the Septuagint as com- 
pared with other versions and the Hebrew. 
This work was a large and cumbrous one. 
It lay half a century little noticed at Tyre, 
till discovered bv Eusebius andPamphilus, 
who placed it in the library of Pamphilus 
the Martyr at CtBsarea ; where it was seen 
by Jerome in the later part of the fourth 
century. After this no more was heard of 
it : perhaps it perished in the capture of 
Ccesarea by the Arabs, 653 A.D. A few frag- 
ments alone now remain. ^ , a. 

Two editions or exemplars of the Septua- 
gint have been distinguished since Origen's 
time— that called the common text, such 
as it was before his collation, and the hexa- 
plaric text, that produced by his correc- 
tions. Numerous errors being introduced 
by copyists, three recensious were under 



905 



[yersiows 



taken at nearly the same time. Eusebius 
and Pamphilus about 300 a.d. published, the 
hexaplaric text with Origen's critical 
marks : these, however, by transcription 
became confused, and were afterwards omit- 
ted. This edition was adopted by the 
churches in Palestine. Lucian, a presbyter 
of Antioch,martyred 311A.D., and Hesychius, 
an Egyptian bishop, conducted other recen- 
sions, it is not agreed whether indepen- 
dently of Origen's labours, or whether the 
hexaplaric text, amended after the Hebrew, 
was the basis of both. They obtained ac- 
ceptance, and were used, the first by the 
churches of Constantinople, Asia Minor, 
and Syria, the other in Egypt. From these 
three principal recensions existing manu- 
scripts and printed editions of the Septua- 
gint are derived. That called the common 
text is the basis of the Vatican manuscript ; 
While the Alexandrine has more of a hexa- 
plaric character. Of printed editions there 
are reckoned four standards, the Complu- 
tensian, 1514, the Aldine, 1518, the Roman 
or Vatican, 1586, and the Alexandrine, 
1707-9-19-20. 

2. Aquila, a Jewish proselyte of Sinope, 
made a translation for the use of the Jews 
about the middle of the second century of 
our era. It is literal even to barbarism. 

3. Somewhat later Theodotion, a Jewish 
proselyte of Ephesus, whom Jerome calls 
an Ebionite, produced another version. It 
is a kind of revision of the Septuagint, 
holding a middle place between the servile 
closeness of Aquila and the freedom of 
Symmachus. 

4. Symmachus, an Ebionite, who lived 
about 200 A.D., executed a free version, 
expressing the sense rather than the words 
of the original. 

6,6, 7. Three other ancient translations of 
parts of the bible there were, of which the 
authors are not known. They are entitled the 
' fifth,' ' sixth,' and ' seventh,' from the order 
in which Origen (if it were he) placed them 
in his columns. 

8. There is yet another called the Vene- 
tian, because the MS. of it was preserved 
in St. Mark's library, Venice. It is uncer- 
tain when it was made. The MS. is con- 
sidered to be of the fourteenth century ; 
but it is not the original, merely a copy. It 
comprises the Pentateuch and several other 
books. This is a. singular version : the style 
is a mixture of pure Attic with barbarisms; 
while the Chaldee of Daniel is rendered in 
Doric. The Pentateuch was published by 
Ammonat Erlangenin 1790-1791 : the other 
books l5y Villoison had appeared at Stras- 
burg in 1784. 

Syriac. Christianity was early preached 
in Syria ; naturally, therefore, several ver- 
sions of scripture were made into the lan- 
guage of that country. 

1. The most celebrated of these is the 
Peshito or Literal, so usually called on 
account of its close adherence to the origi- 
nal text. That of the Old Testament, which 
appears not to have comprised the apocry- 
phal books, was probably executed, by a 
Christian, at Edessa, about the middle of the 
second century after Christ. Perhaps the 
version of the New .Testament was made 



about the same time, and at the same place. 
But the Revelation, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, 
Jude, John vii. 53 to viii. 11, also 1 John v. 7, 
are not found in the Peshito. It is a trans- 
lation greatly and very justly valued. The 
New Testament was first printed at Vienna 
in 1555 : the Old Testament appeared, not 
in a very perfect state, in the Paris Polvglott 
in 1645, and was re-printed with the addition 
of some apocryphal books of a later version 
in Walton's Polyglott, 1657. The Avhole 
bible was published under the care of Prof. 
Lee, London, 1816-23. Various recensions 
of this standard translation were made in 
process of time : that called the ISTestorian 
exhibits little more than some variations in 
the points. Another is the Karkuphensian ; 
because it is said to have been executed 
towards the close of the tenth century 
by David, a monk of the convent of St. 
Aaron on mount Sigara in Mesopotamia; 
karkupho signifying the 'summit of a moun- 
tain.' It does not differ much from the 
ordinary Peshito text. 

2. Among the Syriac MSS. now in the 
British Museum, brought from the Nitrian 
monasteries, there is one containing large 
portions of the four Gospels in a version 
differing, as to the character both of the 
text and of the translation, from any Syriac 
version previously known. It is unques- 
tionably of the highest antiquity. And 
there are linguistic differences in the dift'er- 
ent Gospels ; that of St. Matthew varying 
from the rest. Hence it has been suggested 
by those who believe that the apostle 
wrote in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic that the 
version was made immediately from that 
original. It was published by the Rev. Dr. 
Cureton in 1857. 

3. A Syriac translation of the New Tes- 
tament was executed in 508 a.d. by Poly carp, 
a chorepiscopus or rural bishop, at the sug- 
gestion of Philoxenus or Xenaias, bishop of 
Hierapolis or Mabug. It is called the Phi- 
loxenian version, and was revised about a 
century later by Thomas of Harkel or 
Heraclea, also bishop of Hierapolis. Philo- 
xenus would seem to have commissioned 
Pclycarp to translate the Psalter likewise ; 
but no translation of the entire Old Testa- 
ment was made by any of the three persons 
just named. About the same time, however, 
tliac Thomas. of Harkel was revising the 
Philoxeuian, Paul bishop of Telia in Meso- 
potamia, at the instance of Athanasius, 
Monophysite patriarch of Antioch, made a 
very literal Syriac version of the Old Testa- 
ment from the Greek hexaplaric text. A 
deacon. Mar Thoma, whom some have 
believed identical with Thomas of Harkel, 
is said to have been associated with Paul 
in his work. Portions of this translation 
have been lost : the rest has been printed 
at various times, with the exception of the 
apocryphal parts. The Philoxenian New 
Testament was published by Prof. White, 
1778-1803. 

4. There .is a lectionary in the Vatican 
library at Rome containing a Syriac version 
of some portions of the Gospels. These 
follow the order of the festivals on which 
they were read ; some occurring more than 
once ; other parts being wanting, either aa 



N-^EESIOXSl 



Zl)t Creature 0! 



906 



not included in tlie ecclesiastical order of | revised otHer books by comparison _ with 
not mcmaea defective in tlie manu- \ the Greek. But most of liis_ work perished, 



reading or as 

script. The dialect of this version 
peculiar, and has been thought to resemble 
that of tbe Jerusalem Targum : hence it 
has been called the Jerusalem SjTiac. It is 
uncertain when it was executed, possibly 
between the fourth and sixth centuries, it 
is of considerable critical value ; but only 
a few fragments have been published. 

5. It was noted above that some portions 
of the ISTew Testament were not found in 
the Peshito. There have, however, been 
translations made of them, at times not 
well ascertained. The Revelation was pub- 
lished in 1627 by De Dieu at Leyden, from a 
MS. in the university library of that city. 

" )istle3 were printed also 



he himself savs by fraiid. The two Psalters 
and Job alone are extant. Flaminio Xobili 
professed to gather fragments of the Old 
Latin, which he printed in 1583. Sabati«?r 
published them more accurately and more 
completely at Rheims, in.l743, and at Pans, 
1749-51. Some supplement.^ have appeared 
since. Portions also, in various forms of 
text, are found in MSS. ; and several of 
these have been printed. The remains of 
Jerome's revised text are in editions of his 
works. 

As Jerome proceeded with his task of re- 
vising the old version, he was so strongly 
impt'essed with the inaccuracy of the Old 
Testament text as derived from the Sep- 
that he resolved, urged too by 



The four catholic ep...-.- . ^ . , 

at 1 fVi^en bv Pococke from a 3a.b. m the tuagmt — . ^i tt 

Bodllian And in 1631 De Dieu published , friends, to translate it anew from the a 
Animadv. in quat. Evangelia, in which he 
inserted a Syriac translation of John vii. 
53 to viii. 11, from a MS. belonging to arch- 
bishop rssher. „ . . , 

There are some other Syriac transla- 
tions or recensions, of which but little is 
known. , . ^ ^ • 

Latin. It is certain that there existed m 



brew. On this he was engaged fi'om per- 
haps 3S5 to 405 A.D. He issued first the 
books of Samuel and Kings, to which he 
prefixed the Prologus gcdeatus, in v.-hich he 
gave an account of the Hebrew canon. The 
other books followed ; some of the apocry- 
phal ones not being translated. It was only 
by degrees that this version gained its place 



the second "centurv a Latin version of the in pubhc estimation : there was great oppo- 

scriiuu?e^ made n Africa and used by the sition to it at first, and much hostile criti- 

AiiS fadier^^^ It exhibited the charac- cism; but at length, by the approbatioii of 

teiSi?- of the^Latin dialect of the Libyan Gregory L, it acquired such authority that 

nrov ice aLd wJs ino4 the result of since the seventh century, with some mix- 

fhrfra-meiuary labours of different indi- ture of other ancient translations it has 

vklivU ° i i La 1^^^^^^ became been exclusively adopted (the Psalter, as 

neededin other reS this was more above noted, excepted) in the western 

widelv diLst^ It ca^^^^ be church, and has borne the name of the 

^lid thartheie was a standard text ; for Talgate or current text. By the council of 

var^altons were Tn^^^^ revisions ' Trent it was ordained that the > ulgate 

cSm to h^.ve been made in different alone should be esteemed authentic in the 

churches Tefther?wS but one acknow- public reading of the scriptures, m in-each- 

l "d-ed vtn^ and copies, however much ing, and in expounding, and that no one 

they di'ai-eed .were 5ut subordinate varie- should dare to reject it imder any pretext 

tips nf thp sin c^ip translation. This is proved whatever. . , -, 

bvJhei'Sar wSd^fouM citations But, prior to this, corrupt on had again 

of writerfS £?4^^^^ The crept im By the multiplication of copies^ 

SL™ aple of the text must have been and errors of successive transcribers, the 

Ifevy^ifl-einn^e Yet the recension of text, a mixture as has been ]ust said. was 

iSv Sne^S'S to haVe Se best : and in a very unsatisfactcry state. Various 

to thifSetermi^ scholars, as Alcuin, Lanfranc cardinal 

^^n a^PrSe^ T^:?version of the Old ^ Xichol^s, and others^ ^1^^?!^^,^ J^^f ^ 
Testament was made from the ^eptuagi 



and it included some of the apociTPbal 
pieces. That of the Xew Testament, on the . 
other hand, did not probably at first com- i 
prise all the canonical books. But this 
fact is a corroboration of the high anticLuity 
of the version. . 

In the course of time the text of the Latin 
version had become greatly confused and 
corrupted. To remedy the Prowmg_ evil, 
Jerome, at the request of Damasus bishop 
of Rome, undertook a systematic revision. 
He be^an with the Xew Testament about 
3S2 A D , and in two years presented Dama- 
sus with the four Gospels, which chiefly 
required a correcting hand. He aiter- 
wards hastily revised the Psalter, pro- 
ducing what is called the Roman Psalter, 
because it was adopted at Rome. At a later 
period he corrected it again according to 
the hexaplaric text: this is termed the 
Galilean Psalter, being received by the 
churches in France. In a similar way he 



but it still needed revision when it was 
first printed, without place or date, in 1455. 
This edition is the famous Mazarin bible, 
one of the noblest exemplars of typography. 
Another edition succeeded at May ence, 1462. 
The council of Trent ordered that an 
amended edition should be prepared. And 
after much delay this was pubUshed under 
the sanction of Sixtus T., in 1590. It was 
soon, however, discovered to be very inac- 
curate ; and another authentic Tulgate ap- 
peared in 1592, under Clement YIII. It waa 
followed by the edition of 1593, in which a 
few alterations were made ; and this is 
the standard of the Romish church. It 
is unfortunate for that church that the 
Sixtine and Clementine editions vary so 
remarkablv. Dr. James, inhis5enu??i PapaU, 
has exhibited numerous discrepancies and 
contradictions. But, with all its imperfec- 
tions, the Vulgate is a noble version of 
Scripture, and can never be neglected by 
the theological student. 



907 



[versions 



The very briefest notice must "be taken 
of otlier ancient translations. They will be 
arranged in alphabetical order. 

Anglo-Saxon. Several versions are enu- 
merated, Adhelm, bishop of Sherborne, 
translated the Psalter about 706 a.d, ; and 
Egbert or Eadfrid, bishop of Lindisfarne, is 
said to have rendered the Gospels soon 
after. A version of the entire bible from 
the Vulgate is ascribed to Bede,who died 
735 A.t>. King Alfred translated some por- 
tions ; and Elfric, probably the same who 
was archbishop of Canterbury in 995 A.D., 
several books of the Old Testament. The 
Anglo-Saxon Gospels were printed in 1571, 
under the auspices of abp. Parker; and 
other parts of the bible have appeared at 
various times. 

Arabic. Arabic versions, of the whole or 
portio]]s of the scriptures, are numerous, 
Bnd have been made from tlie Hebrew, from 
the Septuagint, from the Peshlto, from the 
Vulgate, and from the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch. Many of these have not yet been 
printed. But none of them can be very 
ancient. John bishop of Seville in the 
eighth century is said to have translated the 
scriptures into Arabic ; and Juynboll iden- 
tifies the text of a MS. of the four Gospels 
in the library at Franeker as his work. This 
text was published at Pv,ome in 1590-1. 
Saadias Gaon, a Jewish teacher at Sora in 
Babylonia, translated portions (possibly the 
whole) of th© Old Testament in the tenth 
century. The Pentateuch of this version 
was printed at Constantinople in Hebrew 
characters in 1546. Erpenius published an 
Arabic Pentateuch at Leyden in 1622 : it is 
a close translation of the Hebrew, and is 
ascribed to an African Jew of the thir- 
teenth century. Erpenius also edited the 
Kew Testament at Leyden in 1616, from a 
manuscript of the thirteenth or fourteenth 
century. The whole bible in Arabic was 
printed by the Propaganda at Pcome, in 
1671. 

Armenian. Miesrob, the inventor of Ar- 
menian letters, undertook an Armenian 
version in the fifth century. In conjunc- 
tion with Isaac the Armenian patriarch, and 
some other helpers, he translated first from 
the Syriac. Afterwards a Greek copy was 
obtained, and a fresh version made from 
this. It was very imperfect ; but on further 
Etudy of the Greek language a better was 
Bubsequently executed. The whole bible was 
printed at Amsterdam in 1666 by TJscan, 
an Armenian bishop. His text is some- 
vrhat coloured from the Vulgate. 

Egyptian. There are three Egyptian dia- 
lects : the Coptic or Memphitic in Lower 
Egypt ; the Sahidic or Thebaic in Upper 
Egypt; and theBashmuric or Oasitic, also 
called the Ammonian, prevailing probably 
in an eastern district of the Delta. There 
is reason to believe that versions of the 
scriptures existed in both Upper and Lower 
Egypt in the third or fourth century, made 
from the Septuagint. Wilkins published 
the Memphitic New Testament at Oxford in 
1716, and the Pentateuch in 1731 : the Psalter 
appeared first at Rome in 1744 : the minor 
prophets were printed by archdeacon Tat- 
tam In 1836, Job in 1346, and the greater pro- 



phets in 1852. Bardelli published Daniel in 
1849. Schwartze edited the Gospels at Leip 
sic, 1846-7 ; and after his death Boetticher 
put forth the rest of the New Testament. A 
beautiful edition of the New Testament 
appeared in 1848-52, under the Society for 
Promoting Christian Knowledge. Of the 
Thebaic and Bashmuric only fragments 
have been printed. 

Ethiopic. The Ethiopic version of tho 
bible was made from the Greek. It probably 
dates from the fourth century, and may 
have been executed, in part at least, by 
Frumentius of Tyre, the first bishop of the 
country. The Psalter and Song of Solomon 
were published at Home in 1513, and the 
New Testament at the same place in 1548-49. 
A revised text was edited by Piatt for tho 
Bible Society in 1826-30. A complete edition 
of the Ethiopic scriptures has been under- 
taken by Dillman, of which the first volume i 
appeared in 1853. 

Georgian. A Georgian translation in the 
ecclesiastical dialect of the country was 
executed from the Septuagint and the ori- 
ginal Greek of the New Testament in tho 
sixth century. The whole bible, corrected 
from the Slavonic, was printed at Moscow 
in 1743. 

Gothic. This version was made from the 
Greek of both Testaments by Ulphilas, 
appointed bishop of the Moeso-Gothsin 348 
A.D. He subscribed the Arian confession; 
and here and there, especially in Phil. ii. 6, 
his theological views tinged his translation. 
The Gospels of this version were first pub- 
lished at Dort in 1665 from the Codex Ar- 
genteus, a MS. most probably of the sixth 
century, now preserved in the university 
library at Upsal. The researches of Knittel 
and of cardinal Mai brought almost all the 
epistles and some fragments of the Old Tes- 
tament to light. All theportions discovered 
of the Gothic version have been published 
by Gabelentz and Loebe in 1836-45, by 
Massman in 1855-6, andbyStammin 1858. 

Persic.The scriptures were doubtless early 
translated into Persian ; but the ancient 
version does not exist. A translation of tlie 
Pentateuch appeared at Constantinople in 
1546. It was the work of Jacob Ben Joseph 
surnamed Tawosi or Tusi, and has been 
thought to be only of the sixteenth century. 
There are other portions of the bible in 
Persian, some yet unprinted. 

Slavonic. The Slavonians settled in 
Great Moravia received Christianity in the 
ninth century, mainly through the mission- 
ary labours of tv>^o brothers, Cyril and 
Methodius of Thessalonica. These translated 
perhaps only the New Testament and the f 
Psalter into the Slavonian language ; but 
the version of the Old Testament was after- 
wards completed. Portions were printed at 
an early date, and the whole bible at Ostrog 
in 1581. 

Some account must now be given of mo- 
dern translations. 

English. The Anglo-Saxon versions of 
scripture in this country have been briefly 
noticed above. When the language of the 
people began to assume the shape of what 
might be called English, the desire of hav- 
ing the gospel in it began soon to manifest 



VEBSIONS] 



908 



itself. Metrical paraphrases of portions of 
the bible were made ; and in the earlier 
part of the fourteenth century Richard 
Rolle of Hampole appears to have executed 
a version of the Psalms, and to have trans- 
lated or paraphrased other parts of scrip- 
ture. Labourers in the same field followed; 
and ere long the illustrious Wyclif in con- 
iunction with Nicholas Hereford resolved 
to translate the whole bible. Their work 
is said to have been revised by Kichard 
Purvey about 1388 ; and there cannot be 
a doubt that, in spite of the attempts 
to suppress it, it was repeatedly copied and 
widely circulated. The New Testament Avas 
printed in 1731 by Lewis, in 1810 by Baber, 
and the entire translation by Forshall and 
Madden at Oxford in 1850. 

Earlier translations were based on the 
Vulgate. To Tyndale belongs the honour of 
first resorting to the original texts as the 
source of any satisfactory version. Tyndale's 
name deserves to be held in lasting re- 
membrance. Some have praised hmi at 
the expense of Cranmer and Padley, as 
setting to work while they were ' watching 
how the court-winds blew' (Smith's Diet, of 
the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1667), in hurried f orget- 
fulness thatTvndale had done a large part 
of his work before Cranmer (much more 
Hidley) had emerged from obscurity. Such 
praise Tvndale does not need. His devoted- 
ness, his perseverance, his perils, his 
martyr's death, and dying prayer, ' Lord, 
open the king of England's eyes,' are enough 
to enshrine him in the affections of all who 
value an opened bible. He printed the Gos- 
pels of Matthew and Mark at Hamburgh in 
1524, and the whole New Testament at 
Cologne and Worms in 1525 ; and many 
other editions followed, while he was 
labouring upon the Old Testament, of 
which he printed portions in 1530-1. The 
entire English bible first appeared in 1535, 
e-^ecuted by Coverdale. This was in some 
respects retrograde ; for it was based on 
Latin and German versions, with a cer- 
tain use of Tyndale's. That of Matthews 
succeeded in 1537. The name of Matthews 
was assumed: the real editor was John 
Rogers, martyred in queen Mary's reign. 
The whole of the IS'ew Testament, and the 
beginning of the Old to the end of 2 Chro- 
nicles, with parts of the prophetical books, 
were Tyndale's version : the rest was sup- 
plied from Coverdale with sundry correc- 
tions. Part of this book was printed abroad ; 
the rest in London. It was brought under 
thenotice of abp. Cranmer,and had his warm 
approval, and by him through Cromwell the 
king's licence was obtained', and an order 
issued that a copy should be provided for 
every parish church : see Cranmer's Works, 
Park. Soc. edit., vol. ii. pp. 344-347. This, 
therefore, was the first authorized English 
bible. Others followed, as those called 
Cranmer's, and Taverner's, both appearing 
in 1539. Thev were little more than revi- 
sions of Matthews'. The accession of Mary 
of course checked the circulation of tue 
scriptures in England. But there were 
English exiles who heartily carried on the 
work abroad. Whittingham, with Gilby, 
Bamuson, and others,produced a version of 



which Tyndale's was the basis. This was 
called the Geneva bible: the New Testament, 
the first in which the verses are marked by 
numerals, appeared iu 1557, the entire bible 
in 1560. This translation was freguently re- 
printed. When the protestant faith was re- 
stored in England, abp. Parker promoted 
another version. This, called the bishops' 
bible, because eight of those engaged on the 
work were bishops, was avowedly based on 
Cranmer's. and was published in 1568. 

But these various versions and editions 
did not give entire satisfaction. At the 
Hampton-court conference in 1604 objec- 
tions were produced by the puritans to the 
bishops' bible. And king James I. yielded 
to the demand and sanctioned a new trans- 
lation. The most learned men in the king- 
dom were to be engaged on it ; and fifty- 
four were selected ; but some of these died 
or were prevented by other causes : only 
forty-seven, therefore, actually laboured m 
the work. The bishops' bible was to be the 
basis ; but other translations were to be 
followed when more conformable to the 
original. Suggestions were invited from 
every quarter ; and any scholars might be 
consulted, and every means adopted that 
the whole might faithfully set forth the 
true Avord of God. The translators were 
divided into various companies who met at 
Cambridge, Oxford, and Westminster. An- 
drews, then dean of Westminster, Barlow, 
dean of Chester, and the king's professors 
of Hebrew and Greek at the two universi- 
ties were appointed directors ; and the 
final revision was entrusted to Bilson, 
bishop of Winchester, and Miles Smith, 
afterwards bishop of Gloucester : the last- 
named wrote the dedication and preface. 
The work was begun in the spring of 1607, 
and was completed at press in 1611. This is 
our present authorized version, which, 
whatever imperfections may be imputed to 
it, is one of the noblest in existence. ^ 

It may be added that the Roman-catholics 
printed an English translation of the New 
Testament at Rheims in 1582, and one of 
the Old at Douay iu 1609-10. 

French. Jacques le Eevre of Etaplea 
publi'^hed a French version of the bible m 
consecutive portions between 1512 and 1530. 
Olivetan's appeared first in 1535 : having 
been revised, it was printed in 1588 as 
the ' Geneva bible ' : corrected editions of 
which were put forth by Martin, 1696-1707, 
and by Ostervald, 1724. 

Gaelic In 1767 the New Testament was 
tran=^lated and printed by James Stuart of 
Killiu, whose son Dr. John Stuart, a-nd Dr. 
Smith, translated the Old Testament. This 
was published in portions, 1783-1801, and a 
revised edition issued in 1807. 

German. The first German version from 
theYulgate was printed in 1466. Luther's 
Testament appeared 1522 ; and his transla- 
tion of the bible was completed in 1530. 

Irish The New Testament was printed 
in 1602 by William Daniel, or O'Donnell, 
archbishop of Tuam, assisted by Mortogh 
O'Cionga or King. With the same persons 
help, bishop Bedell completed a version ol 
the Old Testament in 1640, printed 1685. _ 
ItcUian. The earliest Italian translation 



909 



Is that of Malenni or Malherbi, printed at 
Venice in 1471. That of Bruccioli appeared 
1532, Diodati's in 1607. 

Latin. Several scholars put forth cor- 
rected editions of the Vulgate, as Clarius, in 
1542, Paul Eber, 1565, Andrew Osiander the 
elder, 1522, Luke Osiander, 1574-86, Andrew 
Osiander the younger, 1600. The version of 
Pagninus was published in 1528. Protestant 
translations are those of Munster, 1534-5, 
Leo Juda, 1543, Castalio, 1551, Junius and 
Tremellius, 1575-9 (the New Testament ap- 
peared afterwards), Schmidt, 1696. Erasmus 
translated the New Testament in 1516, Beza 
in 1556. 

Manx. Bishop Wilson commenced a 
translation ; and St Matthew's Gospel was 
printed in 1748. Bishop Hildesley carried 
on the work; and the New Testament ap- 
peared in 1767, the Old in 1772. 

Spanish. The Old Testament, translated 
by Spanish Jews, was printed at Ferrara in 
1553. A version in the Valencian dialect 
had previously been set forth at Valencia in 
1478. In Castilian the earliest edition was 
the New Testament of Enzinas, printed at 
Antwerp in 1543. The entire bible by Cas- 
siodoro de Reyna appeared in 1569. 

Welsh. A Welsh Testament, chiefly trans- 
lated by Salesbury, was printed in 1567. Dr. 
Morgan, afterwards bishop of St. Asaph, 
published the whole bible in 1588. A re- 
vised edition by bishop Parry appeared in 
1620. 

Of course there are a multitude of modern 
versions of the scriptures in these and 
many other languages, which cannot be 
noticed here. Much information on the 
subject will be found in Tlie Bible of Every 
Land, 1848. 

VIAL (1 Sam. x. 1). A flask. The same 
word is rendered 'box' in 2 Kings ix. 1, 3. 
Golden vials are spoken of in Rev. v. 8, xv. 
7, xvi., xvii. 1, XX i. 9 : see Cejv'SER. 

VILLAGE. The terra is used to denote 
the unwalled suburbs outside walled towns, 
as well as in the sense in which we employ 
it (Lev. XXV. 31, 34 ; Josh. xiii. 28 ; Esth. ix. 
19 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 11). According to the 
Talmud a village was a place where there 
was no synagogue. 

VINE. This tree, Yitis vinifera, is one of 
those most frequently mentioned in scrip- 
ture ; its plentiful produce, with corn and 
oil, indicating a fertile land (Gen. xxvii. 
28, 37, xlix. 11, 12 ; Deut. vii. 13 ; Neh. x. 39 ; 
Psal. iv. 7). It is spoken of first in the his- 
tory of Noah (Gen. ix. 20) : it appears to 
have been abundantly cultivated in Egypt 
(xl. 9-11 ; Numb, xx.' 5) ; and it flourished 
and was very productive in Palestine. 
When the spies were sent out by Moses to 
explore the promised land, they found 
clusters of grapes of such extraordinary 
magnitude at Eshcol that they carried with 
them a bunch as a specimen back to the 
camp, hanging it upon a staff borne by two 
men (xiii. 23, 24). We need not be surprised 
at reading of vines so prolific. Even in 
our own country huge bunches of large 
grapes maybe produced. A bunch of the 
Syrian variety grown at Welbeck weighed 
191- lbs. : its length was 19| inches, and 
breadth across the shoulders 19J Inches ; 



and those who have seen the vine at 
Hampton-court palace, cultivated at dis- 
advantage under cover and by artificial 
heat, may readily conceive what such 
trees would yield in a suitable soil and a 
congenial climate. Even in the present 
state of Palestine vines abound ; and Dr. 
Stanley thus speaks of the vineyards of 
Beth-lehem : ' Here more than elsewhere 
in Palestine are to be seen on the sides of 
the hills the vineyards marked by their 
watch-towers and walls, seated on their 
ancient terraces, the earlest and latest 
symbol of Judah. The elevation of the 
hills and table-lands of Judah is the true 
climate of the vine. He " bound his foal 
to the vine, and his ass's colt unto the 
choice vine: he washed his garments in 
wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes" 
.... "A vineyard on a hill of olives," with 
the "fence," and "the stones gathered 
out," and " the tower in the midst of it," is 
the natural figure which, both in the pro- 
phetical and evangelical records, represents 
the kingdom of Judah ' {Sinai and Pal., pp. 
163, 164). 

It was necessary of course for a vineyard 
to be fenced off, to keep out the various 
wild animals, boars, foxes, or jackals 
(Numb. xxii. 24 ; Psal. Ixxx. 12, 13 ; Sol. Song 
ii. 15), which would be likely to do damage. 
A sunny aspect would be chosen for a vine- 
yard : hence we may suppose it often on a 
hill (Isai. V. 1) ; the ground being well cleared 
of stones. A tower or lodge was provided 
for the vine-dresser, and a wine-press made 
(2 ; Matt. xxi. 33) ; and it would seem from 
our Lord's parable in the place last referred 
to that it was not unusual for the owner 
to let out his vineyard, receiving at the 
vintage his rent in kind. 

The vintage, in autumn, about September, 
was a joyous and festive season. The people 
turned out of their habitations, and dwelt 
in lodges and tents. The grapes were ga- 
thered amid shout and song, and carried in 
baskets to the wine-press (Judges ix, 27; 
Isai. xvi. 10 ; Jer. vi. 9, xxv. 30). See Wine- 
press. But the gleanings were to be left 
for the poor and the stranger (Deut. xxiv. 
21 ; Jer. xlix. 9) ; and persons who passed 
through a vineyard might eat there at their 
pleasure, provided they carried nothing 
away (Deut. xxiil. 24). The vineyard was 
not to be sown with divers seeds (xxii. 9) ; 
and it was to lie untendedin the sabbatical 
and jubilee years (Exod.xxiii. 11 ; Lev. xxv. 
11). Fig-trees were occasionally planted in 
vineyards (Luke xiii. 6, 7) ; hence the dwell- 
ing quietly under a man's own vine and 
his own fig-tree was a proverbial expression 
for general peace and security (1 Kings iv. 
25 ; Mic. iv. 4 ; Zech. iii. 10). 

The produce of the vine was variously 
used. Some grapes were eaten fresh ; 
others were dried as raisins (1 Sam. xxx. 12): 
for wine as a product of the grape see 
Wine : there was also a kind of syrup, the 
newly-expressed juice of grapes, boiled 
down to the third or half part. This was 
the 'honey' of Gen. xliii. 11. This syrup, 
called dibs, is in common use in Palestine 
at the present day (Robinson, Bibl, Res. in 
Palestine, vol. ii. pp. 80, 81). 



VlinE OF SOT)OMJ 



910 



The places meutionecl in scripture, where 
vines appear to hare specially flourished, 
are Elealeh, En-gedi, Eshcol, Heshbon, and 
Sihmah (Numb. xiii. 23, 24; Sol. Song 1. 14; 
Isai. xvi. 8, 9, 10 ; Jer. xlviii. 32). 

The Tine is frequently spoken of figura- 
tively. Thus Israel, when faithful, is re- 
presented as a fruitful vine, when ungodly, 
as yielding degenerate grapes (Psal. Ixxx. 
8-15 ; Isai. V. 1-7; Jer. ii. 21 ; Ezek xix. i 
10-14 • Ho=s X. 1). The most remarkable ex- 
ample, however, is that in which our Lord 
represents himself as the vine, his disciples , 
as the branches, and inculcates excellent , 
le^=ons from the comparison on the little 
company who surrounded him on the last 
«ad night of his bitter passion (Johnxv. ; 
1^6). It has been imagined that the figure 
was suggested to him by the sculptured 
golden vine of the temple, or by the yiue- 
yards on the way to Gethsemane : perhaps 
such ideas are fajiciful. ^ m, 

VINE OF SODOM (Deut. xxxu. 32). There 
have been many conjectures as to the tree 
meant Among the more probable of these 
is that it is the 'oslier of theAvRhs,Asclepicts 
(Calotropis) procera of botanists. Tne fruit 
resembling a beautiful orange explodes on 
being pressed, like a puff-ball. Probably it 
3 this which Dr. Bonar saw by the Dead 
c;ea ' This fruit,' he says, ' the natives call 
Tlimn-el-Mej&mn-t):i2it is the mad-apples-- 
becau==e they are said to make all who eat 
them mad' aand of Promise, pp. 300, 301). 
Dr Hooker, however, supposes that some 
plant, with the habits of a vine, must be in- 
tended, and suggests Cucumis colocyntlns 
bitter apple. ' ^. io . 

ymE-DRESSER (2 E:ings ^X3CV._ 12, 
2 Chron. xxvi. 10 ; Isai. Ixi. 5 ; Jer. In. 16 , 
Joel i. 11 : comp. Luke xlii. 6-9 ; J ohn xv. 1, 2. 

YI^GAR. Some question has been 
raised whether 'vinegar' (Numb, vi 3 : 
Ruth ii. 14; Psal. Ixix. 21 ; Prov. x. 26) s 
the right rendering of the original word , 
but Gesenius approves it. As made from 
the srape it was not to be touched by the 
Na^ariti ; but it would supply a refreshing 
drisk for those engaged m labour. And it 
might be mixed with a little olive-oil; as 
pits says was the case with that he haa 
when in slavery with the Algerines {True 
and Faithful Account of the Behgmi of the 
MaliometLs,v. edit. 1731). The vinegar of . 
Matt xxvii. 48; Mark xv. 36; Luke xxin. 
36 ; John xix. 29 was the posca, sour wine, , 
or vinegar and water, the ordinary drink of | 
the Roman soldiers. " I 

VINEYARD. See Vijte. \ 
VINTAGE. See Season, Vine. 
VIOL (Isai. V. 12; Amos vi. 5). See 

^A^LOLET (Esth. i. 6,marg., viii. 15, marg.). 
%?BR™..'ui"^:Matt.ni.7).SeeAl,BKU. 

VIRGIN The virgin Mary : see Maiiy, i. 
In respect to the prophecy that a Jirgm 
thould conceive (Isai. vii.l4) : see Mf^u- 
EL The Hebrews were in the habit of 
personifying the body of inhabitants in a 
pSce as a female ; so the « daughter of a 
fand (the people) is said to be a virgin (xxni 
12 xlvii. 1 ; Jer. xviii. 13). The term is also 
as'ed to indicate moral purity (Rev. xiv. 4). 



nsiON. See Prophecy. 
VOLUME. See Manuscripts, VTRiTiNGf. 
VOPH'SI {my increase). Father of the spy 
chosen from Naphtali (Numb, xiii.,14). 

VOW. The earliest recorded example of . 
a vow would seem to be that self-imposed , 
i by Jacob when on his road as a fugitive to 
!Padan-aram (Gen. xxviii, 20-22). It was j 
I recognized and accepted by God (xxxi. 13). i 
I Vows were not prescribed by the Mosaic \ 
law ; for a vow is essentially a voluntaiT ; 
engagement ; but they were carefully regu- i 
lated. Essential provisions were that the 
i person who vowed should be able inde- 
' pendentlv to undertake the obligation, or 
be authorized by those to whom obedience 
was due (Numb. xxx. 2-15), that the vow 
should not respect that which was m its 
nature abominable (Deut. xxiii. 18), and 
that it should be expressed with the lips 
(■^3). Vows, then most binding, must be 
performed ; the more because the party had 
been free to vow or to abstain from vow- 
ing SD that it was his own act and deed in 
binding himself (21, 22 ; Eccles. v. 4, 5). 

Among vows may be reckoned the hherem 
or irremissible curse (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29\ 
This was uttered against a city to be wholly 
destroved ; the guilt of a broken vow being 
incurred by anv one who spared an inhabi- 
tant or appropriated the spoil. There is a 
uotable example in the case of Jericho, 
which was so devoted that a curse was 
pronounced on him who should venture to 
re-build it (Josh. vi. 17-19, 21-26, vii.). Very 
similar was the execration which Saul de- 
nounced against any of his army who should 
taste food before his victory over the Phi- 
listines was complete a Sam. xiv. 24-28). 

Common vows were positive in which a 
person engaged to do something, or nega- 
I tive by which he bound himself to abstain 
from what otherwise was not unlawful. 
Examples of the neder or ordinary vow may 
be found in the case of Hannah consecrating 
her hoped-for son to the Lord (i. 11) ; and 
in Absalom's pretended determination to be 
a faithful servant of God (2 Sam. xv. 7, 8) 
It was provided in regard to things vowed 
as offerings to God that, if they were un- 
clean beasts, they were to be priced by the 
ipriest, and then might be redeemed by him 
who made the vow on the addition of one- 
fifth of the value (Lev. xxvii. 11-13), if clean 
: animals, such as were usually sacrificed, 
th<w were under no circumstances to be 
i redeemed or exchanged (9, 10), if lands or 
i houses, these might on certain conditiona 
C^ee JUBILEE), be redeemed a4-24), if per- 
'son« redemption-money was to be paid 
a-S\ Nothing was to be so dedicated which 
already by right, as the firstling of an ox or 
sheep.'belonged to the Lord ^26\ Examples 
of negative vows were those in which 
any orie engaged to abstain from wane, or 
any kixd of food, or other thing. Such a 
vow was taken by the Nazarite, which see. 
i There are instances of vows in the New 
I Testament (e.g. Acts xviii. 18, xxiii. 12-21). 
' VULGATE. The name by which the 
authorized Latin version of the Bible la 
' known. See Versions, p. 906. 

VULTURE. A powcrtul bird of the fa- 
mily of the YuUurid(B in the ovdevEaptore^ 



911 



According to our version vultures were for- 
bidden to the Hebrews as food (Lev. xi. 14 ,* 
Deut. xiv.l3). But the word dddh or dayydh, 
so translated, more properly signifles a kite. 
It occurs agatn in Isai.,xxxiv. 15. There is 
another word, ayydh, rendered 'vulture' 
(Job xxviii. 7). This also occurs in Lev. xl. 
14; Deut. xlv. 13, where It is 'kite' in our 
translation. See Kite. But, as it is well 
known that there are several species of the 
vulture in Palestine, It may be reasonably 
believed that this bird is designated In 
scripture by some other word. It is pro- 
bably, therefore, included in the term 
nesher, generally rendered ' eagle,' the 
rather because in some passages of scrip- 
ture where nesher occurs the habits of the 
bird described agree more with those of 
the vulture than of the eagle. The Gyps or 
VtMur fulvus, or griflln vulture, is a power- 
ful bird, four feet in length, bald on the 
head and neck (comp. Mic. i. 16) : it builds 



its nests on elevated rocks or on high 
forest-trees : it has a keen eye, and prevs 
on carcasses, being often known to "Appear 
where armies are contending (comp. Job 
xxxix. 27-30 ; Matt. xxiv. 28) even in dis- 
tricts where otherwise it is seldom seen. 
It inhabits the north of Europe, the Alps.the 
Pyrenees, Turkey the north of Africa, and is 
common in Palestine. The Gypaetus barba- 
tus, lammergeier, or bearded vulture, is a 
very rare bird, found only in mountainous 
regions. This too is known in Palestine. 
There is one other species which may be 
mentioned, the Neophron percnopterus, 
called Pharaoh's hen, and Maltese or car- 
rion vulture. It is said to be the only 
vulture found in a wild state in Britain. 
It is a filthy bird, abounding in the towns 
and villages of the east, where it is the com- 
mon scavenger. This is very likely the 
rdhhdm or rdhhdmdh of Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut. 
xiv. 17, in our version the ' gier-eagle.' 



W 



WAFER (Exod. xvi. 31, xxix. 2, 23 ; Lev. 
ii. 4, vii. 12, viii. 26 ; Numb. vi. 15, 19). A 
thin cake. See Bread. 

WAGES.: The wages first mentioned were 
paid in kind, or by the gift of a daughter in 
marriage (Gen. xxix. 15-20, xxx. 28, xxxi. 7, 
8, 41). Money-wages occur in the New- 
Testament (Matt. XX. 1-14). Strict injunc- 
tions were given by the Mosaic law as to 
the punctual payment of wages (Lev. xix. 
13 ; Deut. xxiv. 15). And there were judg- 
ments threatened against those that dis- 
regarded these commands (Jer, xxii. 13 ; 
Mai. iii. 5 ; comp. Luke x. 7 ; James v. 4). 
See HiRELiKa. 

WAGGON. This word does not often 
occur in our version. It is the rendering 
in several passages (Gen. xlv. 19, 21, 27 ; 
Numb. vii. 3, 7, 8) of the word elsewhere 
generally translated ' cart.' This was for 
peaceful purposes. But there is one place 
(Ezek. xxiii. 24), where it represents another 
Hebrew word, and where it must be under- 
stood to denote the war-chariot. 

WAIL, WAILING. See Mourning. 

WALL. For purposes of defence cities 
and towns were enclosed by walls, being 
thus distinguished from ' unwaUed villages ' 
(Ezek. xxxix. 11). According to the fact 
whether a place was so walled and therefore 
a city, or un walled and a village, regula- 
tions were made as to the reversion of 
property to the original owner at the 
jubilee (Lev. xxv. 29-34). See Jubilee. 
The walls of cities were made thick and 
strong (Numb. xiii. 28 ; Deut. iii. 5) ; so 
that houses were built upon them (Josh. ii. 
15). There are remains existing in Assyria 
and Babylonia sufficient to show that the 
accounts of ancient historians of the vast 
size of city walls are not inaccurate. See 
Babel. It was a matter of great importance 
for people who apprehended hostile attack , 



to surround their dwellings with defences 
which could not easily be overthrown ; and 
hence the jealousy manifested against per- 
mitting a suspected city to be walled (Neh. 
i. 3, ii. 8, 13, 15, 17, 18, iii., iv.). See Fenced 
Cities. 

The term is sometimes used metaphori- 
cally (1 Sam. xxv. 16) ; and the prophets 
describe thereby in glowing language the 
security of the restored Jerusalem (Isai. 
xxvi. 1, Ix. 18 ; Rev. xxi. 12-20). 

WANDERING. After the Israelites were 
delivered from Egypt, and had triumphantly 
passed the Red sea, it was intended, when 
a covenant had been made with them, and 
statutes were prescribed them, that they 
should proceed to occupy the land promised 
to their fathers (Numb. xiii.). But, in con- 
sequence of their rebellious fear to en- 
counter the Canaanites, they were con- 
demned to wander in the wilderness till the 
men of that generation perished (xiv. 26-35). 
The sentence was rigorously executed ; and 
forty years (in the whole! expired before the 
Jordan was crossed, and the occupation of 
Palestine begun (Josh. iv. 19, v. 6). 

The itinerary of their journeyings is 
given with much particularity in Numb, 
xxxiii. 1-49; and incidental notices of the 
direction they pursued, and the places at 
which they halted, are found in other parts 
of the Pentateuch. Generally It is clear 
that after passing the sea their course was 
south or south-east to Sinai, and then nearly 
due north to Kadesh ; from which place 
they had to turn southward to Ezion-geber ; 
and that it was by a circuit round the 
Edomitish territory that they at length 
came to the so-called ' plains of Moab,' nearly 
opposite to Jericho. But it is hard to iden- 
tify many of the stations : the exact site 
of Sinai itself is disputed ; and, as there are 
few notes of time, and nearly thirty-eight 



WAKDEIilNG] 



years of tlie wliole period are passed oTerwitti 
the record ot little that occurred in them, it 
■ is manifest that a ^rriter must approach the 
' topic ^vith diffidence, and not attempt dog- 
matically to enforce the theory he adopts. 
I The present article can deal hut hriefly 
with the wanderings : it would demand a 
volume to discuss the various points of in- 
terest which present themselves. 

The possihility of the Israelites spending 
so long a time in the region traversed may 
he first noticed. We find them repeatedly 
murmuring for want of water and of food. 
And, though a supply of hoth was supernatu- 
rally vouchsafed, yet, when we recollect that 
they possessed large herds and flocks, we 
must allow that the nation could not have 
subsisted in a region utterly desolate. Kow, 
if we suppose that the fastnesses of Horeh 
are sterile— though even there the monks 
of St. Catherine at the present day have 
cultivated gardens, and early travellers 
speak of green plains where now everything 
is hare— if we admit that the Arahah is an 
arid region unflt for hahitation, yet large 
tracts of the so-called wilderness were ra- 
ther open downs, distinguished indeed from 
the ahodes of settled nations, but yet suit- 
able for and occupied by nomad tribes. All 
evidence goes to establish this. The wilder- 
ness is traversed still by large pilgrim- 
caravans ; and there are unmistakeable 
traces in many parts of ancient fertility. 
There are the ruins of cities, and there is 
the memory preserved of many more : there 
are indications of water in different wadies, 
a proof that, had not the trees been so reck- 
lessly destroyed, as we know even of late they 
have^been, vegetation could have flourished. 
Besides, various peoples inhabited the re- 
gion, the Amalekites, for instance, when 
the Israelites passed along ; so that, though 
there were districts wild and solitary 
enough, yet there was not through the 
whole sweep of country the utter desola- 
tion which some have imagined. See Drew's 
Scripture Zancls, chap. iii. pp. 58, 59, 73, 76, 
79j 80. And, be it observed, it was a wise 
providence which chose their way. The 
training Israel received in the desert told 
admirably on their future character. 

The passage of the Red sea has been else- 
where discussed : see pp. 801, 802. They took 
their journey thence by the wilderness of 
Shur to Marah, perhaps 'Am -ffozfcira?!, and to 
mim,Waclij Gliurundd, or Wady Useit (Exod. 
XV. 22-27). They then reached the wilderness 
of Sin, el-Kcia, and proceeded by Dophkah 
and Alush to Rephidira, perhaps Feiran, and 
Sinai (xvi. "L, xvii. 1, xix. 1,2 ; Isumb. xxxiii. 
9-15). The group of Sinaitic mountains is 
well known, though differences of opinion 
exist as to the exact summit on which the 
glory of God appeared : see Horeb, Sixai. 
It must be noted, however, that a writer in 
the Journ. of Sacr. Lit, Apr. 1860, pp. 1-00, 
denies that the Israelites went so far south 
as theyare generally supposed to have gone, 
and regards the Jebel et-Tlh as the chain of 
Horeb. But his theory cannot easily be 
received. 

After the giving of the law began the 
march to Kadesh, which was hard by the 
wildernesses of Zin and Paran (Numb. x. 33, 



xi. 3, 34, 35, xii. 16). There appear to have 
been sixteen halting-places between Horeb 
and Kadesh, the first and second of whicli 
are not named (x. S3, xxxiii. 16-30), Moseroth 
being near to Kadesh, and as some think 
another name for mount Hor. For the 
identification of Kadesh, on which opinions 
vary, see Kadesh. It was from Kadesh 
(or shortly before reaching it) that the spies 
were sent into Canaan, and at Kadesh on 
their return that the fatal refusal to march 
on occurred, when sentence of penal wan- 
dering was passed upon the obstinate nation 
(xiii. 26, xiv. 25, 34). We know (as before 
said) little of the history of those years. 
The rebellion of Korah occurred during tha 
period ; and certain additional statutes 
were given (xv.— xix.). We have also a 
brief record of stations on the way from 
Kadesh to Ezion-geber and from Ezion- 
geber to Kadesh. It is probable that the 
time was occupied by marches and counter- 
marches between these points, till at last 
in the fortieth year, the fated time just 
closing, they came once more to Kadesh 
with better hopes, and encamped in the 
wilderness of Zin to the east of the city 
(XX. 1, xxxiii. 36). 

There was still to be the tale of suffering, 
sin, and death. Miriam died. The people 
murmured for water ; and Moses and Aaron 
offended, and were told they should not 
enter the promised land. But the march 
must not be delayed. Application was 
therefore made to Edom for a passage 
through their countiT, but was chm'lishly 
refused. Accordingly Israel 'turned away' 
from Edom; and when near mount Hor 
Aaron died (xx.). Surely the tradition Is 
here at fault. If the Hor on which Aaron 
died be the mountain commonly so reputed, 
instead of turning away the Israelites pene- 
trated into the very centre of the Edomitish 
territory : see Hor, 1. Be this however, as 
it mav, from Hor they journeyed down to- 
wards' the Red sea, much to the discomfort 
of the people, crossed the Arabah from west 
to easts perhaps somewhat above Ezion- 
geber, compassed the land of Edom, passed 
the brook Zered to the east of Moab, and at 
length came north of the Arnon into a dis- 
trict that had once belonged to Moab, and 
still retained its name, though now appro- 
priated by the Amorites (xxi. 4-13, 18-20, 
xxii. 1 ; Deut. ii. 8, 13, 14, 24 ; Judges xi. 
16-18). Many eventful passages were there 
during this circuit, the plague of fiery ser- 
pents, and the destruction of Sihon and Og ; 
their conauests being pushed through 
Gilead and Bashan, before the Israelites sat 
down by the Joi^an opposite to Jericho 
(Xurab. xxi. 21-35). And there was yet the at- 
tempted curse of Balaam, and the chastise- 
ment of Midian (xxii.— xxv.), and then the 
last solemn charge of Moses (Deut. i. 1), re- 
capitulating God's law, and his wonderful 
dealinsfs with his people ; and then the great 
lawgiver died, the last event (the wander- 
ing being over) before they crossed the 
Jordan into their inheritance (xxxiv.). 

Little more can be added. It is but a 
general sketch which has been given of 
Israel's journeyings, of the country they tra- 
versed so long, and of the events that befel 



1 1 

I 

i 
! 

r 
i 



913 MhXt W^noMttiQt. [waes of the lord, book op 



them there. Great was their perverseness, 
and great the Lord's mercy towards them 
(Psal. xcv. 7-11). And their history in the 
wilderness remarkably pre-signifies the 
future fortunes of the church, travelling 
through the wilderness of the world to- 
wards her heavenly home. In our pilgrim- 
age we many times provoke the Lord ; hut 
O how graciously does he deal with us, 
sparing us like a kind father, providing us 
with bread to eat and giving us water for 
our thirst, continually beckoning us onward 
to a better Canaan. ' Let us therefore fear, 
lest, a promise being left us of entering into 
his rest, any should seem to come short of 
it ' (Heb. iv. 1). 

For further information the reader may 
consult Winer, Bibl. BWB., art. 'Wiiste, 
Arabische and Smith, Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. iii. pp. 1746-1771. 

"WAR. Much has been already said upon 
this topic ; and the reader must be referred 
to previous articles, for a description of 
the weapons used to Arms, Ahmour, for 
the mustering and marshalling of troops to 
Army, for the mode of attacking and defend- 
ing towns to Engines and Fenced Cities, 
for the spoil and its distribution to Booty, 
for the treatment of the conquered to Cap- 
tive. A few general notices only remain 
to be added here. 

The Israelites were much engaged in war. 
At their entrance into Canaan they had to 
take possession of their allotted inheritance 
by conquest. And, as they spared many of 
the clans whom they were to exterminate, 
and frequently by their sins brought down 
God's chastisement upon them, generally in 
the shape of being subjected by some neigh- 
bouring nation, they were consequently 
seldom long without having recourse to 
arms. But, had they been faithful to the 
national holy covenant, they would have 
been sure to be victorious. 

In advancing against an enemy terms of 
surrender were to be offered, except in the 
case of the devoted Canaanitlsh nations ; 
and only if these terms were refused was 
the assault to be made (Deut. xx. 10-18). The 
impending onset of battle was announced 
by the sound of the sacred trumpets (Numb. 
X. 9), and by the shoutings of the troops 
(1 Sam. xvii. 20). Sometimes, too, the men 
were encouraged by an address from the 
commander-in-chief (2 Sam. x. 11, 12 ; 2 
Chron. xx. 20). Stratagems were practised, 
spies sent out (Josh. ii. 1), and ambuscades 
contrived (viii. 4, 9). In besieging a city banks 
were cast up and military engines placed on 
these to batter the walls (2 Kings xix. 32 ; 
Isai. xxix. 3j, or attempts were made by scal- 
ing-ladders to climb over them ; while the 
oesieged took all the precautions they could, 
stopping the supply of water, &c. (2 Chron. 
sxxii. 2-5). Sometimes fire was employed 
to destroy the gates of a town or fortress 
(Judges ix. 48, 49, 52). A victory was cele- 
brated with great rejoicings (xi. 34 ; 1 Sam. 
xviii.6,7; 2 Chron. xx. 26-28). And, as those 
who had distinguished themselves were 
specially praised, so for the dead in battle 
dirges were composed, and lamentations 
made (2 Sam. i. 19-27 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 25). 
Trophies were set up when a victory was 



gained; and the arms of the vanquished 
were kept in the sanctuaries of the con- 
querors (1 Sam, vii. 12, xv. 12, xxi. 9, xxxi. 
10). But the then customary ferocities 
were much mitigated in the case of the He- 
brews, who were charged to show more 
mercy to their enemies during the hostili- 
ties, and afterwards, than could be obtained 
from other victors (Deut. xx. 14,19,20; 1 
Kings XX. 31, 32). 

Personal strength and skill were far more 
important in wars in which battles were 
rather a series of personal combats than in 
modern warfare carried on by means of fire- 
arms. Hence a single champion of great 
size and prowess might strike terror into a 
whole army (1 Sam. xvii. 23, 24) ; and even a 
campaign might be decided by the issue of 
a contest between two chosen warriors (8, 
9, 51). 

We very often find the incidents of war 
introduced with a figurative meaning. The 
Deity is described as a warrior, and Messiah 
predicted under the same symbol (e.g. Psal. 
xlv. 3, ex. 5, 6 ; Isai. xxvii. 1, xxxiv. 5, lix. 
16-18, Ixiii. 1-6). Further, the faithful are 
warned that they have a battle to fight, and 
enemies whom they are to subdue ; and the 
Christian graces are occasionally repre- 
sented as arms or pieces of armour (Eph. 
vi. 10-20 ; 1 Thess. v. 8 ; 2 Tim. ii. 3, 4), with 
a reference to those which decked Messiah 
himself (Isai. xi. 5, lix. 17). And the final 
blessedness of Christ's followers is de- 
scribed as attained by such as have been 
conquerors in a hard-fought battle (Rev. 
iii. 21). 

WARS OP THE LORD, THE BOOK OF 
THE. Some book or writing so entitled is 
alluded to in Numb. xxi. 14, 15. Modern 
critics, for want of better arguments against 
the antiquity of the Pentateuch, have rash- 
ly pronounced it Inconceivable that such a 
book could exist in the time of Moses, when 
the wars of God's people, some early vic- 
tories over the Amalekites excepted, had 
begun only a few months before. Never 
was an argument hazarded of less solidity. 
A campaign may last a very short time; 
and yet its events be numerous and import- 
ant. Moses was commanded to chronicle 
the war with Amalek (Exod. xvii. 8-16). 
Then there was the disastrous incursion 
which Israel adventured on the south of 
Canaan soon after the return of the spies 
(Numb. xiv. 40-45), the war with Arad (xxi.l- 
3), then those with Sihon and Og(21-25, 33-35) 
and with the Midianites(xxxi.), besides,very 
possibly, military expeditions which might 
have occurred during the thirty-seven or 
thirty-eight years of which we have scarcely 
a record. Moreover, the deliverance of Israel 
from Egypt is always said to have been a 
conquest : it was emphatically a war of the 
Lord, when the Lord fought for Israel 
(Exod. xiv. 14). Again, there were wars in 
which some at least of the Israelites en- 
gaged while in Goshen ; as the raid on the 
territory of Gath by the Ephraimites (1 
Chron. vii. 20-22). There was also Abraham's 
victory over the eastern kings (Gen. xiv. 
14-16). What the book of the wars of the 
Lord actually contained we know not ; but 
we may see there were events enough 



ward] 



914 I 



whicli it might contain, and whicli miglit 
fill a Tolume, occurring before tlie death 
of Moses. "Wliat reliance tlien can ^^e 
placed on tlie judgment of critics wlio 
would make the mention of such a hook 
an objection against the Mosaic authorship 
of the Pentateuch ? 

WARD. This word, besides its ordinary 
sense of a prison or imprisonment (Gen, xl. 
3, 4), signilies sometimes the place of a 
watch, or station (Isai. xxi. 8) : and some- 
times the guards themselves (Neh. xiii. 30). 

WASH, WASHING. See Bathe, Feet, 
The washing of bauds before eating was 
specially necessary in countries where the 
food was handled. But it appears to have 
become a ceremonial observance which our 
Lord felt it right to discountenance, pro- 
voking thereby the censure of the Phari- 
sees (Mark vii. 1-13). There are different 
expositions of the phrase used in this pas- 
sage, in our version ' wash oft,' for which 
the margin supplies several suggestions. 
Perhaps the most literal rendering is to be 
preferred—' with the fist ; ' the hand flrst 
washed being closed before it was apphed 
to cleaning the othei'. The ancient customs 
still exist in-the east. The feet must be 
washed before Mohammedan prayer; and 
for washing the hands after eating a pitcher 
and ewer are brought, and an attendant 
pours the water over the hands of a guest 
(see 2 Kings iii. 11 ; and comp. John xiii. 
4-15). 

WATCH. Wherever there has been any 
sense of insecurity, it has naturally been 
the practice to keep a watch. Of course 
this is most necessary in warfare; and 
hence we find continually reference in 
scripture to the watchman whose business 
it was to give warning of the approach of 
an enemv. or to detect his motions (2 Sam. 
xviii. 24-27 ; 2 Kings ix. 17-20 ; Isai. xxi. 5-9). 
So ministers and teachers are likened to 
watchmen. They are to give notice of the 
dangers to be apprehended from spiritual 
foes'', and are responsible if evil occurs 
through their neglect (Jer. vi. 17; Ezek. 
xxxiii. 2-9 ; Heb. xiii. 17). Watchmen were 
placed on towers for the purpose of obtain- 
ills: an extended view; and such towers were 
f req.uently built in parts of the country away 
from the larger cities (2 Kings xvii. 9, xviii. 
8\ Perhaps chains of such posts were estab- 
lished. Warning of danger was given by 
the blowing of a trumpet, or a loud cry. 

Besides watchmen against foreign ene- 
mies, the security of towns must be simi- 
larly provided for. In civilized communi- 
ties the good order of society is preserved 
by those who watch against the nightly 
thief, or the seditious demagogue. So we 
find in scripture story that cities were 
watched (Psal. cxxvii. 1 ; Sol. Song iii. 3, v. 
7). And hence very pertinent iujunctions 
are given to God's servants to watch. They 
are not to be careless, like the slumberers 
whom destruction may surprise. They are 
to be always ready for their Master's ap- 
proach ; for he may come as a thief in the 
night (Matt. xxiv. 42-44, xxv. 13; F.ph. vi. 
18 ; 1 Pet. V. 8 ; Rev. iii. 3). 

Of course there would have to be an 
organized system of watching ; and those 



so employed must relieve each other. This j 
would be at specified times. And there- ; 
fore periods of the night were called | 
' watches ' (Psal. xc. 4). These were origi- 
nally three, ' the beginning of the watches' | 
(Lam. ii. 19), from sunset to probably ten 
o'clock ; ' the middle watch ' (Judges vii. 19), \ 
from ten till two o'clock ; ' the morning 
watch ' (Exod. xiv. 24 ; 1 Sam. xi. 11), from 
two to sunrise. In after times there were 
four watches, according to the Greek and 
Roman custom, the ' even' from six to nine 
o'clock ; ' midnight ' from nine to twelve ; 
'cock-crowing' from twelve to three; 
'morning 'from three to six (Matt. xiv. 25 ; 
Mark xiii. 35 ; Luke xii. 38). 

WATER. The vast importance of water 
in a warm climate can scarcely be exagge- 
rated. The Israelites had ample'experience 
of this in their wanderings through the 
desert; where their murmurings were 
checked and their thirst relieved by God's 
miraculous interference (Exod. xv. 22-25, 
xvii. 1-7 ; Numb. xx. 2-13). Hence in com- 
mendation of the promised land its plenti- 
ful supply of water is repeatedly noted 
(Dent. viii. 7, xi. 11) ; and the happiness of 
the righteous is described : ' bread shall be 
given him : his waters shall be sure ' (Isai. 
xxxiii. 16). On the other hand, the miseries 
arising from failure of water and conse- 
quent famine and disease are often vividly 
depicted (1 Kings xvii. 7, xviii. 5 ; Lam. iv. 
4 : comp. Luke xvi. 24). 

Water was supplied byfoimtains, brooks, 
or streams of running (in the original 
'living,' as opposed to that which is stag- 
nant) water, many of which became dry in 
hot seasons, cisterns or tanks, and wells. 
See Cistern, Fouxtaix, Well. 

It was natural that water should have a 
svmbolical use. On certain solemn occa:- 
sions the Israelites drew water and poured 
it out before the Lord (l Sam. vii. 6). There 
was a custom of this kind at the feast of 
tabernacles, when for seven days a priest 
brought water in a golden vessel from the 
pool of Siloam, and poured it together with 
wine on the altar. To this Christ may be 
supposed to allude in John vii. 37-39 (see 
Alford, note on the place), symbolizing by 
water the refreshing and purifying influ- 
ences of the Holy Spirit. Both spiritual 
graces and gospel blessings generally ai-e 
f requentlv described by this term ^Isai. Iv. 
1 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 25 : Rev. xxii. 17). And the 
final happiness of God's people is said to be 
that thev shall thirst no more (Matt. v. «3 ; 
Rev. vii. 16, 17. xxi. 6). For a notice of the 
water of jealousy see Jealousy. 

WAVE-OFFERING ^Exod. xxix. 24, 26, 27 ; 
Lev. vii . 29-34, viii. 2 7, ix. 21 , x. 14, 15 ; Numb, 
vi. 20, viii. 11, marg.. x^^iii. 11, 18, 26-29). The 
right shoulder of the victim in a peace-offer- 
ing was to be ' heaved,' and the breast to be 
'waved,' in token of a special presentation 
of the parts to God. They thus became the 
property of the priests. See Offerings. In 
Lev. xxiii. 10-20 there is a provision that 
the first-fruits of the harvest, a sheaf aE 
the passover, loaves at pentecost, should be 
waved before the Lord. The meaning was 
the same ; and probal'ly peace-offerings werf» 
in both cases a part of the ceremony* 



915 



WAX. The soft yielding substance formed 
by melting the combs of bees in whicb their 
honey is deposited. It is often mentioned 
by way of illustration (Psal. xxii. 14, Ixviii. 
2, xcvii. 5 ; Mic. i. 4). 

WAT. See High-wAy. 

WEAIsT. It was customary for Hebrew 
mothers to nurse their children (Exod. ii. 
7-9 ; 1 Sam. i. 23 ; Sol. Song viii. 1), though a 
nurse is mentioned in Gen. xxiy. 59, the 
mother being aliye (53, 55). A child was 
weaned later than with us. Thus Samuel 
was not weaned till old enough to be car- 
ried to Eli ; and it would seem probable 
that the suckling continued three years. 
A daily portion was not allotted to Levite 
children till that age (2 Chron. xxxi. 16) : the 
reasonable inference is that they were not 
weaned till then. See also 2 Mace, yii, 27. 
The weaning was celebrated by a feast (Gen. 
xxi. 8), which is said still to be customary 
in the east. 

WEAPON. See Arms. 

WEASEL. One of the animals pronounced 
unclean (Lev. xi. 29). The Hebrew name is 
derived from a root signifying to ' glide : ' 
hence the weasel may be so called from its 
swift gliding motion, or its gliding into 
holes. Possibly, however, the mole may be 
meant, 

WEAVE, WEAVER, WEAVING. Weav- 
ing was one of those arts which evidently 
were practised at a very early age. Thus it 
attained a great degree of perfection among 
the ancient Egyptians. For Joseph was 
clothed in a vesture of fine linen (Gen. xli. 
42) ; and indeed there are still existing the 
woven cloths in which the bodies of their 
dead were thousands of years ago enveloped. 
The skill of the Egyptians is elsewhere 
alluded to (Isai. xix. 9 ; Ezek. xxvii. 7). So 
that some writers have attributed the in- 
vention of weaving to this people. From 
them the Hebrews, if otherwise unac- 
quainted with it, would have derived the 
art. And accordingly we find that even in 
the wilderness woven articles were used 
from the coarser texture of the goats' hair 
curtains (Exod. xxvi. 7), and the woollen 
garment (Lev. xiii. 47) with which no linen 
or flax was to be woven, to the more delicate 
'twined linen' (Exod. xxvi. l) made of 
twisted threads, and the broidered raiment 
of the priests (xxvlii, 4, 39), all wrought 
probably in the loom. It is true indeed 
that some of these fabrics were obtained 
elsewhere, and not actually manufactured 
by the Israelites on their journey ; still we 
can hardly doubt that weaving to a certain 
extent was practised, and at all events the 
knowledge of the art preserved among them 
in order to their settlement in Canaan. In- 
cidental notices of it afterwards occur 
(1 Chron. iv. 21) ; and there is the description 
of weaving as women's work (2 Kings xxiii. 
7 ; Prov. xxxi. 13, 24), it being generally 
done by men in Egypt. The employment of 
gold tissue iu costly garments is also men- 
tioned (Psal. xlv. 13 : comp. Josh. vii. 21) ; 
and coats woven without seam were not 
uncommon (John xix. 23 : comp. Josephus, 
Antiq., lib. iii. 7, § 4). 

The Egyptian loom was upright ; the 
weaver often standing to his work. It 



[week 



consisted mainly of a strong beam, over 
which the warp was passed. The woof was 
drawn through the alternate threads by 
means of a shuttle, and pressed down by sm 
iron bar. Sometimes, however, the weaving 
was upwards (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, vol. ii. 




Weaving. Egyptian loom. 



p. 60, vol. iii. pp. 134, 135). The loom is not 
mentioned in scripture. But we find the 
' shuttle' with an allusion to its rapid motion 
(Job vii. 6) ; the pin of the web (Judges xvi. 
14, in our version 'pin of the beam'), the 
warp or thread (13, 14, ' web ' ), the ' beam ' 



i 




Ancient Roman lucui. 



(1 Sam. xvii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 19), and the 
'thrum' (Isai, xxxviii. 12, marg.\ that is 
the ends of threads, or those which tied the 
web to the beam. The 'warp' and 'woof,' 
too, occur in Lev. xiii. 48, 49, 51-53, 56-59 ; but 
it may be questioned v/hether these are the 
exact meanings of the original words there. 

WEDDING. See Marriage. 

WEEDS (Job xxxi. 40, marg.). See 
Cockle. 

WEEK. The week of seven days appears 
very early as a measure of time (e.g. Gen. 
vii. 10, viii. 10, 12, xxix. 27). See Sabbath. 
For feast of weeks sec Pentecost. Respect- 
ing the origin of tlii.s seven-fold division 
critics are not agreed. The most natural 
belief would be that the process of creation, 
six periods of working and one of rest, was 
at once made known to man (ii. 2, 3). In 
widely-separated uritions the week has been 
acknowledged. And, though there are some 



■weights] 



in wliich it cannot be traced, yet it is as 
rro>)al)le that among tliese tlie observance 
liad passed away as tliat it never descended 
from a common ancestor. In tlie last 
century an attempt was made in France to 
abolisli tlie weekly reckoning of time. In a 
barbarous and iUiterate age tins attempt 
would probably bave Id a while succeeded. 

WEIGHTS. The subject of the Hebrew 
weights is one of considerable difficulty. It 
would require a lengthened treatise to de- 
scribe the modes of calculation adopted, and 
to state the reasons of the conclusions ar- 
rived at. It must be sufficient here to 
notice the different weights mentioned, to 
show their relative proportions, and to ex- 
hibit, so far as learned men have been able 
to determine, their eguivalents m the 
weights of our own time and country. 

The weights mentioned in scripture are 
a 'gerah,' implying a grain or berry, a 
* shekel,' signifying weight, with its suD- 
divisions of half-shekel, and guarter-shekel, 
a ' maneh,' meaning part, and a talent, the 
Hebrew equivalent for which means a globe 
or mass. There is reason to believe that 
anciently weights were of stone (Deut xxv. 
13, 15, marg. ; 2 Sam. xiv. 26, Heb ; Prov. 
xvi il, marg.) ; subsequently perhaps of 
lead (Zech. v. 7). There have been found m 
the Nineveh ruins bronze weights m the 
shapes of lions and ducks, with certain 
marks upon them indicating how much they 
were : in Egypt also there were lions' heads 
and buUs' heads ; and similarly elsewhere : 
seeKESiTAH, p. 509. The shekel of the sanc- 
tuary (Exod. XXX. 13 : comp. 2 Sam. xiv. 26) 
was probably the standard, preserved m the 
tabernacle or temple. 

The following table wiU show the pro- 
portionate weights :— 
Gerah. Bekah 

1 or half-shekel. 
10 1 Shekel. 

20 2 1 Maneh. 

1200 120 60 1 Talent. 
60,000 6000 3000 50 1 
But this talent was of silver : the gold 
talent was double in weight : it was equal 
to 100 manehs, each of which contained 100 

^^Then'as to correspondence with our own 
weights:— 

Gerah = H grains. 

Bekah = HO 

Shekel = 220 

Maneh = 13,200 „ 

Talent = 660,000 
But the 10,000 shekels of a gold talent 
weighed 132 grains each ; and consequently 
the talent 1,320,000 grains. . , 

It has been elsewhere explained (see 
T^ToNBY) that trading was originally accord- 
ing to weight ; so much gold or silver being 
weighed out by a P^^'^l^'^ser : hence the 
monetary system grew out of that of 
weights; and the same words (as is indeed 
in some degree the case among other na- 
tions) denoted both money and weights It 
Is therefore specially . desirable to an lei- 
stand the relative weights of theHebiew 
coinage. Perhaps the Proportion was not 
always accurately obser>;ed Some tab es 
taken from Dr. Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 



916 



vol. iii. pp. 1733, 1734, will be serviceable to 
the reader ; and for further information he 



Half 

Quarter 

(Sixth) 



Shekel 





Supposed 


Average 


weight. 


weight. 


. 235-4 


250 gr. 


. 132-0 


125 


- . . 81-8 


83-3 


Silver Coins. 


Supposed 


Average 


weight. 


weight. 


. 220 gr. 


id. 


1 . .110 


id. 



1,S20,000 gr. 
959,040 
840,000 
792,000? 
660,000 
479,520 
399,600 



(Thn-d) . . . 73-3 
Some of these weights differ from those 
given above, p. 605 ; but, as before observed, 
an accurate adjustment is very difficult. 
Eastern Talents. 
Hebrew gold 
Babylonian (silver) . 
Egyptian .... 
Hebrew copper ? 
Hebrew silver . 
Babylonian lesser (silver) 
Persian gold . . . 
The word ' dram' appears to be sometimes 
used as indicating weight : it corresponds 
with the Persian daric, 129 grains troy. 

WELL. An adequate supply of v,-ater m 
a hot country is of the first necessity. And, 
as streams exposed to the summer sun fre- 
quently dry, it is of importance to have 
deep weUs. Hence we find contention in 
which the patriarchs were fi-equently en- 
gaged, in order to establish their right to 
wells which they had digged ; and, as it was 
necessary for an agriculturisttofix his abode 
near water, the means sometimes adopted 
of driving him from his settlement was to 
stop up the wells (Gen. xxi. 25-31, xxvi. 
14-33). These wells were not mere tanks, 
the receptacles of stagnant water: they 
were fed by springs, and were carefully 
kept as the common property of the neigh- 
bouring inhabitants, who at particular 
times came to water their cattle there, the 
mouth of the well being often closed mth 
a stone to prevent sand and extraneous 
matter from choking it (xxix. 2, 3, /-lO), 
there being also a low wall round the 
mouth to prevent accident (Exod. xxi. 3o). 
'Who,' says Dr. Thomsou, 'that has tra- 
velled much in this country has not often 
arrived at a well in the heat of the day 
which was surrounded with numerous 
flocks of sheep waiting to be watered I i 
once saw such a scene in the bm-nmg plains 
of northern Syria. Half -naked fierce-look- 
ing men were drawing up water in leather 
buckets: flock afcer flock was brought up, 
watered, and sent away ; and, after all the 
men had ended their work, then several 
women and girls brought up their flocks 
and drew water for them. Thus it was 
with Jethro's daughters when Moses stood 
up and aided them ; and thus no doubt it 
would have been with Rachel, if Jacob had 
not rolled away the stone and watered her 
sheep. I have frequently seen wells closed 
up with large stones, though in this part of 
the country it is not commonly done, be- 
cause water is not so scarce and precious. 
It is otherwise, however, in the dreary de- 



917 



[wheat 



Berts ' {Tlie Land and the Book, p. 589). The 
same writer speaks of public wells in the 
Philistine country, where the water is 
raised by wheel-and-hucket-work called 
sdMeh, at the common cost, and for com- 
mon use. One he noticed which was worked 
night and day by four miiles allotted to 
it (p. 544). An ordinary rope and bucket, 
or pitcher, sometimes a water-skin, are also 
used, and thesM(^oit/: see above,pp. 241, 242. 

Wells were the usual places of halting for 
travellers (Gen. xxir. 11), and for the en- 
camping of armies (Judges vii.l). And some 
of the very touching incidents of scripture 
have occurred at wells (John iv. 6). 

WSK Spoken of animals (Lev. xxii. 22). 
It probably means having running sores, or 
ulcers. 

WEST. The Hebrew word for west pro- 
perly signifies sea, i.e. the Mediterranean — 
a proof that the Hebrew language was de- 
veloped in Palestine. Sometimes, indeed, 
the phrase * where the sun goeth down ' is 
used (Deut. xi. 30 ; Josh. i. 4). And there is 
another word signifying ' darkening ' or 
' sunset,' met with in alike sense (Isai. xlv. 
6). A Hebrew regarded himself as looking 
wards the east ; and therefore 'behind,' or 
' backward,' implies westward (Judges xviii. 
12 ; Job xxiii. 8 ; Isai. ix. 12). Hence also 
the western or Mediterranean sea is called 
the 'utmost,' 'uttermost,' or 'hinder' sea 
(Deut. xi. 24 ; Joel ii. 20 ; Zech. xiv. 8). 

WHALE. The Cetacea is an order of 
aquatic mammals with fin-like anterior ex- 
tremities, and a large horizontal caudal fin 
or tail. They have no external ear, or hair 
on the external integument ; and the cervi- 
cal bones are so compressed as to leave the 
animals without any outward appearance of 
a neck. To this order including different 
families and species belong the largest ani- 
mated forms in existence. The Hebrew 
wordtanntn, sometimes translated 'whales ' 
(Gen. i. 21 ; Job vii. 12), would seem to com- 
prise great marine creatures, mammifers, 
and non -mammifers. The ' great fish ' which 
swallowed Jonah (Jonah 1. 17) is called by 
our Lord Jietos, ^ 'whale': probably the 
Greek term as well as the Hebrew is of a 
comprehensive character. But whales 
have been sometimes seen in the Mediter- 
ranean. The public prints gave an account 
of the Maeris steamer striking upon a whale 
in the straits of Messina, Oct. 12, 1864. This 
animal was 21 feet 4 inches long, with a 
maximum girth of 13 feet 9 inches. The 
white shark, Carcharias vulgaris, also fre- 
quents this sea. It is sometimes 30 feet in 
length. See Dragon, Jonah, The Book of. 

WHEAT. One of the best-known and 
most valuable species of corn. The various 
sorts of wheat, Triticum, have been culti- 
vated from a very early period ; and it is 
impossible to say where the most common 
sorts are indigenous. There are very many 
species of this genus of plants, and of many 
species several varieties. The vegetable 
principles contained in the fiour of wheat 
are starch (carbonaceous) and gluten (in 
which is nitrogen). This flour, therefore, 
possesses both fattening and strengthen- 
ing qualities, and is consequently admirably 
fitted for a staple article of diet. The vari- 



ous species of wheat are most abundantly 
produced in temperate climates. 

Wheat is mentioned in scripture as grown 
in Egypt, Palestine, and other countries , 
and the Triticuvi viilgare, common wheat, 
also one or two other kinds, are cultivated 
now. There is an Egyptian species, Triti- 
cum co?7zposiiMW, many-spiked wheat, which 
appears to be that which Pharaoh saw in 
his dream (Gen. xli. 5) ; several ears being 
produced upon one stalk. Such expressions 
as ' the fat of kidneys of wheat' (Deut. xxxii. 
14), 'finest of the wheat' (Psal. Ixxxi. 16, 
cxlvii. 14, where ' fat,' marg.) mean the best 




Egyptian Wheat. 



and most nutritious. Palestine was very 
fertile, and was a Avheat-exporting country. 
Thus Solomon supplied Hiram king of Tyre 
with it in return for the timber furnished 
to the Hebrew monarch (1 Kings v. 11 : 
comp. Ezek. xxvii. 17; Acts xii. 20). 

Parched corn, grains of wheat roasted in 
a pan or on an iron pinto, or green cars held 
m a blaze till the chaflE is burnt off, was and 
is still a favourite article of food in Pales- 
tine (Ruth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17 ; 2 Sam. 
xvii. 28) ; and persons are often seen now 
plucking the ears in the wheat-fields, rub- 
bing them in their hands, and eating the 
grains unroasted, just as the disciples did 



wheel] 



918 



(Matt. xii. 1 ; Mark ii. 23 ; Luke vi. 1), This 
was permitted l3y tlie Mosaic law (Dent, 
xxiii. 25). But ueitlier parched corn nor 
green ears were to De eaten till tlie first- 
fruits liad l^een presented "before the Lord 
(Lev. xxiii. 14). 

WHEEL. The Hehrew word galgai, ren- 
dered 'wheel' in Psal. Ixxxiii. 13, and in 
Isai. xYii. 13 ' a rolling thing,' is yery rea- 
sonahlT supposed hy Dr. Thomson to de- 
signate the wild artichoke. This plant.called 
by the natives 'akkul}, throws out numerous 
branches of egnal size and length in all di- 
rections, thus forming a Mud of globe about 
a foot in diameter. La autumn these break 
off, and being yery light and dry trundle 
about before the wind. ' Thousands of them 
come scudding over the plain, rolling, leap- 
ing, bounding with rast racket, to the dis- 
may both of the horse and his rider My 

eyes were half blinded with the stubble and 
ciiaff which filled the air ; but it was the 
extraordinary behaviour of this " rolling 
thine " that invited my attention. Hundreds 
of these globes, all bounding like gazelles 
in one direction over the desert, would sud- 
denly wheel short round, at the bidding of 
a counterblast, and dash away with equal 
sueed on their new course.' Some proverbial 
expressions now in use are taken from the 
'akkiib {Tlie'Land and the Book, pp. 563,564). 

WHIP a Kings xii. 11). See PimiSH- 

ME^fTS, SCOTTEGB. 

WHIRL WIls^D. SeeWlisD. 
WHITE. The union of the various rays 
of light into one. White is used in scripture 
as the svmbol of purity. Thus the Levites 
were arraved in white (2 Chron. v. 12) ; also 
aneels, and the redeemed. And so of the 
cleansing fi'om sin and moral pollution 
(Isai. i. 18 ; Rev. iii. 18, vii. 14). Our Lord 
is described in his transfiguration as wear- 
ing raiment ' white as the light ' (Matt. xvii. 
21 ; Mark ix. 3 ; Luke ix. 29). There is a 
difference between dead white and the re- 
splendent hue of heaven. It is this last that 
is attributed to Christ. See Coloubs. 
WHITE STOl^E. See STOi^E, p. 853. 
WIDOW. See Maebiage. A tender re- 
i gard for widows was inculcated by the Mo- 
1 sale law (Exod. xxii. 22 ; Deut. xiv. 29, xvi. 
11, 14, xxiv. 17, 19-21, xxvi. 12, xxvii. 19 : 
see also Job xxii. 9, xxiv. 3, 21 ; Psal. xciv. 
6 ; Isai. i. 17, x. 2 ; Jer. vii. 6, xxii. 3 ; Ezek. 
xxii. 7 ; Zech. vii. 10 ; Mai. iii. 5). In the New 
Testament the same kindness was pre- 
scribed (Acts vi. 1—6 ; 1 Tim. v. 3—16). It 
is questioned whether, in the directions 
iu=t referred to, a kind of religious order 
was intended. Probably not at first. The 
creditable Christian widows were just to 
be recipients uf Christian charity ; but after- 
wards some special duties were, it is likely, 
assigned to them. 

WIFE. God created mankind male and 
female, sanctioning in paradise the ordin- 
ance of marriage, in which a man was to 
cleave to his wife, and they twain he one 
flesh (Gen. ii. 24; Matt. xix. 4-6). This 
would imply that each man should have a 
s;in£rle wife. But polygamy commenced 
early in the world's history (Geu.iv. 19), and 
was subsequently carried to the most fright- 
ful excess a Kings xi. 3). The Mosaic law 



did not prohibit polygamy, but by various 
statutes it endeavoured to control it, and 
remedy some of the evils which naturally 
flowed from such a practice. SeeMASBiAGE. 

A wife, among both the Hebrews and the 
neighbouring nations, was for the most part 
purchased ; the treaty being made not with 
the woman herself but with her parents or 
brethren : occasionally we read of a man 
providing a wife for his son ( Gen, xxiv. 1-9, 
34-51, 53, XXix. 16-20, 26-28, XXXiV. 4, 6-12, 
xxxviii. 6; l Sam. xvlii. 20-25; 2 Sam. xlii. 13). 
A man might have more than one wife ; but 
no woman might have more than one hus- 
band. And, if a man had a pltirality of wives, 
and loved one better than another, he was 
not to show his preference by assigning the 
birth-right to the son of her he loved, if he 
was reaUy not the first-born (Deut. xxi. 15- 
17). The duties of a wife are illustrated In 
Prov. xxxi. 10-31 ; 1 Tim. v. 14 ; and her legal 
rights specified in Exod. xxi. 10. The duty 
also of a man to a wife that he chose to 
marry from captives or slaves was carefully 
defined (7-11 ; Deut. xxi. 10-14). Besides 
wives, a man might have concubines, who 
were in a secondary position (see Coxcu- 
BiXE) ; but their children were not regarded 
as illegitimate. Sometimes indeed the 
wife, especially if barren, supplied her hus- 
band with a concubine, her own servant, and 
considered the children hence born as hers 
(Gen. xvi. 2, xxx. 1-13). A husband had tne 
power of divorcing his wife, except in speci- 
fied cases (Deut. xxii. 13-21) ; but we do not 
find that the wife had the reciprocal right 
of separating herself from her husband 
(Deut. xxiv. 1-4). See Divobce. From all 
these usages it appears that a wife was 
not reallv on a level with her husband. 
It is true he waste cherish and comfort her 
(5) ; but yet the power a man had over his 
wife, and the dissensions which were sure 
to arise where polygamy was practised, of 
which the households of Jacob and of El- 
kanah furnish sufficient proof (Gen. xxx. I, 
15 ; 1 Sam. i. 5-S), must have placed the wo- 
man at great disadvantage, and have de- 
stroyed domestic comfort. Tet by degrees 
a better state of things prevailed. Polygamy 
was less practised. Our Lord restricted di- 
vorce to the single case of adultery (Matt, 
xix. 3-9) : the apostles prescribed the reci- 
procal duties of husbands and wives, and 
showed how the marriage-tie symbolized 
the union of Christ with his church a Cor. 
vii. 2-5: Eph. v. 22-33; Col. iii. 18, 19 ; 1 Pet. iii. 
1-7). Officers of the church, too, were to be 
those who had but a single wife (1 Tim. iii. 
2,12; Tit. i. 6"). Hebrew women lived un- 
der social restraint less than those of other 
eastern nations. Still they were to be not- 
able house-wives, diligently attending to 
home affairs (Prov. vii. 11, xiv. 1, xxxi. 
10-31\ And the Ivew Testament confi.rms 
this a Tim. v. 13, 14 ; Tit. ii. 3-5), and speci- 
ally prescribes grave and modest behaviour 
to the wives of ministers of the church (1 
Tim. iii. 11). 
WILDERNESS. See Desert, Wakdeb- 

IXG. 

WILL. The condition of mind freely 
choosing or refusing things is the will in 
exercise. That which moves or influences 



919 



the will is the mind's view of tlie benefits 
to be obtained or the evils to be shunned. 

By the will of God in scripture we may 
understand his absolute purpose (Rom. ix. 
19\ his free determination (Eph. i. 11), or his 
holy commandments (Matt, vii. 21). 

Man's will may be influenced by motives, 
but it cannot be forcibly changed. The 
fault of our fallen state is that pointed out 
by our Lord, ' Ye will not (ye are not willing 
to) come to me that ye might have life' 
(John V. 40). And the condemning reason 
is given, 'Light is come into the world; 
and men loved darkness rather than light 
because their deeds were evil ' (iii. 19). The 
remedy for this is that divine operation 
which' enables us rightly to appreciate 
things, and therefore to desire that which 
is really desirable. ' The condition of man 
after the fall of Adam is such that he cannot 
turn and prepare himself, by his own natu- 
ral strength and good works, to faith and 
calling upon God : wherefore we have no 
power to do good works pleasant and accept- 
able to God, without the grace of God by 
Christ preventing us, that we may have a 
good will, and working with us, when we 
have that good will ' (Art. x.). 

' Will' in the sense of a testamentary dis- 
position of property does not occur in scrip- 
ture. But such wills were made (see 2 Sam. 
xvii. 23 ; 2 Kings xx. 1 ; Isai. xxxviii. 1). 

WILLOW. There are two Hebrew words 
rendered 'willow' in our version. One 
occurs (Lev. xxiii. 40; Job xl. 22; Psal. 
cxxxvii. 2 ; Isai. xliv. 4) only in the plural. 
It is perhaps the Salix Bctbylonica, weeping 
willow, with pendulous boughs ; or, still 
more likely, the oleander. The ' brook of the 
willows ' (Isai. xv. 7) is supposed to be that 
elsewhere called the brock Zered,the bound- 
ary between Moab and Idumea, now the 
Wad.y el-Ahsl, (comp. Fnsej, Minor Prophets, 
P 209). Another word is used in Ezek.xvii.5. 
Probably it denotes the Sctlix JEgyptiaca. The 
stems and twigs of this are long, thin, and 
of a pale yellow colour. On the twigs are 
shoots a span in length, which put forth in 
spring woolly flowers of a pale colour and 
fragrant smell. A kind of sweet water is 
distilled from these. After the captivity 
the willow was regarded as an emblem of 
sorrow. 

WIMPLE (Isai. iii. 22). The same word 
is also rendered ' veil ' (Paith iii. 15). It is a 
woman's wide upper garment or shawL 
Bee Dress. 

WIND. Air in motion. The scriptures 
freguently speak of the four winds blowing 
1 from the four quarters of heaven (Jer. xlix. 
j 36 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 9 ; Dan. viii. 8 ; Zech. ii. 6). 
; The Hebrews would therefore seem to Lave 
i recognized the winds which blew from the 
i four cardinal points, east, west, north, and 
' south, and to have included under these 
' names respectively those which we desig- 
I nate more precisely, north-east, south-west, 
' &c. &c. 

j The north wind naturally was the coldest, 
yet not so cold as to be injurious, for we 
Audit equally with the south invoked to 

i blow upon the garden of the Spouse in order 
to promote luxuriant vegetation (Sol. Song 
iv 16). The south traversed the Arabian 



peninsula, and was a hot wind (Job xxxvii. 
17 ; Luke xii. 55). The destructive samoom 
in the desert, which, however,does not seem 
generally to have reached Palestine, was a 
south wind ; and the khamsin of Egypt now 
blows from the south. The east wind was 
dry and parching (Ezek. xvii. 10, xix. 12) ; 
and as it blows strongly the word seems oc- 
casionally put for any strong wind (Job 
xxvii.21; Isai. xxvii. 8), and also for any 
parching wind (Gen. xli. 6, 23, 27) ; for a 
blasting wind like that described in this 
place would in Egypt most probably be the 
khamsin just mentioned from the south and 
south-east. The western quarter was rainy 
(Luke xii. 54). At present westerly winds 
prevail in the Holy Land from November to 
February, easterly from February to June, 
north from June to the autumnal equinox, 
and north-west from the equinox to Novem- 
ber. 

Particular winds are sometimes spoken oi, 
as whirlwinds, furious sweeping gales, 
which generally came from the east (Psal. 
Iviii. 9 ; Prov. i. 27), violent squalls which 
drove down upon the lake of Gennesaret 
(Mark iv. 37), and which are not unf requen<- 
in other lakes similarly surrounded by hills 
also the tempestuous wind which caught St. 
Paul's ship : see Euroclydon. 

Winds occur in figurative language. Thus 
the rush of invaders is signified by the driv- 
ing whirlwinds (Isai. xxi. 1) : the striving 
of the four winds implies wild commotion 
among the nations of the world (Dan. vii 
2). The east wind, from its wasting cha- 
racter, denoted nothingness (Job xv. 2). The 
winds are described also as subject to the 
divine power (Psal. xviii. 10, cxxxv. 7) ; and 
by the blowing of the wind is illustrated 
the Spirit's operation, as its rushing sound 
indicated his descent on the aposcles (John 
iii. 8 ; Acts ii. 2-4). 

WINDOW. See Hotjsb. 

WINE. The use of wine as a product of 
the grape is of great antiquity. Thus we 
find it recorded that Noah planted a vine- 
yard and drank of the wine he procured 
from it to intoxication (Gen. ix. 20, 21). 

There are several different words used in 
the original languages of scripture which 
are rendered ' wine ' by our translators. The 
account of them which follows is condensed 
from an article in Dr. Smith's Bict. of the Bible, 
vol. iii. p. 1775. Yayin\Qt\iG most general 
term, clearly the same with the Greek oinos, 
the Latin vinum, and our own ^Dine Tirdsh 
is also of frequent occurrence. Derived from 
a root which signifies to 'get possession 
of,' it is perhaps applied to wine as indicat- 
ing its inebriating qualities, ^whereby it 
gets possession of the brain. 'Asts, found 
in Sol. Song viii. 2 ; Isai. xlix. 26 ; Joel i. 5, 
iii. 18 ; Amos ix. 13, is derived from a word 
denoting to 'tread'; it refers, therefore, to 
the method of expressing the liquor from 
the fruit. It may properly mean new wuie, 
as recently trodden out, but not necessarily 
unfermented wine. Sohe occurs but thrice, 
viz. in Isai. i. 22 ; Hos. iv. 18 ; Nah. i. 10 : its 
root signifies to ' soak ' or drink to excess. 
The cognate vcrl) and participle are con- 
stantly used in the latter sense (Deut. xii. 
20 ; Prov. xxiii. 20, 21 ; Isai. Ivi. 12 ; Nah. i. 



wine] 



920 



10). Hhemer (Deut. xxxii. 14^ in Clialdee 
hhamar and Miamrd, conveys tlie notion of 
'foaming' or e"bnllltion; ^vMc]l may apply 
equally to tlie process of fermentation or 
to the frothing of a liquid, fermented or , 
unfermented, on being poured out. JUesecli 
(Psal. IxxT. 8), mezeg_ (Sol. Song rii. 2), and ! 
onimsctch (Pror. xxiii, 30 ; Isal. Ixv. 11) are ■ 
all connected vrith the idea of ' mixing,' and j 
Imply a mixture with some othersuhstances, ! 
as water or spices. Slieccir, 'strong drink,' ' 
is a generic term applied to all fermented ; 
liquors, such as those obtained from barley, ! 
apples, honey, dates, all of which according 
to Jewish authorities were known in Pales- , 
tine. It is som.etimes distinguished from 
wine (e.g. Deut. xir, 26), but certainly some- i 
times, as In Zsumb. xxvili. 7, includes it; { 
occasionally it is a mixture (Isai. r. 22). | 
HhOmetz was a weak sour wine or vinegar : i 
asMshcLh (2 Sam. vi. 19 ; 1 Chron. xvi. 3 : j 
Sol. Song ii.5 ;Hos. iii. l, where our version | 
gives 'flagons of wine') was a solid cake of ; 
pressed raisins : and sMmdrim, properly im- j 
plyingthe' lees 'or 'dregs of wine', is some- i 
times, as in Isai. xxv. 6, used of wine kept 
on the lees in order to increase its body, j 
In the Is'ew Testament the following terms ! 
occur ; oi/ios, the general designation of 
wine ; gleukos (Acts ii. 13), sweet wine ; si- ' 
Jcera, from the Hebrew sTiecdr ; oxos, vinegar, : 
and in Rev. xiv. 10, a strange expression, 
Uekemsmenos akratos, literally ' mixed un- 
mixed,' in our version 'poured out without 
mixture.' 

It has been questioned whether some of 
these words do not apply rather to the fruit 
than to the wine which might be produced 
from it. And undoubtedly yayUi and tVrosli 
are found connected with expressions (e.g. 
Isai. xxiv. 7; Jer. xl. 10, 12) which more 
properly belong to fruit. But it has been 
well replied that it is not fruit simply as 
fruit that is intended in such places, but 
rather as the raw.material from which wine 
comes. Thus in Xic. vi. 15 the drinking of 
wine is referred to as the result of treading, 
and in Judges ix. 13 ; Psal. civ. 15 the ex- 
hilarating effects of the product are dis- 
tinctly noticed. Besides, whatever kinds 
of liquor may be understood by yo.yin and 
tirosli, it is clear that they were liquors, be- 
cause they ai*e generally saidto be drunk (e.g. 
Gen. ix. 21 ; Isai. Ixii. 8, 9\ And, though 
t?r6s7i is of ten connected with corn, no argu- 
ment can be thence derived that both were 
solids more than for changing the usual 
Bigniflcation of our own ' drink,' because 
it is often coupled with ' meat — ' meat and 
drink ' (see Frtit, p. 304). The evidence is 
conclusive when we consider the effects of 
indulgence in yayin and t'rdsJi. 'To the 
former' says the writer of the article al- 
ready referred to, 'are attributed the darkly- 
flashing eye (Gen. xlix. 12), the unbridled 
tongue'' (Prov. xx. 1 ; Isai. xxviii. 7), the 
excitement of the spirit (Prov. xxxi. 6 ; 
Isai. V. 11 ; Zech. ix. 15, x. 7), the enchained 
affections of its votaries (Hos. iv, 11), the 
perverted judgment (Prov. xxxi. 5 ; Isai. 
xxviii. 7), the indecent exposure (Hab. ii. 
15, 16), and the sickness resitlting from the 
heat of wine (Hos. vii. 5). The allusions to 
the effects of tlrdsh are confined to a single 



passage ; but this a most decisive one, viz. 
Hos. iv. 11, "Whoredom, and wine (^/ai/wi), 
and new wine (tlrdsh') take away the heart," 
where tirdsh appears as the climax of en- 
grossing influences in immediate connec- 
tion with yayin' (p. 1776). 

It is hence of little consequence to deter- 
mine whether the ordinary wine of the 
Hebrews was fermented or unfermented. 
Still it is the fair inference that the fer- 
menting process did take place. Our Lord's 
comparison (Matt. ix.l7) is well-nigh conclu- 
sive; and, if exception be taken to that, 
none can be made to Job xxxii. 19, where 
new wine is described as likely to burst 
new bottles. Besides, the eye of the wine 
(Prov. xxiii. 31, where in our version ' co- 
lour') must be the air-bubble which is one 
of the tokens that fermentation has taken 
place. 

Special notice has been taken of the two 
words which occur most fi-equently in He- 
brew for wine : a similar proof might be 
offered in regard to the other words : for 
example, the power of intoxicating is ascrib- 
ed to 'ds'is (Isai. xlix. 26 ; Joel i. 5). And 
indeed we may reasonably infer that, if 
some kinds of wine produced intoxication, 
Avhile others did not, then a distinction 
would be made in the scriptui'e warnings. 
"Whereas, instead of allowing one kind as 
inaocuous, and censuring another as dan- 
gerous, the prohibition is in all cases the 
same— against excess. And even the gUukoSf 
which, according to its name, must have 
been sweet rather than new wine, seeing 
that it was at pentecost that the reference 
was made to it (Acts ii. 13, 15), when the 
jeering populace ascribed the utterance of 
the inspired apostles to drunkenness, must 
have had intoxicating power. Sweetness 
or a Itiscious flavour would seem to have 
been agreeable. The inspissated juice of 
the grape obtained by boiling must down 
to one-half or one-third of its original bulk 
was anciently (as at the present day) much 
in use. By the Hebrews it was termed 
clebasli (Gen. xliii. 11, where in our version 
'honey') ; and it is now known as diljs. A 
sweet beverage was also obtained by mace- 
rating grapes, probably referred to as 
' liquor of grapes ' (Xumb. vi. 3). 

Of the mixin g of wine a word must be said. 
Some of the Hebrew terms given above 
imply this. But it was not always to lower its 
strength, by adding water ; more generally 
to increase it. Thus we find mixed wine 
provided for festivals, and occasions of 
revelry (Prov. ix. 2, 5, xxiii. 30 ; Isai. v. 22) ; 
and, when wine is symbolically used for 
the severity of God's judgments, the cup in 
the divine hand is described as ' full of 
mixture.' Doubtless also the flavour was 
to be increased : we may well suppose, 
therefore, that, as among the Greeks and 
Romans, so by the Hebrews, spices and 
aromatics were mingled with the Avine. 
The mixture of wine^and myrrh offered to 
our Lord (Mark xv. 23) was intended to 
stupefy and deaden the sense of pain ; but 
he who for our sake drank the cup of sor- 
row to the very dregs refused the allevia- 
tion. 

• Enough has been said to show that wine 



921 



[WESTE-PRESS 



was in general use in Palestine (Gen. xxvii. 
28) ; some kinds being more prized than 
others, as the wine of Helhon (Ezek. xxvii. 
18), still notable, and the aromatic wine of 
Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7). Our Lord provided 
it miraculously when the ordinary supply 
failed at a marriage-feast (John ii. 1-11) ; 
and those only of whom we read as refusing 
wine were the Rechabites, on whom their 
father laid the charge, in order the better 
to secure their persistence in a nomad life 
(Jer. XXXV.) ; for, had they built houses, or 
sowed fields, or cultivated vineyards, their 
whole manner of living would have been 
changed. The Nazarites indeed were to ab- 
stain from wine during the period for 
which their vow extended (Numb. vi. 1-4, 
20) ; and those who were so dedicated from 
their birth were to abstain perpetually 
(Judges xiii, 4, 5 ; Luke i. 15, vii. 33). The 
priests, too, when performing their sacred 
functions, were to take neither wine nor 



church see Bingham, Orig. JSccles., book xy. 
chap. ii. sect. 7. 

There are many admonitions in scripture 
against excess in the use of wine : particu- 
larly those who held office in the church 
were to be sober and temperate (Luke xxi. 
34 ; Rom. xiii. 13 ; Eph. v. 18 : 1 Tim. iii. 3, 
8 ; Tit. i. 7). 

wmE-PRESS. There were two parts in 
the wine-press ; a trough in which the grapes 
were bruised, and a vat or receptacle into 
which the liquor was received. The Hebrew 
terms for these are respectively gath, which 
implied ' striking,' and yeJceb, implying ' ex- 
cavation.' The two are clearly distinguished 
in Joel iii. 13 : ' the press is full : the vats 
overflow.' The latter word, indicating the 
most essential part, was occasionally put 
for the whole wine-press, as in Job xxiv.ll; 
Isai. V. 2 ; the last-named place showing that 
this receptacle was sometimes hollowed out 
of a rock. There is another word, pUrdh • 




A. Wine-press. From ancient Egyptian painting, Thebes. 



Strong drink; it being possibly under the 
influence of liquor that iq-adab and Abihu 
had committed their fearful sin (Lev. x. l, 
8-11). These were all exceptional cases. 

Besides the social use of wine, it was an 
accompaniment of sacred rites. A drink- 
offering must be presented with the daily 
sacrifice (Exod. xxix. 40, 41), also when the 
first-fruits were brought (Lev. xxiii. 13), and 
with burnt-offerings and sacrifices, vowed 
or free-will, generally (Numb. xv. 5, 7, 10) : 
see Offerings. The priests received tithe 
of wine, and had also the first-fruits of it 
(Exod. xxii. 29; Deut. xii. 17, 18, xviii. 4; 
Neh. X. 37, 39 ; Prov. iii. 9, 10). For a notice 
of wine used at the celebration of the pass- 
over see PASSOVEii, p. 662. It was with 
this wine, together with the leavened bread, 
that our Lord instituted the sacrament of 
the holy supper. There is an elaborate proof 
that this was fermented wine in the Ameri- 
can Bihl. liepository, Oct. 1836, pp. 285-308. 
For the mixing of water with the wine 
of the eucharist as practised in the early 



It implies 'breaking in pieces': it is not 
quite clear with what exact meaning it was 
used. From Hagg. ii. 16, where it seems to 
designate measure, Saalschutz (Arch, der 
Hebr., cap. x. vol. i. p. 114) is inclined to be- 
lieve it smaller than the gath and yekeb. In 
the NewTestament there are also two terms, 
lenos, the trough (Rev. xiv. 19, 20, xix. 15), 
and hupolenion, the lower vat (Mark xii. 1). 
Our translators have rendered the words, 
without much precision, 'press' (Isai. xvi. 
10 ; Joel iii. 13), ' wine-press' (Deut. xv. 14 , 
Lam. i. 15), 'wine-fat' (Isai. Ixiii. 2; IIos. 
ix. 2, marg.), 'press-fat' (Hagg. ii. 16), and 
'fat ' (Joel ii. 24). 

The mode of pressing grapes is figured 
in the Egyptian monuments. There is a beam 
with short ropes attached, for the trcaders 
to hold by. See A. They were also placed in a 
bag, apparently of flags or rushes, suspend- 
ed inaframe. This bag was compressed l)y 
turning a handspike,and the juice forced out. 
See B. Br. Robinson saw an ancient wine- 
press near Gllgal. He describes it aa complete 



winnow] 

^^ItiTlb^'^i^rp^r'^^ yat, eiglit feet 
EQuare, for treading tlie grapes, and tlie 
lower deeper one, four feet square to le- 
ceive tlie liquid, and says it nngM te i^ed 
now, were tHere liere grapes ^o tieRd {BcM 
Pes' Tol. iii. p. 137). Tliis metliod is fcti 1 
pursued. Tliere is a kind of cistern or tank 
with Holes near the iDOttom. Into tkis the 
fruit is Heaped ; and several men, ^'^V^li 
feet and less, dance upon it, witli sliout and 
sone Tke^ expressed juice runs tkrougli 
the lioles into a vat placed Helow. 

The legs and feet of the grape-treaders 
are of course stained, as with blood : hence 
the symholical use of the term ' wme-press 
(I=^ai. ixiii. 2, 3 ; Rev. xiy. 19, 20, xix. lo). 



922:1 



It would seem tliat monarchs and great i 
men had their winter-houses (Jer. xxxvi. ; 
22 • Amos iii. 15). These in their aspect and 
construction promoted warmth ; and pro- 
vision was made for fires, as in the hrazier : 
which was "brought in hefore Jehoiakim. . 

"WISDOM. In reference to the Deity 
wisdom may he said to he one of those per- 
fections which go to form his characier. In 
his infinite wisdom he decides on that . 
which is most fitting, in the hest way, at , 
the most suitable time. The scripture j 
frequently extols the divine wisdom, and, i 
drawing the contrast between that and the 
wisdom of the world-the reliance of men 
upon their own imperfect and perverted 





Prom aucieu! 



^.TIXNOW (Pairh iii. 5 ; Isai. ™- 24 • 
The same word is used figuratively in Psal. 
cxxxix. 3, niarg. The winnowing suc- 
ceeded the threshing of corn. See Thresh. 
This was a process especially needful in 
consequence of the slovenly way m whicn 
the threshing was performed. The general 
mode of it has been briefly explained be- 
fore : see AaRicuLTURE, p. 16. It may be 
added that evening appears to Have been 
the best time for winnowing, as a breeze 
then usually sprung up. A f ork_ was occa- 
sionally employed, as in Palestine at pre- 
sent, to toss the heaps of intermingled corn 
? nd chaff. An apt illustration is taken irom 
the agricultural use of the fan to describe 
the Lord's separation of his people trom 
the ungodly (Matt. iii. 12). . 

WIisTTER. One of the seasons which we 
find indicated in scripture (Gen. viii. 22). 
It was considered as extending from the 
beginning of December to the beginning ot 
February. See Season'. Dr. Kitto {Pict 
Rib?e, note on Gen. viii. 22) says, ' The cli- 
mate necessarily varies with the situation 
of the comitry ; but in general it becomes 
very cold as the season advances, particu- 
lai-ly in the mountains, which are covered 
i with snow, and where the cold, accompanied 
! by the biting north wind, can scarcely be 
' borne even bv natives of our northern cU- 
wate. Veheinent rains, hail-storms, and 
! falls of snow distinguish this season, in 
i the low plains the season is comparatively 
mild ; and at the worst days occur in wiiicn 
; it is warm in the open air when the sun 
shines and the wind does not blow. 



t Egyptian painting, Thcbe?. 

iud£rment— sbows us that, if we would be 
truly wise, we must learn of him who gives 
wisdom without upbraiding to those who 
ask it at his hand (Job xxviii. 12-28 ; Prov. 
iii. 13-18 ; Rom. i. 22, xvi. 27 ; 1 Cor. 1. 17-21, 
24, 26, 27, ii. 6-8, 13 ; James i. 5). 

It is not necessary to multiply observa- 
tions of this kind : let it rather be remained 
that sohighis the estimation of truewisdom 
that we find it personified in scripture, and 
described as uttering a voice to incite men 
to listen to the message which God has con- 
veyed to the world (Prov. i. 20, vm. 1, ix. 
1-5) Indeed we may regard this as more 
than a mere personification, andmay witn 
reason believe that we have here the word 
of that divine Person who is elsewhere em- 
phatically called 'the wisdom of God (l 

^°The ^question has been keenly debated 
among biblical critics ; and Ic is freely 
conceded that there is a high propriety m 
personifviuET one of Jehovah's attributes, 
especially in a book of poetical structure. 
Thus the risrhteousness of faith is repre- 
sented as speaking (Rom. x. 6) ; and the 
'scripture is said to foresee (Gal. iii. 8) ; and 
our Lord himself not only, when quoting 
the Old Testament, introduces the citation, 
'Therefore also said the wisdom of God 
(Luke xi. 49), but speaks of wisdom having 
children and being justified of them (Matt, 
xi 1^1, where certainly nothing higher than 
a personified principle can be intended. 
This is admitted. But, when we read not 
merely of wisdom's expostulations, and 
reproo'f s, and lier originating thoughts and 



923 



MMt ^xmMttSQt* [wisdom, book of 



purposes, ' witty inyentions ' (Prov. viii. 12), 
but also of lier promise to pour forth her 
Spirit (i. 23), the case is very different. 

Let us then "briefly examine Solomon's 
description of wisdom (20-33, viii. 1— ix. 12). 
These two passages may properly he taken 
together ; for, though some expositors 
have doubted, they are both from the same 
pen. According to the ahle disquisition of 
Prof. Burrows {BiblioUi. Sacr.y Apr. 1858, pp. 
353-381) ' the divine wisdom ... is not the 
Son of David according to the flesh, hut 
David's Lord according to the Spirit of holi- 
ness ; not the Messiah in his simple personal 
presence, as the Word made flesh, hut the 
eternal Word himself, whose heing and ac- 
tivity are not limited hy time, who, hoth 
before and since his incarnation, is always 
present with his church, as the centre and 
source of her spii'itual light and life.' It is 
Indeed objected that the expressions (Prov. 
viii. 22, 24) are incompatible with this view ; 
and there are scholars who translate the 
word rendered in our version ' possessed ' 
by the term ' create ' ; but, by a comparison 
of passages where it occurs, it appears that 
this is not the just meaning; and these 
verses may well be understood as designat- 
ing the ' eternal generation of the Logos 
from the Father, in such a sense that he is 
himself of the same substance with the Fa- 
ther, and co-eternal with him.' 

Without entering into a critical examina- 
tion of the language here used, which would 
certainly afford strong proof that not a mere 
passive quality is intended, but an active 
power, it must be sufflcient to note the re- 
markable similarity of the description in this 
place to the way in which the divine Word 
is spoken of in the New Testament. ' Is 
Wisdom,' says Prof. Burrows, ' set forth as 
a person, dwelling from eternity with God? 
The divine Word, also, was " in the begin- 
ning with God" (John i. 1, 2), as a true per- 
sonality. He dwelt in glory, with God,bef ore 
the foundation of the world (xvii. 24). Is 
Wisdom before all things ? So also is Christ, 
(Col. i. 17). Is Wisdom the eldest child of 
God, brought forth before the existence of 
all created things? So also Christ is "the 
only-begotten of the Father" (John i, 14), 
and "the first-born of the whole creation" 
(Col. i, 15). Was Wisdom present at the 
formation of the earth and heavens, as 
God's counsellor and co-worker? The New 
Testament developes the idea, here con- 
tained in the germ, in all its fulness, teach- 
ing us that by the Word " all things were 
made, and without him was not anything 
made that wasmade"(John i. 3); that "by 
him were all things created that are in 
heaven, and that are in earth, visible and 
invisible, whether they be thrones, or do- 
minions, or principalities, or powers ; all 
things were created by him and for him ; 
and he is before all things ; and by him all 
things consist" (Col. i, 16, 17). Is Wisdom 
the delight of God, dwelling always with 
him, and exulting always before him? 
Christ is his well-beloved Son, in whom he 
is well-pleased (Matt. iii. 17), and who dwells 
in his bosom (John i. 18). Did God asso- 
ciate with himself Wisdom as his darling 
child in the work of creation, so that she 



was present at the whole, saw the whole 
understood the whole, and had a part in the 
whole ? There is a remarkable correspond- 
ence between this and the following words 
of our Lord : " The Son can do nothing of 
himself, but what he seeth the Father do ; 
for, what things soever he doeth, these also 
doeth the Son likewise. For the Father 
loveth the Son, and showeth him all things 
that himself doeth " (v. 19, 20). And, flnaUy, 
is Wisdom's delight with the sons of men, 
and has she been constantly labouring to 
recall them to the paths of holiness and 
happiness? The heart of Christ has been 
set on the saltation of men from the begin- 
ning. They are in a peculiar and emphatic 
sense the objects of his divine love ; and 
from the fall of Adam to the present hour 
he has spoken in every communication from 
God to man, calling sinners to repentance 
and salvation.' 

Considerations of this kind are surely of 
great weight. For there is no safer mode 
of interpreting the scripture than to lay its 
declarations side by side ; and, when we see 
the coincidence of one part with another, 
we may reasonably infer that, the same 
mind inspiring both, the same thing is 
taught. And therefore the conclusion is 
most reasonable ' that the full personality 
here ascribed to Wisdom, as well as her 
several relations to God and man, is some- 
thing more than poetic drapery ; that it has 
for its author, not the luxuriant imagina-. 
tion of the sacred writer alone, but the pre- 
scient mind of the Holy Ghost, who moulds 
and controls the thoughts of inspired men 
as he pleases.' See Home's Introd., edit. 
Ayre, vol. ii. pp. 736-738). 

WISDOM OF JESUS THE SON OF 
SIBAGH, THE. See Ecclesiasticus. 

WISE 031 OF SOL OMON, THE BOOK OF. 
One of the books rightly placed among the 
apocryphal writings. For, though it bears 
the name of Solomon, it cannot possibly 
have been written by that monarch. There 
can be little doubt that the original lan- 
guage was Greek. The style is free, and not 
at all like a version ; and there are ex- 
amples of paronomasia, or play upon words, 
to which Hebrew expressions would not 
correspond. And there are passages (e.g 
Wisd, XV. 14) evidently betokening a later 
time than that of Solomon. 

The real author it is impossible to iden- 
tify. Some have ascribed the book to the 
celebrated Philo, who lived about our 
Lord's time, and some (as in Philo's time 
the Alexandrian philosophy was more de- 
veloped than in this work) to an older 
person of the same name. Then again it 
has been surmised (from iii. 13, &c., xvi. 28) 
that the writer belonged to the ascetic sect 
of the Therapeutas; but the grounds alleged 
are not sufficient to support the notion. 
Wilder conjectures have been indulged in. 
But all that can be said with any show of 
certainty is that the work was composed by 
an Alexandrian Jew, probably about 120 b.o., 
or some time in the reign of Ptolemy 
Physcon, or Euergetcs II., 145-116 B.o. (see 
De Wctte, Einleit., § 314). 

This ])ook has always been (and with 
justice) highly regarded. It has been called 



WISE men] 



Panaretos, or ' the treasui'y of virtue . Mr. 
Westcott cliaracterizes it as 'the noble 
expression of a mind wliich might have 
sought rest and joy in meditative life 
(Introd. to Gosp., chap. i. pp. 75, V6). It was 
called forth hy the circumstances or the 
times when many of the Jews were located 
in Egypt under a foreign lord, and required 
the comfort which the rememhrance of 
God's deaUngs with their fathers was weU 
calculated to impart. Hence the wr^,^^ 
dilates on the perfections of God, and the 
ways of his providence, in order to confirm 
the faithful, and give them hope of dehver- 
ance from their trials. The precepts are of 
excellent moral tendency ; and the whole 
work a valuable exhibition of the contem- 
porary Jewish religious mind, tmged with 
Alexandrianism, and possibly m a degree 
evincing an oriental cast of thought. Some 
have imagined the book of Wisdom the 
production of more than one author, or 
tliat it has come down to us m a frag- 
mentary shape ; but careful investigation 
will demonstrate its unity and complete- 
ne^^s It faUs naturally into three divi- 
sions —I An encomium on wisdom, with 
an earnest exhortation to strive after it 
^Wi=;d i — vi.).— II. An instruction concern- 
ing ^the means of obtaining it, its source, 
its nature, and its hlessings (vii.— ix.).— 
Ill A recommendation of it by the exam- 
ples of Israelitish history (x.— xix.). Some 
divide it into two parts, i.— ix., x.— xix. ; and 
some distribute the three, i.— v., vi.— ix., 
X —xix The writer speaks in the person oi 
Solomon, perhaps not intending a forgery, 
but because the wise king was pre-eminently 
regarded in after ages as the fount and 
teacher of wisdom. The style is unequal, 
sometimes turgid, sometimes simple, and 
occasionally even sublime. 

It has been asserted that the hook of 
Wisdom is cited or alluded to in the New- 
Testament. Some of the instances produced 
will be found by comparing Wisd. iii._7 
with Matt. xiii. 43 ; ii. 18 with Matt, xxvii. 
43 • xiii. 1 with Rom. i. 20 ; v. 18, 19, vii. 26, 
ix 13 with Rom. xi. 34, Eph. vi. 13, 14,1/, 
Heb i. 3: &c.,&c. Many of these, however, 
are doubtful ; still, as profane authors are 
cited in the New Testament, it cannot 
be thought incongruous or surprising if 
allusion is made to Jewish uninspired lite- 
rature. Clement of Rome cites the hook 
(Epist.i.ad Cor., 3, 27); and other fathers 
treat it with great respect. There are ver- 
sions of it, Latin, Syriac, Arabic, &c. &o, 

WISE MEN (Gen. xli. 8 ; Exod. vii. 11 
Esth i. 13 ; Jer. 1. 35 ; Matt. ii. l, 7, 16). The 
expression implies not merely men re- 
nowned for wisdom, but astrologers, di- 
viners, magicians. Oomp. 2 Sam. xiv.2, xx. 

16. See DIVINATTOK, MAGI, 

WIST (Exod. xvi. 15 ; Acts xii. 9, xxiu. 5). 

^ w7f (Gen. xxiv. 21 ; Exod. ii. 4). Know. To 
do to wit (2 Cor. viii. 1). To let know. 

WITCH (Exod. xxii, 18 ; Deut. xviii. 10). 
See Wizard. ^ _. 

WITCHCRAFT (1 Sam. xv. 23; 2 Kings 
ix. 22 : 2 Chrou. xxxiii. 6 ; Mic. v. 12 ; Nah. 
ii. 4 ; Gal. v. 20). See Divination, En- 
chantment, Wizard. 



WITNESS (Numh. xxxv. 30 ; Deut. xvii. 
D, 7; Acts vii. 58, and elsewhere). See Trial. 
Sometimes inanimate things were appealed 
to as witnesses (e.g. Gen. xxxi. 44-53 ; Josh, 
xxiv. 26, 27). Witnesses were first to be the 
executioners of those whom their testimony 
had condemned (Deut. xiii. 9, xvii. 7 ; Acts 
vii 58). False witnesses were to suffer that 
which those they slandered would have 
suffered. See Oath, p. 641. 

A witness may be opposed fOr standmg 
to the truth. Those who had witnessed the 
works of Christ, and maintained his cause, 
were so opposed, sometimes even to the 
shedding of their blood. Hence the term 
in the New Testament comes to signify 
' martyr ' (Acts xxii. 20 ; Rev. ii. 13, xx. 4). 

WITNESS OF THE SPIRIT. St. Paul, 
speaking of the blessedness of those who 
are led by the Spirit of God, describes them 
as being made ' sons of God,' so that with 
filial confidence, being adopted into his 
family, they call God 'Abba, Father.' He 
adds : ' The Spirit itself beareth witness 
with (or perhaps to) our spirits, that we are 
the children of God' (Rom. viii. 14, 16). The 
following remarks of Dr. Alford on the pas- 
sage may properly be cited here. ' What is 
this witness of the Spirit itself ? All have 
agreed, and indeed this verse is decisive 
for it, that it is something separate from, 
and higher than, all subjective inferences 
and conclusions. But, on the other hand, 
it does not consist in mere indefinite feel- 
ing, but in a certitude of the Spirit's pre- 
sence and work continually asserted within 
us. It is manifested, as Olshausen beauti- 
fully says, in his comforting us, his stirring 
us up to prayer, his reproof of our sins, his 
drawing us to works of love, to hear testi- 
mony before the world, &c. And he adds 
with equal truth, " On this direct testimony 
of the Holy Ghost rests ultimately all the 
regenerate man's conviction respecting 
Christ and his work. For helief in scripture 
itself (he means, in the highest sense of the 
term "belief," conviction per sonalhj applied) 
has itsfoimdation in this experience of the 
divine nature of the (infiuencing) Principle 
which it promises, and which, while the 
heliever is studying it, infuses itself mto 
him." The same commentator remarks that 
this is one of the most decisive passages 
against the pantheistic view of the identity 
of the Spirit of God and the spirit of man. 
However the one may by renovating power 
be rendered like the other, there still is a 
specific difiereuce. The spirit of man may 
sin (2 Cor. vii. 1) : the Spirit of God cannot, 
but can only be grieved (Eph. iv. 30), or 
quenched (1 Thess. v. 19) ; and it is by the 
influence of this highest principle of holi- 
ness that man becomes one spirit with the 
Lord himself (1 Cor. A^i. 17) ' (note on Rom. 
viii. 16). . ^ . 

WIZARD (Lev. xix. 31, xx. 6, 27 ; Deut. 

xviii. 11 ; l Sam. xxviii. 3, 9 ; 2 Kings xxi. 
6, xxiii. 24 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6 ; Isai. Tin. 19, 

xix. 3\ The original word properly signifies 
' wise,' ' knowing,' hence a wizard or sorce- 
rer ; just as 0U1-' word ' wizard ' is derived 
from wise. Sometimes the spirit by which 
wizards were supposed to he attended is 
meant. See Diyisjation. 



925 



[WOED OF GOD 



WOLF. A well-known wild animal, re 
peatedly mentioned in scripture for its ra- 
pacity (Gen. xlix.27), and its fierce prowling 
atout tiy night (Jer. v. 6 ; Hab. i. 8). The 
name is also figuratively used to designate 
cruel adversaries of the church (John x. 12; 
Acts XX. 29). -The wolf, Ganis lupus (with' 
varieties), is still abundant in Asia Minor ; 
and it is very possible that it may anciently 
have been common in Palestine. At this 
day, though some deny that wolves are 
found there, yet others speak of occasion- 
ally meeting with them. 

WOMAN. The woman, according to the 
inspired history, 'was taken out of man' 
(Gen. ii.' 23). St Paul refers to this nar- 
rative in order to distinguish the proper 
place of woman. ' The head of the woman 
is the man.' 'For the man is not of the 
woman, but the woman of the man ; neither 
was the man created for the woman, but 
the woman for the man ' (1 Cor. xi. 3, 8, 9). 
Still the pre-eminence of the man is not to 
be strained to lordly authority ; but honour 
is to be given to the wife ' as unto the 
weaker vessel' (1 Pet. iii. 7). It is observ- 
able that, generally speaking, women are 
allowed their due place of honour only 
where the truths of divine revelation are 
known. In countries ignorant of God they 
are subjected to degradation, and regarded 
by men as their slaves. The progress of the 
gospel is peculiarly a boon to the female 
sex. 

It is very true that we have m heathen 
story traces of God's original disposition. 
Ignorant as men must have been in the 
Greek heroic age of the material appliances 
of civilization, we yet find them, as repre- 
sented by Homer, with a certain dignity 
and delicacy of mind and character. Still 
more is this apparent in the women. Poly- 
gamy seems to have been unknown : the 
relations between husband and wife were 
tender, the marriage-tie inviolable ; so that, 
though surrounded with rude and bois- 
terous men, Penelope, holding to the belief 
that her husband still lived, had no force 
to dread but that of persuasion. The man- 
ners of Greeks of those times show in fa- 
vourable contrast to those of the Hebrews. 
No such foul deeds as that of Amnon and 
Tamar are met with. Was it that the reli- 
gion then was of a higher type ? nay, for it 
was peculiarly anthropomorphic; debased 
from the first principle, and likely from 
its character to deteriorate further. As the 
Greek religious element was developed, not 
bringing down god-like virtues to men, but 
carrying up, as was natural from its falsity, 
human vices to the deities, though civiliza- 
tion spread, yet the earlier purity was lost, 
and in the historic ages of their literature 
we read little of virtuous women, much of 
courtesans, and thus the sex was degraded; 
and to repair that degradation is one ob- 
ject of the gospel, and it is, as experience 
shows, only by Christian principles that 
woman is re-placed in the condition for 
which she was created. 

Our Lord uses the narrative of the crea- 
tion to show the 'indissoluble nature of 
the marriage-tie betwixt the man and the 
woman (Matt. xix. 3-8). This, with the near 



equality of the sexes, is a strong argument 
against polygamy. See Maeriagb, Wieb. 

Much greater social liberty seems to have 
been anciently allowed to the Hebrew 
women than is now customary in the east. 
We find also in scripture story several men- 
tioned who were endowed with prophetical 
gifts, such as Deborah (Judges iv. 4, 5), 
Huldah (2 Kings xxii. 14), Anna (Luke ii. 
36, 37), the four daughters of Philip the 
evangelist (Acts xxi. 8, 9), and others. 
Ptules are given for the exercise of such 
gifts in Christian assemblies (1 Cor. xi. 5). 
But generally by the gospel women are 
peremptorily forbidden to teach publicly 
fxiv. 34, 35 ; 1 Tim. ii. 11, 12). Unless, there- 
fore, commissioned by special revelation, 
women would in so teaching directly dis- 
obey the holy law. 
WOOD. See Forest. 
WOOD-OFFERING. The offering of wood 
in order to keep up a suflScient supply of 
fuel for the fire on the altar is not men- 
tioned till after the return from captivity 
(Neh. X. 34, xiii. 31). It appears that there 
was a solemn feast appointed, called 'xylo- 
plioria: this was held according to some 
authorities on the 22nd day of the month 
Ab ; and the Talmudists say that every 
family when they brought their wood 
sacrificed a voluntary burnt-offering called 
the ' korban of wood.' But the accounts we 
have of this do not agree. 

WOOL. See Dress, Sheep. Wool has al- 
ways been of high value (2 Kings iii. 4), and 
the first-fruit of it was to be offered to the 
priests (Deut. xviii. 4). The white wool of 
Damascus was brought to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 
18) ; and the purity of this whiteness often 
serves for illustration (Psal. cxlvii. 16; Isai. 
i. 18 ; Dan. vii. 9 ; Rev. i. 14). Yet dyeing of 
it was then understood by the Hebrews, 

A garment of linen and woollen was not to 
be worn ( Deut. xxii. 11). This was a warning 
against incongruous mixtures, and had a 
spiritual meaning, doubtless. But it is also 
said that such garments were worn by idol- 
atrous priests. 

WORD OF GOD. A name, in Greek Logos, 
given to Him who 'was made flesh and 
dwelt among us ' (John i. 14), as the 
Messiah, the Lord Jesus Christ. 

There were f ore-shadowings of this terra 
in the Old Testament (e.g. Psal. xxxiii. 6, 
cvii. 20, cxix. 89 ; Isai. xl. 8). In such pas- 
sages we can scarcely, limit the meaning 
to an uttered word or command. Many 
truths were announced indistinctly in the 
earlier revelation, which received by de- 
grees a fuller embodiment, and were at 
length brought into thorough prominence 
in the gospel. Thus names that at first 
seemed but to express a divine attribute 
were seen afterwards to indicate a divine 
Person. See Wisdom. So the 'word' was 
taken up by Jewish writers with perhaps 
somewhat of a Messianic application : see 
Wisd. xvi. 12, xviii. 15. The term is adopted 
by the Chaldee paraphrasts. Thus on Deut. 
xxvi. 17, 18, it is said, ' Ye have appointed 
the word of God a king over you this day, 
that he may be your God.' The Alexandrian • 
Jew Philo continually speaks of the Logos. 
But his philosophy, a mixture of Platonism 



WOEKSj 



926 



and Judaism, was imperfect, and his lan- 
guage far from precise. 

Wlien great religious truths are to be 
unfolded to men, existing words must lie 
used as tlie instruments of such teaching.. 
They very prohahly will require a heighten- 
ing or a limitation of their sense ; and this 
a divinely-instructed teacher will take care 
to supply. St. John, appropriating the term 
Logos or Word, as fitly descrihing One from 
whom the divine utterances proceeded, 
shows at once what he means hy declaring, 
' In the heginning was the Word, and the 
Word was with God, and the Word was God. 
The same was in the heglnulug with God. 
All things were made hy him ; and without 
him was not anything made that was made' 
(John i. 1-3). There is an unmistakeahle 
difference hetween the idea thus conveyed 
and that of Phllo. The Word here spoken 
of is not merely an attribute, he is a Per- 
son, existing before all creatures from the 
beginning, the Former of created thnigs, 
eternally with God, God himself. He mani- 
fested in flesh, developed, that fulness of 
grace and truth which ancient sages, in 
whom nevertheless he spoke, had hut par- 
tially proclaimed (17). He was essentially 
the life of the world, from whom all the 
illumination and vivifying principle in man 
must proceed (4). 

Words could not more emphatically ex- 
press the digulty of the Ouly-hegotten, or 
the transcendent glory of the manifestation 
of the ' Word of Life ' (1 John i. 1, 2) ; and 
truly indeed are we taught to desire to re- 
ceive out of his fulness ' grace for grace ' 
(John i. 16) , . ^ . ^ ^ 

The matter can he hut most briefly treated 
here ; and the barest outline given : there 
are some valuable remarks in Dr. Aliord's 
note on John i. 1-5, which may be advan- 
tageously consulted, 

WORKS. This word occurs sometimes 
In the sense of ordinary labours; as in 
Exod V. 13 ; sometimes as indicating mira- 
cles (Numb. xvi. 28 ; John v. 20, x. 25). By 
the 'works' or conduct of men their cha- 
racter is kuoMTi. For, as our Lord teaches, 
grapes cannot be gathered of thorns, or 
figs of thistles, the productions of a tree 
testify to its nature and quality, so men are 
known bv their fruits (Matt. vli. 16-20). The 
' works of the law' (Gal. 11. 16, ill. 2, 10) are 
those which the law of God requires. But 
a sinless performance of them is nowhere 
fouDd with fallen man (1 John 1. 8, 10) : 
hence Justlflcation before God is not by the 
works of the law (Rom. ill. 20, 28). The 
* works of the flesh' are those which natu- 
rally flow from the corrupted heart of men 
(Rom. viii. 8 ; Gal. v. 19-21). These the law 
condemns ; aud for these God's just judg- 
ments are inflicted. But a holy principle 
will yield its appropriate fruit. There are 
works of faith : that is, if a man believes in 
Christ for the remission of his sius, he will 
give proof of the reality of his faith by his 
conduct. And, if he does not seek to please 
God in his actions, honouring the Saviour 
by a holy walk and conversation, his faith 
ig a mere name, of no value or efficiency 
(James ii. 17, 18, 26). This doctrine is sum- 
med up in the 12tii article of the Anglican 



church ; 'Albeit that good works, which 
are the fruits of faith, and follow after 
justification, cannot put away our sins, and 
endure the severity of God's judgment, yet 
are they pleasing and acceptable to God in 
Christ, and do spring out necessarily of 
a true and lively faith ; insomuch that by 
them a lively faith may be as evidently 
known as a tree discovered by the fruit.' 

WORLD. Several Hebrew and Greek 
words are thus rendered in our translation. 
Thus lihedel is the place of rest for the dead, 
hades (Isai. xxxviii. 11) : lilieled, translated 
' age '(Psal. xxxix. 6),means life or the world 
regarded as transient, fleeting (xvii. 14, 
xlix. 1) : '61am implies worldly things (Eccles. 
ill. 11) ; but, in another passage where the 
same word occm's (Psal. Ixxili. 12), the 
better rendering would be ' ever secure,' i.e. 
prosperous so long as they live : tebel com- 
prises different shades of meaning, as the 
fertile and inhabited part of the world, as 
opposed to a desert (Job xviii. 18 ; Prov. 
viii. 31, where the idea is precisely given in 
our version ; Isai. xiv. 17), again, the whole- 
earth or world in general, specially where 
the founding of it is referred to (1 Sam. ii.8: 
Ps-al. xviii. 15, xciii. 1 ; Prov. viii. 26 ; Isai. 
xiv. 21, xxvil. 6) ; also it is sometimes put for 
the inhabitants of the world (Psal. ix. 8, 
xcvi. 13, XGvail. 9) ; sometimes hyperboli- 
cally for a kingdom or country, as that ol 
Babylon (Isai. xili. 11), of Israel (xxiv. 4). 
This last-named word is a poetical term, 
and does not seem to extend beyond our 
globe; the Hebrews, when they wished to 
express that larger sense of the 'world' 
comprehending created things generally, 
used a periphrasis, 'heaven, and earth, 
the sea, and all that in them is' (Exod. 
XX. 11). 

In the New Testament several Greek 
words are found to which ' world ' corre- 
sponds in our translation. Aion, implyiug 
' duration,' signifies the material world as 
created by the Deity (Heb. xi. 3), more 
generally an age ^vith the notion of time, 
a period of time, that which men live in 
(Matt. xii. 32, xili. 22), that before the Mes- 
siah, or the Jewish dispensation, aud that 
after, or the Christian (l Cor. x. 11 ; Heb. vi. 
5, ix, 26). Kosmos has a large signification, 
as we say the 'universe' (Matt. xili. 35), 
designating sometimes the earth as man's 
abode (38), and sometimes the beings dwel- 
ling in the great universe, or in our world (v. 
14 ; John i. 29 ; 1 Cor. iv. 9), the mass of the 
people (John vii. 4, xii. 19\ the possessions 
of the world (Matt. xvi. 26 ; 1 Cor. ill. 22^ ; 
the heathen people (Rom. xi. 12, 15\ world- 
lings, men of the world as opposed to 
Christ's disciples (Johnxv. 19 ; 1 Cor. ill. 19), 
and sometimes perhaps the Jewish dispen- 
sation (Eph. i. 4 ; 1 Pet. i. 20). There is yet 
another word, oikoumene, implying the ' in- 
habited earth' (Matt. xxiv. 14), the people 
of it (Acts xvii. 31), sometimes the Roman 
empire (xvii. 6, xxiv. 5X and sometimes 
perhaps Palestine aud the parts adjacent 
(Luke ii. 1 ; Acts xi. 28). 

These are the principal meanings which 
the term ' world,' as found in our transla- 
tion, bears. It will be observed that, wheu 
used in a moral sense, that is, as implyiug 



927 



[writing 



the inhabitants of the material frame, an 
unfavourable idea is conveyed (e.g. John i. 
10 ; 1 Jobn V. 19). Satan is called the ' prince ' 
and the ' god of this world ' (John xii. 31, 
xiv. 30 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4) ;, and the faithful are- 
exhorted not to he conformed to this world 
(Ptom. xli. 2), the wisdom of which is 'fool- 
ishness with God' (ICor. iii. 19), and not to 
'love the world, neither the things that 
are in the world ' ; seeing that, ' if any man 
love the world, the love of the Father is not 
in him ' (1 John ii. 15). And Christ's true 
followers are uofc of the world, hut chosen 
out of the world ; and therefore the world 
hateth them (John xv. 19). These are les- 
sons which ought to he deeply pondered. 
And hence the great mercy of God in man's 
salvation is eminently displayed. ' For God 
BO loved the v/orld, that he gave his only- 
hegotten Son, that whosoever helieveth in 
him should not perish, hut have everlasting 
life' (iii. 16): heuce, too, the largeness of 
Christ's mediatorial work is illustra,ted : 
' He is the propitiation for our sins, and 
not for ours only hut also for the sins of 
the whole world ' (1 John ii. 2). 

WOPoM. There are several Hebrew words 
so rendered in our version ; some of them 
improperly so. Thus zdhhalim, implying 
' creeping' or crawling (INIic. vii. 17), is more 
accurately translated elsewhere ' serpents ' 
(Deut. xxxii. 24). Sets, also, a word signify- 
ing the ' leaper ' (Isai. li. 8), must mean some 
species of moth. But besides these there 
are two other words, rimmah, signifying rot- 
ting or putridity, and tdVd, tula'ath, or tole'dh, 
so called from 'licking' or 'swallowing'. 
The first of these seems to describe the 
maggots bred in any putrefying substance, 
as in the manna (Exod. xvi. 24). The second 
is used for any maggot, worm, or cater- 
pillar. Sometimes it designates the worm 
I or insect, Coccus ilicis, from which the scar- 
let or crimson dye is obtained (Isai. i. 18). 
Also it is used for the maggots bred in the 
manna kept beyond the proper time (Exod. 

xvi. 20) ; and described as gnawing plants 
(Deut. xxvili. 39 ; Jonah iv. 7) ; where proba- 
bly it was a caterpillar, some kinds of which 
are peculiarly destructive. The words 
rinimcih and tol'd are often employed indis- 
criminately. Thus both are represented as 
feeding on the bodies of the dead (Job xxi. 
26, xxiv. 20 ; Isai. Ixvi. 24). From the ligt- 
named passage our Lord seems to have 
adopted his striking metaphor of the eternal 
worm which torments the lost in the future 
world (Mark ix. 44, 46, 48). In Job xix. 
26 there is no word in the original express- 
ing 'worms.' In the New Testament we 
have the fearful death related of Herod 
Agrippa I., who was ' eaten of worms' (Acts 
xii. 23). Josephus describes Herod the 
Great as dying in a similar way {Antiq., lib. 

xvii. 6, § 5) ; and an apocryphal writer uses 
the same language in regard to Antiochus 
Epiphanes (2 IMacc. ix. 9). 

WORMWOOD. A plant belonging to the 
genus Artemisia, remarkable for the intense 
bitterness of many of its species. This 
genus is distinguished by the multitude of 
fine divisions into which the leaves are 
usually separated, and the numerous clus- 
ters of small round drooping greenish- 



yellow or brownish flower-heads with which 
the branches are loaded. Artemisia absin- 
thium, wormwood, is said by Kitto not to 
exist in Palestine. Artemisia abrotonum, 
southernwood, is widely scattered over the 
south of Europe, Palestine, Persia, and 
other parts of Asia and elsewhere. But 
there is another s^ecie^, Artemisia Judaica. 
which has been found in Palestine, Arabia, 
and the deserts of Numidia. It is erect and 
shrubby, with a stem about 18 inches high. 
Its taste is very hitter; and both leaves 
and seeds are used in the east in medicine, 
as a tonic. Probably the scripture term is 
general, comprising various bitter plants ; 
but, if an individual be intended, we may 
fairly suppose it to be the Artemisia Judaica. 

The term is commonly employed in a figu- 
rative sense for a bitter lot, or calamity, or 
curse (Deut. xxix. 18 ; Prov. v. 4 ; Jer. ix. 15, 
xxiii. 15 ; Lam. iii. 15, 19), and for injustice 
(Amos V. 7, vi. 12; where our version gives 
'hemlock'). It also aptly represents the 
disastrous nature of an anti-christian power 
which should corrupt and embitter the 
pure water which it touched (Rev. viii. 11, 
12), For more information see Winer, 
BiU. BWJB., art. ' Wermuth.' 

WORSHIP. This word is properly used 
to express the homage which was to be paid 
to the Deity, and which it was sinful to 
offer to any other being (Exod. xxxiv. 14; 
Isai. ii. 8, and elsewhere) : see Idolatry. 
Thus we find St. Peter and an angel refusing 
such tokens of reverence (Acts x. 25, 26; 
Rev.xxii. 8, 9). The case of Nebuchadnezzar 
worshipping Daniel (Dan. ii. 46) is peculiar. 
The Chaldee word used and its Hebrew 
cognate indicate everywhere else the paying 
of divine honour ; and it seems most prob- 
able that this is the sense here. If so, 
Daniel no doubt (though the fact is not ex- 
pressly stated) directed the king's reverence 
to the Most High; for in the very next 
verse Nebuchadnezzar declares his belief 
that the God of Israel was ' God of gods.' 
For notice of the mode of public worship 
among the Hebrews see Offsrings, Syka- 
GOGTJB, Temple. 

WORSHIPPER (Acts xix. 35). Comp. 
marg., and see Ephesus, p. 268. 

WRATH. See Anger. 

WRESTLE (Eph. vi. 12), See Games. 

WRIED or WRTED (Psal. xxxviii. 6, 
marg.), altered in many modern copies into 
'wearied.' Curved, crooked. 

WRITING. The origin of writing is of 
unknown antiquity. Doubts, indeed, have 
heretofore been expressed whether it was 
practised at the time of the departure of 
the Israelites from Egypt ; and it was 
hence questioned if the Pentateuch could 
have been really the work of Moses. AIL 
such doubts have been set at rest by the 
discovery of Egyptian writing certainly as 
ancient as the early Pharaohs. 

When the art was known to the Hebrews 
is not so clear. Judah is described as hav- 
ing a signet (Gen, xxxvlii, 18, 25) ; but 
whether there was a legend or merely a 
device upon it is uncertain. In Exod. 
xvii. 14 Moses is commanded to record the 
attack of Amalek ' in the book,' someniemo- 
rial well known ; and afterwards mention t3 



^^riting] 



928 



freqnently made of -^vritirig (xxyiii. 11, 21, 
29, 36, xxxi. 18, sxxii. 15, 16, xxxiv. 1, 28, 
xxxix. 6, 14, 30). It is obseryalDle that in 
none of tliese places is wi-iting ;spoken of 
as a new invention ; nor is surprise express- 
ed at tlie commands. Tlie likening, too, of 
the engravings upon the precious stones 
and the mitre of the high priest to the en- 
graying of a signet is a presumption at 
least that the signet, previously spoken of, 
of Judah had some word or words upon it. 
It is veiy prohahle that the knowledge of 
the art was confined to a few persons ; and 
the name of ' writer ' or scribe appears, not 
long after, to he one of distinction (Judges 
V. 14). It has heen thought that the title ' 
horne hy the ofQcers of the Israelites I 
in Egypt (Exod. v. 6) was eauivalent to i 
writers ; if so, it was prohahly their know- \ 
ledge of this kind that qualified them for \ 
the posts they filled. TThen the Hebrews | 
entered Canaan, they came among a i 
people among whom writing was ungues- , 
tionahly practised. For the earlier name j 
of the city Dehir was Kirjath-sepher (Josh. 
X. 38, XV. 15 ; Judges i. 11), ' hook-town,' in | 
which we may reasonably suppose that there i 
was some school of literature. j 
It is unnecessary to produce further an- 1 
cient examples of wilting. Books were no I 
doubt by degrees multiplied ; but we do not j 
find letters as a mode of ordinary correspond- 1 
ence till the time of David, who wrote to I 
Joab for the purpose of securing Uriah's 
destruction (2 Sam. xi. 14, 15). Uriah was ■ 
himself the bearer of the fatal missive : it j 
•was perhaps known that he could not read ; | 
else David would have hesitated to trust it 1 



tion. It Is not likely that a change in the 
letters used would be suddenly made by any 
nation. More reasonably may it be supposed 
that the process was gradual. Modifications 
of an oi-iginal type would be introduced in 
order to promote facility and swiftness in 
writing, and also to secm-e beauty and re- 
gularity of form. Kow, there are inscrip- 
tions in the old Phcenician character, rude 
and irregular, but yet exhibiting the type 
from which more finished letters were de- 
veloped. And some of the inscriptions show 
the progress of the modification. The degree 
varied under different circumstances. The 
Samaritans preserved with little change the 
characters in which they received the 
Pentateuch ; while the Jews formed from 
them in the course of time those Hebrew 
letters which are now so denominated. StiU 
it is uncertain when they came into cus- 
tomary use. TVe cannot fix upon a precise 
date, but can onlj' say generally that the 
commencement of the change was not 
earlier than the second century before 
Christ, and that it made gradually its way 
till the end of the first centuiy after 
Christ. It may be added that from these 
ancient Phoenician characters those of many 
other languages would seem to have been 
derived. Aramaean, Persian, Greek are 
traced to this source; and from these pro- 
ceeded the alphabets of daughter or kin 
dred tongues. 

The following table is given by Madden 
(Ilist. of Jewish Coinage, p. 315) from Gese- 
nius to indicate the channel through which 
the square Hebrew character has been de- 
rived from the early Phcenician. 



Earliest Phcenician. 



Ancient Hebrew on 
Asmonean coins. 



SamaritaiL 



to his hands. Letters are subsequently 
often mentioned (1 Kings xxi. 8, 9, 11 ; 2 
Kings X. 1, 2, 6, 7, xix. 14 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 12- 
15, xxix. 1, 6-9, xxxii.l7 ; Ezra iv. 6-23 ; 2s eh. 
vi. 5-7, 17, 19 ; Esth. iii. 12-14, viii. 5,9,10, ix. 
29, 30 ; Jer. xxix.). 

The alphabet used by the Hebrews was 
probably of Phoenician origin. This Hebrew 
alphabet has varied in the shape of the 
letters. The square characters now em- 
ployed are not of very remote antiquity ; 
for it is demonstrably proved by the in- 
scriptions on Jewish coins yet existing that 
the characters formerly in use were those 
now called Samaritan. And it has been 
commonly said that they lasted down to the 
captivity ; and that Ezra introduced on the 
return the more modern square letters 
usually termed Chaldee. This account, how- 
ever, is not borne out by careful examina- 



"^Aramsean. 



Palmyrene. ^ 

■Square Hebrew. 

But, though Phoenician characters are of 
great antiquity, it is by no means clear that 
that maritime people were the inventors of 
them. Letters were originally of a pictorial 
cast ; and their names indicated the objects 
which they were intended to represent. 
jN'ow, taking a few of the letters, aki}?i is 
an ox, deth a tent, gimel a camel, daletli a 
tent-door, van a tent-peg, &c. &c. (comp. 
Saalschtitz, AorJi, derJB[ehr.,rol. i. taf. iv.),the 
forms being a rude likeness of the things 
signified by the names. But such names 
would be given by an agricultm-al popula- 
tion, and from such must have passed to the 
Phoenicians, through whom they became 
widely disseminated . Perhaps they had an 
Arama?an origin, and hence prevailed among 
western Shemitic tribes. 

The Phoenician alphabet, so far as we can 
trace it upwards, comprised twenty-two 



letters ; and the writing was written from 
right to left. There were the same number in 
Hebrew, as we can conclude from the alpha- 
betic psalms, some of them perhaps com- 
posed by David. But according to the Greek 
legend the alphabet as brought from Phoe- 
nicia into Greece had but sixteen letters ; 
and some scholars are inclined to believe 
that there were originally no more in 
Phcenician. Be this as it may, the letters 
are taken to have been consonants only ; 
though it is not impossible that some of 
them represented long vowels. For, while 
Hebrew was a living tongue, it was not 
necessary to express the vowels generally 
by letters or signs. But when it had ceased 
to be spoken some means must be found 
of fixing the vowel-pronunciation of the 
language. The fundamental idea of a 
word in this and kindred dialects was con- 
veyed by its consonants, while the modifi- 
cations of this idea were indicated by the 
vowels. Hence the comparatively-small need 
of expressed vowels to the language so long 
as it was vernacular. The pronunciation 
was kuo^vn. But afterwards external signs, 
points, and accents were employed, not to 
form a new mode ^of reading, but to pre- 
serve as far as possible that which was then 
in use, that according to which the speak- 
ing had previously been modified, though 
with little or no development in writing. 
It would seem that this system was gra- 
dually brought to the state in which wo 
now have it, perhaps between the sixth 
and tenth centuries after Christ. But in 
different regions different modes of writing 
vowels were probably adopted. The same 
process appears in regard to other lan- 
guages. Thus Arabic and Syriac, with con- 
sonantal letters, introduced before the 
seventh century vowel-points above or be- 
low the line. - 

It has been said that the Phoenician 
letters were very likely pictorial. Pictorial 
signs, we know, have been used by some 
nations ; and pictorial representation was 
the basis of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
Egyptian monuments are covered with 
paintings exhibiting warlike and domestic 
scenes, accompanied by inscriptions, com- 
posed of men and animals, astronomical 
and geographical figures, plants, instru- 
ments, and utensils, together with a variety 
of imaginary forms, winged snakes and 
globes, griflflns, &c., &c. It was long a prob- 
lem hopeless of solution how to discover the 
meaning of these inscriptions. Yaluable in- 
formation, unknown facts of history, might 
be contained therein ; but there was no key 
to this, the supposed sacred mode of Egyp- 
tian writing. At length a remarkable mo- 
nument, usually called the ' Pv,osetta stone,' 
was dug up by a French officer named 
Bouchart in 1799. By Lord Hutchinson's 
victory and the capitulation of Alexandria 
this was obtained by the British, and was 
brought to England in 1802 : it is now in 
the British Museum. It contains an in- 
scription in hieroglyphic, in what has been 
called enchorial or demotic popularEgyptian 
—a running hand, derived from the hiero- 
glyphic, but by a later deterioration— and in 
Greek ; and the three were reasonably sup- 



posed to be copies of the same document 
The Greek text was found to be a decree by 
certain functionaries at Memphis for the 
coronation of Ptolemy Epiphanes, 196 B.C. 
Scholars now anxiously set themselves with 
this most important help to decipher the 
hieroglyphic characters. Dr. Young was 
the first to publish a conjectural transla- 
tion, in 1816 ; and his researches were ex- 
tended by M. Champollion, who interpreted 
other inscriptions, and prepared a grammar 
and dictionary. The results, hitherto ob- 
tained, are interesting and important. It 
would seem that hieroglyphic signs are 
employed in three classes of signification : 
' 1. Pictorially, as denoting simply the 
object represented. 2. Symbolically, for 
some other object or idea conventionally 
connected with the figure,' as an eye for see- 
ing, a sceptre for a king, two arms in an 
attitude of repulsion for the negative con- 
junction, &c. &c. '3. PhoneticaUy, as the 
syllabic or initial sound of the name of the 
object represented, or of that which it 
symbolizes,' just as if in English there were 
to be drawings of a captain, an archer, and 
a Sutcher to denote the word ' cab ' (see 
Trevor's Ancient Egypt, chap. iv.). From 
the hieroglyphics, so interpreted, light has 
been thrown upon the Egyptian annals; 
and, as further researches are made, more 
information may be reasonably expected. 
It is, however, to be carefully observed that 
much uncertainty stiil prevails upon the 
subject. The existing Coptic is considered 
the representative of the ancient Egyptian 
tongue, and is made the basis of interpreta- 
tion. But eminent scholars have guestioned 
the soundness of this proceeding. Results 
must, therefore, be at present received with 
caution, and further discoveries be patiently 
waited-for. 

By a very similar process the inscriptions 
in Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia, have been 
interpreted. The kind of writing found 
there is called cuneiform, i.e. wedge-shaped 
or arrow-headed, the characters being much 
like slender wedges, or heads of arrows. At 
Persepolis tri-lingual inscriptions were 
found ; and by the study of these Grotef end 
was able between 1800 and 1815 to ascertain 
that they were written from left to right, 
to read the names of Cyrus, Darius, Hys- 
taspes, and Xerxes, and to discover a con- 
siderable number of the letters of an alpha- 
bet. Other explorers in the same field, 
among whom may specially be named 
Lassen and Bawlinson, followed ; and most 
important results have been already ob- 
tained. This cuneiform writing appears to 
have been confined to sculptures and im- 
pressions, while a cursive character (read 
from right to left) was used for ordinaiy 
purposes. The language first discovered 
was an ancient Persian, with many ana- 
logies in the modern Zend and in Sanscrit. 
The Persepolitaninscriptions were also in a 
Scythian language,which has been expound- 
ed ; and the knowledge acquired has been 
successfully applied to the deciphering of 
the writing on the Assyrian monuments. 
According to Ilawlinson, cuneiform writing 
may be divided into three groups, Babylo- 
nian, the oldest, Assyrian, and Elymasjua ; 



and in these groups there are varieties. The 
fn-imftive sil^ like the Egyptian hiero- 
t yphics; ' were originally mere pictures of 
ratSa? objects,' hut graduaUy hy far the 
trreater part of them assumed a P^onfi*^, 
alphahetical value; for.it is Pi'o^ahle that 
cimeiform writing was first i^ti'?duced into 
Chaldea hy a Hamite race cognate with the 
Egyptians. The Assyrian language which 
consists of upwards of 600 charac.ei or 
elements, has indeed some Peculmi ie= 
rnmmon with the Egyptian, hut is, mmany 
1-0™ very nearly allied to the Hehrew and 
Chaldee!thus affording another reason why 
\=;^hur is represented to he of Shemitic 
ori-in Ven 22).' So it is 'that the pro- 
gress of ds^ tends to corrohorate the 
fecoi-ds we have 'in the sacred volume (see 
KaUsch, Comm. on Old Test. Gen., pp. 303- 

'°It is to he ohserved that certain Hebrew 
letters are extremely similar, Ff rcely m 
coarse writing to he distinguished al.o 
that letters are used as numei^ls Hence 
mistakes readily occur. And it to tne 
mistakes of transcribers, arising from this 
fom-ct that many of the discrepances now 




930 



certain cases among o^^fe^es, e g the rods i 
on which the names oi the tribes weie 
Sfacid (mimb. xvii. 2, 3), the gates on which , 
holy words were to be imprinted (Deut. vi. j 
Q) tablets of bos-wood (2 Esdr. xiv. 24) and 

a fountain, build a bridge, or erect a house, 
without writing on it clioice sen tenc^^ 
nhri^tians also do the same' (Thomson, a /^^ 
S S^tei.oafc,p.9S). The fni^e jn^^^^^ 
says that he has seen nnmerous spec^^^^^^^^^^ 
ofVriting on plaster still perfectly ^^f^^^i 
though more than 2000 years old He gip 
nn=pq that what Joshua did was to write 
thettnSoS cement with a style, or, more 
LkelT the polished surface when dry 
.Sth red paint, as in ancient tombs (pp. 4a, 
Sccasionally, when letters were cu^^^^^ 
stone, lead (and also copper) was Ponied in. 
TO ?his practice probably allusion is made 
in Tnh xiv ''4 : see Carey, Jo^, P- 264. n\ rit 
n^ mainen and on palm-leaves, now com- 
S?n°n lSlfa'dSesnot seem to have been 

^^?^^e\ftilmate~be written on was 
ha^a pointed Btyle was used sometnn^^^^ 

nr sometimes gall and Titnol ; and " 
?an icd tV a ^rfter in an tol=-l^<'™,^"^^f 



Ancient -vrriting-materials. 

existing in the sacred text may undoubtedly 

^ VSmtterials of writing, either referred 
to in scripture, or known to be ancient yin 
use, are various. Stone tablets, on which 
documents were incised, are mentioned m 
Exod. xxxi. 18, xxxii. 15, 16, 19, xxxiv. 1, 4, 
28 29 So E^Tptian and Assyrian inscrip- 
tions 'are many of them on stone. Ere- 
auertly also they were stamped or cut upon 
SS^t (Tlay, which was afterwards baked 
nto bricks Some of the earliest existing 
Specimens are the bricks of Kmeveh and 
BabyC on which inscriptions are fomid 
Pam-rus was used from a very remote age 
hftlie Egyptians. Skins were frecinently 
emplovedrsometimes made into the finest 
leather, and sometimes in the shape of 
Strchment or veUum (2 Tim iv, 13) Pecu- 
liar directions are given by Jewish authou- 
ti^^ that the skins used for the sacred 
books Ihonld be those of clean animals 
There were other substances on which 
tinnsrs were occasionally written, ]ust as m 




Egyptian scribe. 

of the law arestill rolls. See Manuscripts. 

^'The modern custom of ^^iting m the 
east is described by Dr. Thomson, '^e fre 
always struck with their writmg materials, 
and their mode of using them They do 
not carry ink-horns now, as the piophets 
and scribes of old did, but have an apparatus 
consisting of a metal or ebony tnbe for 
their reed pens, with a cup or bulb of the 
Baii rmaterial/attached to the upper end, 



931 MhU WiXXa^UyS^t. [teae, sabbatical 



for the ink. This they thrust through the 
girdle, and carry with them at all times. 
When they are to write a letter, for example, 
they open the lid of the ink-hulb, draw out 
a Ions: reed pen from the tuhe, double over 
the paper, and hegin from the right side 
of the page, holding the paper in the hand 
without any other support. ... If you wish 
to be yery respectful, you must take a large 



sheet ; and the lines should incline upward 
toward the left corner of the paper. It 
must be folded long, like documents on 
file, placed within a nicely-cut envelope 
made for the occasion, and the address 
written across the letter. It vmstbe sealed. 
The open letter, or paper sent by Sanballat 
to Nehemiah (Neli. vi. 5) was an insult ' (pp. 
131,132). See Epistle. 



X 



XAN'THIGUS (2 Mace. xi. 30, 33, 38). See ' hardly be a doubt that he was the Aha' 
Month. I suerus of the book of Esther. See Aha- 

XER'XES. This monarch is not men- ! suehus, 2, Esther, The Book op. Xerxes 
tioned in scripture by the name by which j is referred to in Dan. xi. 2. 
he was known to the Greeks. But there can ' 



Y 



YARISr. See Lixex, WEAYixa. It is 
questionable whether our Torsion of 1 
I Kings X. 28 can be justiflecl. Various inter- 
1 pretations of the words are proposed. 
I Gesenius would render 'a troop of royal 
i merchants always fetched a troop of horses 
at a fixed price'; and Keil approves 
{Comm. on Kings, vol. i. pp. 180, 181). 

YEAR. A division of time, of which the 
Hebrew name, slidnali, signifies ' repetition ' 
I or revolution, very early noted in scripture 
(Gen. i. 14, v. 3). Being plainly marked by 
I the heavenly bodies and by the recurrence 
of the seasons, it must have forced itself at 
I once upon the observation of mankind. 
I Doubtless the measure of the years was at 
first roughly taken, as comprising an exact 
i number, or being a definite multiple of 
I the lesser periods of months and weeks. 
,| But, as astronomical science advanced, 
' certain discrepancies would be noticed. 
And, as in fact a single solar year,measured 
\)Y the revolution of the earth around the 
sun, is 365d. 5h. 48m. 48s. nearly, means had 
to be found of adjusting the calendar, so 
that the seasons should not go round till 
midsummer fell in what was called mid- 
winter.. For a brief account of the means 
adopted see Chroxology. 

The Hebrew year was regulated and 
characterized by the orderly succession of 
the sacred festivals, the passover marking 
tlie commencement (Exod. xii. 2), the other 
feasts, as that of weeks, and that of taber- 
nacles, following at specified intervals. But 
it is observable that two reckonings seem 
to have been simultaneously observed. For 
the feast of in-aathering is said to be at the 
year's end(xxiii.l6, xxxiv. 22) ; and, besides, 
tlie year of jubilee, and by C(msequence the 
sabbatical year, commenced in what, ac- 



cording to the sacred computation, was the 
seventh month. This (so-called) seventh 
month, or Tisii, is now the beginning of 
the Jewish year. See Browne's Ordo Seed., 
Append. §§ 403, 409, pp. 465, 467. The year, 
besides being divided into months and 
weeks, was also distributed into seasons: 
see Season. 

YEAR, IsEW. According to the Jews the 
destiny of every individual is at this time 
determined. The Creator sit? on his throne, 
and on the first day of the first month 
weighs the merits and demerits of all: those 
whose demerits preponderate are sealed to 
death : those whose merits preponderate 
are sealed to life ; while the cases of those 
whose merits and demerits are equally ba- 
lanced are delayed till the day of atonement. 
See Mills, British Jews, part ii. chap. vi. pp. 
155, 167,168. 

YEAR, SABBATICAL. Just as every 
seventh day was a day on which no work 
should be done, so every seventh year the 
land of Israel was to liave its rest. The 
provisions, as we find thcin laid down in 
the law, are these. The fields were to be 
left to their own spontaneous yield, no seed 
being sown, and likewise the vineyards and 
the oliveyards were ]ict to l^e pruned or 
tended. And whatever grew of it.-:elf 
was to be public property : the owner of 
the soil was not to gather it : the poor and 
the stranger and even the beasts of the 
field might feed on it at will (Exod. xxiii. 
10, 11 ; Lev. XXV. 2-7). Moreover, there wag 
to be a general release : all debts must bo 
then forgiven save to a foreigner (Deut. 
XV. 1-11). We must not, however, confound 
with this year that seventh in which a He- 
brew servant was to become free (12-18), 
this last might fall at any time, being tha 



rETXO"W] 



C5t €rras'ttri) of 



932 



Berentli year from the dat-e of Ms 'being 
sold. 

There ■was a close coimecti on between the 
saDhatieal year and the weekly sahhatl), a 
larger Increase being yielded the preceding 
year (Xev. xxv. 2C>-22}, just as an increased 
quanrity of manna was gathered on the 
sixth day in the wilderness. God would 
impress on the people the great lesson that 
the land was his, and wonld inculcate the 
principle of loring fellowship, by showing 
that an owner, his steward, was not to keep 
in a hard and grudging spirit everything to 
himself. The land, too, would be benefited: 
It wouldhave its season of lying fallow, and 
would the better thereafter yield its in- 
crease. And, to stamp more evidently the 
holv purpose of this season, it was then 
especially at the feast of tabernacles 
that the law was to be publicly read to the 
people (Dent. xxxi. lO-lS'i : see some good 
remarks in Fairbaim's Typol. of Script., 
book iii. chap. iii. sect. 9, voL ii. pp. 423-425. 

'We hare little notice of the observance of 
this year in the sacred history: the Jewish 
writers infer from 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21 that 
it had been neglected seventy times seven, 
i e 490, vears. "it is referred to in an apo- 
crvphalbook a Mace, vi. 49;, and sneered 
at* bv a heathen author (Tacirus, Hist, lib. 
V. 4\ 

TELLOWCLev. xiii. 30, 32, 36 ; PsaL Ixviii. 
13). See COLOUES. 



TOEIE. Several Hebrew words are ren- 
dered "'yoke ' in our version. 'OZisthe curved 
piece of wood upon the necks of animals of 
draught, by which they are fastened to tlie 
pole or beam (Xumb. xix. 2 ; Dent, xxl 3 ; 1 
Sam.vi. 7). Mdt&h, properly a * staff ' or ' bar,' 
for bearing on the shoulder, signifies also 
a yoke (Jer. xxvil. 2, xxviii. 10, 12). Both 
these words are symbolically used as the 
emblem of servitude (1 Kings xii. 4, 9-11"), 
also of suffering or calamity (Lam. i. 14, iii. 
27). An iron yoke impUes severe bondage 
(Deut. xxviii. 48 ; Jer. xxviii.l4). And hence 
to ' break a yoke ' is to become free (Gen. 
xxvii. 40 : Isai. ix. 4 ; Jer. ii. 20). Similarly 
in the i^'ew Testament the term *yoke' 
indicates subjection or servitude (Matt. xi. 
29, 30 : Acts XV. 10 ; Gal. v. 1). There is 
another Hebrew word, tzeined, embodying 
the idea of ' fastening ' or ' yoking together ' 
as beasts are yoked together to the plough, 
and hence signifyins a pair. It is used of 
oxen (1 Sam. xi. 7 ; 1 Kings xix. 19, 21) : of 
asses ('Judges xix. 10. in our version * two 
asses '); of riders (Isai^ xxi. 7, in our version 
• a couple of horsemen.')- Hence it is occa- 
sionally applied to land, meaning as much 
as a yoke of oxen could plough in a day Q. 
Sam.*xiv.l4). 

YOKE-FELLOW (PhiLiv. 3). Most likely 
reference is made to some one of the 

' apostle's fellow-labourers ; which it Is im- 

1 possible to say. 



Z 



7 4 AXA^rvT (removalsX A plain where 
Heber the Kenite had pitched his tent 
(Judsres iv. 11). See Zaa^a^-jtot. 

ZAMXAX (j)J^xe of flocks'). A place men- 
tioned only once (Mic. i. 11) : perhaps it is 
Identical with Zenan, a town in the plain 
countrv of Jtftiah (Josh. xv. 37). 

ZAAisA^T'XIM (removaW. A plain (so- 
stvled) on the border of ivaphtali not far 
from Kedesh .(Josh. xix. 33;. It is called 
' also Zaanaim (Judges iv. 11). But the word 
i rendered 'plain' is more properly an oak, and 
J two places are not indicated in Josh. xix. 
1 33, Allon and Zaanannim, but rather the oak 
j at or near Zaanannim. 
1 ZA'AVA2s {iniquict~}. One of the descend- 
\ ants of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 27); called also 
Zavan Q Chron. i. 42\ 
ZA'BAD (whom God cavc^.—l. A descend- 
1 ant of Judah a Chron. ii. 36, 37).— 2. An Eph- 
! raimite slain by the men of Gath (^-ii. 2l\— 
3. One of David's warriors (xi. 41), very 
' probablv identical with ^so. 1.— 4. One of 
' the persons who murdered king Joash (2 
Chron. xxiv. 26) : he is also called Jozaehar 
(2 Kings xii. 21).— 5, 6, 7. Three who had 
married foreign wives (Ezra x. 27, 33, 
ZABABAI'AS Q. Esdr. ix. 35). Zabad (Ezra 

^ ZABABrAyS a Mace. xii. 31). An Arab 
tribe attacked bv Jonathan Maccabeus. A 
writer in Dr. Smith's Did. of iUe Bible, \0u 



iii. p. 1809, thinks that their settlements 
were on the slopes of Antl-libanus, where 
are still the villages Kefr Zebad, and 
Zebeddny. 

ZAB'BAE (perhaps erroneously for Zaccai, 
'pure\—l. A person who married a foreign 
wife -Ezra x, 2S\— 2. The father of one who 
helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem CIS'eh. 
iii. 2ri\ The name is Zaccai in the margin. 

ZAB'BrD ^iven). One who returned 
from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra viii. 14). In 
some copies the name is Zaccur. 

ZABBETS (1 Esdr. ix. 21). Zebadiah 
(Ezra X. 20). 

ZABTDI CgiftofJeliovaTO.—l. Adescendant 
of Judah, the grandfather of Achan (Josh, 
"\-ii. 1, 17, IS) : he is probably the person 
called Ziniri in 1 Chron. ii. 6.-2. A Benja- 
mite (viii. 19\— 3. The superintendent of 
David's vineyards (xxvii. 27). — L A Levite., 
of the sons of Asaph iXeh. xi. 17), perhaps 
and identical with Zaccur, 3, Zichri, 5. 

ZAB'DIEL (aift of God'^.—l. The father of 
one of David's officers (1 Chron. xxvii. 2\— 
2. An overseer of the priests, said to be son 
of one of the great men (2s eh. xi. 14). See 
Haqgedolim. 

ZAB'DIEL a Mace. xi. 17). An Arabian, 
who put Alexander Balas to death. 

ZA'BLD (given'). An ofiBcer of Solomon 
said to be • the king's friend :' he was the 
son of Jvathan, possibly the well-known 



933 



[ZADOK 



prophet (1 Kings iv. 5). It i s not improbable 
that Zabud was identical with Zabad, 1, 
also the son of a Nathan. 

ZABU'LON (Matt. iv. 13, 15 ; Rev. vii. 8). 
A Greek form of Zebulun. 

ZAO'OAI (pure, innocent).—!. One whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 9 ; Neh. vii. 14).— 2 (iii. 20, marg.). 
See Zabbai. 

ZACOH^'TJS, or ZACCHE'TJS (id.). A Jew 
who held the office of chief tax-collector at 
Jericho. Dr. Alford imagines him admini- 
strator of the revenue derived from balsam 
which abounded in the neighbourhood. He 
had accumulated wealth in his post. When 
Jesus was passing through Jericho on his 
last journey to Jerusalem, Zacch^us was 
anxious to see him, to distinguish his person 
from those who clustered round. But, being 
a short man, he had little opportuni ty in the 
crowd : he therefore ran on, and climbed a 
tree. And great was his joy when the Lord 
looked up as he came to the place and told 
him he intended to abide that day at his 
house. The dissatisfaction of the people was 
loudly expressed : Jesus was gone (they said) 
to be guest with a man that was a sinner. 
But the merciful Saviour was come ' to seek 
and to save that which was lost.' And 
Zacchffius' heart was touched. If he had 
done any one wrong, he would restore four- 
fold ; and the half of all his wealth he would 
give to the poor. True child of Abraham, he 
was rich towards God. And Jesus stayed 
there, and uttered in his house striking 
parable (Luke xix. 1-27). Of ZaccliEeus no- 
thing more is certainly known. 

ZACGHE' US (2 Mace. x. 19). An officer of 
Judas Maccabeus. 

ZAC'OHUR (mindful). A descendant of 
Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 26). 

ZAC'CUiV (id.).—l. The father of the 
Reubenite spy (Numb. xiii. 4). — 2. A Levite 
of the family of Merari (1 Chron. xxiv.27).— 
3. One of the sons of Asaph, head of a course 
of singers (xxv. 2, 10; Neh. xii. 35) : he is 
possibly the same with Zichri (1 Chron. ix. 
15).— 4 (Ezra viii, 14, marg.). See Zabbud.— 
5. One who helped to repair the wall of 
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 2).— 6. A Levite who 
sealed the covenant (x. 12).— 7. The father 
of one of the treasurers appointed byNehe- 
miah (xiii. 13). 

ZACHARI'AH (whom JeJiovah remembers). 
— 1. A son of Jeroboam II,, who reigned 
over Israel for six months, 772 b.o., and 
was kihed by Shallum, who succeeded to his 
throne (2 Kings xiv. 29, xv. 8-12). He was 
the last sovereign of the family of Jehu ; 
and thus was fulfilled the prediction made 
to Jehu that his children to the fourth 
generation should sit upon the throne of 
Israel (x. 30; Hos. i. 4). Zachariah was an 
ungodly prince. There is some difficulty in 
adjusting the date of his reign. For, as 
Amaziah outlived Jehoasli fifteen years (2 
Kings xiv. 17-23), Uzziah must have begun 
to reign in the fifteenth or sixteenth year 
of Jeroboam's monarchy (see Uzziah) ; 
and, therefore, as Zachariah reigned in the 
thirty-eightli year of Uzziah, there must 
have been a period, about eleven years, 
after Jeroboam's death before his son was 
actually seated upon his throne, or ' reign- 



ed ' according to the general scripture nse 
of the term. See Winer, Bibl. EWB., art. 
* Zacharias ; ' Browne, Ordo Sceclorum, p. 239. 
Or Jeroboam may have reigned a longer 
time, a copyist having introduced an incor- 
rect number.— 2. The father of Abi or 
Abijah, king Hezekiah's mother (2 Kings 
xviii. 2) : he is also called Zechariah (2 
Chron. xxix. 1). 

ZACHARI'AS (■icZ.).— 1. A person mention- 
ed by our Lord as unjustly slain by the 
Jews 'between the temple and the altar' 
(Matt, xxiii. 35; Luke xi. 51). There is a 
difficulty in deciding who it was that our 
Saviour meant. It can hardly be imagined 
that he referred to a then-future martyr, 
the Zacharias son of Baruch who, according 
to Josephus (Bell. Jud., lib. iv. 5, § 4), was 
killed in the temple just before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. The father of John the 
Baptist, too, is said to have so perished; 
though the story rests on little solid ground. 
Possibly the Zacharias in question was the 
prophet, who is called ' the son of Barachiah ' 
(Zech. i. 1) ; but of his death the scripture 
says nothing— or, with still greater likeli- 
hood, the son of Jehoiada the priest who at 
the commandment of Joash king of Judah 
was stoned 'in the court of the house of 
the Lord ' (2 Chron. xxiv. 20-22), of whose 
blood it was said that it was not washed 
away till the burning of the temple at the 
captivity. And, as the books of Chronicles 
are placed last in Hebrew bibles, there is a 
propriety in the fixing upon this Zacharias 
at the close, as Abel's murder is recorded at 
the beginning of ihe sacred book. He, how- 
ever, is not mentioned as connected with 
Barachiah. Some have imagined, therefore, 
that the words which are found only in St. 
Matthew's narrative are interpolated. The 
perplexity will never, it is likely, be fully 
clear ed up.— 2. Th e father of John the Bapti st . 
He was of the course of Abia or Abijah, and 
resided in a city among the mountains of 
Judah (as some say, Hebron). When he was 
executing in his turn his office in the temple, 
he was apprised by an angel that his wife 
Elisabeth should have a son. Zacharias 
hardly believed the announcement, and was 
struck with dumbness till John's birth and 
circumcision. Then his mouth was opened, 
and he uttered that noble strain of praise 
with which ever since the church has 
honoured the Lord (Luke i.). Nothing more 
is certainly known of him. 

ZACHABI'AS.~\ (1 Esdr. 1. 8). Zechariah 
(2 Chron. xxxv. 8).— 2 (1 Esdr. i. 15). A per- 
version of Heman (2 Chron. xxxv. 15).— 3 
(1 Esdr. V. 8). Seraiah (Ezra ii. 2).— 4 (1 Esdr. 
vi. 1, Vii. 3). The prophet Zechariah.— 5 (1 
Esdr. viii. 30). Zechariah (Ezra viii. 3).— 6 (1 
Esdr. viii. 37). Zechariah (Ezra viii. 11).— 7 
(1 Esdr. viii. 44). Zechariah (Ezra viii. 16). 
—8 (1 Esdr. ix. 27). Zechariah (Ezra x. 26).— 
9 (1 Mace. V. 18, 56). The father of Joseph, 
a captain in the Maccabean wars. 

ZAGH'AEY (2 Esdr. i. 40). The prophet 
Zechariah. 

ZA'CHER (memorial, praise). A Benja- 
mite (1 Chron. viii. 31). He is also called 
Zechariah (ix. 37). 

ZA'DOK (just).—l. A high priest, son of 
Ahitub of the line of Eleazar (3 Sam. viii. 





17). Zadok first joined David at Hetron 
(1 Cliron. xii. 28), and continued ever loyal 
to liiui,l)eing associated with AMattiar m 
the priesthood. In Absalom's rebellion the 
two would have carried the- ark of God 
along with David ; hnt the king desn-ed 
them to remain with it in Jerusalem, trust- 
ing that he should he brought hack thither ; 
and, besides, they would be able to give 
him intelligence, by means of their sons, 
from the city (2 Sam. xv. 24-37, xvn. 15-21). 
Abiathar afterwards joined the party of 
Adonijah ; but Zadokwas faithful to David, 
and anointed Solomon (2 Kings i.) : he was 
subsequently nut by Solomon in Abiathar s 
place (ii. 35)." Some difficulty has been 
felt as to the relative position of these two ; 
and it has been imagined that Zadok was 
high priest at Gibeon, while Abiathar suc- 
ceeded his father Ahimelech, high priest at 
Nob It is not reasonable to believe that 
there were two high priests in Saul's reign, 
or indeed, in spite of some fanciful con]ec- 
tures, at any time : it seems more hkely 
that, as the high-priesthood had, we do not 
know how, been transferred to the family 
of Ithamar in the house of Eli, Abiathar, 
the representative of that family, was real y 
chief till deposed by Solomon, while Zadok, 
the head of the elder house, to whom_ the 
high-priesthood was to revert (1 Sam. ii. 2/- 
36) would naturally hold a very prominent 
position. Zadok is frequently mentioned 
in genealogies of the family of Aaron (e.g. 
1 Ohron. vi. 8, 53).-2. The father of Jerusha 
king Jotham's motber (2 Kings xv. 3^; 2 
Chron. xxvii. l).-3. Another in the line of 
priests (1 Ohron. vi. 12). As he also is said 
to be son of Ahitub, some have imagined 
that the names are introduced a second 
time by an error of transcription. The 
Zadok of ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. ll is either this 
person or No. 1.-4, 5. Two who helped 
to repair the wall of Jerusalem (in. 4, 29). 
—6 One who sealed the covenant (x. 21), 
possibly identical with No. 4 or 5.-7. A 
scribe (xiii. 13). ^ ^, ^ 

ZA'HAM (loatlimg). One of the chilaren 
of Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 19). 

ZA'IR (small). A place in Idumea where, 
wlien the Edomites revolted from king 
Joram of Judah, he defeated them m a nignt- 
attack upon their troops (2 Kings viii. 21). 
Its locality can be only conjectured. 

ZA'LAPH {fracture, ivound). The father 
of a person who repaired the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neb. iii. 30). ^ -r^ 

ZA^L'MON {sliady). One of Davids war- 
riors (2 Sam. xxiii. 28). He is elsewhere (1 
Chron. xi. 29) called Ilai. 

ZAL'MON CicZ.). A hill near to Shechem 
(Judges ix. 48). It has been imagined that 
the same hill is intended by the psaimist : 
'When the Almighty scattered kings in it 
fthe land), there was snow on Salmon, or 
Zalmon' (Psal. Ixviii. 14), i.e. the fields were 
whitened with the bones of the s am. But 
the Zalmon by Shechem could not have been 
high : snow would first appear on loftier 
summits. Hence some expositors suppose 
tbe word not a proper name, and rendei 
' there was snow in the darkness, i.e. light 
in calamity. See Winer, Bihl. ijlli?., art 
Zalmou. Mr. Grove suggests that thexC 


mightbe some allusion in the sacred wnier s 
uind, the key to which is now lost (Diet o/ 
tlie Bible, vol. iii. PP. 1094, 1095). 

ZALMO'NAH {id.) One of the stations m 
the march of the Israelites next after niount 
Hor (Numb, xxxiii. 41, 42). Possibly it was 
here, or at Punon, that the brazen serpent 
was erected: comp. xxi. 4-6. 

ZALMTJN'NA {sJieUer is denied him). One 
of the Midianitish kings who, with Zebah 
having escaped from the first onset of 
Gideon, and passed the Jordan safely, was 
lying secure in Karkor with about lo,oou 
men, when Gideon unexpectedly came up, 
attacked them, took and afterwards slew the 
chiefs (Judges viii. 5-21 ; Psal. Ixxxin. 11 . 
Zalmunna and Zebah are distinguished m 
the narrative from Oreb and Zeeb. The fli st 
are styled 'kings' ; the latter 'princes. 

Z AM' BIS (1 Esdr. ix. 34). Amarian (Ezia 
X 42) 

'ZAM'BEI (1 MacG. ii. 25). Zimri (Numb. 

XXV 14) 

' ZA'MOTB'a Esdr. ix. 28). Zattu (Ezra x. 27). 

ZAjSIZUM'MIMS iinoisy veople). A gigantic 
tribe, like the Anakim, who originally oc- 
cupied a district beyond the J ordanbetween 
the rivers Aruon and Jabbok, and were 
extirpated by the Ammonites cDeut. ii. 20, 
21). They were probably the same wuh the 

^"zANO'AH (riiarsh, log).—!. A town in the 
plain country of Judah (Josh. xv. 34^ Neh. 
iii 13,xi.30) litis to the south-east of z.orah, 
still bearing the name of ZaniCo...—2. An- , 
other town of Judah in the mountains (J osh. 
XV. 56) ; perhaps Z'anrUaJi, ten miles south 
of Hebron. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH. A name or 
title given by Pharaoh to Joseph when ap- 
pointed to the dignity of ruler next under 
the king of the land of Egypt (Gen. xli.^o,>. 
The signification of it is little more than 
coniectural : and scholars have widely dif- 
fered in the derivations they have propofccd. 
Those who prefer a Hebrew origin say it 
means 'the revealer of mysteries But 
surely, as an Egyptian title, it must have 
an Egvptian derivation. Osburn (Israel m 
Eaimt, p. 57) makes it equivalent to the 
sage enemy of adultery.' But, as reference 
would thus be made to Joseph's private 
character, it seems more reasonable to in- 
terpret it as designating some public bene- 
fit derived from him to the kn^gdom 
Gesenius believes that it may mean the 
weserver or rescuer of the age or world.' 
see Slisch, Comm. on Old T.rf p. 6o3 
Mr Poole's opinion is not easily gatheied 
from his article in Smith's Bid. of the Bible 
vol iii. pp. 1814-1816. He seems to suggest 
as the meaning ' Sesertasen-lives.' 

ZA'PHON (:north). A city in the Tpw level 
of the Jordan in the kingdom of Sihon, 
allotted to the tribe of Gad (Josh. xiii. 2,). 
ZA'RA (Matt. i. 3). Zarah. . 
ZAB'ACES (1 Esdr. i. 38). A person (evi- 
dently not Zedekiah : comp. 46) said to be 
brother to Jehoiakim. 

ZA'RAH (a rising of light). One of the 
sons of Judah by Tamar (Gen. xxxyiii. 30, 
xlvi 12) He is also called Zerah (Numb, 
xxvi. 20 Josh. vii. 1, IS, 24, xxii. 20 ; 1 Chron, 
ii. 4, 6, ix. 6 ; Neh. xi. 24). 



935 



[ZEBTJBAH 



^ABAI'AS. 1 (1 Esdr. viii. 2). Zerahiah 
(Ezra vii. 4). 2 (1 Esdr. viii. 31). Zerahiah 
(Ezra viii. 4). 3 (1 Esdr. viii. 34). Zel^adiali 
(Ezra viii. 8). „ 

ZA'KEAH (hornets' toivn) (Neli. xi. 29). See 

ZORAH. , , X 4! 

ZA'REATHITES. The inhabitants of 
Zareah or Zorah (1 Chron. ii. 53). 

ZA'RED {extiberant growth, sc. of trees) 
(NmnlD. xxi. 12). See Zered. 

ZAR'EPHATH {smeltincj-house ?). A Phce- 
nician town situated about midway between 
Tyre and Sidon, whither Elijah ^vas sent to 
reside with a widow in the famine after the 
drying up of the hrook Cherith (1 Kings 
xvii. 8-24). It is once more mentioned In 
the Old Testament (Obad. 20) : in the New it 
is called Sarepta (Luke iv. 26) ; and it must 
have been, if not here, at least in a neigh- 
bouring district, that our Lord healed the 
Canaanitish woman's daughter (Matt. xv. 
21-28). The modern village Sara/end repre- 
sents the ancient Zarepliath : there are con- 
siderable ruins in the neighbourhood, in- 
dicating a place of no mean size or im- 



portance. ^ ■ ... , . 

ZAR'ETAN {cooling 1) (Josh, in, 16). 



See 



Zereda. , , ^ 

ZA'RETH-SHA'HAR {splendour of the 
daion). A city allotted to Reuben : it was 
on a hill in a valley (Josh. xiii. 19). It has 
not been identified. 

ZAR,'HITES.— 1. A family of Simeon, de- 
scendants of Zerah (Numb. xxvi. 13). See 
Zepah, 2.-2. A family of Judah, descended 
from Zarah or Zerah (20 ; Josh. vii. 17 ; 1 
Chron. xxvii. 11, 13), See Zarah. 

ZAR'TANAH {cooling) (1 Kings iv. 12). 
See Zereda. . 

ZAR'THAN {id.) (1 Kings vii. 46). See 
Zereda. 
ZATH'OE (1 Esdr. viii. 32). 
ZAT'THU {a sprout). One who sealed the 
covenant (Neh. x. 14). 

ZAT'TXJ {id.). One whose descendants 
returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
(Ezra ii. 8; Neh. vii. 13). Several of this 
family had married foreign wives (Ezra 
X. 27). Probably Zattu and Zatthu are 
identical. ^ 

ZA'YAN {unquiet) (1 Chron. i. 42). See 
ZAAVAN-. ^ , 

ZA'ZA (plenty ?). A descendant of Judah ^ 
(1 Chron. ii. 33). 

ZEAL. An earnest temper which may 
spring from either commendable or im- 
perfect a!;d evil motives. It is often 
ascribed to God (2 Kings xix. 31 ; Isai. ix. 7, 
xxxvii. 32; Ezek. v. 13). And men are 
sometimes commended for the zeal they 
show, when it is an enlightened zeal, and 
evinces itself in exertions for God's glory 
(Numb. xxA^ 11-13 ; 2 Cor. vii. 11, ix. 2). But 
sometimes zeal for God is assumed as a 
cloak for selfishness, as in the case of Jehu 
(2 Kings X. 16), who desired to gain the 
crown of Israel, but ' took no heed to walk 
in the law of the Lord' (31). Ignorant or 
misdirected zeal may incline men even to 
persecute the church and true servar.vts of 
Christ (Rom. x. 2 ; Phil. iii. 6). Zeal, to be a 
Christian grace, must be grounded on right 
principles, directed to a right end, and must 
not be a mere transient emotion (Gal. iv. 18). 



ZEALOTS. A name given to a sect oi 
faction of the Jews. It originated with 
Judas the Galilean or the Gaulanite (Acts v 
37), who headed an insurrection: see Judas, 
5. His f ollowers,when he perished,were only 
dispersed, and were conspicuous afterwards 
under the name of Zealots. They were dis- 
tinguished by a fearless desire for indepen- 
dence. They deemed the paying of tribute 
to the Romans a violation of the theocratic 
principle that God alone was the king of 
Israel. This principle they maintained 
against the Roman government, and made 
it the pretext of unrestrained violence; so 
that in the latter days of the Jewish polity 
the Zealots were no better than lawless 
brigands, carrying everywhere devastation 
and death. After the death of Judas and 
his sons they were headed by Eleazar, one 
of his descendants, and were often called 
Sicarii, from their use of the dagger, the 
Roman sica. 

ZEBADI'AH {Jehovah gave).— I, 2. Two 
Benjamites of (aiflerent families (1 Chron. 
viii. 15, 17).— 3. Another, also it would seem 
a Benjamite, who joined David at Ziklag 
(xii. 7).— 4. ALevite porter (xxvi. 2).— 5. A 
son of Asahel, who succeeded his father 
in his military command (xxvii. 7).— 6. One 
of the Levites whom Jehoshaphat sent to 
teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 
8) _7. Another person, ruler of the house of 
Judah under the same king (xix. 11).— 8. One 
who joined the caravan of Ezra when pro- 
ceeding to Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 8).— 9. A 
priest who married a foreign wife (x. 20). 

ZE'BAH {slaughtering, sacrifice). One of 
the kings of Midian, taken and put to death 
by Gideon (Judges viii. 5-21 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 
11). See ZALiruNNA. 

ZEBA'IM {the roes). This is probably part 
of a man's name (Ezra ii. 57 ; Neh. vii. 59). 
See Pochereth. 

ZEB'EDEE {Jehovah gave). A Galilean 
fisherman, husband of Salome, and father 
of the two apostles James and John. He 
appears to have been a man of substance,as 
he had hired labourers in his business, and 
his wife was one of those who ministered 
to Jesus (Matt. iv. 21, X. 2, XX. 20, xxvi. 37, 
xxvii. 56 ; Mark i. 19, 20, iii. 17, x. 35 ; Luke 
V. 10 ; John xxi. 2), After the call of his sons 
by Jesus we hear no more of Zebedee him- 
self. Possibly he did not live much longer. 

ZEBI'NA {bought). One who had married 
a foreign wife (Ezra x. 43). 

ZEBO'IIM {roesD (Gen. xiv. 2, 8). Another 
form of . ^, 

ZEBO'IM {id.). One of the cities m the 
vale of Siddim, destroyed with Admah, So- 
dom, and Gomorrah (Gen. x. 19; Deut. xxix. 
23 ; Hos.xi. 8). 

ZEBO'IM {hyenas). A town or place of 
Benjamin, standing in or near a valley or 
gorge (1 Sam. xiii. 18 ; Neh. xi. 34). Mr. 
Grove suggests ShuJc ed-DubVa, a ravine bf:- 
tween Jericho and Michmash, as the locality 
(Smith's Diet, of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1819); 
but he has apparently overlooked the fact 
that Zeboim is coupled with Hadid.Neballat, 
Lod, and Ono,and was probably inadifferent 
direction. ^ , ^ . 

ZEE U'DAH {given). The mother of Jehoi- 
ukim (2 Kings xxiii. 36). 



936 



ZEBUL' (a hoMtation'). The governor of 
Shecliem for A"bimelecli (Ju-dges ix. 28-41). 
He over-reached and ejected Gaal, apparent- 
ly a Canaanite chief. 

ZEBTJ'LOXITE (Judges xii. 11, 12) : see 
Zebultjxites. 

ZEBr'Lr:^ (a TioMtaUon). The sixth son 
of Jacob hy his wife Leah, so called he- 
cause after hearing her hushand so many 
sons she trusted that he would live vrith 
her (Gen. xxx. 19, 20). Zsothing is recorded 
of Zehuluu's personal history, save that he 
had three sons, heads of the families 
of the tribe (xlv. 14 ; Xumb. xxvi, 28) : 
according to' Jewish tradition, he was one 
of those whom Joseph presented to Pharaoh 
(Gen. xlvii. 2.'), Dan, Xaphtali, Gad, and Asher 
being the others. The prophetic blessing 
of Jacob onZebulun declared that he should 
dwell on the coast of the sea and the coast 
of ships, - his border extending unto Zidon 
(xlix. 13} ; and this, as we shall see, was re- 
markably fulfilled in the location of the 
Zebulunites. 

The tribe multiplied fast. At the first 
census in the wilderness they numbered 
57,400 CN'umb. i. 30, 31) : their position in the 
encampment was to the east of the taber- 
nacle (ii. 5, 6), and on march they followed- 
third under the standard of Judah ^x. 14-16). 
At the second census they had still further 
increased: they were then 60,500 (xxvi. 26, 
27). In the blessing of Moses Issachar and 
Zebulun were conjoined, reference being 
made to their geographical position and 
its advantages, with the service they might 
render in inviting the heathen to offer 
sacrifice on God's holy mountain (Dent, 
xxxiii. 13, 19). Zebulun's lot was cast m the 
norrh-eastern districts of Palestine, between 
Asher and Xaphtali on the north, and Issa- 
char on the south. It is doubtful whether 
it touched the laka of Gennesaret eastward 
(lEatt. iv. 13), but in the west it must have 
reached to Carmel, Ki5hon,and,if not to the 
Mediterranean, at least to the Phcenician 
territory denominated Zidon, from the 
mother-city. The frontier-line is described 
in Josh. xix. 10-16 ; but several of the cities 
there enumerated have not been identified 
(see Thornley Smith's Hist, of Joshua, chap. 
XV. p. 232 : comp. Kalisch, Comm. on Old 
Test. p. 753; Thomson, Tiie Zand and 
the Booh, pp. 425-428). TTithin the borders 
of this tribe lay Gittah-hepher or Gath- 
I hepher, the birth-place of Jonah, and also 
I certain to\vas most noted in our Saviour's 
history, such as Xazareth and Cana. Of the 
cities allotted from Zebulun to the Levites 
four are mentioned, Jokneam, Kartah, 
Dimnah, and Js'ahalal (Josh. xxi. 34, 35) ; 
but elsewhere there are said to be only two, 
Rimmon and Tabor (1 Chrou. vi. 77) ; the 
original apportionment perhaps being 
afterwards changed. 

The people of Zebulun, like many of their 
■brethren, were slow to possess themselves 
of the whole of their inheritance (Judges i. 
30). Still they appear to hare been a brave 
and enterprising people. We find them 
joined with Xaphtali tmder Barak (iv. 6, 10); 
and their prowess is celebrated in the song 
of Deborah (v, IS). And at a later period 
a large number of them, e^adently expe- 



rienced warriors, 50,000, joined David at 
Hebron (1 Chron. xii. 33). They applied 
themselves also to other ptirsuits. Dr. Ka- 
lisch says of this tribe : ' It extensively en- 
gaged in commercial enterprises, venturing 
on distant sea-trade, and greatly enlarging 
its revenues and connections : the chief 
articles of their commerce seem to have 
been the costly purple-dyes prepared from 
the juice of the shell-fish, a source of wealth 
ascribed to Zebulun by later tradition also ; 
j besides which they may have applied them- 
I selves to the manufacture and exportation 
, of glass. Their maritime expeditions com- 
1 polled them, further, to study the arts and 

■ sciences indispensable for successful navi- 
: gation ; they thus at an early period ac- 

CLUired the reputation of literary accom- 
plishment ; and the poet sang of them 
I (Judges V. 14) : "from Zebulun are the men 
i who handle the pen of the scribe'" {vibi 
I supr., pp. 752, 753). 

i Besides the prophet Jonah, Zebulun gave 
I birth to one, most probably two, eminent 
: men. Elon the Zebulunite was an Israel- 
; itish judge (.Judges xii. li, 12) ; and Ibzan 
I who preceded him was in all likelihood a 
; native of the Zebulunite Beth-lehem f8-10). 

■ ■ Da^'id appointed a ruler over this tribe (1 

Chron. xxvii. 19) ; but it is not distinctly 
stated under what commissariat depart- 
' ment of Solomon it was comprehended (1 
j Kings iv. 7-19). The proximity of Zebulun 
! to the idolatrous Phoenicians doubtless con- 
j tributed to introduce into Israel the wor- 
I ship of the gods of the Zidonians. Retri- 
i bution, however, overtook them : the north- 
ern tribes were first carried away captive 
into Assyria [2 Kings xv. 29) ; and, though 
divers of Zebulun humbled themselves and 
repaired to Jerusalem to keep the passover 
under Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxx. 11), yet ero 
long the eastern conqueror again appeared, 
I and the land lay desolate. But God will noc 
j always afiiict his people. Through Zebulun 
the footsteps of the Saviour trod ; and the 
I prophecy of Isaiah was fulfilled in the bright 
j shining of gospel light upon those pleasant 
! hills and fi'uitftil valleys (Isai. ix. 1, 2; Matt. : 
, iv. 15, 16). : 
I ZEBU'LUXITES (Xumb. xxvi. 27). The ; 
: descendants of Zebultm. But we find Zebu- | 
: lonite in Judges xii. 11, 12. ! 
I ZECHAEI'AH (whom Jehovah remem- I 
! lers).—!. AReubenitechief (iChron.v. 7).— ! 
j 2. A Levite, one of the porters (ix. 21), appa- j 
rently identical with the one mentionedln I 
I xxvi ."2, 14.— 3. A Benjamite (ix. 37), called I 
I also Zacher (viii. 31).— 4. A Levite who took j 
part in the musical service txv. 18, 20, xvi. j 
2) : he maybe identical with Xo. 2. — 5. A j 
priest who blew with the trumpet before ; 
the ark (.xv. 24).— 6. A Kohathite Levite 1 
(xxiv. 25).— 7. A Merarite Levite (xxvi. 11).— I 
S. The father of Iddo, ruler of Manasseh in j 
Gilead (xxvii. 21).— 9. One of the princes j 
sent by Jehoshaphat to teach in the cities of | 
Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 7).— 10. A Levite of ' 
the sons of Asaph (xx. 14),— 11. One of the 
sons of king Jehoshaphat (xxi. 2).— 12. The \ 
son of the high priest Jehoiada. He bore his 
faithful witness against the declension of 
Joash, king of Judah, and his people, and 
was stoned at the command of the wretched j 



937 



Miblt UnniMUUse. [zechariah, the book of 



king in the court of the house of the Lord 
(xxiY. 20-22). He may he the person whose 
death is referred to hy our Lord. See Za- 
CHARiAS, 1.— 13. An eminent person said to 
have ' understanding in the visions of God ' 
in the reign of Uzziah (xxvi. 5).— 14. The 
father of Ahi or Ahijah, Hezekiah's mother 
(xxix. 1) : he is called also Zachariah (2 
Kings xviii. 2).— 15. A Levite of the sons of 
Asaph (2 Chron. xxix.l3). — 16. A Kohathite 
Levite, an overseer of those who repaired 
the temple in Josiah's reign (xxxiv. 12).— 
17. One, prohahly a noted priest, 'called 
'ruler of the house of God' (xxxv.. 8).— 18. 
A prophet, the author of the hook bearing 
his name. He is called sometimes the son 
of Iddo, sometimes the son of Barachiah, 
the son of Iddo (Ezra v. 1, vi. 14 ; Zech. i. 1, 
7, vii. 1, 8) : prohahly Barachiah Avas his fa- 
ther, Iddo his grandfather, or more distant 
ancestor. He seems to have been a young 
man at the time when he prophesied after 
the return from Babylon (ii. 4), stirring up 
the people, in conjunction with Haggai, to 
persevere in the re-building of the temple. 
We know nothing further with certainty of 
him ; but see No. 27.— 19, 20. Two of the 
chiefs who returned with Ezra from Babylon 
(Ezra viii. 3, 11).— 21. A distinguished person 
whom Ezra sent to summon some of the 
Levites to accompany his caravan (16). He' 
mighibe one of the two named just before. — 
22. One who had married a foreign wife (x. 
26).— 23. One who stood by Ezra when ex- 
pounding the law (Neh. viii. 4), possibly 
identical with No. 21.— 24, 25. Two descend- 
ants of Judah ; the first of the line of 
Perez or Pharez, the other a Shilonite or 
of the family of Shelah (xi. 4, 5).— 26. A 
priest (12).— 27. A priest, the representative 
or descendant of Iddo in the days of Joiakim 
(xii. 16). It is not unlikely that this may 
have been the prophet, No. 18.— 28. A priest 
who took part in the dedication of the v/all 
of Jerusalem (35, 41). It is possible that 
some two or more of the names here men- 
tioned separately, as of those living after 
the return from Babylon, may belong to the 
same individual. — 29. A witness whom the 
! prophet Isaiah took for his denunciation in 
regard to Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isai. viii. 
1, 2). Attempts have been made to identify 
him with some one of those bearing the 
same name who lived in the days of Heze- 
kiah, Nos. 14, 15 ; but nothing certain can 
he afhrmed in the matter. 

ZECHARI'AH, THE BOOK OF (520-518 
B.C.). This book has been variously divided 
into two, three, or four parts. Perhaps we 
may most conveniently distribute it into 
two principal sections, in each of which are 
Bome minor divisions. I. The first com- 
prises Zech. i. — viii., in which we have, after 
an introductory message (i. 1-6), 1. A series 
of visions with which the prophet was fa- 
voured on the night of the twenty-fourth 
day of the eleventh month inthe second year 
of Darius Hystaspis (7— vi. i5), closely con- 
nected with the then state of Jerusalem, sym- 
bolically describing the four great Gentile 
empires, and exhibiting with comfortable 
promises the establishment of a new tlieo- 
I cracy, also pointing onward to the future 
j plory of God's people under the great King 



and Priest, the Messiah, who would purge 
away iniquity, and rule his chosen ; 2. A re- 
sponse of happy prediction delivered in the 
fourth year of Darius to certain enquirers, 
showing how times of mourning for past ca- 
lamities should be turned into seasons of 
joyful praise (vii.,viii.). II. In the second part 
(ix. — xiv.) there are far-reaching prophecies, 
which leaving present events stretch on- 
ward to Messianic times. Included here 
we have, 1. The struggle of worldly powers 
with God's chosen people, while Messiah's 
ofElce is foreshadowed (ix.— xi.) ; 2. The last 
onset of foes upon Jerusalem, the repent- 
ance of the Jevvish nation for their rejection 
and murder of Messiah, with the final glory 
of that new kingdom of righteousness 
which shall never pass away (xii.— xiv.). 

The general scope and purport of this 
book will be seen from the analysis just 
given. The more precise interpretation of 
the visions and symbolical actions must be 
sought in commentaries. Here it will suf- 
fice to say that the comparative calmness 
of the world under Persian rule is exhibited 
by lively representations, as confirming the 
holy purpose of Joshua and Zerubbabel in 
re-building the temple ; and, though the 
severance of Judah from Israel is mentioned, 
and the rejection of Messiah foretold, yet 
enough is revealed of the Maccabean con- 
quests and the still more extended vic- 
tories of the church in the latter days to 
strengthen and comfort aU those that 
waited for salvation in Israel. 

The style of Zechariah is for the most part 
prosaic ; though in the later chapters the 
grandeur of the subject has given an eleva- 
tion to the language which describes it. 
Several references to Zechariah occur inthe 
New Testament (e.g. Matt. xxi. 4, 5, xxvi. 
31 ; John xii. 15, xix. 37). 

But the most perplexing matter respect- 
ing this book is the doubt felt by many 
critics whether it is all by a single hand. 
It is no new thing indeed to find this ques- 
tion started, since there is scarcely one of 
the Old Testament writings which has not 
been supposed more or less a conglomerate 
of divers pieces. Different hypotheses have 
been propounded. The first part (Zech. i.— 
viii.) is pretty generally ascribed to the | 
prophet of the restoration ; but it is ques- 
tioned whether the rest was not the work of I 
one or two- persons of an earlier date. It is 
suggested, too, that at least one such earlier 
prophet may have been named Zechariah, 
and hence his composition would be the 
more easily attached to what another Zecha- 
riah wrote. 

Now against such theories there is, first, 
an enormous improbability. Certainly the 
Old Testament canon was complete no long I 
time after the captivity, if not while j 
Zechariah himself, possibly Avhile those 
who had known him, were yet alive. It is I 
hard indeed to imagine such men attribu- 
ting the productions of those who lived cen- 
turies before to their own contemporary. 

But it is urged that in the former chapters 
symbolism is largely employed, in the later 
ones scarcely at all; that in the two por- 
tions different introductory formulas ap- 
pear ; and that in the latter part of the boqk 



ZED AD J 



938 



vre do not find the propliet'sname. Ii is sa::. 
that the liistorical position in tiie tvro parrs 
varies ; that Daraascus, Tyre, Philistia, As- 
svrla, and E^ypi are described in the latter 
l^ortion as enemies of Judah ; that the re- 



riliage east of the road from Damascus to 
Hums, noTT called SMud. 
ZEBECm'AS (1 Esdr. 1. 46). Eong Zede- 

kiah. 

ZEDEKI'AH ijmtice of JehovaTO.—l. A 



f erences to idolatry and false prophets he- : false prophet who encouraged Ahah to go 



token an earlier date than the exile (ix. 1-6, ^ 
X. 2, 10. 11) : and further that the continued ! 
existence of the monarchy is implied (xi. 6), 
wirh other indications which contradict j 
the notion that the whole was written at 
the same time— also that the style of the j 
latter sections is of a more archaic cast than | 
that of the rest. j 
Doubtless these objections hare consider- 
able weight, and if established, be it re- 
marked,^ would not impair the canonical : 
authority of the book. But there must be ■ 
set against them the facts that various ex- 
pressions, not usual, occur in both portions j 
fe.g. iii. 9, iv. 10, ix. 1, S) with occasional i 
Cbaldaisms : that there are passages inboth | 
that bear a close resemblance (e.g. ii. 10, ix. i 
9 ) ; above all, that through the book there are i 
allusions to r>reviou3 wiirers, writers of tbe i 
time of the exile, so that no part can be held 
posterior to that time. Thus comn. Zech. 
vii. 14 and ix. S with Ezek. xxxv. : : Ze:.:. 
ix. 5 vrith Zeph. ii. 4 ; Zech. xi. 3 wir - _T - ^.i: 
5, xlix. 19, 1. 44 : Zech. xi. 4, 5 with J ^ 
7, Ezek. xxxiv. 4 ; Zech. xiii. 8, 9 w::.. j-Zz^, 
V. 12 : Zech. xiv. 8 with Ezek. xlvii. ; 
Z^ch. xiv. 10, 11 with Jer. xxxi. 35-40 ; Zech. 
xiv. 20, kl with Yze'£. xllii. 12, xliv. 9; to 
which other r ?. ^ ■ r ^ - ^ ^ - lit be added. It : 
is true indec: -5 critics have | 

imaeined, con. :.- // : there were ah i 
readv-existins i; Zechariah, which • 

the prophets of the captivity imitated. But 
this can be nut down only as conjecture ; 
and it mav be said that De TTette, who at 
one time believed the latier sections prior 
to the former, changed his opinion from the 
comparison of which some specimens have 
been eiven, and admitted that the whole 
book was most probably of the same date 
iEinleit, § 250 bl. In addition surely Zech. ix. 
12, X. 6. 9 pre-suppose the exile. 
1 The greatest difficulty is in the reference 
of Matt, xxvii. 9, 10 to Jeremiah instead of 
to Zechariah. But Dr. Lee shows t :-: 3 
evangelist very probably desired . ' : r; 
that "Jeremiah was to be regarcr; 
orislnal author of a well-known I'- z . : v- - . 
to ^\hose words (Jer. xviii. 1-3, xix. 2, i-ie 
expression of Zech. xi. 12, 13 refers; Jeremiah 
standing to Zechariah in the same relation 
as Ezekiel and Daniel to the Apocalypse 
t {Insp. ofEohJ Script., leer. vii. pp. 339, 340). 
i On the whole, allowing due weight to the 
objections urged, it may be thought that 
the arguments in favour of the unity of the 
book preponderate. But doubtless many 
able conscientious critics reach a different 
conclusion. , . , ^ 

Of commentaries on Zechariah, besides 
those on the minor prophets generally. Dr. 
Moore's Prophets of the Bestoration, 2^ew 
i York, 1856, may be mentioned. There is 
I much curious matter in Kimchi's Commen- 
tary, translated by Dr. McCaul, 1837. 

ZEDA'D Onountain-side). A place on the 
northern frontier of Palestine (Numb, xxxi v. 
8; Ezek. xlvil. 15\ It is probably tile large 



against the Syrians at Ramoth-gilead, pro- 
mising him "s-ictoiT, and by the symbol of 
artiflcial horns declaring that he should 
push the enemy tiU they were consumed. 
Zedekiah opposed the faithfia prophet 
i Micaiah, and struck him, with a taunting 
\ question. He was rebuked and told to ex- i 
j pect a day of shame and fear (1 Eings xxlL ' 
11, 24, 25 : 2 Chron. xviii. 10, 23^ 24). We are ' 
' told nothing more of him.— 2. The last king 
' of Judah, son of Josiah. He was originally 
' called Mattaniah ; but his name was chang- 
ed when Nebuchadnezzar placed him on the 
j throne at the time that his nephew and pre- 
i accessor Jehoiachin was carried captive to 
I Babylon (2 Kings xxiv. 17 ; Jer. xxxvii. 1). 
i Zedeklah's reign of eleven years, 59S-5SS B.C., 
1 was evil and unfortunate. He was unfaith- 
i ful to his suzerain the :z B?.';ylon, and 
, thus brought cestruo::;.: -.v Judah and 
^ Jerusalem" (2 Kings u u - 2 Chron. 

1' : . His loi : lu miserable 
: ^ : : pie were thoroughly demora- 

:l uiphets deceived them (Jer. 

19) : the priests misled them 
XX. 1-5 : /ue great men were insubordinate 
(xxxiv. S-11). And Zedekiah was too weak 
to exert his authority, and too careless to 
act on any but selfish and worldly motives. 
He had not the spirit to protect Jeremiah. 
He sent for the prophet secretly, listened 
to his remonstrances, but did not dare to 
decide according to the admonitions he re- 
ceived (xxxviii.y. It would seem that Zede- 
kiah in the fourth year of his reign went to 
Babylon (li. 59), either at the command of 
Nebuchadnezzar or else to seek some alle- 
viation of his or.pressive vassalage (Winer, 
Bibl BWB., art. ' Zedekias ' : Ewald, Die 
Provh. des A. B., vol. ii. p. 505 : comp., how- 
ever, Henderson, Jeremiah, p. 266). In de- 
pendence upon Egypt (Jer. xxxvii. 5 ; Ezek. 
xvii. 15), and probably in correspondence 
with surrounding nations equally impatient 
of the Chaldean yoke (Jer.xxvii. 2, 3), Zede- 
liah rebelled against Babylon. But 2sebu« 
:_adnezzar's armies overran his kingdom, 
:..ud in snite of a temporary check by the 
movement of Pharaoh (xxxvii. 5) laid siege 
to Jerusalem. And two remarkable predic- 
tions were delivered against the unhappy- 
prince, that he should be carried to Babylon 
(xxxiv. 3', and yet that he should noc 
see it (Ezek. xii. 13). They were both ex- 
actlv fulfilled : when Jerusalem was broken 
up, Zedekiah endeavoured to escape ; but he 
was seized, and taken to Nebuchadnezzar at 
Riblah, where he received his sentence. 
His sons were slain before his eyes : then 
he was blinded, conveyed to Babylon, ac- 
cording to tradition condemned there to the 
labour ^of the mill, and there he died. Yet 
his end was not without honour. There 
were lamentations and burnings at his 
death (2 Kings xxv. 1-7 ; Jer. xxxiv. 4, 5, lii. 
1-11). In one place we find Zedekiah called 
the ' son ' of Jeconiah : the word is doubtless 
used with latitude for ' relative ' or ' succey 



~^^l7mtttlt0lgXfSg' [ZEPHANIAH, THE BOOK Qg^ 



sor ' (1 Chron. iii. 15, 16).-3. A false prophet 
put to death hy Nebuchadnezzar fJer xxix 
21, 22).-4. One of the princes of Jehoiakim s 

'li^^^^oiiff^'A prince of Midian slain 
by the Ephrainiites after the rout of the 
Midianitish army by Gideon (Judges vn. 25, 
viii. 3 ; Psal. Ixxxiii. 11). 

zTm^'R (id ) A wine-press, so callea oe- 
caufe fhe Ephtaimites killed Zeeb there 

^^ZEi'in'f ri6, the sm. A town of 
Beniamin, where Saul and Jonathan were 
buried (Josh, xviii. 28 ; 2 Sara. xxi.l4)._ 

ZE'LEK ifissure). One of David's warriors 
(2 Sam. xxiii. 37 ; 1 Chron xi. 39). 

ZBLOPH'EHAD {first fracture, perhaps 
p-st-\>orn\ A descendant of Manasseh who 
died in the wilderness leaving only daugu- 
ters To them therefore his inheritance was 
alloked; and certain regulations were m 
consecLuence made in regard to .lionesses 
(Numb. xxvi. 33, xxvii. 1, 7, xxxvi. 2, 6, 10, 
11 : Josh. xvii. 3 ; 1 Chron. vn. 15). 

ZELO'TES. A surname of Simon, one of 
the apostles vi. 15 ; Acts 1. 13). It is 

equivalent to the Kananite 0 Canaanite in 
our translation), an appellation by which 
the same apostle is elsewhere distinguished 
(Matt. X. 4 ; Mark iii. 18). He was probably 
'before he followed Jesus one of the sect 
called zealots. See Simon, 2, Zealots 

ZEL'ZAH {shade frovithe sun). Avl^c^ 
by the border of Benjamin, not far from 
' Rachel's sepulchre (1 Sam. x. 2). 
! ZEMARA'IM {dottUe /uZn).-l. A town of 
I Benjamin (Josh. :^viii. PfBibly es^^ 
ra/i, f our miles north of Jericho_.-2. A hill o^^ 
I c,,ni,iiit in TuountEphraim, which extended 



ran, tour mues xtui uu uj. ^ v. .v...^; ^- ---- 
summit in mount Ephraim, w;hich ex tended 
to or into the territory of Benjamin and 
might have its name from No. l (2 Chron. 

^^ZEM'ABITES. Descendants of Can^n 
(Gen. X. 18 ; 1 Chron. i. 16). They were most 
probably located in Phoenicia or Syria; and 
a town named Simyra by ancient geogra- 
phers has been supposed to be the p ace of 
their habitation. There are considerable 
ruins still called Sumrali, surrounded by 
fruit-tree plantations, about 24 miles soutu- 
east of Tortosa, near the river Eleutherus. 
Here it is possible Simyra stood. The 
Zemarites may have migrated southward 
and given name to Zemaraim. 

ZEMPRA {a song). A descendant of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chron. vii. 8). 
ZENA'N {place of flocks) (Josh. xv. 37). 
1 See Zaanan. , ^ _ „ 

ZE'NAS (probably contracted from Zeno- 
dorus). A Christian, whom Paul, writing to 
Titus, wished him to bring with him (lit. 
iii. 13). He was, we may imagine, a Hebrew 
jurist, or teacher of the law ; to whom the 
title of his old profession was still given. 

ZEPHANI'AH {Jehovah hides).— I. The 
second priest in the reign of Zedekiah, who 
had succeeded in the place of Jehoiada,and 
was slain at Riblah after Jerusalem was 
taken (2 Kings xxv. 18-21 ; Jer. xxi. 1, xxix. 
25-29, xxxvii. 3, Iii. 24-27).-2. A Kohathite 
Levite (1 Chron. vi. 36).-3. A propheo or- 
dinarily reckoned as ninth m order ot tiie 
minor prophets. Nothing more is certainly 
known of him than what can be gathered 



from his book. His ancestors are there 
enumerated for four generations (Zeph. i. 
1) : and in the genealogy given is founxi the 
name ' Hizkiah,' identical with that of He- 
zekiah king of Judah. It is probable that it 
was this sovereign from whom Zephaniah 
was descended ; and the fact may expMm 
the unusual length of the pedigree. The 
date would be found to agree very well, as 
Zephaniah prophesied in the days of Josiah. 
There is indeed a tradition that he was of 
the tribe of Simeon ; but this is of no au- 
thority : more especially because it can 
hardly be doubted that he prophesied iq 
Jerusalem. Of his death nothing is known. 
—4 The father of one or more persons con- 
cerned ina symbolical action(Zech.vi. 10, 14). 

ZEPHANI'AH, THE BOOK OP (628-620 
BC) There is no division in this short 
book : and, though some have distinguished 
in it different prophecies, yet it seems best 
to consider it as a whole, one part m it 
apparently referring to another, as Zeph. iii. 
8 to ii. 1-3. It might be written in order 
to give a kind of summary of the prophet's 
ministry. It commences with denuncia- 
tions for the sin of Judah, for which repent- 
ance is enforced (i.) ; and, after threaten- 
ings against heathen nations (li.), as also 
against Jerusalem, a time of blessed de- 
liverance for Israel is predicted, to have 
its full accomplishment, doubtless, m the 
times of Messiah's happy reign (iii.). 

It was said in a preceding article that Ze- 
phaniah prophesied in the time of Josiah : it 
is guestioned whether earlier or later m that 
monarch's government. Perhaps we may 
most reasonably believe that it was between 
the twelfth and eighteenth years of his 
reign. Some progress might have been 
made in reformation ; but it is evident, 
from i. 4, 5, 9, that many of the most fla- 
grant abuses were yet unchecked. The chief 
argument urged against this view is that 
Josiah's sons were at that time too young 
to merit the denunciation of i. 8. But it by 
no means follows that ' the king's children 
were the sons of Josiah. There were proba- 
bly other princes then alive. The ex- 
pression, however, might be used only 
generally ; the prophet's purpose being to 
include all classes from the very highest. 
It may be added that the prediction against 
Nineveh (ii. 13-15) -must have been delivered 
before that city was taken,the date of which 
is usually fixed as 625 B.C., the fifteenth 
year of Josiah. We may therefore place 
the career of Zephaniah somewhat prior to 
that of his contemporary Jeremiah. The 
desolation described as impending is that 
of the Chaldeans. Some, Indeed, have be- 
lieved that he alluded to the Scythian in- 
road : but that most probably did not touch 
the kingdom of Judah. Zephaniah predicts 
the same judgment as Jeremiah (Jer.iv.-xi.); 
where certainly the Chaldeans are meant. 

The style of this prophet is dignified and 
ener"-etic, yet not remarkable: he has 
noetic power, but of no high degree. Ho 
occai.ionally uses paronomasia, and has in 
several places adopted and repeated the 
utterances of other prophets. Commenta- 
ries on this book are included in those on 
the minor prophets. 



SEPHATHJ 



^XtKiXXX}) Gf 



940 



ZEPHATH' (watch-tower) (Judges i. 17). 
See HoRiiAH. 

ZEPHA'THAH (id.). A raUey ^vhere 
king Asa met and overcame the Ethiopian 
host (2 Chron. siv. 10). It was hy Mareshah 
in the territory of Jndah. 

ZEPHI', ZEPHO' (id.). One of the sons 
of ELiphaz, Esau's son (Gen. xxxyI. 11, 15 ; 1 
Chron. i, 36). 

ZEPHO'is"(a looking-out). One of the sons 
of Gad (ISTumh. xxvi. 15), called also Ziphion 
(Gen. xlTi. 16). 

ZEPHO'XITES. A family of Gad, de- 
scendants of Zephou (Xumh. xxri. 15). 

ZEU (flint). A city of i>aphtali (Josh, xix, 
35). 

ZE'EAH (a rising of light).— 1. A son of 
Eeueland grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 13, 
17, 33 ; 1 Chron. i. 37, 44).— 2. One of the sons 
of Judah hy Taraar. See Zaeah.— 3. A son 
of Simeon (2\umb. xxvi. 13 ; 1 Chron. iv. 24), 
from TThom one of the families of the tribe 
were called Zarhites. He is also named 
Zohar (Gen. xItI. 10).— 4. A Levite of the 
line of Gershon (l Chron. vi. 21, 41).— 5. An 
Ethiopian or Cushite king, who invaded 
Jndah with a mighty host in tl:e reign of 
Asa, and Avas entirely defeated in the valley 
of Zephath^di at Mareshah, the rout being 
so complete that the Jewish king pursued 
his foe to Gerar, and plundered allthe cities 
round, which had doubtless been subjected 
by Zerah. The result of this battle to Asa 
was that, having seen the hand of God 
assisting him, he carried out a fuller refor- 
matioD, and had his power augmented by 
many who fell to him from other tribes (2 
Chron. xiv. 9-15, sv.). There is everyreason 
to believe that Zerah is identical with 
Osoriion, or Osorthon, of the twenty-second 
Egyptian dynasty. There were more than 
one of the name ; and scholars differ 
whether Zerah was Osorkon I. or II. 

ZERAHI'AH CsvhoTa Jehovah causedto he 
horn).—!. A priest of the line of Eleazar (1 
Chron. vi. 6, 51 ; Ezra vii. 4).— 2. One whose 
son headed a party who returned from 
Babylon with Ezra (viii. 4). 

ZE'RED (exuberant growth, sc. of trees). 
A stream that flowed through a valley in 
the territory of Moab on the east of the 
Dead sea (Deut. ii. 13, 14), also called Zared 
(Xumb. xsi. 12). According to Robinson it 
is the modern Wady el-Ahsi; but others 
would identify it with some other wad v. 

ZERE'DA, ZEREDA'THAH (cooling). A 
town of Ephrairn in the plain of the Jordan, 
the birth-place of Jeroboam I. (1 Kinars xi. 
26 ; 2 Chron. iv. 17). Possibly it may be 
identical with Zaretan (Josh.iii.i6),Zererath 
(Judges vii. 22), Zartanah (1 Kings iv. 12), 
Zarthan (vii. 46). But Zarthan was not far 
from Beth-shan. See, however, Miss Cor- 
haux in Journ. of Sacr. Lit., Jan. 1S52, pp. 
384, 3S5, who would place it east of the 
Jordan. 

ZERE'RATH (probably a corruption of 
Zercda) (Judges vii. 22). SeeZEREDA. 

ZE'RESH (gold). The wife of Haman 
(Esth. V. 10. 14, vi. 13). 

ZE'RETH (splendour'). One of the de- 
scendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 7). 

ZERI' (probably for Izri) (1 Chron. xxv. 
S). See IzEi. 



ZERO'Pv, (a hundle, or purse). A Benja- 
mite, one of Saul's ancestors (1 Sam. ix. 1). 

ZERU'AH (leprous). The mother of Jero- 
boam I. (1 Kings ix.26). 

ZEREB'BABEL (begotten in Babylon). An 
eminent descendant of the royal line of 
David, born, as his name indicates, in Ba- 
bylon during the captivity. He is generally 
called in scripture the son of Salathiel or 
Shealtiel (Hagg. 1. 1; Matt. i. 12). Else- 
where, however, he is said to be the son of 
Pedaiah, the brother or son of Salathiel (1 
Chron. iii. 17-19). Perhaps he might be, 
according to a common usage of the word 
' son,' Salathiel's grandson, or reckoned as 
his son, though really his nephew, by Anrtue 
of the levirate law. Zerubbabel, termed in 
Persian Sheshbazzar (Ezra i. 8, 11, v. 14, 16), 
was the leader of the Jews who returned 
from captivity under the decree of Cjtus 
(ii. 2 ; Xeh. vii. 7, xii. 1). He, in conjunc- 
tioji the high priest Joshua, erected an 
altar (Ezra iii. 2), and began to re-bttild the 
temple (8). The mixed people that inhabited 
Samaria desired to associate themselves 
with the Jews ; but Zerubbabel refused 
their advances (iv. 2, 3) ; on which by their 
intrigties at the Persian court the work was ■ 
suspended. Eltimately, however, in the 
reign of Darius Hystaspis, renewed per- 
mission was obtained for building; and 
therefore, encouraged by the prophets 
Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel resumed 
; his labours, and completed the holy house 
I (Ezra V. 2 ; Hagg. i. 12, 14, ii. 2, 4; Zech. iv. 
; 6, 10). He appears to have been provincial 
] governor under the Persian rule (Xeh. xii. 
] 47), and to have typically represented his 
divine descendant (Hagg. ii. 20-23). 

Nothing further is related of Zerubbabel 
in scripture : the story of him in the Apo- 
crypha (1 Esdr. iv. 13-63) is undeserving of 
credit. He is called Zorobabel in the New 
mtament (Matt. i. 12, 13 ; Luke iii. 27). 

ZEEU'IAH (cleft, icounded). The mother 
; of Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (1 Sam. xxvi. 
■ 6 ; 1 Chron. ii. 16). She was therefore sister 
I to David and to Abigail Abigail, however, 
1 is said to have been daughter of Xahash (2 
Sam. xvii. 25). See Jesse. 2\'ahasb:,2. 

ZE'THAM (oZu'e-free). A Le^^-ite (1 Chron. 
xxiii. 8 ; xxvi. 22). 

ZE'THAX (id.). A Benjamite chieftain (1 
Chron. vii. 10). 

ZE'THAR istar). One of seven chamber- 
lains or eunuchs at the court of Ahasuerus 
(Esth. i. 10). 
ZI'A (motion). A Gadite (1 Chron. r. 13). 
ZI'BA (statue). A servant of the house 
of Saul, who apprised Da^id that Mephi- 
bosheth, Jonathan's son, was living, and 
who was appointed by David to administer 
Saul's family-property for the benefit of 
Mephibosheth (2 Sam. ix.). In the rebel- 
lion of Absalom Ziba joined David with 
provisions, and reported that Mephibo- 
sheth was hoping, in the tumults of the 
time, to be called to his grandfather's 
throne. David, therefore, bestowed all his 
property on Ziba (xvi. 1-4). On David's 
return to his capital Ziba was with him ; 
and then Mephibosheth appeared, and com- 
plained that he had been slandered by his 
servant. The king did not, however^ seem 



941 mmt mxomt'iSQt. 



altogether to admit his excuse, for he di- 
vided the estate between him andZiba (xix. 
17, 24-30). See Mephibosheth. 

ZIB'EON (dyed). A son of Seir theHorite, 
called a Hivite (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14, 20, 24, 29 ; 

1 Chron. i. 38, 40). 

ZIB'IA (a roe). A Benjamite (1 Ohrou. 
viii. 9). 

ZIB'IAH (id.). The mother of Jehoash 
or Joash king of Judah (2 Kings xii. 1 ; 

2 Chron. xxiv. 1). 

ZICH'RI (remembered, renowned).—!. A 
Levite, son of Izhar (Bxod. vi. 21). In many 
editions the name is incorrectly printed 
Zithri.— 2, 3, 4. Three Benjamite chiefs (1 
Chron. viii. 19, 23, 27).— 5. A Levite, son of 
Asaph (ix. 15) : in Neh. xi. 17 he appears to be 
called Zabdi.— 6. A Levite, descended from 
Moses (1 Chron. xxvi. 25).— 7. A E,euben- 
ite, father of the ruler of Reuben in David's 
time (xxvii. 16).— 8. The father of one of 
Jehoshaphat's captains (2 Chron. xvii. 16). 
—9. One whose son Jehoiada associated 
with him in making Joash king (xxiii. 1). — 

10. An Ephraimite who in a' war between 
Pekah and Ahaz slew the king of Judah's 
son, and some of his high officers (xxviii. 
7).— 11. A Benjamite whose son was over- 
seer at Jerusalem after the captivity (Neh. 
xi. 9).— 12. A priest In the days of Joiakim 
(xii. 17). 

ZID'DIM (the sides'). A city of Faphtali 
(Josh. xix. 35), possibly HatUn at the foot 
of the noted hill so called. 

ZIDKI'JAH (justice of Jehovah). One 
who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. l). His 
name appears immediately after that of Ee- 
hemiah. 

ZI'DON (a fishery) (Gen. xlix. 13 ; Josh.xi. 
8, xix. 28, where Zidon-rabbah, marg. ; 
Judges i. 31, xviii. 28 ; 1 Kings xvii. 9 ; Jer. 
xlvii. 4 ; Ezek. xxviii. 21 ; Zech. ix. 2, and 
elsewhere). See Sidon. 

ZIDO'NIANS (Judges x. 12, xviii. 7 ; 1 
Rings xi. 1, 5, 33, xvi. 31 ; 1 Chron. xxii. 4 ; 
Ezek. xxxii. 30). Inhabitants of Zidon. See 

SlDONIANS. 

ZIF (brig Jitness, beauty, q. d. flower-month) 
(1 Kings vi. 1, 37). See Month. 

ZI'HA (dry).— l. One v/hose descendants, 
Nethinim, returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 

11. 43 ; Neh. vii. 46).— 2. A person, perhaps 
the representative or descendant of No. 1, 
who was a ruler of the Nethinim (xi. 21). 

ZI'IM (Isai. xiii. 21, marg,, xxxiv. 14, 
marg.). This word, from a root signifying 
dryness, means inhabitants of the desert, 
both men, as ' they that dwell in the wilder- 
ness' (Psal. Ixxii. 9; and perhaps Isai. xxiii. 
13), and animals,various kinds of wild beasts 
(Psal. Ixxiv. 14 ; Isai. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14 : Jer 
1. 39). 

ZIK'LAG (out-pouring of a fountain 1). A 
city in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 31) 
afterwards allotted to Simeon (xix. 5), but 
still held by the Philistines. Achish king 
of Gath gave it to David while living in the 
Philistine country (1 Sam. xxvii. 6); ' where- 
fore,' it is added, 'Ziklag pertaineth unto 
the kings of Judah unto this day,' that is, it 
was re-incorporated with Judah, becoming 
probably the special demesne of the sove- 
reign, instead of returning to Simeon. Zik- 
lag is generally mentioned afterwards in 



[ZIOK 



connection with David (1 Sam. xxx. 1, 14, 
26 ; 2 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Chron. xii. 1, 20). It was 

inhabited after the return from the cap- 
tivity (Neh. xi. 28). There is some un- 
certainty as to its position ; but in all 
probability it may be identified with the 
ruined site 'Aslilj or KasMj, See Wilton, 
The Negeb, pp. 206-209. 

ZIL'LAH (shade). One of the wives of 
Lamech of the line of Cain (Gen. iv. 19, 
22, 23). 

ZIL'PAH (a, dropping). The handmaid of 
Leah, whom she gave as a concubine to 
Jacob. Her sons were Gad and Asher (Gen. 
xxix. 24, xxx. 9, 10, 12, XXXV. 26, xxxvii. 2, 
xlvi. ]8\ 

ZIL'THAI (shadow, i.e. protection, of Jeho- 
vah). —I. A Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 20).— 2. 
A chieftain of Manasseh who joined David 
at Ziklag (xii. 20). 

ZIM'MAH (mischief).—!. A Levite of the 
family of Gershon (1 Chron. vi. 20, 42).— 2. A 
Gershonite Levite: perhaps the same per- 
son as No. 1 is intended (2 Chron. xxix. 12). 

ZIM'RAN (sung, celebrated in song). 
One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah 
(Gen. XXV. 2 ; 1 Chron. i. 32). Probably the 
Zamereni, a tribe in the interior of Arabia, 
were descended from him. 

ZIM'RI (id.).—!. A Simeonite chief slain 
by Phinehas for his open sin with aMidian- 
itish woman (Numb. xxv. 14),— 2. A captain 
under Elah king of Israel, who conspired 
against his master, and slew him in Tirzah. 
Zimri ascended the throne, and destroyed 
all the house of Baasha; but he reigned 
only seven days. For the soldiery made 
Omri king, who marched against Tirzah ; 
and Zinirj, findiQg resistance vain, shut 
himself in the palace, fired it, and perished 
928 B.C. (1 Kings xvi. 9-20). His fate served 
to point a sarcasm of Jezebel against Jehu, 
as he, having slain two kings, was entering 
Jezreel (2 Kings ix. .31).— 3. A descendant of 
Judah, of the family of Zerah (1 Chron. ii. 6). 
He is the person called Zabdi in Josh, vii, 1, 
17, 18,-4, One of Saul's posterity (1 Chron. 
viii. 36, ix. 42). 

ZIM'RI (id:). Some place or district 
whose kings are threatened (Jer. xxv. 25). 
It has been supposed to be Zabram, a city ' 
between Mecca and Medina ; but, as Kalisch 
observes, it is mentioned with Elam and 
Media, and is clearly distinguished from 
Arabia (Comm. on Old Test. Oen., p. 474). 

ZIN (a loto palm-tree). A part of the 
Arabian desert on the southern frontier of 
Palestine (Numb. xiii. 21, 22, xxxiv, 3), ad- 
joining the territory of Judah (Josh. xv. 1, 3), 
and on the west of Idumea, wherein Kadesh 
lay (Numb, xx. 1, xxvii, 14, xxxiii, 36). But 
Kadesh was in the wilderness of Paran (xiii. 
26), which extended to the Elanitic gulf ; 
consequently Zin was a part (the northern 
part) of Paran, the district stretching from 
the Ghor south-westward in high masses of 
rock, but sinking down towards Jebel el- 
Helal. It must be distinguished from the 
wilderness of Sin. Mr. Wilton considers 
Zin the eastern portion of Wady Murreh 
(The Negeb, p. 129). 

Zl'NA (ornament 1). (1 Chron. xxiii. 10). 
See ZizAir. 

ZI'ON (dry, sunny mount). The strong 



942 



citadel of Jerusalem, crupper city, retained 
by tlie Jel)usites till the reign of David, l)y 
whom it was stormed, and hence called ' the 
city of David' (2 Sam. v. 6-9 ; 1 Ohron. xi. 4- 
7) The height of Ziou ahove tne level of 
the Mediterranean is 2537 feet. See Jeru- 
salem. An endeavour has heen made to 
identify Zion with the temple-hill. But 
there are two ohjections which seem fatal 
to the theory. Solomon is said to have 
■brought the ark out of Zion, when convey- 
ing it to the temple (1 Kings via. 1). The 
one, then, must have heen apart from the 
other. Again, Zion was to he ' ploughed as 
a field ' aiic. ill. 12). This prophecy has not 
heen fulfilled with the temple-hiil : it lias 
heen with that generally considered Zion. 

Zion, called in the Xew Testament Sion, 
1=^ u«ed syinholically to express the glorious 
>hahitation of the redeemed (Heh. xii. 22; 
Hev xiv 1 ) 

ZrOR \smallness). A city in the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. xv. 54). 

ZIPH {afloinng). One of the posterity of 
Judah (1 Ohron. iv. 16). 

ZIPH (id:)—\. A city enumerated among 
those in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 24). 
Mr Wilton supposes the name an interpo- 
lation (The Negeb, pp. 85, 861.-2. A town 
in the mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 55). 
The neighhouring district was the wilder- 
ness of Ziph, which David frequented when 
pursued hy Saul (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 15, 24, 
xxvi 2). It is prohably this town that is 
intended inl Ohron. ii. 42 : it was fortified 
by Rehoboam (2 Ohron. xi. 8). A low hill 
three miles south of Hebron is called Zi/; 
it is probably the site of the ancieiii: town 
ZI'PHAH {id.). One of the descendants of 
Judah (1 Ohron. iv. 16). ^ ^ ^ , „, , 
ZI'PHIMS. The inhabitants of Zipn 
(Psal. liv. title). ^ , , , 

ZIPH'ION (a looJcing-02it). One of the 
sons of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16). He is called 
Zeplion in Numb. xxvi. 15. ^ n.- ■> 

ZI'PHITES. The inhabitants of Ziph (1 
Sam. xxiii. 19, xxvi. 1). . 

ZIPH'PtOX {sweet odour'). A city in the 
north of Palestine (mimb. xxxiv. O), said 
(Porter, Bandbook for Syria, vol. ii. p. 621) 
still to bear its ancient name. It lay 
south-eastward of Eamath, toAvards 

^ZIP'POR (a little UrcT). The father of 
Baiak king of Moab (Numb, xxii. 2, 4, 10, 
16, xxiii. 18 ; Josh. xxiv. 9, xi. 25). 

ZIP'PORAH {id. f em.). The daughter of 
the prince or priest of Midian married to 
Moses, to whom she bore two sons (Exod. 
ii 21 22). When Moses was commissioned 
to return to Egypt, and to stand before 
Pharaoh, he took Zipporah and his sons 
with him; but at their halting-place a 
mysterious event occurred in relation to 
the circumcising of his (probably) yoiingest 
child (iv. 20, 24-26). ' The blood of circum- 
cision,' says Kalisch,'confirmed the personal 
covenant; hence the boy was on the day 
when the rite was performed called a 
bridegroom of blood"; and the resected 
foreskin, which was considered unclean, 
typified both the abnegation of lascivious- 
ness, and, like the offering of the firstlings, 
the acknowledgment of God's sovereignty 



{Comm. on Old Test. Gen., p. 390). See Moses. 
Zipporah seems then to have returned to her 
father ; and it was not till after the delive- 
rance of Israel that Jethro took her and her 
sons to join Moses in the wilderness (Exod. 
xviii. 1-6). We hear nothing subsequently 
of Zipporab: some have thought that she did 
not long survive, and that the ' Cushite,' in 
regard to whom Aaron and Miriam mur- 
mured, must have been another wife (Numb, 
xii. 1). But Oush had a wide signification • 
and one born in the Arabian peninsula 
misrht be termed a Oushite. 

ZITH'RI {protection of Jehovah). A LiB- 
vite, son of Uzziel (Exod. vi. 22). The in- 
troduction of the name into the verse pre- 
ceding is a mistake : see Zichsi, 1. 

ZIZ {a flower). A pass, probably not far 
from En-gedi, the modern 'Ain Jidij, v^here 
Jehoshaphat met the Moabites and others 
who were marching to attack him (2 Ohron. 
XX. 16). ^ , , , . - 

Zl'ZA (fuinreast, abundance).— 1. A chief- 
tain of Simeon (1 Ohron. iv. 37).-2. One of 
the sous of Rehoboam (2 Ohron. xi. 20). 

ZI'ZAH {id.). A Gershonite Levite (1 
Ohron. xxiii. 11). He is also (10) called, 
probably by corruption of the name, Zma. 

ZO'JlN {loio region 1 place of departure 1). 
A very ancient city of LoAver Egypt, called 
by the Greeks Tanis; both the Hebrew 
and Greek names being derived from the 
same Egyptian word which has the mean- 
ing above eriven. Zoan, the Avaris of Egyp- 
tian histoiT (see Smith's Diet, of the Bible, 
vol. iii. p. 1855), was seated on the eastern 
side of the Tanitic arm of the Nile. Wo 
are told that it was built seven years 
later than Hebron (Numb. xiu. 22). Ic is 
further mentioned as having been the 
gcene— at least the district around it, 'the 
field of Zoan'— of the marvellous deeds per- 
formed in order to the deliverance of Israel 
(Psal. Ixxviii. 12, 43). Its importance ap- 
pears bv the way in which the prophets 
speak of it (Isai. xix. 11, 13, xxx. 4 ; Ezek. 
XXX. 14). Zoan was the chief town of a nome 
or province, and would seem to have bee-n 
the metropolis of some (the 21st and 23rd) 
of the dynasties of Egyptian kings (Winer, 
Bibl BWB., art. ' Zoan '). There are exten- 
sive ruins yet existing at a place cal ed 
Sdn or Zdn, which are the remains of this 
great city (See Wilkinson, Handbook for 
Egypt, vi>. 2U-23Q). ^ ^ ^ ... ^ 

ZO'AR {smallness). One of the five cities 
of the plain, originally called Bela (Gen.xiii. 
10 xiv. 2, 8). When the other cities were 
destroyed, this was spared on Lot's inter- 
cession-it was but small, and it would 
give him shelter (xix. 20-30). Zoar ^^'as t^f 
limit of Moses' view in one direction (Deut, 
xxxiv 3). It once belonged to Moab (Isai. 
XV 5 ; Jer. xlviii. 34) ; but in ps>st-exiliau 
times it was seized by the Arabs ; and it 
probably formed part of the dominion of 
Aretas. Its position was according to sonie 
south-east of the Dead sea, where ruins 
have been noted by late travellers. But, 
though there must yet rest an uncertainty 
upon the matter, it is more probable tnat 
Zoar was at the northern end of ^the sea on 
the eastern side. It was near Souom, within 
a moderate walk, wliich I^t performed m a 



[ZUZIMS 



I morning (Gen. xix. 15, 20, 23). Tlie country 
round could he seen from a hill hy Betli-el 
I (xiii. 10),whicli (the information Is obtained 
from an eye-witness) is not the case with 
the country about the southern part of the 
Dead sea ; and, further, it was the * plain of 
Jordan,' the Jordan valley, that Lot chose 
for his residence, an appellation which 
would not have been given to a district 
miles away from the river. 

ZO'BA, ZO'BAH (station). One of the 
smaller kingdoms forming part of the land 
j of Aram generally. When fully expressed 
: it is Aram-zobah. It was on the north of 
Damascus, extending north-eastward, and 
i comprehended the city Hamath ; hence Ha- 
' math-zobah (2 Chron. viii. 3), to distinguish 
i it from the more celebrated Hamath. The 
i king of Zobah made war with Saul (1 Sara, 
xiv. 47), with David (2 Sam. viii. 3, 5, 12, x. 
6, 8 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 3-9, xix. 6), and with 
Solomon (2 Chron. viii. 3). One of David's 
warriors is said to be the son of Nathan of 
Zobah (2 Sam. xxiii. 36), and, if the title to 
Psal. Ix. may be trusted, that psalm was 
composed during David's wars with this 
northern kingdom. See Hadarezer. 

ZO'BEBAH {the sloiv-moving-). One of the 
descendants of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 8). 

ZO'HAE, (ivhiteness).—!. The father of 
Epliron the Hittite (Gen. xxiii. 8, xxv. 9).— 2. 
One of the sons of Simeon (xlvi. 10; Exod. 
vi. 15). He is also called Zerah (ISTumb. 
xxvi. 13 ; 1 Chron. iv. 24). 

ZO'HELETH (serpent). A stone by En- 
rogel (1 Kings i. 9). 

ZO'HETH (the meaning is uncertain). 
One of the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. 
iv. 20). 

ZO'PHAH (a cruse). A chief of Asher (1 
Chron. vii. 35, 36). 

ZO'PHAI (lioney-coml). A Kohathite Le- 
vite, ancestor of the prophet Samuel (1 
Chron. vl. 26). He is called also Zuph (35). 

ZO'PHAE, (sparroiv). One of Job's friends, 
called ' the Naamathite.' His speeches are 
rough and cutting ; and he has less to say 
than the other interlocutors (Job ii. 11, xi. 
1, XX. 1, xlii. 9). 

ZO'PHIM (watchers). A place whither 
Balak brought Balaam, from which only the 
extremity of the Israelitish camp could be 
seen (Numb, xxiii. 14). Mr. Grove suggests 
its identity with Mizpah of Moab (Diet, of the 
Bitle, vol. iii. p. 1860). See also Baiiathaim- 
ZOPHIM, or Ramah, 2. 

ZO'RAH {nest of hornets, hornets' town). A 



town first assigned to Judah, afterwards to 
Dan (Josh. xix. 41). It was the birth-place 
of Samson (Judges xiii. 2, 25, xvi. 31) ; the 
place, too, from which the marauding ex- 
pedition set out which seized Laish (xviii. 
2, 8, 11). It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 
Chron. xi.lO), and inhabited after the return 
from captivity (Neh. xi. 29) ; where it is 
called Zareah, also Zoreah (Josh. xv. 33). It 
still exists as a secluded mountain-village 
named Sur'a. 

ZO'RATHITES (1 Chron. iv. 2). A family 
of Judah, possibly inhabitants of Zorah. 

ZO'REAH (Josh. XV. 33). See Zorah. 

ZO'RITES (1 Chron. ii. 54). Probably in- 
habitants of Zorah. 

ZOROB'ABBL (Matt. i. 12, 13 ; Luke iii. 
27). See Zbrubbabel. This form occurs 
also in the Apocrypha (e. g. 1 Esdr. iv. 13). 

ZU'AR (smallness). The father of Ne- 
thaneel prince of Issachar (Numb. i. 8, ii. 5, 
vii. 18, 23, X. 15). 

ZTJPH (flag, sedge) (Deut. i. l,marg.). See 
Sea, Red Sea. 

ZUPH (honey-comb). A Levite (1 Sara. i. 
1 ; 1 Chron. vi. 35). See Zophai. 

ZUPH (id.). The district about Ramatha- 
or-zoPHiM, which see (1 Sam. ix. 5). Pos- 
sibly the name is preserved in SOba, five or 
six miles west of Jerusalem. 

ZTJR (a rock, shape, form).— I. One of the 
Midianitish kings or chiefs slain by the Is- 
raelites (Numb, xxv. 15, xxxi. 8 ; Josh, xiii 
21).— 2. A Benjamite (1 Chron, viii. 30, ix. 36) 

ZU'RIEL (my rock is God). The chief of 
the families of Merari (Numb. iii. 35). 

ZURISHAD'DAI (m?j rockis the Almighty) 
The father of Shelumiel prince of Simeon 
(Numb. i. 6, ii. 12, vii. 37, 41, x. 19). 

ZU'ZIMS {sprouting, or restless). A tribe 
overcome by Chedor-laomer and his con- 
federates (Gen. xiv. 5). They were of the 
same class as the Rephaim, an ancient 
people occupying the country between the 
Arnon and the Jabbok, and were no doubt 
identical with the Zamzummim, whom the 
Ammonites extirpated in a later age (Deut. 
ii. 20, 21). The position of their principal 
town Ham is unknown. Miss Corbaux be- 
lieves that the Znzim were that branch of 
the Rephaim who took the lead in the wars 
with Egj'pt. She considers them the same 
with the Shas-u, whence Shittim had its 
narae : see Shittim. But for details of her 
theory her own dissertation must be con 
suited (Journ. of Sacr. Lit., Jan. 1852, pp 
375-392). 



B.C. 

4004 
2948 
2348 
1996 
1921 



'The creation of the world . 
1056 Birth of Noah . 
1656 The deluge .... 
2008 Birth of Ahraham 
2083 Call ot Ahrahara . 

2108 Birth of Isaac .... — 

2168 Birth of Jacob . _ • . • ^ • , t°Ti 
2298 Jacob and his family go into Egypt i/06 

2483 Birth of Moses .... lo' | 

2513 The Exodus . . - • • j-^^t^ 

2514 The giving of the law . . 1490 
2553 Entrance of Israel intO Canaan 14ol 
2561 Death of Joshua ... • ^f^Z 
2909 Appointment of Saul as king . 109o 
2949 Accession of David as king of Ju- 

IOdd 

2990 Accession of Solomon . . 1015 
3001 Dedication of the temple . . 1004 
The dates hitherto given are according to the 
computation of abp. Ussher : ^^^^^^l^^S d^''^ 
according to other chrouologers see Cmo^ ologi 
V 167 : and for the perplexed period of the lule ot 
Fud-es'see JUDGES, p. 505, ^^-here Mr. Bro^vne's 
&rwill he found. The table will proceed ac 
c?rdin^ to Winei : for a slightly-diflferent compu- 
Son In regard to the reigns of the monarchs of 
iTrael and Judah see KuxG, p. 510 -. also small 
differences may be obseryed in the dates adopted 
from o?her Sithorities in some articles m this^ork. 

Accession of Rehoboam^ 



i 

B.0 1 

rried J 
588 1 

erub- 3 
se of 



Jeroboam I.. 
Abijam 
Asa . 
Nadab 



Elah 
Zimri \ 
Oinri,Tibnij 
Ahab 

Jehoshaphat . 
Ahaziah of Israel 
Joram of Israel . 
Joram of Judah . 
Ahaziah of Judah . 
Jehu I 
Athaliah j * 
Joash of Judah . 
Jehoahaz of Israel 
Joash of Israel . 
Amaziah . 
Jeroboam II. . 
TJzziah . 

Zachariah 

Shallum \ 
Menahem / * 

Pekahiah 

Pekah ) 

Jotham J • * 

Ahaz 

Hoshea . 

Hezekiah 
Samaria taken, and the kingdom ( 

rael ended . . . • 
Accession of Manasseh 

Amon . 

Josiah . 

Jehoahaz of Judah 1 
Jehoiakim J 
Jehoiachin \ 
Zedekiah J 



957 
955 
954 
953 
930 

928 

918 
914 
897 



885 

884 

878 
856 
840 
838 
825 
809 
972 

771 

760 

758 

741 
729 



721 
696 
641 
639 

609 
598 



Jerusalem taken, and Judah carried 

captive to Babylon . • 
Retuim of the Jews under Zerub- 
babel, according to the decree of 

Cyrus 

The second temple begun • • • 
Death of Cj-rus . . . .' \. 
Accession of Darius Hystaspis to the 

throne of Persia . • . • ^ • ff^ 
The temple finished and dedicated . 5ib 
Accession of Xerxes . . • 48d 

Artaxerxes Longimanus 46o j 
Ezra proceeds to Jerusalem . . 4oS 
Nehemiah appointed governor . . ^ i 
Death of Darius Codomannus, the last ■ 
king of Persia, and end of the Per- _ , 
sian monarchy ^ • ^ • • • i 
Death of Alexander the Great . . rf^d ; 
Antiochus Epiphanes obtains the crown 

of Syria . . • • . • ' ^ "^'^ 
The statue of Jupiter Olympius set up 

in the temple at Jerusalem . 167 
The temple cleansed by Judas Macca- 

"beus 

Jonathan succeeds his brother Judas 

Maccabeus 

Simon succeeds Jonathan • . • 

and establishes Jewish freedoml42 
John Hyrcanus succeeds . . . 135 
Aristobulus I., first of the Asmonean 

family who had the title of king. 10 > 
Alexander Jannseus .... ; 

Alexandra l' 

Hyrcanus II. . > . . • • • 1* 

Aristobulus II « 

Hyrcanus restored . . . oo 

Herod° called 'the *Great declared king 40 

of Judea by the Roman senate ) 
Herod begins to re-build the temple at 

Jerusalem |i 

Birth of Jesus Christ . . 6j 
Death of Herod ^ ^ 

Archelaus dethroned , ^ \ . 0 
Insurrection of Judas of Galilee j 
Death of Augustus CiKsar . . . l^ 
Pontius Pilate procurator of J udea 
The crucifixion . . • • V 

The dates of the birth and death of our Lord 
are Tariously given by different chrouologers : 
see jESrS, pp. 463, 469. 

Pontius Pilate deprived of his govern- 

ment 

Death of Tiberius : Caligula becomes 

emperor J/ 

Conversion of St. Paul. • • ^ 

For the chronology of St. Paul s hfe see 
Paul, pp. 670, 671 ^ 
Herod Antipas banished to Gaul . o9 

Claudius emperor 41 

Death of Herod Agrippa I. . . . 44 
Council of apostles and elders in Jeru- 
salem 51 

Felix procurator of Judea . . . 52 

Death of Claudius ; Nero emperor . 54 
Felix removed, Festus procurator 



I Yespasian emperor 
Jerusalem taken by Titus 



tei ' 



70 1 



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INDEX. 



Acton's Modern Cookery 28 

Allen's Four Discourses of Chrysostom .. 22 

Allies on Formation of Christendom ...» 21 

Alpine Guide (The) 23 

Arnold's Manual of English Literature . . 7 

Arnott's Elements of Physics 11 

Authority and Conscience 19 

Autumnllolidaysof a Country Parson .... ^ 

Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge 20 

Bacon's Essays, by Whately 6 

__ Life and Letters, by Spedding . . 6 

. Works, edited by Spedding 6 

Bain's Logic, Deductive and Inductive 10 

. Mental and Moral Science 10 

on the Senses and Intellect 10 

Ball's Alpine Guide 23 

Bayldon's Rents and Tillages 18 

Beaten Tracks 22 

Becker's Charicles and Gallus 24 

Benfey'S Sanskrit Dictionary 8 

Bernard on British Neutrality 1 

BiSSET on Historical Truth 3 

Black's Treatise on Brewing 28 

Blackley's German-English Dictionary . . 8 

Blaine's Rural Sports 26 

— : Veterinary Art 27 

Bloxam's Metals 1 1 

Booth's Saint-Simon 3 

Boultbeb on 39 Articles 19 

Bourne on Screw Propeller 18 

Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine . 18 

Ilandbookof Steam Engine 18 

Improvements in the Steam 

Engine 18 

=™— Treatise on the Steam Engine . . 18 

Examples of Modern Engines . . 18 

BowDLER's Family Shakspeare 26 

Boyd's Reminiscences ' 4 

Bramley-Moore's Six Sisters of the 

Valleys 24 

Brande's Dictionary of Science, Litera- 
ture, and Art 14 

Bray's Manual of Anthropoloiiy 10 

Philosophy of Necessity 10 

on Force 10 

^—(MrsOIlarllaiidl'orest 23 

Browne's Exposition of tlie 39 Ai-ticles. . . . 19 

BRUNEL'sLifeof Brunbl 4 

Buckle's History of Civilization 4 

Bull's Hints to Mothers . „ 28 

— : Maternal Managemeut of Children 28 

Bunsen's God in History 3 

Prayers 19 

Burke's Vicissitudes of Families 5 

Burton's Christian Church 4 

Cabinet Lawyer 28 

Campbell's Norway 22 



Carnota's Memoirs of Pombal 4 

Cates's Biographical Dictionary 5 

and Woodward's Encyclopcedia 4 

Cats' and Farlie's Moral Emblems 16 

Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths .... 9 

Chesney's Indian Polity 3 

Waterloo Campaign 2 

Chorale Book for England 16 

Christ the Consoler 19 

Clough's Lives from Plutarch 2 

COLENSO (Bishop") on Pentateuch 21 

Collingwood's Vision of Creation 25 

Commonplace Philosopher 8 

Conington'S Translation of the Jiyieid 26 

CONTANSBAU'sFrench-EnglishDictionaries 8 

CONYBEARE and HowsoN's St. Paul 20 

Cotton's (Bishop) Life 5 

Cooper's Surgical Dictionary 15 

Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine 1 5 

Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit. ... 9 

Cox's Aryan Mythology 3 

Manual of Mythology 25 

Tale of the Great Persian War 2 

Tales of Ancient Greece 25 

and Jones's Popular Romances 23 

Cresy'S Encyclopsedia of Civil Engineering 17 

Critical Essays of a Country Parson 9 

Crookes on Beet-Root Sugar 16 

'S Chemical Analysis 14 

Culley's Handbook of Telegraphy 17 

Cusack's History of Ireland 3 

D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation 

in the time of Calvin 2 

Davidson's Introduction to New Testam.ent 20 

Dead Shot (The), by Marksman 26 

De la Rive's Treatise on Electricity 12 

Denison's Vice-Regal Life 1 

Disraeli's Lord George Bentinck 4 

Novels and Tales 24 

Dobell's Medical Reports 15 

DOBSON on the Ox 27 

Dove on Storms 11 

Doyle's Fairyland 16 

Drew's Reasons of Faitli 19 

Dyer's City of Rome 2 

Eastlake's Hints on Household Taste .... 17 

Gothic Revival 17 

Elements of Botany . •• 13 

Ellicott on the Revision of the English 

New Testament 19 

Commentary on Ephesians .... 20 

Commentary on Galatians .... 20 

Pastoral Epist. 20 

Philippians,&c. 20 

Thessalonia 20 

Lectures on the Life of Christ. . 20 



BO 



NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AKD CO. 



Essays and Contributions of A. K. H. B 8,9 

EWALD's History of Israel 20 

FAIRBAIRX on Iron Shipbuilding 18 

'S Applications of Iron i7 

Information for Engineers .. 17 

Mills and Millwork 17 

FARADAY'S Life and Letters 4 

Farras's Families of Speech 9 

____Chapters on Language 7 

Felkin on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures 18 

Fennell's Book of the Roach 27 

FiTZWYGRAM on Horses and Stables 27 

Fowler's Collieries and Colliers 28 

Francis's FisMng Book 27 

Fresheield's Travels in the Caucasus. . . . 

FroUDB's History of England • 1 

.Short Studies on Great Subjects 9 

Gamgee on Horse- Shoeing 27 

GAifOT'S Elementary Physics 1- 

____I^atural Philosophy 12 

Gilbert's Cadore, or Titian's Country .... 22 

Gilbert and Churchill's Dolomites .... 23 

GIRDLESTOXE'S Bible Synonymes 19 

GLEDSTOIfE'sLifeofWHITEFIELI) 5 

GODDARD'S Wonderful Stories 

Goldsmith's Poems, Illustrated -b 

Goodbye's Mechanism li 

Graham's Autobiography of Milton .... 4 

Yiew of Literature and Art .... ^ 

Grant's Home Politics ^ 

. Etliics of Aristotle t, 

Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 9 

Gray's Anatomy • 

Greenhow on Bronchitis • • 

Griffin's Algebra and Trigonometry .... i 

Griffith's Fundamentals • ]l 

Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces . . 12 

GURNEY's Chapters of French History .... 2 

Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture .... 17 

HAMPDEN'S (Bishop) Memorials _ 5 

HARE on Election of Representatives / 

HARTWIG's Harmonies of Nature 

Polar World 

Sea and its Living Wonders . . 13 

,. Subterranean World 13 

Tropical World 13 

HersGHEL'S Outlines of Astronomy 10 

Hewitt on Diseases of Women J* 

HODGSON'S Theory of Practice 

. Time and Space 

Holland's Recollections ^ 

HOLMES'S System of Surgery • ; • • • • ^ 

Surgical Diseases of Infancy .... 15 

Home (The) at^Heatherbrae ^4 

HOKNE'S Introduction to the Scriptures .... 20 

How we Spent the Summer ^- 

Howitt's Australian Discovery ^-i 

Mad War Planet 

, Rural Life of England 

Visits to Remarkable Places .... 23 



HUBNER'S Memoir of Sixtus V 2 

Hughes's (W.) Manual of Geography .... 11 

Hume's Essays 

Treatise on Human Nature 10 



IHNB'S Roman History • 2 

INGELOW'S Poems 26 

Story of Doom 26 



Jameson's Saints and Blartyrs 16 

Legends of the Madonna 17 

Monastic Orders 16 

Jameson and Eastlake's Saviour 17 

JARDINE'S Cluistian Sacerdotalism 19 

John Jerningham's Journal 26 

Johnston's Geographical Dictionary H 

Jones's Royal Institution 4 



Kalisch's Commentary on the Bible . 
Hebrew' Grammar . 



7 

7 

Keith on Fulfilment of Prophecy 20 

Destiny of the World 20 

Kerl's Metallurgy 

RoHRIG 

KiRBY and Spence's Entomology 13 



Lang's Ballads and Lyrics • • 

Latham's English Dictionary 

LAWLOa's Pilgrimages in tlie Pyrenees . 
Lecky'S History of European Morals ... 

Rationalism 



25 
7 

24 
3 



. Leaders of Public Opinion 



Leisure Hours in Town 

Lessons of Middle Age • • • • 

Lewes' History of Philosophy 

LiDDELLand Scott's T wo Lexicons 

Life of Man Symbolised 

LiNDLEY and Moore's Treasury of Botany 

Longman's Edward the Third 

Lectures on the History of Eng- 
land 

Chess Openings 



Loudon's Agriculture 

Gardening 

Plants 

Lubbock on Origin of Civilisation. . 
Lyra Germanica 



Macaulay'S (Lord) Essays ................ 3 

History of England .. 1 

Lays of AncicJit Rome 25 

MiscellaneousWritings 9 

Speeches 7 

.Complete Woi 1> s 1 

MACLEOD'S Elements of Political Economy 7 
Dictionary of Political Eco- 
nomy 

Theory and Practice of Banking 27 

MCCULLOCH'S Dictionary of Commerce.... 2» 



NEW WORKS PUBLISHED 



BY LONGMANS A^-p CO. 



SI 



Maguire's Life of Father Matlaew 5 

Pope Pius IX 5 

Malet's Overthrow of the Germanic Con- 
federation by Prussia ^ 2 

Mallesox's Recreations of an Indian 

Official 3 

Manning's England and Christendom .... 21 

Marshall's Physiology 15 

Marshman's Life of Havelock 5 

History of India 3 

Martineau's Christian Life 22 

Massingberd's History of the Reformation 4 

Matilews on Colonial Question 7 

Maunder's Biographical Treasury 5 

— Geograpliical Treasury 11 

Historical Treasury 4 

Scientific and Literary Trea- 
sury 14 

Treasury of Knowledge 28 

Treasury of Natural History 13 

Maxwell's Theory of Heat 11 

May's Constitutional History of England . . 1 

MELViLiiB's Novels and Tales 2i ^ 25 

' Mendelssohn's Letters 5 

Merivale's Fall of the Roman Republic . . 3 

Romans under the Empire 2 

Merrifield's Arithmetic & Mensuration . 11 

and Ever's Navigation 11 

Mbteyard's Group of Englishmen 6 

Miles on Horse's Foot and Horseshoeing . . 27 

Horses' Teeth and Stables 27 

Mill (J .) o]\ the Mind 9 

Mill (J. S.) on Liberty 6 

on Representative G overnment 6 

— . on Utilitarianism 6 

Mill's (J. S.) Dissertations and Discussions 6 

Political Economy 6 

System of Logic 6 

Hamilton's Philosophy 7 

Subjection of Won:; en G 

Miller's Elements of Chemistry 11 

Hymn- Writers 21 

Inorganic Chemistry 11 

Songs of the Sierras 25 

Mitchell's Manual of Architecture 17 

Manual of Assaying 18 

Moksell's Beatitudes 21 

His Presence not his Memory 22 

' Spiritual Songs ' 21 

Moore's Irish Melodies 25 

Lalla Rookh 25 

Poetical Works 25 

Morell's Elements of Psychology 10 

Mental Pliilosophy 10 

Muller's (Max) Chips from a German 

Workshop 9 

— Lectures on Language 7 

(K. O.) Literature of Ancient 

Greece 2 

MuRCursoN on Liver Complaints 1:, 

M ORE'S Language and Literature of Greece 2 

Nash's Compendium of the Prayer Book. . 19 

New Testament, Illustratca Edition 6 



Newman's History of his Religious Opinions 6 

Nightingale's Notes on Hospitals 28 

Lying-la Insti- 
tutions 28 

Nilsson'S Scandinavia 13 

Northcott's Lathes and Txirniug 17 

Odling's Animal Chemistry , 14 

Course of Practical Chemistry.. 14 

Outlines of Chemistry 14 

O'Driscoll's Memoirs of Maclise 4 

Our Children's Story 25* 

Owen's Lectures on the Invertebrata , 12 

— Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
logy of Vertebrate Animals .... 12 

Packe's Guide to the Pyrenees , . . 23 

Paget's Lectures on Surgical Pathology .. 15 

Pereira's Elements of Materia Medica .. 16 

Perring'S Churches and Creeds 19 

Pewtner's Comprehensive Specifier 28 

Phillips's Story of Buddha " 25 

Pictures in Tyrol 22 

Piesse's Art of Perfumery is 

Prendergast's Mastery of Languages 8 

Prescott's Scripture Difficulties 21 

Present-Day Thoughts 9 

Proctor's Astronomical Essays 10 

New Star Atlas 1 1 

Plurality of Worlds n 

Saturn and its System n 

~ — — Tlie Sun , . . 1 1 

Scientific Essays 12 

Public Schools Atlas (The) n 

Eae's Westward by Rail „ 23 

Recreations of a Country Parson g 

Reeve's Royal and Republican France . . 2 

Reichel's Sec of Rome 20 

Reilly's Map of Mont Blanc * * *. 23 

Rivers' Rose Amateur's Guide 13 

Rogers's Correspondence of Greyson 9 

Eclipse of Faith 9 

Defence of ditto 9 

Roget's English Words and Phrases 7 

Ronald's Fly-Fisher's Entomology 26 

Rose's Ignatius Loyola 2 

Rothschild's Israelites 20 

Russell's Pau and the Pyrenees. . .V. . .*.'.*.' 22 



Sandars's Justinian's Institutes 5 

Savile on the Truth of the Bible 19 

Schellen's Spectrum Analysis ] i 

Scott's Lectures on the Fine Arts IG 

Albert Durer )(; 

SEEiiOHM's Oxford Reformers of 1498 . ..." . 2 

Sewell's After Life 21 

AmyHcibtrt 21 

Clevellall 21 

lOarl's Daughter V4 

Examination for Confirmation .. 21 



82 



NEW WORKS PtTELissED BT LONGMANS AND CO. 



Se WELL'S Experience of Life 24 



. Gertrude 

. Giaiit '^^ 

. Glimpse of the World 24 

- History of the E arly Church .... ^ 4 

- Ivors 'j^ 

. Journal of a Home Life 2i 

_ Katharine Ashtoa 24 

. Laneton Parsonage 24 

. Margaret Percival 



Tyn BALL'S Hours of Exercise in the Alps. . 22 

Lectures on Light 12 

■ Molecular Physics 12 



Passing Thoughts on Religion 

. Poems of Bygone Years . 



21 

_ 26 

Preparations for Communion .... 21 

^ Principles of Education 21 

Readings for Confirmation 21 

Readings for I/ent 21 

„ Tales and Stories 21 

Thoughts for the Age 21 

. Ursula 2* 

. Thoughts for the Holy Week. ... 21 



TlEBEiiWEG's System of Logic 9 

TJifCLE Peter's Fairy Tale 24 

Ure's Arts, Manufactures, and Mines 17 



Yais Der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology 12 

Vereker's Sunny South 22 

Visit to my Discontented Cousin 24 

VoaA2S's Doctrine of the Eucharist 19 . 



Short's Church History, 

SMART'S walker's Dictionary ■ . » 

SMITH'S (J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck 20 

(Sydney) Miscellaneous Works.. 9 

, Wit and Wisdom 9 

Life and Letters 5 

SOUTHEY'S Doctor J 

Poetical Works • • • • • ^» 

STANLEY'S History of British Birds 13 

Statham's Eucharis •• 

Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography o 

Playground of Europe 22 

STIRLING'S Secret of Hegel 10 

Sir William Hamilton lo 

Stonbhenge on the Dog 27 

, on the Greyhound 2, 

Strickland's Queens of England. . - 
Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of 

a Scottish University City (St. Andrews) . . ' 



Taylor's History of India 

(Jeremy) Works, edited by EdeN 

Text-Books of Science 

Thirl WALL'S History of Greece 

Thomson's Laws of Thought 

New World of Being 

TODD (A.) on Parliamentary Government 
Todd and Bowman's Anatomy and Phy- 
siology of Man 

Trench's lerne, a Tale 

Trench's Realities of Irish Life 

Trollops' s Bar Chester Towers 

.Warden 24 

TWISS'S Law of Nations 28 

Tyndall on Diamagnetism 

Electricity 

-Heat 1 

-Sound 12 



_'s Faraday as a Discoverer. . 
Fragments of Science . 



Walcott's Traditions of Cathedrals 

Watson's Geometry * 

Principles & Practice of Physic . 15 

Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry 1* 

Webb's Objects for Common Telescopes 11 
Webster and Wilkinson's Greek Testa- 



Wellington's Life, byGLEm & 



West on Children's Diseases., 

Nursing Sick Cliildren. , 



14 



Lumleiaii Lectures 1^ 

Whately's English Synonymes 6 

Logic ^ 

Rhetoric • ^ 

Whatet.Y on a Future State 21 

Truth of Christianity . 



White's Latin-English Dictionaries » 

Wilcock's Sea Fisherman 27 

WiLLiAiis's Aristotle's Ethics 6 

Williams on Climate of South of France 15 

Consumption 15 

WiLLicn's Popular Tables • 23 

Willis's Principles of Mechanism 17 

WiNSLOW on Light 

Wood's Bible Animals 13 

Homes without Hands 13 

Insects at Home •• 

Strange Dwellings 13 

(T.) Chemical Notes: •• • 1^ 



Yardley's Poetical Works 26 

YoNGE's English-Greek Lexicons 8 

Horace ^6 

History of England •••• 1 

Three Centuries of English Lite- 
rature I 

- Modern History o 

Youatt on the Dog ^7 

on the Horse 27 

Zeller's Socrates ^ 

Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. . *> 

Zigzagging amongst Dolomites 23 



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